THE

CYCLOPAEDIA

OR,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

arts, Sciences, ants ILiterature.

BY

ABRAHAM REES, D. D. F. R. S. F. L. S. 5. Jmr. 6V;c.

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IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XXIX.

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1819.

CYCLOPEDIA:

^/S,-.

\ZVd

OR, A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

ARTS and SCIENCES.

PUNISHMEI r.

PUNISHMENT, a penalty impofed upon the com-
miflion of fome crime or offence againft the laws.

It is eflential to the nature of a law, that it import or
decree a.puniftimcnt to the tranfgreffbrs of it.

Solon veryjuftly allerted, that the two great ftimulants of
human adlion being hope and fear, a good government could
not poflibly exift without an equitable fyllem of rewards and
punifhments.

The forms and manners of punilhment are various in va-
rious countries and ages, and for various crimes ; as treafon,
felony, adultery, parricide, &c.

There was a time, fays Beccaria, when all punifhments
were pecuniary. The crimes of the fubjects were the in-
heritance of the prince, fo that an injury done to fociety
was a favour to the crown, and the fovcreign and magiitrates,
tliofe guardians of the public fecurity, were intereited in
the violation of the laws. Crimes were tried at that time
in a court of exchequer, and the caufe became a civil fuit
between the perfon accufed and the crown. The magif-
trate then poiTefled powers that were not neceiTary for the
public welfare, and the criminal fuffered punifhments dif-
ferent from thofe which the neceffitv of example required.
The judge was rather a colleftor for the crown, an agent for
the treafury, than a proteftor and minifter of the laws.

Among the Romans, the pecuniary punifhments were the
mulela and coiififcntlo. The corporal punifhments were capitii
diminutio, aqux et ignis interdiSio, profcriptio, deporlatio, rele-
gatio, furca, crux, career, cu/eus, equuleus,fca!s gemoniii, dam-
natio ad gladium, ad mdallum, Jlagellatio, talio, &c. which fee
delcribed under their refpeftive articles.

Among us the principal civil punifhments are, faes, im-
prifonmenls, the Jiocks, pillory, turning in the hand, whipping,
ducking-Jlool, hanging, beheading, quartering, burning, tranf-
porlation, &c.

Vol. XXIX.

The eccleftajiical punifhments are, cenfarii, fufpenfwns, di'
pri'vations, degradations, excommunications, anathemas, penanuif
&c. The military punifhments are, being Jbot, running the
gantelope, riding the luooden horfe, the bilboes, &c.

Among the Turks, &c. impaling, bajlinadoes on the foles
of the feet, &c. obtain. See Empalement, &c.

The right of punifhing crimes againft the law of nature,
^s murder and the hke, is in a ftate of mere nature vefled in
every individual. Accordingly the firit murderer, Cain,
was fo fenlible of this, that we perceive him (Gen. iv. 14.)
exprefiing his apprehenfions, that nnhoevcr would find him
would flay him. In a ftate of fociety, this right is tranf-
ferred from individuals to the fovereign power ; and thus
men are prevented from being judges in their own caufes,
which is one of the evils that civil government was intended
to remedy. The fword of juflice is now vefled by the con-
fent of the whole community in the magiftrate alone. Every
punifhment which does not arife from abfolute neceffity,
fays the great Montefquieu, is tyrannical ; and thif propo-
fition is rendered more general by Beccaria, who obferves,
that every aft of authority of one man over another, for
which there is not an abfolute neceffity, is tyrannical.
Upon this principle, the fovereign's right to punifb crimes
is founded ; that is, upon the neceffity of defending the
public hberty, entrufted to his care, from the ufurpation
of individuals ; and punifhments are jufl in proportion, as
the liberty, preferved by the fovereign, is facred and valua-
ble. It was necefTity that forced men to give up a part of
their liberty, and it is cwtain, that every individual would
chufe to put into the public ftock the fmalleft portion poffi-
ble ; as much only as was fufficient to engage others to de-
fend it. The aggregate of thefe, the fmalleft portions poffi-
ble, forms the right of punifhing : all that extends beyond
this is abufe, and not juflice. The laws only can determine

B the

444070

PUNISHMENT.

the punifhment of crimes ; and the authority of making
penal laws can only relide with the legiflator, who reprcfents
the whole fociety, united by the fecial compadl. No ma-
eillrate, therefore, as he is one of the foeiety, can, with
juftice, inflift on any other member of the fame fociety,
pwiifhment that is not ordained by the laws, nor increafe
the uunifhment already determined by the laws. To the
fovereign reprefenting the fociety itfelf, who makes general
laws to bind the members, it does not belong to judge, whe-
ther any individual has violated the focial compaft, or in-
curred the conftquent puniftment. In this cafe, there are
two parties, ■ ne reprefented by the fovereign, who infills
upon the violation of the contraft, and the other is the per-
fon accufed, who denies it. It is neceflary then, that there
fhould be a third perfon to decide this conteft ; that is to
fay, a judge or magiftrate, from whofe determination there
fhould be no appeal. Judges, in criminal cafes, fays Bec-
caria, have no right to interpret the penal laws, becaufe they
are not l;gif]ators. The lawful interpreter is the fovereign,
that is, the reprefentative of fociety, and not the judge,
whofe office is only to examine, if a man have, or have not
committed an aft ion contrary to the laws. Many evils arife
from the erring inftability of arbitrary interpretation.

The lawfulnefs of punifhing criminals, who are charge-
able with offences againft the laws of fociety, that are only
" mala prohibita" and not "mala in fe," is founded upon
this principle, that the law by which they fuffer was made
by tlieir own confent ; it is a part of the original contraft
into which they entered, when firft they engaged in fociety ;
it was calculated for, and has long contributed to, their
own fecuritv. This right, conferred by univerfal confent,
crives to the ftate exactly the fame power, and no more, over
all its members, as each individual member had naturally over
himfelf or others. Hence fome have doubted how far a
human legiflature ought to inflift capital punifhments for
pofitive offences ; — offences againll the municipal law only,
not againft the law of nature ; fmce no individual has, na-
turally, a power of inflifting death upon himielf or others
for aftions in themfelves indifferent.

With regard to offences " mala in fe," capital punifhments
are in fome inftances inflifted by the immediate command of
God himfelf to all mankind, as in the cafe of murder, by the
precept delivered to Noah, their common ancellor and repre-
fentative (Gen. ix. 6.), " whofo fheddeth man's blood, by
man fhall his blood be fhed." In other inftances they are in-
flifted after the example of the Creator, in his poiltive code
of laws for the regulation of the Jewifti republic ; as in the
cafe of the crime againft nature. But they are fometimes
inflifted without fuch exprefs warrant or example, at the will
and difcretion of the human legiflature, as for forgery, for
theft, and fometimes for offences of a lighter kind. None of
thefe crimes are offences againft natural, but only againft
focial, rights. The praftice of inflifting capital punifhments,
for offences of human inttitution, is thus juftified by that
great and good man, fir Matthew Hale (i Hal.. P. C. 13.)
" When offences grow enorm.ous, frequent, and dangerous
to a kingdom or ftate, deftruftive or highly pernicious to
civil focieties, and to the great infecurity and danger of the
kingdom or its inhabitants, fevere punifhinent and even
death itfelf is neceflary to be annexed to laws in many cafes
by the prudence of lawgivers." ' It is, therefore, as judge
Blackftone obferves, the enormity, or dangerous tendency
of the crime, that alone can warrant any earthly legiflature
in putting liim to death that commits it. It is not its fre-
quency only, or the ilifficuhy of otherwife preventing it,
that will cxcufc our attempting to prevent it by a wanton
rffuiion of human blood. For, though the end of punifh-

ment is to deter men from offending, it can never follow from
this circumftance, that it is lawful to deter them at any rate
and by any means ; fince there may be unlawful methods of
enforcing obedience even to the jufteft laws. Every humane
legiflator, as the learned judge remarks, will be therefore
extremely cautious of eftablifliing laws that inflift the penalty
of death, efpecially for flight offences, or fuch as are merely
pofitive. Nor will it avail to allege that no lighter penalty
will be effeftual, becaufe experience has not taught us that
capital punifhments are morct'ffcftual. Was the vaft terri-
tory of all the Ruffias, it may be afked, worfe regulated
under ihe emprefs Elizabeth, than under her more fanguinary
predecefiors ? Or has it been iince, under Catharine II., lels.
civilized, lefs focial, and lefs fecure ? And yet we are afl'ured,
that neither of thefe illuitrious princelFes have, throughout
their whole adminiftratioii, inflifted the penalty of death ;
and the latter, upon full perfuafiou of its being ufelefs, and
even pernicious, iffued orders for abolifhing it entirely through-
out her extenilve dominions. But if capital punifliments,
fays Blackftone, were proved by experience to be a fure and
effeftual remedy, that would not prove the neceflity (upon
which the juftice and propriety depend) of inflifting them
upon all occafions, when other expedients fail. This reafon-
ing would, as we may juftly apprehend, extend much too
far. Where the evil to be prevented is not adequate to the
violence of the preventive, a fovereign that thinks ferioufly
can never reconcile laws that inflift death to the diftates of
confcience and humanity. To fhed the blood of our fellow-
creature, fays the learned and humane judge, is a matter that
requires the great' ft deliberation, and the fulleft conviftion
of our own authority ; for life is the immediate gift of God
to man ; which neither he can refign, nor can it be taken
from him, iinlefs by the command or permiflion of him who
gave it ; either exprefsly revealed or collefted from the laws
of nature or fociety by cleai" and indifputable demonftra-
tion. Blackftone, however, would not be underftood to
deny the right of the legiflature in any country to enforce
its own laws by the death of the tranfgreffor, though fome
perfons of abilities have doubted v.. To this clafs of perfons
we may refer the ingenious writer already cited. The ufelefs
profulion of punifliments, which has never made man better,
has induced Beccaria to enquire, whether the punifhment
of death be really juft or ufeful in a well-governed ftate ?
What right, he aflcs, have men to cut the throats of their
fellow-creatures ? Certainly not that on which the fovereignt v
and laws are founded. The laws are only the fum of the
fniallell portions of the private liberty of each individual, and
reprefent the general will, which is the aggregate of that of
each individual. Did any one ever give to others the right
of taking away his life ? Is it poffible, that in the fmalleft
portions of the liberty of each, facriflced to the good of the
public, can be contained the greateft of all good, life ? If
It were fo, how fliall it be reconciled to the maxim which
• tells us, that a man has no right to kill himfelf ? Which he
certainly muft have, if he could give it away to another.
The punifhment of death is not authorized by any right ;
for no fuch right cxifts. The death of a citizen cannot be
neceffary, but in one cafe ; when, though deprived of his
liberty, he has fuch power and conneftions as may endanger
the fecurity of the nation ; when his exiftence may produce
a dangerous revolution in the eftablifhed form of government.
But even in this cafe, it can only be neceflary when a nation
is on the verge of recovering or lofing its liberty ; or in
times of abfolute anarchy, when the diforders themfelves
hold the place of laws.

If the experience of all ages be not fufficient to prove,
that the punifhment of death has never prevented determined

men

PUNISHMENT.

men from injuring fociety ; if the example of the Romans ;
if twenty years reign of Elizabeth, emprefs of Ruffia, in
which (he gave the fathers of their country an example more
illuilrious than many conquells bought with blood ; if, fays
Beccaria, all this be not fufficieut to perfnade mankind,
who always fufpeft the voice of reafon, and who chufe rather
to be led by authority, let us confult human nature in proof
of this alTertion.

It is not the intenfenefs of the pain that has the greateft
effeft on the mind, but its continuance ; for onr fenfibility
is more eafily and more powerfully affefted by weak but re-
peated imprefhonSithan by a violent, but momentary, impulfe.
The power of habit is univerfal over every fenfible being.
As it is by that we learn to fpeak, to walk, and to fatisfy
our necefilties, fo the ideas of morality are Itamped on our
minds by repeated impreilions. The death of a criminal is
a terrible but momentary fpeftacle, and therefore a leis effica-
cious method of deterring others, than the continued example
of a man deprived of his liberty, condemned, as a bealt of
burthen, to repair, by his labour, the injury he has done to
fociety. " If I commit fuch a crime," fays the Speftator
to himfelf, " I (hall be reduced to that miferable condition
for the red of my life." A much more powerful preventive
than the fear of death, which men always behold in diftant
obfcurity.

The terrors of death make fo flight an imprefiion, that it
has not force enough to withitand the forgetfulncfs natural to
mankind, even in the moft elfential things ; elpecially wlien
affiited by the paffions. Violent impreilions furprife us, but
their elfetl is momentary ; they are fit to produce thofe
revolutions which inftantly transform a common man into a
Lacedemonian or a Perfian ; but in a free and quiet govern-
ment they ought to be rather frequent than llrong.

The execution of a criminal is, to the multitude, a fpec-
tacle, which in fome excites compaflion mixed with inditjna-
tion. Thefe fentiments occupy the nund much more than that
falutary terror which the laws endeavour to infpire ; but in the
contemplation of continued fuflering, terror is the only, or
at leail predominant fenfation. The feverity of a punifh-
ment (hould be jult fufficient to excite compaflion in the
fpeftators, as it is intended more for them than for the
triminal.

A punilhment, tobejuft, (hould have only that degree of
feverity which is fufficient to deter others. Now there is no
man, who, upon the leaft refleftion, would put in competi-
tion the .total and perpetual lofs of his liberty, with the
greated advantages he could poflibly obtain in confequence
of a crime. Perpetual flaverv, then, has in it all that is
neceifary to deter the moft hardened and determined, as much
as tlie pumfhment of death : —it has even more. There
are many who can look upon death with intrepidity and firm-
nefs ;. fome through fanaticifm, and others through vanity,
which attends us even to the grave ; others from a defperate
refolution, either to get rid of their mifery, or ceafe to live :
but fanaticifm and vanity forfake the criminal in flavery, in
chains and fetters, in an iron cage ; and defpair feems rather
the beginning than the end of their mifery. The mind, by
collecting itfelf and uniting all its force, can, for a moment,
repel aflailing grief ; but its moft vigorous elForts are infufii-
cient to refift perpetual wretchednefs.

In all nations, where death is ufed as a puni(hment, every
example fuppofes a new crime committed. Whereas in per-
petual flavery, every criminal affords a frequent and lafting
example ; and if it be neceflary that men fliould often be
witnefles of the power of the laws, criminals (hould often
be put to death ; but this fuppofes a frequency of crimes ;

and from Iiciice this puni(hment will ceafe to have its effect,
fo that it mull be ufefnl and ufelefs at the fame time.

We fliall be told, that pcrpelnal flavery is as painful a pu-
nifliment as death, aud therefore as cruel. To which we
anfwer, that if all the miferable moments in the life of a
flave were coUefted into one point, it would be a more cruel
puniihment than any other ; but thefe are icattered through
his whole life, whiltt the pain of death exerts all its force
in a moment. There is alfo another advantage in the punilh-
ment of flavery, which is, that it is more terrible to the
fpedtator than to the fuft'erer liimfelf ; for the fpedlator
confiders the fum of all his wretched moments, whilft the
fulferer, by the mifery of the prefent, is prevented from
thinking of the future. All evils are increafed by the ima-
gination, and the fufferer finds refources and confolations,
of which the fpeftators are ignorant; who judge by their
own fenfibility of what pafles in a mind, by habit grown
callous to misfortune.

He wiio forefees that he mull pal's a great number of years,
even his whole hfe, in pain and flavery ; a flave to thofe laws
by which he was protefted ; in fight of his fellow citizens,
with whom he lives in freedom and fociety ; makes an ufeful
compariion between thofe evils, the uncertainty of his fuc-
cefs, and the fliortnefs of the time in which he fliall enjoy the
fruits of his tranfgreflion. The example of thofe wretches
continually before his eyes, makes a much greater imprefiion
on him than a punilhment, which, inftead of correfting,
makes him more obdurate.

The punifliment of death is pernicious to fociety, from the
example of barbarity it afl'ords. If the paflions, or the ne-
ceflity of war, have taught men to filed the blood of their
fellow creatures, the laws, which are intended to moderate
the ferocity of mankind, Ihould not increafe it by examples
of barbarity, the more horrible, as this punilhment is ufually
attended with formal pageantry. Is it not abfurd, that the
laws, which deteil and punifli homicide, fiiould, in order to
prevent murder, publicly commit murder themielves ? What
are the true and moft ufeful laws ? Thofe compafts and condi-
tions which all would propofe and obferve, in thofe moments
when private intereft is filent, or combined with that of the
public. What are the natural fentiments of every perfon
concerning the punilhment of deatli ? We may read them in
the contempt and indignation with which every one looks on
the executioner, who is neverthelefs an innocent executor of
the public will ; a good citizen, who contributes to the ad-
vantage of fociety ; the inftrument of the general fecurity
vithin, as good foldiers are without. What then is the origin
of this contradiftion ? Why is this fentiment of mankind
indehble, to the fcandal of reafon ? It is, that in a fecret
corner of the mind, in which the original imprefiions of na-
ture are ftill preferved, men difcover a fentiment which tells
them, that their lives are not lawfully in the power of any
one, but of that neceflity only, which with its irou fceptre
rules the univerfe.

What mull men think, when they fee wife magiftratesand
grave minifters of juftice, with indifl'erence and tranquiUity,
dragging a criminal to death, and wliilft a wretch trembles
with agony, expefting the fatal ftroke, the judge, who has
condemned him, with the coldeft infenfibihty, and perhaps
with no fmall gratification from the exertion of his authority,
quits his tribunal to enjoy the comforts and pleafures of life ?
They will fay, ' Ah ! thofe cruel form.alities of juftice are
a cloak to tyranny, they are a fecret language, a folemn veil,
intended to conceal the fword by which we are facrificed to
the infatiableidol of deipotifm. Murder, which they would
reprefent to us as an horrible crime, we fee praftifed by them
without repugnance, or remorfe. Let us follow their ex-
B 2 amole.

PUNISHMENT.

ample. A violent death appeared terrible in their dtfcrip-
tions, but we fee that it is the affair of a moment. It will
be ftiU lefs terrible to him, who, not cxpefting it, elcapes
almoll all the paiii.' Such is the fatal, though abfurd rea-
foning of men who are difpoied to commit crimes ; on
whom, the abufe of religion has more influence than religion
itfelf.

How happy were mankind, fays tliis author, if laws were
now to be formed ; now that we fee on the thrones of Europe,
benevolent monaichs, friends to the virtues of peace, to
the arts and fciences, fathers of their people, thougli
crowned yet citizens ; the increafe of whofe authority aug-
ments the happinefs of their fubjefts, by deflroying tliat in-
termeSiate defpotifm, which intercepts the prayers of the
people, to the throne. If tiieie humane princes have fuf-
fered the old laws to fubfift, it is doubtlefs becaufe they are
deterred by the numberlefs obftacles, which oppofe tlie fub-
verfion of errors eilabliilied by the fanftion of many ages ;
and therefore every wife citizen will wi(h for the increafe of
their authority.

It has long iince been obferved, fays Voltaire, to whom
the commentary on Beccaria's etfay is attributed, that a
man after he is hanged is good for nothing, and that punifh-
ments invented for the good of fociety, ought to be ufeful
to fociety. It is evident, that a fcore of ifout robbers,
condemned for life to fome public work, would ferve the
ftate in their puniihment, and that hanging them is a benefit
to nobody but the executioner.

There have been fome judges, fays this writer, who were
paffionately fond of fpiiling human blood ; fuch was Jefferies
in England, and fuch in France was the man whom they
called Coupe-tete. Nature never intended fuch men for ma-
giftrates, but for executioners.

As to the end, or final caufe of human punifhments, this
is not to be confidered as an atonement or expiation for the
crime committed, but as a precaution againil future offences
of the fame kind. This purpofe is accomplifhed in three
ways ; either by the amendment of the offender himfelf,
with a view to which all corporal punifhments, fines, and
temporary exile or imprlfonment are inflifted ; or bv de-
terring others by the dread of his ex:imple from committmg
fimila." offences, " ut poena (as Cicero expreffes it, pro Clu-
entio, 46) ad paucos, metiis ad omnes perveniat ;" or, lallly,
by depriving the party who offends and injures, of the
power to do future miichicf, which is effetled by either put-
ting him to death, or condemning him to perpetu.il confine-
ment, flavery, or exile. The method of inflicting punifh-
ment, however, ought always to be proportioned to the
particular purpofe it is meant to ferve, and by no means to
exceed it ; and therefore the pains of death, and perpetual
difability by exile, flavery, or iniprifonment, ought never
to be inflicted, but when the offender appears incorrigible.

The -meajure of human punilhments muft be left to the
arbitration of the legiflature, which ftiouid inflitt fuch pe-
nalties as are warranted by the laws of nature and fociety,
and fuch as appear to be the bell calculated to anfwer the
end of precaution againfl future offences. Some have re-
ijommended, and highly extolled for its equity, the " lex
talionis," or law of retahation ; but judge Blackilone ob-
ferves, that this can never be in all cafes an adequate or per-
manent rule of judgment. Although there cannot be any
legular or determmate method of rating the quantity of
puniflimcnts for crimes, by any one uniform rule, applicable
10 all cafes, and without ultimately referring to the will
and difcrelion of the legiflative power ; yet there are fome

feneral principles, deduced from the nature and circum-
aaces ci the crime, that may afford fome affiftauce in
9

allotting to it an adequate punilTiment. One circumflance
that fcrves in fome meafure to determine the nature and de-
gree of punifliment regards the object of it ; for the more
dignified in refpedl of rank, charaCfir, and influence, the
obje£l of an injury is, fo much greater care fliould be
taken to prevent that iijury, and of courfe under this ag-
gravation the puniihment fliould be more fevere. Accord-
ingly treafon in confpiring tl.j king's death, is by the
Engliih law punilhed with greater rigour than even actually
killing any private fubjeft. Moreover, the violence of
paffion, or temptation may, in fome cafes, alleviate a crime ;
fuch is theft in cafe of hunger, contradiltinguiflied from the
fame crime committed through avarice, and to ferve the
purpofes of luxury. Homicide, in coiifequence of fuddcn
and violent refeiitmeiit, is lefs penal than upon cool delibe-
rate inahce. The age, education, and charafter of the
offender; the repetition (or otherwife) of the offence; the
time, the place, the company in which it was committed :
all thefe, and a thoufand other incidents, may aggravate or
extenuate the crime. Thus Demoilhenes (in his oration,
agaiidt Midias) finely works up the aggravations of the in-
fults he had received : " I was abufed," fays' he, " by my
enemy, in cold blood, out of malice, not by heat of wine.
in the morning, publicly, before itrangers as well as citizens ;
and that in the temple, whither the duty of my office called
me."

Farther, as punifliments are chiefly intended for the pre-
vention of future crimes, thofe fhould be_moil fcverely pu-
nifhed, which are the moil deftruclive of the public fafety
and happinefs ; and, among crimes of an equal malignity,
thofe which a man has the moil frequent and eafy opportu-
nity of committing, which cannot be fo eafily guarded
againft as others, and which, therefore, the offender has the
itrongeil inducement to commit ; according to Cicero's ob-
fervation (Pro Sexto Rofcio, 40); " ea funt animadver-
tenda peccata maxime, qus diflicillime praecaventur."

We may alfo obferve, that punifhments of unreafonable
feverity, efpecially when indifcriminately inflicted, have lefs
effeft in preventing crimes, and amending the manners of a
people, than fuch as are more mild or merciful in general,
and yet properly intermixed with due diilinclions of feverity.
Crimes, fays Beccarla, are more effectually prevented by the
certainty than tiie feverity of puniihment. The certainty of
a fmall punifliment will make a ilror.ger impreflion, than the
fear of one more fevere, if attended with the hopes of ef-
caping ; for it is the nature of mankind to be terrified at
the approach of the fmalleil inevitable evil, whilft hope, the
bell gift of heaven, hath the power of difpelling the appre-
henfion of a greater ; efpecially if fupported by examples
of impunity, which weaknefs or avance too frequently
afford.

If punilhments be very fevere, men are naturally led to
the perpetration of other crimes, to avoid the punifliment
due to the firlt. The countries and times molt notorious
for feverity of puniftiments, were always thofe in which the
moft bloody and inhuman actions and the moit atrocious
crimes were committed ; for the hand of the legiflator and
the aflaffin were direfted by the fame fpirit of ferocity ;
which, on the throne, didtated laws of iron to flaves and
favages, and, in private, infUgated the fubjedt to facrifice
one tyrant to make room for another.

In proportion as punifhments become more' cruel, the
minds of men, as a fluid rifes to the fame height with that
which furrounds it, grow hardened and infenfible; and the
force of the pafiions flill continuing, in the fpace of an
hundred years, the ivheei terrifies no more than formerly the
prifon. That a punifliment may produce the effect required,

it

PUNISHMENT.

it is fufficient that the ewl it occafions fhould exceed the
^ood cxpedli/d from the crime ; iiichiding in the calculation
the certainty of the puniflimcnt, and tlie privation of the
expected advantage. All (everity beyond this is fuper-
iluous, and therefore tyrannical.

There are yet tv^'O other confequences of cruel punifli-
ments, which counterait the purpofe of tlieir inllitution,
which was, to prevent crimes. The Jirfl arifes from the
impoflibility of ellablifhing an exa(ft proportion between the
crime and punirtuncnt, for though ingenious cruelty hath
greatly multiplied the variety of torments, yet the human
frame can iuffer only to a certain degree, beyond which it
is impoflible to proceed, be the enormity of the crime ever
fo great. The fccond confequence is impunity. Human
nature is limited no Icfs in evil than in good. Exceflive
barbarity can never be more than temporary ; it being im-
poflible that it fliould be fupported by a permanent fyftem
of legiflation; for if the laws be too cruel they mull be al-
tered, or anarchy and impunity will fucceed. The ex-
ceflive feverity of laws (fays Montefquieu, Sp. of Laws,
b. 6. C. 13.) hinders their execution ; when the punifiiment
furpaffes all meaiure, the public will frequently, out of hu-
manity, prefer impunity to it.

Thus alfo the flatute I Mar. ft. i.e. I. recites in its
preamble, " that the ftate of every king confiils more af-
luredly in the love of the fubjedl towards their prince, than
in the dread of laws made with rigorous pains ; and that
laws made for the preiervation of the commonwealth with-
out gre;it penalties, are more often obeyed and kept, than
laws made with extreme punilhments." Happy had it been
for the nation, fays judge Blackftone, if the fubfcquent
praftice of that deluded princefs, in matters of religion,
had been correfpondent to thefe fentiments of herfelf and
parliament, in matters of Hate and government. It may be
farther obferved, that fanguniary laws are a bad fymptom
of the diltemper of any ihite, or at leaft of its weak con-
Ititution. The laws of the Roman kings, and the twelve
tables of the decemvirs, were full of cruel punifhments :
the Porcian law, which exempted all citizens from fentence
of death, filently abrogated them all. At this period the
republic flouriflied : under the emperors fevere puniihments
were revived ; and then the empire fell.

We may further add, that it is abfurd and impolitic to
apply the fame punifliment to crimes of different malignity.
Befides, a multitude of fanguiimry laws (befides the doubt
that may be entertained conccrnmg the right of making
them) proves likevvife a manifeft defeft either in the wifdom
of the legiflative, or the llrength of the executive power.
Although it be much eafier to extirpate than to amend
mankind ; yet that magiftrate mult be elleemed both a weak
and a cruel furgeon, who cuts oft" every limb, which through
ignorance or indolence he will not attempt to cure. Bec-
caria therefore propofes to form in every Hate a fcale of
crimes, with a correfponding fcale of puniihments, defcend-
ing from the greatell to the lead ; but if this idea be deemed
romantic, a wife legiilator will at lead mark the principal
divifions, and not affign penalties of the firft degree to
offences of an inferior rank. When men fee no dillinftion
made in the nature and gradations of punifhment, the gene-
rality will be led to conclude, there is no diftinftion in the
guilt. Much as we may be difpofed to admire and extol
the excellence of the Engliih law in a variety of refpefts,
yet none can otherwife than regret the frequency of its capital
puniihments ; mfliiled by a multitude of fuccelhve and in-
dependent ilatutes, upon crimes very different in their
natures ; and we cannot forbear paying our tribute of re-
Ipeft to fir Samuel Romilly, whofe talents and character

far exceed our praife, and other legiflators, who arc laudably
exerting themfelves in fimplifying and mitigating our penal
code.

It is a melancholy truth, fays judge Blackftone, that
among the variety of aftions, which men are daily liable
to commit, no lefs than 160 have been declared by aft of
parliament to be felonies without benefit of clergy ; or in
other words, to be worthy of inftant death. So dreadful
a bit, inftcad of diminilhing, increafes the number of
offenders. The injured, through compaflion, will often for-
bear to profecute : juries, through compaflion, will fome-
times forget their oaths, and either acquit the guilty or
mitigate the nature of the offence ; and judges, through
compaflion, will refpite one half of the coiividts, and re-
commend them to the royal mercy. Among fo many
chances of efcaping, the ready and hardened offender over-
looks the multitude that iuffer ; he boldly engages in fome
defpcratc attempt, to reheve his wants or fupply his vices ;
and if, unexpectedly, the hand of juitice overtakes him, he
deems himfelf peculiarly unfortunate, in falling at laft a
facrifice to thofe laws, which long impunity has taught him
to contemn.

Beccaria, whofe excellent effay we have often cited in
this article, obferves, that the more immediately after the
commiflion of a crime, a puniftiment is inflidted, the more
juil and ufeful it will be. It will be more juit, becaufe it
fpares the criminal the cruel and fupcrfluous torment of
uncertainty, which increafes in proportion to the Itrength
of his imaginatioH, and the fenfe of his weaknefs ; and be-
caufe the privation of liberty, being a punilhment, ought
to be inflicted before condemnation, but for as ihort a time
as poflible. Imprifonment, he fays, being only the means
of fecuring the perfon of the accufcd, until he be tried,
condemned, or acquitted, ought not only to be of as ffiort
duration, but attended with as little feverity as poflible.
The time ftiould be determined by the necefTary preparation
for the trial, and the right of priority in the oldelt pri-
foners. The confinement ought not to be clofer than is
requifite to prevent his flight, or his concealing the proofs
of the crime ; and the trial fliould be condudted with all
poflible expedition. Can there be a more cruel contraft
than that between the indolence of a judge, and the pain-
ful anxiety of the accnfcd ; the comforts and pleafures of
an infenfible magiitrate, and the filth and mifery of the pri-
foner ? In general, " The degree of the punilfiment, and
the confequences of a crime, ought to be fo contrived, as
to have the greatelt poflible cfff dt on others, with the leaft
poflible pain to the delinquent." If there be any fociety
in which this is not a fundam.ental principle, it is an un-
lawful fociety ; for mankind, by their union, originally
intended to fubjeft themfelves to the leaft evils poflible.

An immediate puniftiment is more ufeful ; becaufe the
fmaller interval of time between the puniftiment and the
crime, the ftronger and more Lifting will be the aflbciation
of the two ideas of crime and puiiyljiiient ; fo that they may
be confidered, one as the cauie, and the other as the un-
avoidable and iieceffary effett.

It is, then, of the greatcft importance, that the punifh-
ment fliould fucceed the crime as immediately as polTible,
if we intend, that in the rude minds of the multitude, the
feducing pifture of the advantage avifing from the crime,
fhould inllantly awake the attendant idea of punilhment.
Delaying the puniftiment ferves only to feparate thefe two
ideas ; and thus affedts the minds of the fpedtators rather
as being a terrible fight, than the neceffary confequence of
a crime ; the horror of which fhould contribute to heighten
the idea of the puniftiment.

There

PUNISHMENT.

There is another excellent method of ftrengthening this im-
portant coiineftion between the idea^ of crime and punifti-
ment ; that is, to make the puniHiraent as analogous as
poffible to the nature of the crime ; in order that the punifh-
ment may lead the mind to confider the crime in a different
point of view, from that in which il was placed by the
flattering idea of promifed advantages. This ingenious
writer clofes his effay with the following general theorem,
as the refult of his previous reafoning. " That a puni(h-
ment may not be an aft of violence, of one or of many
againft a private member of fociety, it {hould be public, im-
mediate, and ueceflary ; the lealt poflible in the cafe given ;
proportioned to the crime, and determined by tlie laws."
Montefq. Sp. of Laws. Beccaria's Effay on Crimes and
Punifhments. Blackft. Com. vol. iv.

A valuable work, comprifmg the fubjeft of this article,
was prefented to the public in the year i8l I by M. Diimont
of Geneva. It was formed of detached materials, furnifhed
by the papers of Mr. Jeremiah Bentham, and the whole
is executed with fuch judgment in the arrangement of the
matter, and fo much livelinefs and elegance as to the Ityle
of the conipofition, that M. Dumont appears more like an
original author than an editor. This work would have
afforded us many inffruftive and intereiting extrafts, if our
limits had allow-ed our making that ufe of it, which it de-
ferves. This, liowever, is the lefs neceffary, as the reader
may have accefs to the original treatife, toc. _" Theorie
des' Peines ct des Recompenfes ; par M. Jeremie' Bentham,
Jurifconfulte Anglois ; redigce m Frangois d'apres les
Manufcrits, par M. Et. Dumont de G6neve," 2 vol. 8vo.
a Londres, 1811 : or to the ample analyfis of it in the
Edinburgh Review, N° 43. A brief account of its con-
tents may, however, be gratifying to our readers. This work
confifts of two great parts or branches ; the theory of penal
legiflation, and the theory of remunerative legidation. The
iiril contains in a fyftematical form all the principles that
ferve to regulate the choice of different modes of punifti-
ment and the apportionment of punifliment^ to crimes. In
the fecond are exhibited the principles upon which the
lawgiver ought to proceed, when he holds out inducements
either alone or attended with correfponding penalties, to
influence the conduft of his fubjefts. The firfl: book ex-_
plains the general principles of the fyltcm, and opens with
definitions and clafliflcations.

Punifhment, in its moft general fenfe, is the infliftion of
fome evil upon an individual, with an intention that he
Ihould fuffer this evil, and with a reference to fome aft
done or omitted. Punifliment, in its legal fcnfe, is the in-
fliftion of fome evil, according to judicial forms, upon an
'ndividual convifted of fome a6t forbidden by law, and
vith the intention of preventing the recurrence of fuch afts.
Punifhments, as v.'ell as crimes, are divifible into four claffes,
as they affeft the per/on, the property, the rrputalidn, or the
condition of thofe upon whom they are inflifted. Thofe which
affeft the perfon, or corporal punifhments, are fubdivided
into various fpecies ; they may be limply or complexly
affliftivc, or reilriftive, or aftive {e. g. compulfory labour)
or capital. The other three claffes are all privative, af-
fefting the dchnqucnt with lofs or degradation. Hence
arifes another general claffification of punifliments, by divid-
ing them into corpor.il and privative.

From this definition it appears, that the objeft of all
punifhment is the prevention of the offence in future, either
by the fam'" delmquent or by other perfons in fimilar circum-
ftr.r.ces. Tiie firft end is accompliihed in three ways ; by
taking from the oftcnder the phyfical power of committing
the offence ; by taking away the defire ; or by deterring

Iiim. The other, and principal objeft of the infliftion, that
of reftraining others, can only he efiefted as far as the punifh-
ment is concerned, by the threat which it holds out of
fimilar infliftion. Thefe objefts, as they form the only
jufl motives, conflitute alfo the only juftification of punifti-
ments. Although tlie direft and primary objeft of punifh-
ment is prevention, the civil magiftrate, having provided
for that objeft, has another duty to perform, which is to
provide as far as poffible for the reparation of the injury
fuftained through tlie crime committed.

The expence or coj} of any punifliment is, in the language
of this fyflem, the whole evil of every kind occafioned by
it, including the fuffering of the delinquent, tlie lofs of his
labour or life to the ftate. the pecuniary colt of his punifh-
ment ; and, in fhort, every thing endured, paid, or fore-
gone, in order to obtain the double preventive which the
punifhm.ent is intended to adminifler. The gain or profit of
the punifliment confifls in this preventive, or in the tendency
of the punifhment to fecure it. A punifhment may be
termed frugal or economical which produces the defired
effeft with as little fuffering as poffible ; and it may be
termed coflly or prodigal, when the fame effeft might have
been produced by a fmaller degree of fuffering. The real
value is diftinguifhed from the apparent -value, of the fuffering ;
the former being the aftual amount of that which is in-
flifted ; the latter, the portion of it which is exhibited, or
otherwife made known to, and underftood by the public.
The expence of a punifhment is equivalent to the real
amount ; the profit is in proportion to the apparent amount
only ; and hence are deduced thefe important maxims :
I. That, ceteris paribus, a punifhment eafily comprehended, is
preferable to one of difficult apprehenfion : 2. That one
which takes hold of the memory, is preferable to one eafily
forgotten : 3. That one which is as great or greater in appa-
rent than in real amount, is preferable to one which 13 really
greater than it appears to be : — the cxcefs of real amount
being in truth io much thrown away, fo far as regards the
principal objeft, of general example.

The next fubjeft of dilcuflion comprehends the principles
that ought to regulate the extent of punifhment, for the
prevention of crimes. Thefe are contained in the follow-
ing propofitions. I. Tlie evil of the punifhment muft ex-
ceed-the advantage arifing from the crime ; fo that, generally
fpeaking, the flronger the temptation to commit any crime,
the more fevere ought to be the punifhment, fubjeft to ex-
ceptions in extreme cafes. 2. When the criminal aft evi-
dently indicates a habit or praftice, tlie punifhment fhould
be proportioned, not to the gain derived from a fingle
offence, but to the probable amount of profit flowing from
a courfe of fuch conduft. 3. An addition muft be made to
the punilliment, in order to compenfate its want of cer-
tainty and proximity. 4. In cafes where a temptation offers
for the commiflion of different crimes, a more fevere punifh-
ment fhould be denounced againft the greater crime. 5. The
more pernicious any crime is, the more fafely may a fevere
punifliment be ventured upon, for the chance of preventing
it. 6. The nominal amount of punifhment for the fame
crime, muft often be varied at the difcretion of the judge,
according to the circumftances of the delinquent, in order to
prcferve the real amount of fuffering.

The qualities of punifhment, the confideration of which
naturally fucceeds that of the meafure or quantity, are
fuch as follow : it fhould be ilivifible ; invariable, or certain
or equal ; commenjhrable with others ; analogous to the crime;
exemplary; economical; remijfible ; that it fhould reftrain the
offender from doing harm ; conduce to his reformation ; yield
z. projit, in the ordinary fenfe of the \Yord ; he fimple in its

defcription ;

u.

PUNISHMENT.

defcription ; and fo far popular as to fhock none of the
cftabliilicd feelings or prejudices of the community. Thefe
qualities are, for the moit part, underftood as loon as they
are mentioned. Some of them, however, undergo a more
ample difcuffion than others. This is the cale with relpeft
to the qualities of analogy and popularity. One of the
fources of analogy fpecilied by Mr. Bentham is that of em-
ploying the fame inftrumcnt or operation in the punidiment,
as the delinquent did in the crime, as, e. gr. burning an in-
cendiary who had committed any aggravated aft of arfon,
by which lives were facrificed as well as property. Anotiier
method is that of inflifting on the delinquent the fame
injury which he offered to the innocent perfon. A third
confifts in fubjcfting to punilhment the part of the body
with which the offender committed the crime. A fourth,
in affcfting the face with fomc disfigurement limilar to
difguifing, where part of the offence was the ufe of a dif-
guife. Other analogies alfo are enumerated. In difcufiing
the popularity of punifhment, the author adverts to the pre-
valence of falfe feelings and prejudices, and he reduces the
errors proceeding from thefe caufcs to four heads ; as they
confifl in miflaken notions of liberty, decency, religion, and
humanity. The author allows, however, tliat a lawgiver
fhould, for a time at leafl, frame his inflitutions fo as to hu-
mour even the caprices and errors of his people, when he
finds them too deeply rooted and widely fpread, to be over-
come or difrcgarded. To any fpeculative arguments,
founded upon falfe views of thofe different fubjefts, of
courfe no regard fliould be paid ; — as to thofe fanatics in
politics, religion, or fentiment, who would have no imprifon-
ment becaufe it violates liberty, or abolifh capital punifh-
ments becaufe they encroach upon the province of the Deity,
or becaufe they are painful to the feelinji-s.

The author mentions four cafes, in which punifhment is
wholly inept, and ought not to be inflifted ; "viz. where the
crime being either imaginary, or unfit for legiilative inter-
ference, may be faid not to exift, and the punifhment would
be unfounded: wliere the punilhment would be wholly ine^-
cacious on the delinquent, or others in the fame circumltances,
as in the cafe of idiots : where the means being fuflicient
to accompHlh the end in view, punifhment would be fuper-
jluQus : where more evil being likely to refult from puuifhing
the particular offenders than from letting them efcape, the
infliftion would be too co/lly, as in the cafe of an extenfive
mutiny or rebellion.

We have already ftated, that the author divides punilh-
ments into two great clafles, corporal and privative ; that he
again fubdivides corporal punilfiments into tive kinds, and
privative into three. i. Thejiijl clais of corporal punifh-
ments confilh of punifhments^/?;/)/)> aJfliHiiie, denoting thofe
which caule bodily fuffering, witii little attendant injury ;
and even thofe mofl fimple, as the lalli, are accompanied
with a certain difgrace by their public exhibition, which is
an etfential part of the procefs. Of the various kinds of
fimple infliftion, our author gives the preference to the laih,
under certain modifications. 2. The/econd clafs confifts of
punifhments complexly ajliitive, or thole in which the mere
bodily fuffering is attended with, or followed by, fome
other lofs, either of perfonal comfort or reputation. Thefe
are fubdivided into three kinds, comprehending thofe that
are inflifted by deforming the perfon, which is done either by
difcolotiring, e. gr. burning in the hand ; or disfiguring, e. ^r.
flitting the nofe, or cutting the ear;, by difabling a limb or
organ, without deftroying it ; by mutilating 'or deftroying
the part. The third cb-ls comprehends njlridi've punifh-
ments, which prevent the offender from doing or enjoying
fomething agreeable or ufeful to him. The rTflriclions thus

impofed are of two kinds ; fimple prohibitions, and reflraints
upon loco-motion. The former are io limited in their appli- ,
cation, that we need not particularly fpecify them; but,
the latter are divided into five kinds ; -vi%. imprifimment, in
the ordinary fenfe of tiie word ; quafi-imprifomncnt, or con-
finement within the diftridl to which tiic offender belongs :
relegation, or confinement to fome other diffridt within the
dominions of the Hate : local interdidion, or banifhinciit from
a particular diflridt : lanijhment from tlie territories of the
flate, either indefinitely, or to fome fpecific foreign part-i
Imprifonment, according to our author's flatement, in Ord.-r
to be effectual, ought to place the offender, for a limited
time, under the moft complete reflraint, inffead of being
long and flight. Mr. Bentham enlarges in the enumeration
of the evils comprehended under this mode of fuffering, of
which fome hdong-iufparal/ly and nccefl'arily to it ; others
fuch as are acceffary, but moll frequently accompany it ; and
otliers again luch as arife from abifes of it. With impri-
fonment, lie fays, in certain cafes, and always for a very
limited time, may moft advantageoufly be joined folitudc,
darknefs, -^w^ regimen. Our author, having expofed the ab-
furd lyftem of " priibn-fees," infers from his general prin-
ciples that there ought to be three kinds of priloii, adapted
to the feveral purpofes oi fimple dK^tention, penitentiary confine-
ment, and/)^r/f/urt/ imprifonment. The firfl being only appli-
cable to the cafe of infolvent debtors guilty of imprudence
or extravagance, and of accufed perfons kept for trial, lliould
have no accompaniment whatever of rigour. The leading
principle in diitinguifhing the two others is, that the fub-
jefts of the former are to enter again into fociety ; while
thofe of the latter, being for ever excluded from it, the
exemplary nature of their fufferings fliould be the principal
object of attention. The names of the three prifons, for
thefe feparate purpofes, fhould be different, as well as their
external appearance ; and every thing which can feize hold
of the imagination, without awakening fympathy, fhould
be prefented, both in the conftruflion of the perpetual
prifon, and in the fituation of its inhabitants. 4. The
fourth clafs of punifhments comprehends thofe tlxat are
termed a3ive or laborious. Punifliments of this clafs, when
examined by the rules already premifed, are found to unite
the grentefl number of advantages with the feweft defedts.
In the difcuffion of this fubjett, the author direds our at-
tention to what may be called the extreme cafe of mif-
managernent in this kind of puniiLments. Here he alludes
to Botany Bay. The tranfportation of convifts to Ame-
rica, which preceded the prefent plan, with feveral diiad-
vantages of great moment, was, upon the whole, infinitely
preferable. It was grofsly unequal, inafmuch as it became
fervitudc with exile to the poor, while it was only fimple re-
legation to thofe who could pay for their palfage. It was
dcfedlive too in preventive power, the opportunities of
efcape being neceffarily great. In both thefe particulars,
the deportation now prac\ifed has the manifell advantage.
All the convicls are equally under reftraint, and their elcape
is much more difficult ; but in every other point of view, it
is either as bad, or a great deal worfe. It is as little as
poffible exemplary : the difproportion between the real and
apparent fuffering, — the excels of the former, —is in truth
a maximum. The community in this country fee a convicl
fent on a long voyage, to a fertile country, lying in a fine
climate. This is tlie example. Tlie reahty is, that the
miferable wretch, after rotting in the hulks for a year or
two, is crammed with fome hundreds of his fellows into a
floating prifon, or, it may be, a pefl-houfe, in which, if
he furvives the rifl<s of famine, peitilence, mutiny, fire,
Ihip wreck, and explofion, he is conveyed, through the in-
01 flidiou

PUNISHMENT.

fliftion of a ten months' voyage, to a life of alternate
flavery and rebellion, where guilty or cruel cxcefs fucceeds
exquifite fuffering, without varying the uniform mifery, or
changing the prevalent charafter of the body ; and all this
paffes at the oppofite extremity of the earth's diameter, from
whence it operates no more in any manne;- of way upon the
inhabitants of England, than if it were pafling in the moon.
The tendency of difcipline in the colony to reform the con-
vifts, fuppoling them to have arrived there, may eafily be
eftimated. They are not feparated from their companions
in guilt ; they have no better examples before them, no eyes
to watch them. The partial hiftorian of the rifing fcttlement,
himfelf the chief magiftrate, (Mr. Collins,) has fupplicd
us with the details ; and, in fpite of his inclination to fee
every thing in the faired light, he has painted, if the pages
of a journal for fixteen years may be laid to paint, by far
the blacked picture ever yet exhibited of human fociety.
His book is a catalogue of crimes ; it would be a record of
conviAions, but that perjury fo univerfally prevails as to
enfure the efcape of all who are not taken in the faft. The
vice at the root of all the reft, a rage for fpirits approaching
to frenzy, can neither be cured, nor deprived of gratifica-
tion. Far from improving by their rcfidencc there, it was
only at the firll ellabhfliment that any remiffion of un-
favourable fymptoms appeared. As foon as the firft con-
vifts had finifhcd their period of fervitude, their liberty
brought along with it an influx of diforder and contamina-
tion, which each fucceeding year feems to uicreafe. If this
fyftcm, then, prevents the delinquent from repeating his
crimes, it is only by transferring the fcene of them to a dif-
tant fettlement, where it foilers and augments them ; and al-
though, with reference to one part of the empire, this may
be termed prevention, the Icglflator, whofe care fliould em-
brace the whole, has no right to give it fnch a name. As
to the pecuniary expence, by which fo much evil is pur-
chafed, we find it in the parliamentary reports eftimated at
above a million in about ten years, or about thirty-eight
pounds for each convift, befides the value of his labour.
Laft of all, the punifhment inflifted is perfeftly different
from the one to which the fenteiicc of the law has con-
demned the convi£l. Not to mention the detention before
tranfportation, and the arrival fometimes when the term of
punifhment has nearly expired, the power of returning at
its expiration is pofleffed by few men, and no women ;
while of the voyage fome idea may be formed, from the
average mortality between 1787 and 1795, being above one
in ten ; and from a jail fever, always a probable occurrence,
on one occafion, in 1799, having carried off one hundred in
three. If, in Inch a cafe, we could look to the fettlement
as a colonial fpeculatioii, we fliould find its gains in a fimilar
proportion ; but this eftimate would be as fuperfliious after
what has been faid, as it would be foreign to the defign of
this inquiry.

In the work before us we have a general fl^ietch of the
author's plan of improvement upon this fyftem, together
with a view of its connedlion with the principles which he
has unfolded, and of ilie prodigious advantages accruing
from it. The " Panopticon" is diftinguifhed by three lead-
ing properties. From the form of the building, and the
difpofition of the cells, the inl'peftor can fee each prifoner
at all times, without being feen by them, and can direft
them without leaving his poft : the management of the
eftabhihment is carried on by contrad, the government
paying a fixed price for the whole expences of each convift,
and the contraftor having the whole profit, as he has the
entire charge and regulation, of the work to be performed,
but allowing a certain proportion of the gain to the convift ■.

the contraftor infures the lives and fafe cuflody of the con-
vifts ; he is allowed yearly a certain fum for the deaths, ai
calculated from the common tables, and he pays the fame
fum for each death which ailually does happen, and for
every efcape which takes place. If we miftake not, Mr.
Dentham, by his contraft with government, further engaged
to pay fo much for each prifoner who, after his difchargc,
fliould afterwards be convifted of any offence. The entire
publicity of his accounts was another condition, and one
upon which he himfelf infifled. The Panopticon was to be
open at all times to every magiftrate, and at certain hours
to the public generally.

The moft ftriking points of the comparifon between both
fyftems, as they are prefented to us by the anonymous
author of the article on the fubjeft in the Edinburgh Re-
view, are fuch as follow. The punifliment is in the higheft
degi'ee exemplary ; it is all feen and undtrflood ; ;t appears
much grt rater than it really is ; the comforts of the convidts,
in their intercourfe with each other according to their im-
provement, and in the (late of induftry, and cleanliiiefs, and
wholefome regimen, for which they have exchanged their
ordinary habits, being, however real, by no means fuch as
flrike the multitude of fpeftators, who only fee confine-
ment, compulfory labour, and ignominy. The reforming
effifts of the plan are equally manifeft : the labour, to
which they are in part allured by a fixed allowance of profit ;
the perft ft temperance in which they live; the facility af-
forded of fcparating them into clafTes, according to their
habits and behaviour ; the means of eafy inftruftion, both
religious and other, which they give ; all furnilh as good a
chanc-- of reclaiming thofe unhappy perfons who are not
hardened in guilt, as from any fuch difcipline can reafonably
be expcfttd. The preventive powers of the Panopticon are
complete, while the convift remains in it ; and although a
relapfe after liberation can only be guarded againfl by re-
formation, a contrivance is added to this eftablifhment, ad-
mirably calculated to provide againft the firft dangers of the
difcharge : the convift is transferred to another place of
mitigated confinement, where he is rather under infpeftion
than in cuftody, and from whence he is gradually allowed
wholly to withdraw. With refpeft to the coft of the plan,
we may form fome eftimate of it from the terms of Mr.
Bentham's contraft. Each convift was to coft government
13/. lOj-., including l/. 10^. for the proportion of the ex-
pences of building and ground. He was to provide a fund
for indemnifying the parties injured ; to allow the convifts
one quarter of the profits of their labour ; and, after the
firft trial, to make a reduftion in the charge. Praftical
men, well verfed in fuch matters, had no doubt that a very
confiderable reduftion might have been fpeedily afforded ;
and that, in a few years, the profits would entirely defray
the expences of the eftablifhment to the ftate. While all
manner of delays and difficulties were thrown in the way of
this experiment ; while wits and jobbers, or, as they termed
themfelvcs, matter-of-faft men, averfe to theories, and de-
precating novelties, were employed in running it down ;
trials were made in America of penitentiary houfes upon
fimilar principles, though in a much lefs perfeft iTiape, and
without fome of Mr. Bentham's chief improvements. We
have the moft irrefragable teftimony borne to their fuccefs,
by the interefting narratives of the due de Rochefoucault
Liancourt and captain Turnbull : the one a perfon emi-
nently fkilled in the fubjeft of prifons ; the other a mere
praftical obferver, imbued with no knowledge beyond that
of the naval profeflion. Both tliefe very different witnefies
concur in their ftatement of the falutary confequences of the
plan ; and if we wifhed to find a perfeft contraft to the

melancholy

PUNISHMENT.

melanctioly narratives of Mr. C(illin«;, wc could certainly
nowhere fo well be fiiitcd as in the defcriplions which ihs
French and Englifh travelU'rs have given us of the convifls
in New York and Piiiladelphia.

5. Capital pnnifliments compofe the fifth clals. This
clals confiils cither oi fimply inflicVing death with the lealt
poflible degree of fiifFering, or in accompanying the dellruc-
tion of life with torments. The latter method, at one period
univerfally prevalent, and ftiil known in nioft coniitries, is
happily almofl abolifhed in the two moil civili/.ed nations.
In France, the Code Napoleon allowed it only in the cafes of
parricide, and attempts againft the fovereign's life, where
the addition made to the punifliment of death is cutting off
the right hand. In England, it is only in the cafe of high
treafon that fuch augmentations are allowed : the punifh-
ment of the law is no doubt barbarous m the extreme, but
in praftice it is always remitted. All fuch cruelties have
the eft"e<A of infpiring pity in the fpeftators towards the
criminal, and of rendering criminals more hardened and
favage.

The ingenious author of the critique on Mr. Bentham's
theory, to whofe analyiis of the work we are fo much in-
debted in the compilation of this article, agrees with him in
his objeftions to Beccaria, who maintains that a punifhme nt
of longer duration is more terrible to the fpeftator. Clearly
there is none fo dreadful as death. M. Dumont adds,
that its apparent fuffering is greater than its real, which
applies only to the pains of it. On the other hand, it ex-
ceeds all others in fonie material defefts ; not only is it ex-
penfive, and beginning to become unpopular ; it is quite
irremiflible, and it is in the higheit degree unequal, and in-
capable of divifion or apportionment. A very fatisfaftory
llatement is given under this head, of the evil tendency of
frequent executions, of the kind of reafoning by which of-
fenders at the moment of temptation get rid of the fear of
death, and efpecially of the wide difference between cjicoun-
tering certain deftruftion, and yielding to impulfes which
may lead to it. The evils arif.ng from its being irremiflible
are alfo ably expounded ; yet we think the author has
■ncglefted to confider how much of its horror conliils in this
quality. It is manifeil that no other punifhment can utterly
exclude hope. In comparing capital with other punifli-
ments, our author is difpofed to give the latter the pre-
terence, almoft to the exclufion of the former ; chiefly be-
caufe, however exemplary to men in general the infliftion
of death may be, and how deep foever the impreffion it
makes on their minds, it has not the fame terrors for the
clafs of men mofl likely to commit the worll offences, vio-
lent fpirits and hardened delinquents. That its range fhould
be extremely limited, we are willing to admit ; but we
differ from him in the pofition, that for this clafs of men,
perpetual confinement to hard labour would have more
terrors than death. The total extinftion of life, without
chance of efcape, pardon, or mitigation, ought Itill to be
denounced againft the worfl offences ; and, by being con-
fined to thefe, will unqueftionably become doubly terrible.
The evils arifing collaterally from the abufe of this punifh-
ment, are fo ably pointed out by fir Samuel Romilly, that
tiur author abridges a part of the treatife before us, by re-
ferring to his traft.

The other great divifion of punifhments in Mr. Ben-
tham's theory, confifts more peculiarly in privation. Thefe
may be arranged in three clafles, as they iwpofe a for-
feiture of r^^a/^j/;on, of /iro/ifr/y, or of £-»n(yrV!on. I. Punifh-
ments which affeft a man's reputatioji confifl of appeals
to public opinion, and are thofe meafures which the law-
giver takes with refpeft to Iiim, for direfting that opinion

Vo/.. XXIX.

againfl him. The lawgiver may infli<it punifhments of this
kind, or rather may expofe liie offender to have them in-
flifted, either by fimply iknouncitig, with the authority
belonging to his funilions, that certain afts fhall be deemed
infamous, or by treating the particular offender jrW/rw//;' in
a certain way. The 1 itter is the mode ufed in modem
times ; and it is praftilid in different ways ; by piihUcatioti of
the offence; — by judicial admonition ; — by inflifting^un//I5-
minls of the other clafles, corporal as well as privative, thf^
immediate objeft of which is not the deftruftion of repu-
tation ; — by inflifting what may be termed quafi-corpcral
punifhments, the fole objeft of which is infamy ; — by de-
gradation, or depriving the offender of his rank, natural or
conventional ; — by dfcrediting him, or preventing his tefli-
mony from being received. 2. The defcription of punifh-
ments affefting property cpnfifls of thofe which zre pecuniary,
and which are quafi-pecur.iary, as confifcation of lands, &c.
3. The forfeiture of condition, or fatus, though a clafs of
great extent, theoretically fpeaking, is in pra6tice reduced
within narrow limits. Marriage may be difiblved ; children
may be ballardized ; blood may be corrupted ; the diflTerent
kinds of trull may be taken away ; a perfon may be re-
duced to flavery ; a community may be deprived of its
rights and privileges. Outlawry may alfo be referred to
this head.

There are other kinds of inflidlion, which every found
principle teaches us to avoid where it is poffible, and to
diminifh as much as poffible, where, from the defe6ls of all
human contrivances, they inevitably mingle themfelves with
the legitimate modes of punifhment. Our author's fyflem
arranges them in two clafles ; thofe which are mifpLued, or
which fall upon other perfons than the offender ; and thofe
which are complicated, or prefent neither to the legiflator,
the judge, the party, nor the public, any fixed and definite
idea. Thofe punifhments that are mifplaccd, in the proper
ufe of the term, or which the legiflator enadls with the
intention of punifhing another perfon than the ofi^ender,
either along with hun, or in his place, confifl of four
kinds; viz. vicarious, where the offender efcapes ; — tranf.tii'c,
where an innocent perfon is purpofely puiiifhed who is con-
nefted with the offender ; — coUeSive, where a body of
innocent perfons fuffer, in the prefumption of the guilty
being among them ; — and fortuitous, where an innocent
perfon fuffers as well as the offender, though unconnected
v/ith him. The only inilance of vicarious punifhments is
that inrticltd upon, the families and creditors of fuicides by
the law of England. This, hke all other abfurd and ur.-
jufl laws, is evaded, in almoft every inilance, by perjury,
and the exercife of difcretion in a fovereign. The example
given of tranfitive punifhment is the corruption of blood,
the abfurdity of which is ably expofed. The cKlef inflances
of colleSive punifhments are thofe in which corporations are
punilhed for the faults of certain individual corporations j
a proceeding which can never be juflified. The well-
known examples of fortuitous pifnifhments are taken from
the law of England. The moll notable is the forfeiture
and efcheat of freehold property, in cafes of attainder of
treafon and felony, where the confifcation relates back
to the commiflion of the offence, and all mefne conveyances
are avoided ; fo that a man may commit a fecret crime, antj
fell his eflate to an ignorant and innocent purchaier, ii;
whofe hands the crown or the lord afterwards feizes the
eflate upon the vendar's attainder ; and as his goods and
chattels are forfeited upon conviftion, the only fund vi
compenfation is gone alfo. Deodands are another inflance
of fimilar injuftice ; and the punifhment of incapacitating a
perfon from iriving evidence, is manifeftly one which mav
^ C ftnke

P U T^

PUP

flrike more injurioufly at parties wholly uneoiinefted with
the offender, than at himfelf ; befides, that it is by no means
inflifted merely with the view of putting courts of jullice
on their guard againft admitting a bad witncfs ; for it is
often the punifliment of criYncs wliich have no pecuhar con-
ueftion with violation of truth.

Among the evils of complicated punifhments, we may
reckon, befides outlawry and incapacitation of givnig
evidence, excommunication and felony. Some grofs abufcs
having occurred in the infljftion of the punifhment of excom-
munication, feveral diftinguifhcd perfons have undertaken
to fubftitute other procedure in its place ; and iir W. Scott
brought a bill into parliament with this view, fo that the
evil is done away. The punifhment of perfons as felons,
comprehends a number of iiifliftions very different from
each other, fo that our author confiders the punifhing as
a felon to be a vague and indefinite term. This compre-
hends two defcriptions of punifhment ; the one capital, with
forfeiture of lands and chattels ; the other not capital, but
conlifting in forfeiture of chattels, and the form of burning
in the hand ; to wliich, by fpecial enactment, imprifonment,
tranfportation, or indeed any other punifhment, may be
fupcradded. It mull be acknowledged, that a much fimpler
and better manner of flating the punifhment due to an
offence would be, to tell at once of what it is to be com-
pofed ; and inftead of enacting that certain offences are
felonies, which fpeciiies nothmg, to prohibit them, and
flate the precife infiiftions which fnall follow the commif-
fion of them. For the general charafter and high com-
mendation of the work, wliich has furniflied the preceding
materials, we refer to the Edinb. Rev. N^43. p. i— 31.

PUNISHMEXT, in Theology. It has been difputed among
divines, whether the punilhment of the wicked in a future
world be flriftly eternal or not. For the arguments on
both fides of the queilion, fee Hell.

PUNITORY Interest, in the Ci-uil Laiu, fuch intereft
of money, as is due for the delay of payment, breach of
promife, &c.

PUNK, in Natural Hiftory, the inward part of the ex-
crefcence or exuberance of an oak. It is ufed by the In-
dians in Virginia for m -dicinal burning, as the Eall Indians
ufe moxa. Phil. Tranf. No. 454. fed. i.

PUNN. S-^e Pln".

PUNO, in Geography, a town of Peru, now annexed to
the viceroyalty of La Plata or Buenos Ayres, and capital
of a diftrict of the fame name, called alfo PaucarcoUa ( not
Paucarcotta, as it is mifprintcd in that article). It is a rich
and populous town, fituated on the "W. fide of the lake
Titicaca, and containing fome illullrious families, as well
as a beautiful church for the Spaniards, and another for the
Indians, who weave great quantities of coarfe cloth, with
which they fupply the neighbouring countries. S. lat. 16°
Zd. W. long. 70° 26'.

PUNT, in Sea Language, a fort of oblong flat-bottomed
boat, with a fquare head and ffern, whofe floor refembles
tlie platform of a floating flage ; and ufed by fhip-wrights
for breaming, caulking, or repairing a (hip's bottom. It
is alfo ufed in fome canals.

PUNTA, in Geography, a town of South America, in
the audience of Quito, and jurifdiftion of Guayaquil.

PuNTA, La, a town of Mexico, in the province of New
.Bifcay ; 40 miles N.N.E. of Durango.

PuNTA is alfo an epithet, diilinguifhing feverd capes,
which are too numerous to be here recited ; and this is the
lef? neccflary, as the principal of them occur under other
.i[)propriate titles.
5

PuKTA Entoniada, a town on the N. coatt of Spain, N.
lat. 43" 34'. W. long. 5° 30'.

Pl/nta delGuda, a fta-port and capital of St. Michael,
one of the Azores, defended by a caftle.

PuNTA de Tordera, a town and cape of Spain, on the
coafl of Catalonia. N,, lat. 41° 38'. E. long. 2° 37'.

PUNTO del Monte, a town of South America, in the
province of Cordova ; 1 5 miles S. -of Cordova.

PUNUGGA, a village of Bootan, fituated in a deep
hollow, and furroiinded with mountains, for the molt part
covered with pines, along whofe fides clouds are perpetually
hovering. On the borders of this village are many large
heaps of fir-leaves, which being left to ferment and rot, arc
ufed as excellent manure.

PUNUNAGUR, a town of Bengal ; 10 miles W. of
Nattore.

PUNWARY, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Gohud ; 18 miles E. of Raat.

PUOI^.A.NGO, a town of Sweden, in the government
of Ulea ; 40 miles S. of Cajana.

PUPA, in Natural Hiftory, a name lately fubftituted in
the room of chryfahs or aureha, bccaufe many infefts in
this flate rei'emblc an infant in fwaddling clothes ; and all,
except thofe of the hemiptera order, take no nourilhment.
See Entomology.

PUPIGLIO, in Geography, a town of Etruria ; 10
miles N. of Piftoia.

PUPIL, Pl'pillus, in the Ci-uil Law, a boy or girl not
yet ari-ived at the age of puberty, i. e. under fourteen years
of age for the boy, and under twelve for the girl.

While a minor remained under the direction of a tutor,
he was called a pupil ; after puberty, a curator being af-
figned him, he ceafed to be called a pupil.

A tutor is obliged to pay intereft for what monies of his
pupil lie idle and unemployed. A tutor is allowed to do
any thing for his pupil, but nothing againft him.

PuriL is alfo ufed by way of extenfjon, in Univerfities,
Sec. in the fenfe of alumnus, for a youth under the education
or difcipline of any one.

Pl'PIL, in Anatomy, the round opening in the iris, by
which the rays of light are admitted into the eye. See
Eve.

Pupil, in Optics. It is obferved, that as we are forced
to ufe various apertures to our optic glafles, fo nature has
made a like provifion in the eves of animals, whereby to
fhnt out too much, and admit fufficient light, by the changes
in the aperture of the pupil.

The ilruCture of the uvea and iris is fuch, as that, by
their aperture, the pupil is contradtible and dilatable at
pleafure, fo as to accommodate itfelf to objefts, and to
admit more or fewer rays, as the objeft, being either more
vivid and near, or more obfcure and remote, requires more
or lefs light : it being a conftant law, that the more lumi-
nous the objedt, the fmaller tlie pupil ; and again, the nearer
the object, the fmall;r the pupil ; and vice -vcrfa.

This fact has been long ago noticed by optical writers.
B. Porta, about the middle of the fixteenth century, in
his treatife De Refractione, p. 74, obferves, that the pupil
is contradted involuntarily when it is expqjed to a ftrong
hght, and opens of itfelf when the light is fmall. A fimi-
lar obf.-rvatiOii was made by his countryman and contempo-
rary. Father Paul of Venice. Galen, indeed, firft obferved
the dilatation of tlie pupil of one eye, when the other wr.s
fhut or loft, and the contraitien of it, when the other was
opened or recovered ; and in this opinion he was followed
by all naturalifts and philofophers, till Fabricius ab Aqua-
pendeiitc, profelTor at Padua, by obferving the eye of a cat,

found

PUPIL.

found thai the pupil not only dilated and contracted itfi-lf,
wlicn one of the eyes was fliut, but ;dfo vvlien botii were
open. F. Paul found, from repeated experiments, that the
pupil not only of cats, but alfo of men, and other animals,
always contrafted itfelf when the eye was cxpofed to a
bnVht light, and a;Tain dilated itfelf when the light was
faint and languid. This he always obferved, as well when
both eyes were open, as when one of them was (liut. The
fame remark had been made by Achillinus, in a treatifc pub-
liftied in 1322 ; and the fatt was known to the Arabians,
Rliazes and Avjcenna. That the pupil of the eye is en-
larged, in order to view remote objefts, and that it is con-
Irafted while we are viewing thofe that are near, is a faft
with which Scheiner, in the beginning of tlic leventecnth
century, was well acquainted, and which he proved by ex-
periments, and ilkdtrated by figures. When a needle, or
;iny fmall objcdt, is brought near to the eye of any perfon,
wlio looks attentively at it, the pupil, lie fays, is plainly
ieen to contraft ; and it as conltantly expands whenever it is
ivithdrawn.

This alteration of the pupil is cfFefted by certain mufcu-
iar fibres on the outfide of the uvea, which arrive from
nerves detached hither from the fclerotica. Thefe fibres
proceeding ftraight from their origin towards the centre,
terminate in the orbicular limb or verge of the pupil, which
'5niifts of orbicular fibres, whereby the figure and fpace of
the pupil arc defined. The firtl, or longitudinal fibres, di-
late the aperture of the pupilla ; the latter, or orbicular
ones, conflringe it.

Some authors, however, attribute the motions of the pu-
pilla to the ligamentum ciliare ; and others think, that both
this, and the fibres of the uvea, concur Iierein. Dr. Der-
ham adds, that while the pupil opens and fliuts, the liga-
mentum ciliare dilates or compreifcs the cryftalline, and
brings it nighcr to, or farther from, the retina, as the ob
jedl is more or lefs remote.

There is no doubt that the change to which tlie pupil is
fubjeft is the cfFett of light upon the eye. Dr. Hartley,
Obf. on Man, vol. i. p. 219, fuppofes, that the light
which enters at the pupil has great efficacy in cont^-acling
both the greater and lefs rings of the iris, as may be con-
cluded, he fays, from the immobility of the pupil in a gutta
lerena ; alfo becaufe, on this fuppofition, t'le light which
paffes in at the pupil muft, by contraifling the lefs ring, be-
come a check and guard againll its own too free admiffion,
which is agreeable to the tenor of nature in like inllances.
The retina, he obferves, extends to the greater ring, and
may fend fome nervous fibres to it, and even to the iris.
Dr. Whytt alfo fays, Eflay on vital and involuntary Mo-
tion, p. 112, that the contradlion of tlie pupil is not per-
formed by the aftion of light upon the iris, but upon the
retina; fincc whatever intercepts tlie rays of light, i'o as to
prevent their reaching the retina, caufes a preternatural di-
latation of the pupil ; becaufe in a cataratf:, where the cryf-
talline humour, being confiderably opaque, intercepts a great
part of the rays, the pupil lofes a good deal of its contrac-
tile power. This author alfo obferves, that the widenefs of
the pupil in a fyncope, apoplexy, and confirmed gutta
ferena, fhews that, iii order to dilate the pupil to its largefl
iixij, no effort of the mind is neceffary, but only the fuperior
contraftile power of the longitudinal fibres of the uvea,
when its circular niufcle is not excited into aclion by the
(limulus of light on the retina. M. Mery informs us ( Mem.
Ac. Paris, for 1704) that, having plunged a cat in water,
and expofing her eye to the ftrong light of the fun, the
pupil was not at all contraCied by it ; whence he infers,
that the contraftion of the iris is not produced by the aftion

of the light, but by fome other circumRance. For he con-
tends, that the eye in this fit nation receives more light tlia.i
in the open air. M. de la Hire, in reply, endeavours tc
fliew, (Mem. Ac. Par. for 1709) that fewer rays enter the
eye under water, and that, in thofe circumflances, it is nor
fo liable to be alfefted by them. Befides, it is obvious to
be remarked, that the cat muft be in great terror in tin.;
fituation ; and being an animal that has a very great vo-
luntary power over the mufcles of the iris, and being now
extremely attentive to every thing about her, fhe might have
her eyes open, notwithlfanding the adtion of the light upon
it, and though it might be very painful to her.

The figure of the pupil, in various animals, is wonder.
fully adapted to their various circumftances and occafions
in fome, f- gr. in man, it is round, that form being fitted
for the pofition of our eyes, and the various ufes we make
of them in all direftions.

In others, it is elliptical or oblong : in fome of which,
c. gr. the horfe, fheep, ox, &c. the elliplis is tranfverfe, and
the fifliire large, to enable them to fee laterally, and even
with a little light ; and thereby both to gather their food
the better in the night, and to avoid dangers on cither fide.
In others, e. gr. the cat, the ellipfis is ereft, and is alfo
capable of opening very wide, and fliutting very clofe ; by
means of the latter of which ftates, that animal can exclude
all, but, as it were, a fingle ray of light, and fo avoid all
the inconveniencies of the bright fuii ; and by the former,
it can take in all the fainteft rays, and thus avoid the in-
conveniencies of the night : an incomparable provifion for
thefe animals, which are to watcli and way-lay their prey
both by day and night, to fee upwards and downwards, to
climb, &c. See Eye and Vision.

PuriL, Clofure of. A preternatural fmallnefs of the
pupil always renders the patient incapable of difcerning ob-
jefts well at night-time, and occafions a diminution of vifion.
The confequence of a complete clofure of the pupil, a cafe
termed fyiiize/is, is total blindncfs. Both thefe affeftions
only differ from each other in degree, and they originate
from the fame caufes. The molt frequent caufe is a violent
inflammation of the eves, particularly when fuch diforder
extends to the iris, and arifes at a period when the anterior
and pofterior chambers of the aqueous humour contain none
of this fluid. This cafe principally happens after the ex-
traftion of the cataract. Here the inflammation conftantly
affects the capfule of the cryftalline lens, fo as to make it
opaque, and at the fame time adhere behind the pupil to
the iris ; a circumftance which is well defcrving attention.
Not iinfrequently, however, a clofure of the pupil take<
place during ophthalmy, notwithttanding both chambers of
the eye are full of the aqueous humour. Wounds sf the
iris fometimes caufe this unpleafant occurrence, efpecially
when they continue open, and do not heal. It is obferved
to be mofl frequently produced by fuch wounds as divide
the radiated fibres of the iris tranfverfely. Thefe wounds,
however, do not invariably remain open : fometimes they
clofe, and then the pupil undergoes no alteration. Even
when fuch wounds do not unite, a clofure of the pupil does
not always follow. In thefe initances, the natural pupil has
been remarked to become clofed, and the preternatural aper-
ture in the iris to be widened, when the eye was cxpofed to
the light ; and, on the contrary, immediately the light was
diminifhed, the pupil became dilated, and the other opening
was contracted and clofed. - Wounds of the iris in the other
direftion, even wlien they remain difunited, often caufe little-
or no diminution of the natural motion of the pupil.

It fometimes happens, that a greater or lefler portion of

tlie iris is detached from the circumference of the cornea ;

C 2 and,

PUPIL,

aiid. in tills fituation, aii ov<tl aperture is produced, through
whicli the rays of liglit pafs into the eye. A complete
clofure of the pupil is ufually the confequence of fuch de-
tachment of the iriS. A blow on the eye, a kick of a horfe,
or fome other external violence, attended with a violent
concuffion of the eye, is the common caufe of this detach-
ment of the iris. Janin has feen it brought on by a pro-
lapfus of the iris through an ulcerated opening in the cornea.
The iris was kept in a ftate of tenfion, and the patient was
fuffering conftant pain in the eye ; but, after a time, this pain
fuddenly ceafed, when it was remarked, that the iris was
torn from the upper edge of the cornea at five different
points. The patient, who had been deprived of his fight
by the clofure of the pupil, uovv recovered it again.
Tlirough the aperture, formed by a feparation of the iris
from the cornea, patients commonly fee dillant objefts
tolerably well, notwithftaiiding the opening is immoveable,
and not in the centre ot the eye ; but, in general, they can
fee only a half of fuch objefts as are near. In cafes where
the iris is thus detached, the pupil fometimes continues open.
Janin once noticed an alternate motion in the pupil and
the preternatural opening. Between them the iris was
thrown into folds, or wrinkles. Immediately a ilrong light
entered the eye, the wrinkles diminilhed, the pupil con-
trudled, and affumed a long narrow Ihape, while the preter-
natural opening grew larger and wider. In dark places,
the latter became fmaller, the pupil larger, and the part of
the iris fituated between them more wrinkled.

Sometimes the pupil becomes clofed, in confequence of a
fpafmodic contraftion of the iris. At firlt, the pupil is
merely leflened in diameter ; the power of feeing decreafes ;
and at length the eye is very fenfible of the light, though
not at all inflamed. At lalt, the pupil is entirely clofed.
This cafe prefents itfelf mod frequently after operations for
the cataraft. The pupil occafioually undergoes a gradual
diminution after fuch operations, and in the end is totally
obliterated, without any particular caufe, inflammation, or
pain ; and this event may happen feveral weeks, months, or
years, after the time of thofe operations. It is remarked
Ijy furgical writers, that fuch perfons as frequently read for
a long while, and attentively look at (hining, bright, flrongly
illuminated objetts, run a ri(l< of being attacked with this
diforder. The pupil, which contraSs itfelf very much
during the infpection of thefe objefts, at length becomes
habituated to a Hate of contraftion, and lofes all power of
expanding itfelf. Richtcr obferves, that this form of the
complaint is lermed. fynl'z.efis ex coiifueludine.

Infants are lometimes born witliout pupils. In this cafe,
the fituation oi theie openings is occupied by the membrana
pupillaris. By fome tliis affeftion has been erroneouHy
called cataraila pupiUaris : as Richter obferves, the term
fynh.'fis congenita is much more applicable to it. A pro-
l.ipfus of the iris is commonly attended either with a dimi-
nution, or a total clofure of the pupil. When the iris is
reduced in time, the pupil geiierally expands again ; but
when the reduction is not effeftcd till after a certain period,
this opening remains clofed, and this notwithftantling every
portion of the iris be now replaced. A prolapfus of the
■vitreous humour fometimes occafions, and leaves after it, a
contrafted Hate of the pupil. E?ery long continued de-
ficiency of the aqueous, or confiderable lofs of the vitreous
humour, by whatfoever caufe produced, is accompanied
with nlk of a permanent diminution, or even a total clofure
«f the pupil : hence it is often a fymptom of atrophia oculi.

Sou.etimes, though the pupil is of proper dimenfions, it
13 obftrufted by extraneous matter. This cafe is termed
fynizijit fpuria. The fubilance producing the obitruftion,

is either a portion of coagulated blood, which is t!ie conlc-
quence of an extravafation of this fluid in the anterior cham-
ber ; thick matter from a fuppuration within the eye ; or
the remains of a difeafed lens continuing after the operation
of extrafting the cataraft. A white opaque membrane,
like a cyll, is fometimes feen protruding through the pupil
into the anterior chamber. The capfular cataraft is occa-
fioually fo moveable, that, when the head is inclined for-
wards, it enters the pupil, and partly comej into the an-
terior chamber ; but returns into its former pofition, as foon
as the head is inclined backward again. Mauchart afTerts,
that he has feen a fungous excrefcence grov/ing from the
edge of the iris, and filling up the pupil.

When the diminution or clofure of the pupil is of long
Handing, it can never be relieved, except by an operation,
whatever may be the nature of the caufe from which it ori-
ginates. When the pupil has been for a long while in a di-
miniflied or clofed Hate, it lofes entirely the power of ex-
panding again, and continues leffened, or (hut, notwith-
flanding the removal of the caufe of the diforder. If the
affedlion be congenital, or the confequence of inflammation,
it can never be obviated except by an operation, however
fhort the period of its duration may be. When it arifes
from irritation of the iris, or from intenfe obfervation of
(hining, bright objefts, and has not exilled a long time, it
may be cured without an operation. Alfo, in cales wherj
the operation is necelTary, the mode of performing it differs
according to circumftances.

Patients who become afflifted, in confequence of fre-
quently obierving bright, glittering objefts, may obtain
rcliuf by a timely avoidance of every light that is too ilrong,
wearing green fprAacles, viewing objedls with an opera
glafs, and frequently wafhuig the eye with fome warm
emollient liquor, efpecially a decodlion of mallows, hem-
lock, and poppy-heads. The peculiar virtue of the extra£l
of belladonna, in making the pupil dilate, might here alfo
be turned to great advantage. It is to be diluted and
rubbed over the eye-lids and eye-brow, and allowed to re-
main applied a certain length ot time every day. The fame
means are likewife proper in cafes, where the diforder de-
pends upon irritation. Richter fpeaks favourably of the
good eifefts of antimonial wine, and the extraft of aconi-
tum, as internal medicines, together with warm bathing
and blifters. Here the outward application of the extract
of belladonna unqueftionably merits a careful trial.

Tliere is a preternatural contraftion of the pupil, which
alternately arifes and then ceafes again. This cafe fome-
times lafls only a few hours ; fometimes feveral days.
During the attack, patients fee more weakly than ufual, or
cannot fee but very little, according as the pupil happens
to be more or lefs dimini(hed. In particular mflances, the
attacks come on at fixed times, and the complaint is then
periodical. During the diforder, the pupil feems to be
afiedled with fpafm. Occafioually, indeed, fpafmodic com-
plaints, fays Richter, take place at the fame time in other
parts. Here the difeafe is moft commonly the confequence
of irritation feated in the abdominal vifcera, and requires
aperient, and efpecially emetic medicines. When thefe
means prove ineffectual, it is at length neceffary to refort to
the external and internal ufe of anodyne tonic remedies,
valerian, bark, and fmall dofes of ipecacuanha. The out-
ward application of the extraft of belladonna to the eye-
brow and eye-lids promifes alfo, in fuch cafes, to be an
ufcful auxihary means. This fort of clofure of the pupil
has been obfervcd as a fymptom of hyfteria.

The eminent Mr. Chefelden firft made the propofal of
perforating the iris, and alfo firil put fuch an operation in

7 execution.

PUPIL.

tixeciition. He introduced a (lender knife, about one line
from tlie margin of the cornea, through the coats of the
eye, iato tlic poilerior chamber, and puflied it through the
iris in the fituation of the clofed pupil, fo as to form in that
membrane a fmall longitudinal incifion. It is alleged that
■ this operation of Chcfclden's has been repeatedly performed,
and for the moll part unfuccefsfully. According to the
obfervations ef Janin and Warner, the incifion did not di-
late, and became (hut up again foon after it had been made.
In one example, Janin was prevented from completing the
operation with accuracy, in confequeuce of hemorrhage
rendering the aqueous humour turbid. The plan of intro-
ducing the knife into the pofterior, inftead of the anterior
chamber, feems alfo to be difadvantageous ; for, in this lait
mode, the iris can be more eafily got at, and nothing is in-
jured except the infenfible cornea. On the other hand, in
Chefelden's method, all the coats of the eye, the lens and
its capfule, and the ciliary proccfTes, are all wounded. Be-
fides, as the point of the knife is concealed behind the iris,
one can never be certain that it is prccifely oppoiite the place
where the perforation of the iris ought to be made.

It was the opinion of Janin, that when the incifion in the
iris was made in a parallel direclion to the radiated fibres of
this membrane, it always very foon doled again ; and, on
the contrary, that when it was made acrofs thefe fibres, it
not only dilated, but continued permanently open. He,
therefore, ufed to operate as follows : he firft divided the
lower half of the cornea, as in the operation for the cata-
raft ; he then pufhed a finely pointed pair of fcidors into
the iris, about one line from the lower edge of the cornea,
and the incifion was made in a perpendicular direction on the
infide of the pupil, without touching the pupil itfelf. The
cut ufually became dilated immediately, and remained open.
But care muft always be taken to make the wound in the
iris on the fide of the pupil next tlie inner canthus, as mak-
ing it on the oppofite fide might occafion fquinting. See
Janin's Memoires fur I'CEil.

Wenzel's plan is more modern. The knife is introduced
into the cornea in the manner ufually done in the operation
for the cataraft ; but when it has approached within half a
line of the place of the clofed pupil, its point is to be de-
preffed to the depth of half a line through the iris. Three-
quarters of a line from this puniture, towards the inner
canthus, the point is to be elevated again ; and the incifion
of the cornea is then to be finifhed, as in operating for the
cataraft. In this way, a cut is made in the iris, refembling
on a fmall fcale the incifion on the cornea ; that is to fay,
it is of a femilunar fliape, and forms a fmall flap ; but it is
rarely fo fmooth and even as that in the cornea. The flap
is to be cut away with a fmall pair of fcifTors, fo that a
roundilh aperture, which is fure to remain open, is pro-
duced in the iris. When the flap cannot be got hold of, fo
as to admit of being removed with fcifTors, a fmall piece of
the iris is to be cut out.

The method which we have next to take notice of, is
that propofed by the eminent Scarpa. He conceives, that
the artificial pupil may be molt eafily made, by detaching
a certain extent of the circumference of the iris, next the
nofe, from the ciliary ligament, by means of a couching
needle. Others objeft, however, that this mode is not
only difTicult, but that the aperture is hardly ever per-
manent.

The lafl way of operating, of which it remains for us to
fpeak, is that recommended by Mr. Gibfon. This furgeon
begins by making a punAure in the cornea, with a broad
cornea knife, within a line of the fclerotica, to the extent

of about three lines. All prcH'ure is now to be renioved
from the eye-ball, and the cornea knife gently withdrawn.
The confequcnce of this is, that a portion of the aqueous
humour efcapes, and the iris falls into contaft with the
opening in the cornea, and clofes it, like a valve. A flight
prefTure muft now be made upon the upper and inner part
of the eye-ball, and be gently increafed, or varied in direc-
tion, till the iris gradually protrudes, fo as to prcfent a bag
of the fize of a large pin's head. This protruded portion
muft be cut off with a pair of fine curved fcifibrs, and, at
the fame time, all prefTure is to be removed. The iris will
then recede within the eye, and the piece that has been re-
moved will leave an artificial pupil more or lefs circular.

When the centre of the cornea is fo opaque, that the rayp
of light cannot enter the pupil, and the circumference of
that membrane is tranfparent, vifion may be materially im-
proved by removing a portion of the iris oppofite the un-
difeafed part of the cornea.

There can be no doubt that, with refpeft to the com-
parative merit of the preceding modes of operating, Gib-
fon's plan ought in general to be preferred, as being nearer
and fafer than the others. Confult Sliarp's Trcatife of the
Operations ; Janin's Mem. fur I'CEil ; Wenzel on the Ca-
taraft ; Scarpa fuUe Malattie degli Occhi, capo 1 6 ;
Richter's Anfangfgrunde, &c. band. 3. kap. 9 ; Gibfon's
Pradt. Obf. on the Formation of an artificial Pupil, &c.

Pupil, Preternatural Dilatation of. Tliis affettion, which
is termed mydriafis, is ufually a fymptom of fome other
difeafe, and is hardly ever an original complaint. It occurs
in very different degrees. Sometimes the pupil is fo confi-
derably expanded, that the iris canjufl be difcerned, like a
fmall fold at the inner circumference of the margin of the
cornea. In fome cafes, the pupil is totally immoveable ; in
others, it retains a certain degree of motion. Not unfre-
quently, it has loll its round fhape, and become of an ob-
long, or angular figure. In particular cafes, the afteftion
is only in one eye ; in the majority of initanccs, it takes
place in both. It is often accompanied with total blindnefs ;
occafionally, though lefs commonly, the patient retains the
faculty of feeing. In the latter cafe, the patient has an
averfion to the light, or is even quite blind in the day. He
is alfo ill conftant danger of being totally deprived of vifion
in a gradual way by the gutta ferena. (See Gutta Serena.)
To fome patients of this defcription, all objefls appear to be
fmaller and more diftant than they are in reality. The fol-
lowing are the difeafes of which mydriafis is commonly a
fymptom. i. Amaurofis, or the gutta ferena. Of this
complaint, however, it is not an infeparable and conftant
fymptom, the pupil fometimes retaining the power of mo-
tion, and being quite free from blemifh ; and in cafes where
it is dilated and motionlefs, it now and then recovers its na-
tural fize and moveablenefs, although the amaurofis con-
tinues unchanged. 2. The cataraft. Here mydriafis hap-
pens under two different ftates ; namely, either when the
cataraft is adherent to the iris ; or when the opaque cryftal-
line lens is preternaturally thick and large. In the firft cafe,
it ufually happens that the pupil is at the fame time incapa-
ble of motion, and irregular ; in the fecond, it fometimes
can move in a certain degree, and the iris is convex and prefled
forward toward the cornea. 3. Hydrophthalmia, or dropfy
of the eye. Here the dilatation of the pupil arifes imme-
diately from the diftended (late of the eye-ball, and with this
the diforder incrcafcs or fubfides. (See Hydrophthal-
mia.) 4. In patients who are troubled with worms ; who
are in fwoons, who are afflifled with hydrocephalus, apo-
plexy, or any comatofe difeafe, the pupils are in general pre-
ternaturally

PUP

PUR

ternaturally dilated. In all fuch cafes, the only indication is
to endeavour to remove the original difeafe, of which the
inydriafis is merely a fymptom.

In the cale where mydriafis is to be regarded as the
only diforder, the complaint feems to depend upon a weak-
nefs or paralyfis of the fibres which clofe the pupil. Here
it is commonly the coniequence of apoplexy, a blow on the
eye, or a violent and fudden diftention of the pupil, as, for
example, fometimes happens in the extraftion of a cataract.
When the difeafe is of long {landing, there is little hope of
cure, whatever may be the caufe from which the complaint
arifes. When it is recent, the pupil will fometimes regahi
the power of moving and contrafting under the ufe of inter-
nal and external ftimulating tonic remedies. The chief
means of this ciafs are, blilters applied to the eye-brows,
ethereal oil rubbed into the flcin around the orbit, eleftricity,
emetic medicines in fmall and full dofes, and other fimilar
remedies, whicli arc ufually prefcribed for the rehef of
paralytic affeftions of other parts. When thefe means
prove unavaihng, the praftitioner mull be content with
recommending a palliative plan, which will be prefently
noticed.

As the pupil natur;dly dilates in the dark, it follows, that
when a perfon is kept a long while away from the light, a
mydriafis ex conjududine is produced, the pupil becoming ha-
bituated to tlie expanded itate, and lofing the power of con-
traftion. In moft inllances, it gradually recovers its motion
after the eye has been for a certain time expofed to the light
again. The light, however, mull be allowed to get to the
eye only by degrees, or elfe its fudden operation on the eye,
in the expanded ftate of the pupil, would be apt to impair,
or even dellroy vifion altogether. When the pupil does not
recover its power of motion, the patient mull be fatisfied
with reforting to palliative means. It has been remarked,
that mydriafis is fometimes a congenital defeA. All attempts
at a radical cure mull here be attended with extreme difficulty.
When the light cannot be endured without inconvenience,
the palliative plan is necellary. A blow on the eye fometimes '
tears the pupil. The rent mollly remains open, and the
patient is in the fame Hate as if affefted with mydriafis.
Here, as the laceration cannot be repaired, the indication
is to prevent, by palliative means, vifion from being hurt by
the too great ftrength of the light.

Tlu:ough a preternaturally dilated pupil the light enters the
eye in fuch quantity, that the patient is blinded. He not
only fees things very indiflinftly in light places, but he alfo
runs a rifle of being gradually entirely deprived of vifion, in
confequcnce of the too llrong aftion of the light upon the eye.
The prevention of fuch mifchief is the objedl of the palliative
treatment. By it the light which falls upon the eye is to
be diminiihed, fo that the patient may be enabled to fee not
only plainly and without inconvenience in light places, but
alfo without any danger of lofing his fight altogether.
The ufual means recommended for this purpofe are, eye-
fhades, by which the light, coming principally from above,
is kept from entering the eye ; bbick veils over the face ;
green fpeftacles, which lefien the quantity of rays of light
coming from objctls which the patient is looking at ; fpec-
tacles made with black cards, in the centre of which is left
an opening of the fize of the natural pupil. But the belt
and moil proper means is a pair of tube-fpeftacles. This is
a common pair of Ipeclacles, which, inllead of glades, has
adapted to its two rings two conical tubes, the bafes of which
are to be put towards the eyes, and the narrower parts to-
wards the objedls whicli are looked at. Thefe tubes ought
to be made of black leather, and they fliould be three or four

inches long. Their diameter at the bafe mud be equal that
of the circumference of the orbit ; but their other ends need
not be quite fo wide. The edge of their bafes is to be cut
in fuch a way, that they will fit clofely on the circumference
of the orbit. The ufe of thefe tubes confiils in their keep-
ing off all the rays of fight coming laterally, and only ad-
mitting thoft.- into the eye, which proceed from objects in tlie
axis of viiioii. Every furgeon will be able, according to
circumllances, to multiply and vary the contrivance here de-
fcribed. See Richter's Anfangfgr. dcr Wundarzneykunil,
band %. kap. lo.

PUPILLAIIIS Membuana, in Anatomy, a circular
membrane, by which the pupil is doled during the greater
part of utero-gellation. Sec EvK.

PUPILLARITY, or Pupillage, tUettate of a pupil;
in oppofition to puberty.

PUPPET, in Natural Hijlory. See AuKCLlA.

PUPPIiSOS, a name given by fome authors to the os
frontis. The future in this bone is alfo called by many ana-
tomills \\\t futura pupp'ts.

PUPPOLA, in Geography, a town of Siveden, in the
government of Ulea ; 45 miles S. of Ulea.

PUPULiE, a name ufed by fome to cxprefs the extre-
mities of the fingers.

PUR, in Geography, a river of RulTia, which runs into
the Tazovfl<aia gull. N. lat. 67^ 40'. E. long. 78"^ 34'.

Pur autre vie, in our Law-Books, is ufed where lands
are held for the life of another. See Occupakt, and

TeN'AN'T.

PURA Ekemofyna, pure alms, denotes a tenure, whereby
the churchmen hold lands in Scotland, fomewhat on the
footing of the primitive clergy.

PuRA Hajla. See Hasta.

PURALLA Bay, in Geography, a bay on the coaft of
Chili. S. lat. 42° 10'.

PURANA, the common name of a feries of poetical ro-
mances, confidered among the Hindoos as facred works,
the offspring of infpired writers, communicated for the in-
flruclion and benefit of mankind. They are afcribed, in their
prefent form, to a celebrated man in the literary hiftory of
the Hindoos, whom they call Vyafa. (SeeVvASA.) He is
fuppofed to have reduced an immenfe mafs of infpired writ-
ings into eighteen works, and to have arranged them as they
now appear. The foUowiiig are the titL s of thefe eighteen
books, to which the common denomination of Purana is ap-
pended when fpoken of or referred to. i . Brahm, or the Great
One. 2. Padma, or the lotos. 3. Brahmanda. 4. Agni,
or fire. 5. Vifhnu. 6. Garuda. 7. The transformations
of Brahma. S.Siva. 9. Linga. 10. Nareda. II. Skan-
da. 12. Markaiideya, or the immortal man. 13. Bhawifhya,
or the prediAion of futurity. 14. Matfya. 15. Varaha.
16. Kurma. 17. Vamana. 18. Bhagavata. Of thefe, the
firfl four relate to cofmogony ; the next nine to the attri-
butes and powers of the Deity. The fixth is named after the
vehicle or bird of Viflinu, called Superna, as well as Garuda.
(See SuPERNA.) See Linga, for the myfterious fymbol
whence the ninth derives its name. Nareda, whofe laws
and hillory are detailed in the tenth, is a mythological
fon of Brahma. Skanda, the hero of the eleventh, is
a name of Kartihya ; fee that article. The fourteenth
and three follovnng relate the hiftories of four of the
principal incarnations of Viflinu the preferver, called Mat-
Jyavalara, f^arahavatara, Kurmavatara, and Vamanava-
tara. Under thefe articles rcfpeclively will be found a brief
notice of the outline of their hiftories. The eighteenth,
called Sri Bhagavata, is tlie life of Krifhna, (fee Krishka,)

with

PURANA.

with which tiie poet Vyafa is popularly imagined to have
crowned the whole ferics ; thoui^h fome re.ifoiiably adigii
them different compofers ; and the leries is differently arranged
and named by other authorities. Every Purana treats of five
fubjefts. I. The creation of the univerfe. 2. Itsprogrefe,
and the renovation of the worlds. 3. The genealogy of
gods and heroes. 4. Chronology, accordnig to a fabulous
fyftem. 5. Heroic hiftory, containing the achievements of
demigods and heroes. Since each Purana contains a cofmo-
gony, with mythological and heroic hiftories, they may, not
unaptly, be compared to the Grecian theogonies.

A copy of, we believe, all the eighteen mythological
poems, is preferved in the library of the Eaft India houie.
It is eftimatedthat the whole cannot confifl of lefs than halt
a million of ftanzas. Hitherto no tranflation of any of
them, or of any confiderable portion of either, hath been
made from the original into any European language. They
are, of courfe, written in the Sanfcrit tongue. In iome
articles of this work a ftanza, or a brief outline of fome of
the Puranic tales, elucidatory of the charafter or fubjeit
under dilcuffion, is occailonally introduced, and may perhaps
give iome little idea of the (lyle of thefe extravagant poems.
The reader, in this view, mav confult the following, in addi-
tion to the other articles herein and thence referred to ; Jam-
BAVANTA, KAj,rA, Kaksiiagni, Kritika, Lileswara,
Lotos, Meru, Muni, Nakshatra, Naramedha, Pa-
vaka, Pavana, Pikeswari, Pollear, Prithu, &c. &c.

As to thefe extravagant, and not always decent, tales of
the Puranas, the probability is that phyfical or hiftorical fafts
are thus conne6ted under a veil of allegory, carried through
a feries of poetical narratives and adventures, related of the
perfonitied attributes of the Deity. The fafls are either
forgotten, or unknown to the vulgar ; but the fables remain,
and are generally and commonly alluded to in compofition
and converfation. Taken literally, as the tranfaftions of
divine or holy perfons, nothing (b.'.ting the invention, ima-
gery, and other poetical merits) can be more contemptible
than thefe Pnrauic romances ; but if we defire to extract
the grains of ore that the mals may probably contain, we
muff be content to examine them as they are ; and in cafe
of failure, many inquifitive refearchers will deem their labour
not loit, in the invention and other poetical beauties abound-
ing in thefe wild compofitions.

We fhall briefly give an abftraft of the contents of two
or three of the Puranas, whence a judgment may be formed
of the others. The Agni Purana is feigned to have been
dehvcrcd by Agni, or Pavaka, the god of fire. ( See Pa-
vaka. ) It contains a great variety of fnbjetts, and feems
to have been intended as an epitome of Hindoo learning.
The poem opens with a fliort account of the leveral incar-
nations of Vilhnu, an enumeration of which, with a brief
outline of their hiftory, will be found in the article
ViiHNlT of this work, and thofe thence referred to. It
dwell:,, however, chiefly on the incarnations of Kr'ijlma and
Rama. (Sec thefe articles.) Then follow a hiftory of
the creation ; a tedious differtation on the worfhip of the
gods, with a defcription ul their images, and direftions for
confttufting and fetting them up ; a concife defcription of
the earth, particularly of thofe places which are efteemed
holy, with the forms of worlhip to be obferved at them ;
a treatife of aftronomy, or jather aftrology ; a varietv of
incantations, charms, and fpells, for every occafion. One
fpecies of this is named mantra, under which article a
fufiicient account is given of them ; computations of the
periods called mawj-mnt^ira, kalpa, &c. (fee Kalpa) ; a
defcription of the feveral religious modes of life called
aft-ama, and the duties to be performed in each ; rules for

penance fon this head fee Tapas) ; feafts and fafts to be
oblervcd throughout the year ; rul»s for beftowing charity ;
a differtation on thi- great adva,:ragc3 to be deriv'd tri<m
the myftic word OM (imder which article of this work
the reader will probably find iufHcient of tnylticifm), v;ith a
hymn to Variflita, of whom fomething occurs under that
article. The next head relates to the otlicc and duties of
princes ; under which are given rules for knowing the
qualities of men and women ; for choofing arms and enfigns
of royalty ; for the choice of precious ftoi.es ; and a treatife
on the art of war. The next head treats of worldly tranf-
adlions between man and man, as to buying and felling, bor-
rowing and lending, giving and receiving, &c. &c. Then
follow certain ordinances, according to the Veda, refpefting
fecurity from misfortunes, &c. and for the worfhip of the
gods. Genealogies of the two races of folar and lunar kings,
called Suryavanfa and Chandravanfa (fee Surya) ; of the
family of Yadu and of Kriflina, with a (hort hiftory of
the twelve years' war, delcribed in the Mahabarat. (See
Mahauarat.) a treatife on the art of healing, as ap-
plicable to man and beaft, with rules for the management
of elephants, horfes, and cows ; charms and fpells for
curing various diforders ; and the mode of worfhipping
certain divinities ; on the letters of the Sanfcrit alphabet ;
on the ornaments of fpeech, as applicable to oratory, poetry,
and the drama ; on the myftic fignirication of the fingle
letters of the Sanfcrit alphabet ; a grammar and ftiort
vocabulary of that language. The whole of this deful-
tory work is divided into 353 ftiort chapters.

The Siva Purana is fometimes called alfo, after one of
the forms of his confort, the Kalika Purana. (See Kali.)
It is a mythological hiftory of that goddefs, including her
adventures under various names and charafters. Many of
thole names and characters are enumerated under the^article
Parvati, her more common name ; and Mr. Moor has given
an extradt under Naramedha, which word means a man-iacri-
fice, the rites and ceremonies of that horrid offering being
minutely laid down in this Pui'ana. It is a curious and enter-
taining work, including as epifodes ffveral beautiful alle-
gories, particularly one founded on the motions of the moon.
See Moor's Hindu Pantheon.

The Vayu Purana, as one of thefe poetical romances is
vai'ioufly called, but luhich we have not the means at this
moment of afcertaining, is attributed to the regent of wind
Vayu, otherwife and more commonly called Pavana (fee
Pavana) ; where the reafon is furmifcd why the Purana is
not called after that name. It contains, among a variety
of other curious fubjefts, a circumftantial detail of the
creation of all things, celeftial and terreftrial, with the
genealogy of the firft inhabitants ; chronological compu-
tations as to the grand periods man-wanlara, h'alpa, &c.
before fpoken of; a defcription of the earth, as divided into
iflands, continents, S:c. and its dimenfions, and alfo of
other planets and fixed ftars, their diftance, circumference
of orbits, &c. &c. Under the article P.WAKA, an extratt
is given from the M^tfya Purana, dire£ting how images or
pictures are to be made of the god of wiwd. Moft of the
Puranas contain directions of that fort.

A brief notice of one other of thefe infpired works will
fuffice. The Nareda Purana is believed to have been delivered
by the infpired Nareda, a m.ythological fon of Brahma.
Under the article Nareda, (fee Hindu Pantheon) an account
is given of him, with his genealogy, and the derivation of his
name, from the Varaha Purana. Like the others, this poem
opens with defcribing " how heaven and earth rofe out of
chaos ;" but it treats principally of the unity of God, and as
it fettarially is written with the Vaifhnava bias (fee Vaisii-

n'ava).

PUR

PUR

nava), it defcribes Virtinu as the Deity. On this point,
fee Sects of Hindoos. It argues that all other gods are
but emblems of the works of Malia Viflinu, and the female
deities, or faktis, emblems or perfonifications of his powers.
Other Hindoo fefts fay the fame of the deity of their ex-
clufive worfliip, as noticed under Krishna, Rama, Siva,
&c. It Hates that the worfhip of the Trimurti, or either
of the triad (fee Tkimurti), whether the creator, pre-
ferver, or regenerator, is in effeft worfliipping of Vifhnu.
This Parana concludes with rules for the feveral tribes in
their fpiritual and temporal conduA through hfe.

Thefe voluminous and certainly curious poems, are held
in the general eftimation of the Hindoos, as fecond only to
the Veda, their immediate fcripture. (See Veda.) In
each of the Vedas are certain palfages interfperfed, relating
chiefly to cofmogony, which are called Purana, but are
wholly different from the eighteen mythological poems,
the fubjccl more efpecially of this article.

With refpeft to the age of the Puranas, orientalifts differ
widely. Sir W. Jones fatisfied himfelf that they have been
written about 2500 years. He does not ftate precifely
the mode of reafoning, by which he arrived at this con-
clufioii ; he gives, however, the outline of the procefs, and
allts the public to give him credit for a few very curious
fafts, which, although, he fays, capable of ttrift proof,
could then be only alferted. We are not aware that the
proofs were ever fubmitted to the public ; and whatever
they were, they have not wrought conviftion on the minds
of all. Mr. Colebroke, however, (Af. Ref. vol. vii.) leaves
us to infer that he thought them very little inferior in point
of antiquity to the age affigned them by his illuftrious pre-
deceffor in the chair of the Afiatic Society. Mr. Wilford
exprefsly fays, that " the Puranas are certainly a modern
compilation from valuable materials, that I am afraid no
longer exift : an aftronomical obfervation of the heliacal
rifing of Canopus, mentioned in two of the Puranas, puts
this beyond doubt." (Af. Ref. vol. v.) Mr. Bentley, after
giving various reafons and calculations for the foundation of
his opinion, fays, " It muft be evident that none of the
modern romances, commonly called the Puranas, at lead in
the form in which they now ftand, are older than 684 (now
18 1 3, about 695) years, but that fome of them are the
compilations of ftill later times." (lb. vol. viii.) As far,
indeed, as the eighteenth Purana, called Sri Bhagavat, is
concerned, Mr. Colebroke countenances Mr. Bentley's opi-
nion. " I am inclined," he fays, " to adopt an opinion
fupported by many learned Hindoos, who confider the
celebrated Sri Bhagavata as the work of a grammarian,
fuppofed to hare lived about 600 years ago." lb. (See
Sri Bhagavat.) Be this as it may, the orthodox Hin-
doos have implicit faith in, and great veneration for, thofe
celebrated poems, or " facred hiitories," as they call them ;
and it is authoritatively aflerted, that " the Veda, the re-
vealed fyftem of medicine, the Puranas, and the code of
Menu, are four works of fupreme authority, which ought
never to be {haken by arguments merely human. (See
Menu.) Thera^pre, however, many individuals of all the
four tribes of Hindoos, feweft certainly in that of Brah-
mana, who correfpond with the Levites of Ifrael, who deny
the divine origin of the Puranas, looking upon them in
nearly the fame light as a rational critic of Europe may do.

PURANGURRAH, in Geography, a town of Bengal ;
20 miles S.E. of Illamabad.

PURARI, a name of the Hindoo deity Siva ; which
fee.

PURARYA, in Gesgraphy, a town of Hindooftan, in
Oude ; 32 miles N. Kairabad.

PURBACH, George, in Biography, an eminent mathe-
matician and aflronomer in the 15th century, was born at
Purbach, a town on the confines of Auftria and Bavaria, i'l
1423. He was educated at Vienna, wliere he manifefted
great talents, and took his degree of M. A. with great
applaufe. He direfted his attention principally to mathe-
matics, and advanced in that fcicnce with almoll incredible-
rapidity. For farther improvement, he vifited the moft cele-
brated univerfities of Germany, France, and Italy. He
found a particular friend and patron in cardinal Cufa, and
he formed an intimacy with John Blanchini of Bologna,
who admiring Purbach's extcnfive knowledge, and his
ready method of communicating inftruckion, wifhed to pre-
vail upon him to deliver ledtures on aftronomy at Ferrara ;
but Purbach preferred returning to Vienna, where he ob-
tained the mathematical profefi'orlhip in that univcrfity.
About this time he received offers from Ladiflaus, king of
Hungary, to become his aftronomer, accompanied with
promifes of liberal rewards and diftinguifhed honours, which
he declined.

The fame of Purbach, as a mathematical profeflbr, was foon
widely diffufed, and brought numerous ftudents to attend
his lectures at Vienna. Among others was the celebrated
Regiomontanus, who fecured the efteem of his mailer, and
was chofen the alliftant and companion in his labours.
From this time they maintained an union of Itudies, in their
endeavours to improve the different branches of mathe-
matical fcience, and more particularly attronomy. This
fcience they would, no doubt, have materially improved by
their joint labours, had Purbach's life been prolonged.
His iirft effay was to amend the Latin tranflation of Pto-
lemy's Almageft. After this he wrote " An Introdnftion
to Arithmetic," and proceeded to draw up another " On
Gnomonics," or dialling, with tables fuited to the dif-
ference of climates and latitudes. This was followed by a
fmall tra£t " Concerning the Altitudes of the Sun," with
a table, and " Aftrolabic Canons." After this he made
fohd fpheres, or ccleftial globes, and not only explained their
conftruftion and ufes, but added to them a new table of
fixed ftars, with the longitude by which every ftar had in-
creafed, from the time of Ptolemy to the middle of the
fifth century. He alfo invented various other inftruments,
among which w^ a " gnomon," or geometrical fquare,
with canons, and a table for the ufe of it, which he fent
to the archbifliop Strigonia, who was himfelf a man of
great erudition, and entertained a high opinion of Purbach.
Our autlior made confiderable improvements in trigono-
metry ; prepared tables of the fixed ftars, and undertook
to reform thofe of the planets, and conllrufted fome entirely
new ones. When thefe tables were finifhed, he drew up
a kind of perpetual almanack, chiefly for the moon, anfwer-
ing to the periods of Meton and Calippus : alfo an alma-
nack for the planets, or, as it was afterwards called, an
Ephemeris for many years. He finifhed his " Theorise
Novas Planetarum," (fee Mulleii,) which was made a text-
book in all the fchools, and was commented upon by fome
of the mofl eminent mathematicians. Purbach died in the
33th year of his age, in 1461.

PURBECK, IJle of, in Geography, a diftrift in the
Blandford divifion of the county of Dorfet, England, is
bounded on the weit by Luckford lake ; on the fouth by
the Bntifh channel ; and on the other fide by the river
Frome, and the bay of Pool. It is improperly called an
ifland, being in faft only a peninfula, as it may be entered
from Eaft Lulworth by an ilthmus, between the head of
Luckford lake and the fea. This diilriA extends twelve
miles in length, and varies from feven to ten in breadth.

It

PUR

PUR

It includes two hundreds, called Hazier and Rowbarrow,
the former comprehending the eallern diviiion of the i(lc,
and the latter the weftern. Thefe are fiibdivided into nine
pariflies, and contain one town, Corfe-calUc, and feveral
large villages and hamlets. The foil is every where
calcareous ; but the furface is much diverfilied by hill and
dale. The quarries, fhores, and cliffs, on the fouth fide of
the ifle in particular, afford an inexhauftible fund of natural
curiofities. Near Kington, Worth, Langton, and Swan-
wich, are extenfive quarries of freeftone ; and in many parts
is a ftonc that rifes thin, and is ufed for tiling ; alfo a hard
paving flone, much of which was ufed in rebuilding London
after the fire, and in paving the ftreets and courts. At
Svvanwich is a white ftone full of fliells, which takes a high
pohfh, and looks like alaballer ; and near Dunfhay is dug up
marble of various colours, but chiefly a grey kind, formed by
a congeries of fhells, and anciently much ufed for grave (tones
and monuments. It was likewife very generally employed
forfmall columns in the churches which were ereftcd during
the 13th century. The cornua ammonis are frequently
difcovered here, fome of them two or three feet in diameter.

In ancient times the whole of this ifle was a forefl, and
was well flocked with red and fallow deer, and flags,
efpecially in the well parts ; but thefe were almofl entirely
deflroycd in the civil wars. James I. was the lafl of our kings
who hunted here. The whole ifle was till latejy governed
by a lord-lieutenant, who was admiral of the ifle, and had
power to raife and mufler a militia ; but this office ceafed
when the regular militia aft was paffed. Formerly there
were many gentlemen's feats difperfed all over the ifle ;
which were probably built for the reception and accommo-
dation of the nobility and gentry who attended the royal
hunts, as mofl of the owners of eltates in this part of the
country had their principal feats elfewhere, and only came
hither in the hunting feafons. Thefe are now almofl, with-
out exception, converted into farm-houfes. For an ac-
count of the only town in Purbsck, fee Corfe-castle.
Hutchins's Hiilory and Antiquities of the County of
Dorfet, 2d edit, by Gough. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. iv. by John Britton, and E. W. Brayley.

PuRBECK Stone, the faxum arenarium cinereum Purbccenfe
of Da Cofla, and pfadurium friabile alb'ido fufcum of Hill,
is an alkahne fand-flone, which is harfh and rough, of a dif-
agreeable afhen colour, very heavy, and moderately hard, of
a texture not very compadl, but fomewhat porous, and is
compofed of an angular grit, cemented together by an earthy
fpar : it cuts freely, and with a tolerable even or fmooth
furface, but will not take a polifli. It will not ftrike fire
with a Heel, and burns to a white colour. The quarries of
this flone are in the ifland of Furbeck, in Dorfetfhirc,
whence it is brought to London in great quantities, and ufed
in building, and for pavements. Its fpecitic gravity is 2.68.
There is alfo another kind of Furbeck flone, ihe faxum fiifco-
albidum oi Da Cofla, and the /jmpexium durjjfimi/in, fp/eiidi-
dum alb'ido -fufcum of Hill, which is alkaline, of a dull, dif-
agreeable, pale, brownifh, white colour, and is not capable
of a polifli, though it cuts to a very fmooth furface : it is of
a fine, clofe, compatl texture, not quite deftitnte ofbright-
nefs, but full of fparks of pure fpar, and intimately mixed
with vafl quantities of fmall pettunculi, which are often fa-
turated and filled with the fame fubftance ; it is very heavy
and hard, and water does not pervade its texture ; it does
not ftrike fire with fteel, and when burnt, acquires a clear
afhen colour. This flone is brought from Furbeck, and ufed
in building, pavements, &c. Hill informs us, that it is
likewife found in many other parts of the kipgdom, and

Vol. XXIX.

tliat there are large flrata of it in Yorkfhirc. Da Cofta's
Fofhls, p. 128 — 152.

FURBUTTY, in Geography, a river of Hindooftan,
which runs into the Chumbul ; fcven miles W. of Suifo-
pour, in the country of Agimere.

FURCARl, a town of European Turkey, in Beffarabia,
on the Dniefter ; 4 miles S.E. of Bender.

FURCELAIN. See Fokcelain.

PURCELL, Hen'KY, in Biography, an Englifh mufi-
cian of more extenfive genius than perhaps our country can
boafl at any other period of time, was bom in 1658. His
father, Henry, and uncle, Thomas Furcell, were both rau-
ficians, and gentlemen of the chapel royal, at the refloration
of king Charles II. There is a three-part fong in Flay-
ford's " Mufical Companion," by Henry Furcell, which,
being printed in 1 667, when our great mufician was but nine
years old, mufl have been the produftion of his father.
There is likewife a chant in the firfl volume of Boyce's
CoUeftion, p. 289, N° II, called the " burial chant," by
Thomas Furcell, his uncle, who continued in the fervice ol
the chapel till the time of his death, in 1682. Though thefe
compofitions promife no great hereditary genius, they are
mentioned here, as mankind is naturally curious concerning
every thing that is connefted with eminent perfons.

From whom Henry received his firfl inflruftions in mufic,
cannot be very clearly afcertained. But his father dying in
1664, when he was no more than fix years old, it is probable
he was qualified for a choriller by Capt. Cook, who was maf-
ter of the children from the refloration till the time of his
death, in 1672. For, as Furcell was appointed organifl of
Weflminfter Abbey at eighteen years of age, he mufl have
learned the elements of his art before his fourteenth year, at
which time Felham Humphrey, brought up in the royal
chapel under Capt. Cook, was appointed his fuccefibr, as
mailer of the boys. Furcell certainly continued to fuig in
the king's chapel, and to receive leffons from Humphrey till
his voice broke, an accident which ufually happens to youth
at fixteen or feventeen years of age : after this, perhaps, he
had a few leffons in compofition from Dr. Blow, which were
fufficient to cancel all the inftruftions he had received from
other mailers, and to occafion the boafl infcribed on the
tomb-flone of Blow, that he had been

" Mailer to the famous Mr. Henry Furcell."

But there is nothing more common than this petit larceny
among muficians : if the firfl mafter has drudged eight or
ten years with a pupil of genius, and it is thought neceffary,
in compliance with fafliion or caprice, that he fhould receive,
a few leffons from a fecond, he inftantly arrogates to him-
felf the whole honour, both of the talents and cultivation of
his new fcholar, and the firfl and chief iiiflruftor is left to
fing, Jtc vos non niobis.

Purcell is faid to have profited fo mucli from his firfl lef-
fons and clofe application, as to have compofed, during the
time of his being a finging boy in the chapel, many of his
anthems, which have been conftantly fung in our cathedrals
ever fince. Eighteen was a very early age for kis being ap-
pointed organill ; that is, niaeilro di capella of Weftminfter
Abbey, one of the firft cathedrals in the kingdom for
choral compofitions and performance. It was not likely he
would flop here : the world is, perhaps, more partial to
promifing youth than accomphfhed age : and at twenty- four,
in 1682, he was advanced to one of the three places of or-
ganifl of the chapel royal, on the death of Edward Low,
the fucceffor of Dr. Chriflopher Gibbons, in the fame
ftation.

D After

PU lie ELL.

After this, he produced I'o many admirable compofitions
for the church and chapel of which he was organift, and
where he was fure of having tliem better performed than
elfewhere, that his fame was foon extended to the remotelt
parts of the kingdom.

From this time, his anthems were eagerly procured, and
Iieard with pious rapture w-herever they could be performed ;
nor was he iuffered long to devote himfelf totally to tlie fer-
vice of the church. He was, very early in life, folicited to
compofe for the ftage, and chamber, in both which un-
dertakings he was fo fuperior to all his predeccilors, that
his compofitions feemed to fpeak a new language ; yet,
however different from that to which the public had been
long accuftomed, it was univerfally underftood. His fongs
feem to contain whatever the ear could then wrirti, or heart
could feel.

We have been affured by a very good judge of mufic, who
was nineteen years of age when Purcell died, and remembered
not only his perfon very well, but the effcft which his longs
had on himfelf and the public at that time, when many of
them were fird heard ; and uied to fay, that " no other vo-
cal mulic was liftened to with pleafure, for near thirty years
after Pui-cell's death ; when they gave way only to the
favourite opera fongs of Handel." ,

The unlimited powers of this mufician's genius embraced
every fpecies of compofition that w'as then known, with
equal felicity. In writing for the church, whether he ad-
hered to the elaborate and learned ftyle of his great prede-
cedors !rallis. Bird, and Gibbons, in which no inftrument is
employed but the organ, and the feveral parts are conllantly
moving in fugue, nnitation, or plain counterpoint ; or,
giving way to feeling and imaginatioi), adopted the new and
more expreflive ilyle of which he was himfelf one of the
principal inventors, accompanying the voice-parts with in-
ftruments, to enrich the harmony, and enforce the melody
and meaning of the words, he maiiifefted equal abilities and
refources. In compofitions for the theatre, though the co-
louring and efFe£ls of an orcheftra were then but little known,
yet as he employed them more than his predeceffors, and
gave to the voice a melody more interefting and impaflioned
than, daring the feventeenth century, had been heard in this
country, or perhaps in Italy itfelf, he foon became the dar-
ling and deligiit of the nation. And in the feveral fpecies
of chamber mufic which he attempted, whether fonatas for
inftruments, or odes, cantatas, fongs, ballads, and catches,
for the voice, he fo far fiirpatfed whatever our country had
produced or imported before, that all other mufical produc-
tions feem to have been inllantly configned to contempt or
oblivion.

As many of his numerous compofitions for tlie church,
particularlv thofe printed in the fecond and third volumes of
Dr. Boyce's CoUeftion, are ftiil retained in the king's cha-
pel, and m our cathedrals, we (hall here acquaint the mufical
reader in what manner we have been affctled by fome of
thefe produftions. in a late attentive perufal of them.

It appears by Dr. Bayky's " CoUettion of the Words of
Anthcn.s ufed i.i his Majefty's Chapel Royal," that ten of
Purcell's are il;ill perfurmed triere ; and in the late Rev. Mr.
Mafon's " Copious Collsftion of the Words of fuch An-
thems as are ufed in the Cathedral of York," that nearly
twenty of his choral compofitions are ftiil fung in that
choir.

Pureell's four-part anthem, " O God, thou art my God,"
(Boyce's CoUeftion, vcl. ii. p. 148.) muft certainly have
been one of his juvenile produdlions, before he had fufficiently
refined liis car, or exercifed his judgment ; as there are many

crude harmonies, and falfe accents in it, which in riper years
he would not have tolerated.

Of his fix-part anthem, "O God thou haft call us out,"
the firft movement, in which tiiere are many bold harmonies,
is extremely elaborate, yet ipirited and pleafing. The verfe,
" O be thou our help," is not only full of new and fine ef-
fedts, but touching. By thofe who object not to the confu-
fion in the words which arifcs from fugue and imitation, whilc
the feveral parts are finging diflerent portions of the fame
fentence, at the fame time, the words will appear perfectly
well accented and expreftcd.

The firft movement of his full anthem in eight parts,
" O Lord God of hofts," is a noble compofition, alia Pa-
lejlr'tna, in whicli all the laws of fugue upon two, and fome-
times more, fubjedts, are preferved inviolable ; the harmony,
though bold, is, m general, chafte, and the effect of the
whole fpirited and majeltic. The fecond movement is ex-
tremely pathetic and exprcffive ; but, both in that and the
laft movement, he feems trying experiments in harmony ;
and, in hazarding new^ combinations, he feems now and then
to give the ear more pam than pleafure.

The two-part anthem, " Thy way, O God, is holy,"
continues to be excellent mufic ItiU, in the flow movements ;
the quick, however, feems fomewhat antiquated, and the
melody to thefe words, " the air thundered," &c. feem too
light and dramatic for the church at any period.

The three-part anthem, " Be merciful unto me, O God,"
is admirable throughout. Indeed, to our conceptions, there
feems no better mufic exifting, ot the kind, than the open-
ing of this anthem, in which the verfe, " I will praife God,"
and the laft movement, in C natural, are in melody, har-
mo.iy, and modulation, truly divine mufic.

The complete fervice of Purcell, in B flat, printed by
Boyce, is a rtioft agreeable and excellent piece of counter-
point, of which the modulation frequently Simulates atten-
tion by unexpected tranfitions, yet of fo fober a kind as
never to give the ear the leaft uneafinefs, till we come to
the bottom of p. no, and then the fame crudities of the
fharp 3d and flat 6th, and flat 3d, '4th, and 5th, which
we have already cenfured in the works of Dr. Blow, occur ;
whicli we hope, in fpite of our partiality for Purcell, the or-
ganifts of our cathedrals fcruple not to change for better
harmony.

Thefe two or three combinations, like fome words and
phrafes which Shakfpeare tried unfuccefsfully to render cur-
rent, have been rejected by pofterity ; and it is in vain to
attempt at forcing them upon the public by the mere weight
of authority. The ear will patiently bear very rough ulage
from an artift who in general makes it inch ample amends ;
however, there are limits, beyond which it is uiifafe to ex-
ercife cruelty of all kinds ;_and the auricular fenfe will be
deadened, difgulted, or rendered indifterent to mufic's
powers, by too harfli treatment.

The " Bene^iftus," as well as " Te Deum," and all the
reft of the iervice, muft be extremely pleafing, in all other
refpefts, to every ear fenfible to harmony. The words are,
in general, accented with great accuracy (except the con-
trafting highejl into a monofyllable, to which only one note is
given) ; and the few points of imitation are fragments of agree-
able melody. In p. 121 of Boyce, the A b and A q, at
the word befeech, in the Kyrie, are peculiarly beautiful, as
are the 7th with the 9th at " before all worlds," in the creed,
and the clofe at " by whom all things were made." The
point at " throughout all generations," in the Magnificat, is
what the Italians call hen tirato, well-worked. In the laft
line, however, of page 132, fo many exceptionable combi-
nations

PURCELL.

nnlions occur, tliat we cannot pafs them over without aftigma.
Yet, upon the whole, the abihtiesof Pnrcell, as a profound
contrapuntill, appear perhaps inore in the courle of this
fervice than elfevvloere ; as he has nianifef'ted deep itudy and
meditation in a fpecies of writing to which it was not likely
that his creative and impetuous genius would fubmit,
having had the patience, as well as abilities, to enrich it
with no Icfs than four different canons, of the moll difB-
cult conftruftion, as of two, three, and four in one, by
inverfion.

The fiiperior genius of Purcell can be fairly eftimated
oTilr by thofe who make themfelves acquainted with the
ftate of. mufic previous to the time in which he flourifhed ;
compared with which, his produ*'^ ions for the church, if not
more learned, will be found infinitely more varied and cx-
prelTive ; and his fccular compofitions appear to have de-
fcended from another more happy region, with which nei-
ther his predeceffors nor contemporaries had any communi-
cation.

Befides the whole fervice, with three full, and fix vcrfc
anthems, in Dr. Boyce's Colleftion, there are nine verfe and
full anthems, wholly different, ftill fung in the cathedral at
York. And in Dr. Tudway's Colleftion, Britilh Mufeum,
there are, befides a whole fervice in B flat, different from that
in Boyce, eight full and verfe anthems, different from all
the reft, four of which were compofed for the chapel royal
of Charles TI., and are accompanied with inftruments.
And ftill, exclufive of thefe and the hymns printed in the
two books of " Harmonia Sacra," in a manufcript be-
queathed to Chrift-church college, Oxon. by Dr. Aldrich,
there are two motets, and a " Gloria Patri" for four and
five voices, in Latin, with feven pfalms and hymns for three
and four voices, by our fertile and diligent compofer, that
have all their peculiar merit, but of which fome may, with-
out hyperbole, be faid to reach the true fublime of facred
mufic.

To enter into a minute examination of thefe, and his ad-
mirable Te Deum and Jubilate, compofed for St. Cecilia's
day, 1694, would extend this article to too great a length ;
though they merit much praife as well as critical remark ;
for which, on the Te Deum we refer our readers to the
ample account of him and his works, in Burney's Hiftory
of Mufic, vol. iii.

Purcell's theatrical compofitions, if we recolleft the num-
ber and excellencies of his produdtions for the church, and
the fhortnefs of his life, will fiu'prife by their multiplicity
as well as fingular merit. Of thole dramas which are called
operas, and of which mufic and decorations were the prin-
cipal allurements held out to the public, a detailed account
is given in fpeaking of the origin and progrefs of the mufi-
cal drama in England, previous to the ufe of the Italian
language, mufic, and performers on our lyric ftage. (See
Masques, and Matthew Lock.) And of Purcell's de-
tached and incidental fongs, dialogues, and fcenes that were
performed at our national theatre, or playhoufe, the princi-
pal will be mentioned in fpeaking of his " Orpheus Britan-
nicus," or pofthumous colleftion of his mifcellaneous com-
pofitions. But befoj-e we enter on an examination of this
work, it fcems neceffary to acquaint the reader, that the
chief part of his inftrumental mufic for the playhoufe is in-
cluded in a publication that appeared two years after his
deceafe, under the title of" A Colleftion of Ayres compofed
for the Theatre, and on other Occafions, by the late Mr.
Henry Purcell. London, printed for Frances Purcell,
Executrix of the Author, 1697." Thefe airs are in four
parts, for two violins, tenor and bafe, and were played as
overtures and aft -tunes in our own memory, till they were

fuperfeded by Handel's hautbois concertos, and thole,
by his overtures, while Boyce's fonatas, and Arne's compo-
fitions, ferved as a£t -tunes. In proccfs of time thefe were
fupplanted by Martini's concertos and fonatas, which were
thrown afide for the fymphonies of Van Maldere, and fo-
natas of tlie elder Stamitz. About this time, the trios of
Campioni, Zanetti, and Abel, came into play, and then
the fymphonies of Stamitz, Canabich, Holtzbaucr, and
other Germans, with thofe of Bach, Abel, and Giardini ;
which, having done their duty many years very pleafantly,
" (lept with their fathers ;" and at prefent give way to Van-
hall, Boccherini, Haydn, and Pleyel. " Sic tranfit gloria
muficorum !"

Purcell fcems to have compofed introduftory and aft-
tunes to moft of the plays that were brought on the ftage
during his time. The publication of thefe, in four parts,
contains his mufic to the following dramas :

" Abelazor," 1677. The mufic of this confifts of an
overture, and eight airs or times.

" The Virtuous Wife," 1680. Overture and feven airs.
" Indian Queen." The firft movement of this overture is
equal to any of Handel's. There are likewife two or three
trumpet-tunes, well calculated for the inftrument, and a
rondeau at the end, which would now feem new, if played
in a concert by a good band.

" Dioclefian, or the Prophetefs," 1690. The inftru-
mental mufic of this Englifli opera given here, confifts of an
overture of two movements, the firil excellent in the ftylc
of LuUi, and afterwards of Handel, with better fugues ;
prehidio, accompaniment to a fong, trumpet-tune, air, horn-
pipe, country-dance, and canaries.

" King Arthur," 169 1. Overture and twelve tunes.
" Ampliitrion," 169 1. Overture and eight tunes.
" Gordian Knot untied," 1691. Overture and fever]
tunes.

" Diftrefied Innocence, or the Princefs of Perfia," 1691.
Overture and feven tunes, all proofs of the author's original
genius.

" The Fairy Queen," 1692. Two overtures and fixteen
tunes of different kinds. N° 12, an air, 4 in 2, is a very
curious canon on two fubjefts : the firft treble and bafe
performing one, and the fecond and tenor the other. There
is as much accent and fpirit in this compofition, as if it were
in free counterpoint.

" The Old Bachelor," 1693. Overture and eight
tunes.

" The Married Beau," 1694. Overture and eight tunes,
among which is a very agreeable air for the trumpet, a march,
and a hornpipe , that are charafteriftic. This laft is very
much in the ityle of a Spanifh fandango.

" The Double Dealer," 1694. Overture and ten tunes.
N° 6 and 9, pretty and curious.

" Bonduca," 1695. Overture and eighf tunes, including
" Britons ftrike home," and " To arms," in four parts.

Thefe are the contents of this pofthumous publication ;
but befides the mufic for thefe dramas, he compofed overtures,
aft-tunes, and fongs, for " Timon of Athens," 1678 ; for
" Theodofius, or the Force of Love," 1680; for Dryden's
" Tempeft," 1620; and for " Don Quixote," 1694.

But few of Purcell's fingle fongs feem to have been printed
during his life. He publiftied the mufic to a mafque fung in
the tragedy of " Oedipus," when it was revived in 1692.
And " a mufical entertainment, performed Nov. 22, 1683,
on St. Cecilia's day, printed in fcore by John Playford,
with a dedication to the gentlemen of the mufical fociety,
and particularly the Rewards, written by Henry Purcell,
compofer of the mufic."

D 2 There

PURCELL.

There arc fevpral of his fongs in Playford's Colleftion,
called " The Theatre of Mufic, 1687, fourth and lall
Book ;" and though thefe are not in li/S beft nnanner, they
are more original and interelling than the reil. Among
thefe, p. 50, "Anew fong to a Scotch tune," by our au-
thor, feems to us more pleafmg and lefs ilolenj than any fpu-
rious Scotch tunc, or imitation of the national melody of tlie
northern inhabitants of this ifland, that has been fince pro
duced.

Page 62 of the fame Colleftion, there is an admirable
piece of recitative, in a truly grand ftyle : " Amidil the
(hades," &c. But the collettion of his fecular vocal
mufic, which did him the greatell honour, and long rendered
his name dear to the Britifh nation, was publilhed by his
widow two years after his deceafc, by the title of " Orpheus
Britannicus." Here were treafured up the fongs from which
the natives of this ifland received their hrft great delight
and imprefiion from the vocal mufic of a fingle voice. Be-
fore that period we had cultivated madrigals, and fongs in
parts, with diligence and fuccefs ; but in all fingle fongs,
till thofe of Purcell appeared, the chief effefts were produced
from the words, not the melody. For the airs, till that
time, were as unformed and mis-fhapcn, as if they had been
made of notes fcattered about by chance, inftead of being
caft in an elegant mould. Exclufive admirers of modern
fymmetry and elegance, may call Purcell's talte barbarous ;
yet in fpite of fuperior cultivation and refinement, in fpitc
of all the viciflitudes of fafliion, through all his rudenefs
and barbarifm, original genius, feeling, and paflion, are,
and ever will be, difcoverable in his works, by candid and
competent judges of the art.

To this admirable coUcdfioii are prefixed feven copies of
verfes to his memory, at the head of which is an ode, writ-
ten on his death, by Dryden, whicli was fet by Dr. Blow,
and performed at the concert in York Buildings.

There are few fongs in the " Orpheus Britannicus" but
what contain fome charafteriftic marks of the author's great
and original genius. The melody, however, will at firft leem
to many at prefent uncouth and antiquated ; but by a little
allowance and examination, any one poflefled of a great love
for mufic, and a knowledge of our language, will feel,
at certain places of almoft every fong, his fuperior felicity
and paffion in expreffing the poet's lentiments which he had
to tranflate into melody.

The favourite fongs with Purcell's admirers in our youth,
were the folio-wing ; and upon a late attentive perufal of the
book, they feem to have merited particular diftinftion.
" Celia has athoufand charms :" the firft movement of this,
like many of Purcell's fongs, feems only recitative graced, or
embelliflied with the fafliionable •volale, ax Jloitrijhcs of the
times, which are now as antiquated as the curls of his own
perruque, or the furbelows and flounces of queen Elizabeth.
The fccond movement, however, of this fong, is plaintive
and graceful ; and at " I fliould my wretched, wretched,
fate deplore," is ftill new and pathetic.

" You twice ten hundred deities," opens with what feems
to us the beft piece of recitative in our language. The
words are admirably exprefled throughout this fong, by mo-
dulation as well as melody. And there is a propriety in the
changes of movement, which does honour to Purcell's judg-
ment, as much as the whole compofition to his genius. The
change of ftyle and fluggifli motion given to the notes at
thele words, " from thy fleeping manfion rife," is a model
of mufical imitation andexpreiTion. The modulation is ftill
fo excellent, that the beft modern mafters are obliged to
adopt it on almoft all great occafions.

Of the mufic to " King Arthur" we (hall fay but little,

as it has been lately revived, well performed, and printed.
If ever it could be faid with truth of a compofer, that he
\i?ii devance fon fleck, outftript his age, Purcell is entitled to
that praife ; as there are movements in many of his work*
which a century has not injured, particularly the duet in
King Arthur, " Two daughters of this aged ftream," and
" Faireft ifles all ifles excelling," which contain not a fingle
paflage that the beft compofcrs of the prefent times, if it
prefented itfelf to their imagination, would rejeft. Tlie
dialogue in the " Prophetefs," " Tell me why, my charming
fair," is the raoft pleafing and inger.ious of all the compo-
fitions of the kind which the rage of fafliion produced during
fifty years. The firft part of " O lead me to fome peaceful
gloom," is truly elegant and pathetic.

" Fromrofiebowr's," is faid to have been " fet in his lait
ficknefs," at which time he feems to have realized the poeti-
cal fable of the fwan, and to have fung more fwectly as he
approached nearer his diflblution ; for it feems to us as if
no one of his produftions was fo elevated, fo pleafing, fo
expreffivc, and throughout fo perfedl, as this. The variety
of movement, the artful, yet touching modulation, and,
above all, the exquifite exprefiion of tiie words, render it
one of the moft affefting compofitions extant to every En-
glijhman who regards mufic not merely as an agreeable ar-
rangement and combination of founds, but as the vehicle of
fentiment, and voice of paflion.

There is more elegant melody, more elaborate harmony,
more ingenious contrivance, in the motion and contexture of
the feveral parts than in the works of many great com-
pofers ; but to the natives of England, wlio know the full
power of our language, and feel the force, fpirit, and fliades
of meaning, which every word bears according to its place
in a fentence, and the fituation of the fpeaker, or finger,
we muft again repeat it, this compofition will have charms
and effefts, which, perhaps, Purcell's mufic only can pro-
duce.

" When Mira fings," is a duet that will ever be capti-
vating, as long as the words remain intelligible ; of which
he has augmented the force, particularly at the end, by
notes the moft feledl and expreffive that the mufical fcale can
furnifli.

" Loft is my quiet," another duet, which ftill lives.
And " Celebrate this feftival," a birth-day long for queen
Mary, which is graceful and pleafing through all its old-
fafliioned thoughts and embelhfliments.- " I'll fail upon the
dog-ftar," has all the fire of Handel's prime.

" Mad Befs" is a fong, or rather a cantata fo celebrated,
that it needs no panegyric, or renewal of public attention,
as every captivating Englifli finger in our memory has re-
vived its favour. The firft Mrs. Sheridan and Mrs. Bate*
never gave more exquifite delight by their admirable per-
formance, than when they regaled their friends with this
fong. Beard, forty years ago, ufed to acquire great ap-
plaufe by finging Purcell's" Rofy Bowers ;" and Frafi, by
her performance of " Mad Befs," in the concerts at Hick-
ford's rooms, tlie Caftle, and Swan concerts, where Stan-
ley was juftly admired for his ingenious and mafterly manner
of accompanying them. " 'Tis Nature'^ Voice," is an enig-
matical long, feemingly on mufic, in which Purcell has
crowded all the fafliionable paffages of tafte and vocal diffi-
culties of the times. Indeed, he feems to have anticipated
many fantaftical feat£ of execution and articulation m which
great performers have fu.ce rivted ; and this is the more
wonderful, as the Italian opera was not eftabliflied, or even
attempted here, during the life of Purcell ; whofe deceafe
preceded the arrival of Valentiiii and Niculini, the firit great
fingers imported from Italy, at leaft ten years.

" Blow,

PU lie ELL.

"Blow, Boreas, blow," was in great favour, during our
youth, amoiiij the early admirers of Purcell ; but this feems
now more fuperannuated than any oi his popular longs.

" Let Cxfar and Urania live," was a duet in abirtii-day
ode, during the reign of king Wilham and queen Mary,
which continued fo long ni favour, not only while thofe fove-
reigiis jointly wielded the fceptre, but even when George II.
had loil his royal confort, and there ceafed to be a queen, or
Urania, for wliom to offer up prayers, that Dr. Green, and
afterwards Dr. Boyce, uied frequently to introduce it into
their own and the laureate's new odes. This duet, like many
other produftions of Purcell, was built on 7). ground-bafe oi
only two bars, which are invariably repeated to different paf-
fages of the voice-parts that are in harmony with it, througii-
out the movement. The latter part of this duet is extremely
beautiful, and does not feem at all to have fulfered from the
voluntary reflraint under which the compofer laboured.

The compofing fongs on a ground-bale, was an exercife
of ingenuity, in which Purcell feems to have much de-
lighted ; but though it was as much a fafhion in his time, as
the compoling mafles on the fubjetks of old tunes in the days
of Jufquin, and variations upon thofe tunes in the days of
Bird and Dr. Bull, in which they ail manifeited fuperior
abilities, yet the praftice was Gothic, and an unworthy em-
ployment for men polielTed of fuch genius and original re-
fources. The Italians ttarted this, as well as molt other
mufical fafliions ; for it appears by the works of Tranquinio
Merula, publilhed 1635, that writing upon a ground-bafe
was a favourite occupation with that capricious compofer,
as well as our ingenious countryman.

Judges of mufical defign, rnodulation, and expreffion,
will meet with many places to admire in fongs that have never
been popular, yet have' local b_>auties, and mark the fu-
perior powers of the compofer ; particularly in the " Sighs
for the death of king Charles II." In the " Dialogue in
tyrannic Love," p. 158, there is a pallage upon which the
late Mr. Bach has conltruft^d a favourite movement in one of
his Quiirtstti concertanli.

" 1 attempt from love's ficknefs," is an elegant little bal-
lad, which, though it has been many years dead, would foon
be recalled into exiftence and fafhion, by the voice of fome
favourite finger, who (hould think it worth animation.

" Let the dreadful engines :" this is the laft fong in the
firfl volume of the " Orpheus Britannicus," of which, though
both the words and mufic of the firft movement are wild and
bombaft, yet the fecond and laft difcover a genius for the
graceful comic, as well as the tender* and fublime ftyle of
compofition ; and there are feveral paflages in this cantata
fufficiently gay and new for a modern burletta.

In 1702, a fecond, and more corredl, edition, of the
firft volume of this work was publifhed, with more than
thirty fongs that were not in the firft impreffion ; but, in
order to make room for which, fome of the former were
excluded.

The fame year was likewife publifhed a fecond volume of
" Orpheus Britannicus," by Henry Playford, which he de-
dicated to the earl of Hallifax. The fong of this feeond
volume, p. 4, beginning, "Ah! cruel nymph!" has great
ingenuity in the firft movement, and grace in the fecond.
And the next air, "Crown the altar," feems the moft plealing
of any that he has compofedon a ground-bafe. " May the
god of wit infpire," for three voices, is natural and pleafing,
and the echoes in the fecond part are very ingenioully con-
trived.

"Thus the gloomy world," accompanied with the trumpet,
and violin alternately, is mafterly, and well defigned to ciif-
play the trueft and moft brilliant tones of the trumpet.

though but little is given to the violin, which fo much bet-
ter deferves employment, than an mftrument of fuch falfe in-
tonation as the trumpet.

Thofe that can relilfi good mufic of every age and coun-
try, and have no exclufive partiality to individuals of either,
will find amulement in the performance or perufal of Purcell's
" Four Seafons," in the " Fairy Queen," which comprehend
merit of various kinds.

" To arms, to arms," is an admirable military fong, ac-
companied by a trumpet, which is fo confined an inftrument,
that nearly the fame paflages muR be ufed in all ages, fo that
time has robbed this fong of but little of its novelty. In-
deed, the divifionsof this air have been revived of late years,
and are now as fafhioiiable, in frivolous and unmeaning melo-
dy, as ever.

There are many excellent fongs in this volume ; however,
thefe and their peculiar beauties we mufl pafs owr, or our
commentary will encroach too much on the limits of our
biographical articles, as well as on the time and patience of
thofe readers to whom the name and produdlions of our
Britifli Orpheus are alike unknown or indifferent. Yet we
muft obferve, that there is a compofition in Purcell's" Bon-
duca," in whicli he has anticipated a fpecies of dramatic
mufic, which has been thought of late invention ; the words
are " Hear ye gods of Britain !" which he has fet in an ac-
companied redtaUve, a tempo, or aria parlante. The beginning,
however, with the bafe a pcdale, has the true charadlcriftic
of recitative. Afterwards, when the bafe is put in motion,
the whole has the properties of an air, ingenioufly and fpi-
ritedly accompanied by two violins and a bafe. Befides the
true dramatic call of this compofition, there are new harmo-
nies hazarded, which we do not recolleft having feen in ante-
rior contrapuntifts, at leaft of our own country.

We dare proceed no further in analyzing the works of
our illuftrious countryman, though it would afi"ord us great
pleafure, as we never look at them without feeing a merit
very fuperior to that of any of his contemporaries out of
Italy, and even there, only the vocal compofitions of Ca-
riffimi and Stradella feem to furpafs them in grace and ele-
gance. Cariflimi appears to have been his model in his
beft recitatives, and Lulli in the worft ; and it is manifeft that
he was fond of Stradella's manner of writing, though he
never pillaged his paflages.

We mufl not quit his vocal mufic without an honourable
and grateful memorial of his catches, rounds, and glees, of
which the humour, ingenuity, and melody, were fo conge-
nial with the national tafle, as to render them almofl the fole
produftions of the facetious kind that were in general ufe
for near fourfcore years. And though the countenance and
premiums beftowed of late years upon this fpecies of com-
pofition, as well as modern refinements in melody and per-
formance, have given birth to many glees, of a more ele-
gant, graceful, and exalted kind, than any which Purcell
produced ; yet he feems hardly ever to have been equalled in
the wit, pleafantry, and contrivance of his catches.

Of fifteen anthems, with fymphonies and inftrumental
parts, with innumerable odes and mifcellanies, we have room
to fay nothing, though much praife is due to many of them.
An abfurd cuftom prevailed in Purcell's time, which he
carried to greater excefs, perhaps, than any other compofer,
of repeating a word of one or two fyllables an unlimited
number of times, for the fake of the melody, and fometimes
before the whole fentence has been heard. Such as no, no, no,
— all, all, all — pretty, pretty, pretty, &c. ad itifinitum. But
there is equal redundance and obfcurity in the ufe which the
Italians make at prefent of it, it, si, and n», no, no, m their
fongs.

Purcell

PURCELL.

Purcell was fo little acquainted with the unlimited power of
the violin, that we have fcarcely ever feen a becoming paffage
for that inftrument in any one of his works ; the (ymphonies
and ritornels to his anthems and fongs being equally deficient
in force, invention, and effeft. And though his fonatas con-
tain many ingenious, and, at the time they were compofed,
new traits of melody and modulation, if they are compared
with the produftions of his contemporary, Corelli, they will
be called barbarous. But Corelli wrote for an inftrument of
which he was a great matter : and who ever entirely fuc-
ceeded in compofing for one of which he was ignorant ?
When a o-reat performer on keyed inftruments condefcends
to compofe for the violin, upon which he has never been a
good player, or the voice, without knowing in what good
finging confills, the pafl'ages all come from the head, and
none from the hand, except the hand of a harpfichord player,
which is ever unfit to Cuggeft ideas jither for a voice, or
for any other inftrument than his own. Such a compofer for
the violin muft inevitably embarrafs the player with perpe-
tual aukwardneffes and difficulties without effeft, which dif-
cover an utter ignorance of the finger-board.

If Purcell, by travelling, or by living longer at home,
had heard the great inftrumental performers, as well as great
fmo-ers, that arrived in this country foon after his deceafe,
and had fuch to compofe for, his produftions would have
been more regular, elegant, and graceful ; and he would cer-
tainly have fet Enghfti words better than it was poillble for
any foreigner to do, for our feelings, however great his ge-
nius, or excellent, in other refpefts, his produftions. But
Purcell, like his fucced'or, Arne, and others who have com-
pofed for the playhoufe, had always an inferior band to the
Italian opera compofers, as well as inferior fingers, and an
inferior audience to write for.

The diligent and candid Walther, by not having affigned
to Purcell a niche in his Mufical Diftionary, feems never to
have heard of his exiftence ; but Purcell was fo truly a na-
tional compofer, that his name was not likely to be wafted
to the continent ; and the narrow limits of his fame may be
fairly afcribed, not only to the paucity and poverty of his
compofitions for inftruments, for which the mufical produc-
tions are an intelligible language to every country, but to his
vocal compofitions being folely adapted to Englifh words,
which render it unlikely for their influence to extend beyond
the foil that produced them.

We fiiould, however, have known as little of LuUi, as the
French or Italians of Purcell, but for the partiality which
Charles II. acquired, by his long refidence on the continent,
for the arts and amufements of France. The firft attempts
at operas here, after the Reftoration, were either in French,
or on the model of thofe that were then in high favour at
Verfailles. And whoever is equally acquainted with the re-
citative, we had almoft faid the general melody of LuUi and
Purcell, muft perceive a ftrong refemblance.

Purcell, however, having infinitely more fancy, and, in-
deed, harmonical refources, than the Frenchified Tufcan,
his produftions now afford far greater pleafure and amufe-
ment to a liberal lover of mufic, than can be found, not only
in the produftions of Cambert and Grabu, whom Charles 11.
and to flatter his majefty, Dryden, patronized in preference
to Purcell, but in all the noify monotony of the rhapfodift
of Quinaut.

Let thofe who ftiall think Purcell has facrificed the na-
tional honour by confefling his reverence for the produftions
of Italy, compare the fecular produftions of Euglifli mufi-
cians, from the deatli of queen Elizabeth to the year 1683,
with thofe of CarifGmi, Cefti, Stradclla, and innumerable
others of great abilities, and if they do not equally hate

mufic and truth, they will admire Purcell's probity, as well
as his genius.

Indeed, mufic was maniteftly on the decline, in England,
during the leventeenth century, till it was revived and invi-
gorated by Purcell, whofe genius, though lefs cultivated
and ptiliflied, was equal to that of the greatell mailers on the
continent. And though his dramatic ftyle and recitative
were formed in a great meafure on French models, there is
a latent power and force in his exprelfion of Englifii words,
whatever be the fubjeft, that will make an unprejudiced na-
tive of this ifland feel, more than all the elegance, grace, and
refinement of modern mufic lefs happily applied, can do.
And this pleafure is communicated to us, not by the fym-
metry or rhythm of modern melody, but by his having for-
tified, lengthened, and tuned, the true accents of our mo-
ther-tongue ; thofe notes of pallion, which an inhabitant of
this ifland would breathe, in fucli fituations as the words he
has to fet defcribe. And thefe indigenous exprefllons of paf-
fion Purcell had the power to enforce by the energy of mo-
dulation, which, on fome occafions, was bold, affefting,
and fublime.

Thefe remarks are addrefled to none but Engliftimen : for
the expreffion of words can be felt only by the natives of
any country, who ieldom extend their admiration of foreign
I'ocal mufic, farther than to the general effeft of its melody
and harmony on the ear ; nor has it any other advantage
over iri/lrumeiita/, than that of being executed by the human
voice, likffo/feggi.. And if the Itahans themfelves did not
come hither to give us the true cxpreilion of their fo'gs, we
Ihould never difcovcr it by ftudy and praftice.

It has been extremely unfortunate for our national taftc
and our national honour, that Orlando Gibbons, Pclham
Humphrey, and Henry Purcell, our three beft compofers
during the, laft century, were not bleft with fufficient longe-
vity tor their genius to expand in all its branches, or to form
a fchool, which would have enabled us to proceed in the cul-
tivation of mufic without foreign affiftance.

Orlando Gibbons died 1625, at forty-four.

Pelham Humphrey died 1674, at twenty-feven.

And Henry Purcell died 1695, at thirty-feven.

If thefe admirable compofers had been bleft with long
life, we might have had a mufic of our own, at leaft as good
as that of France or Germany ; which, without the affiftance
of the Italians, has long been admired and preferred to all
others by the natives at large, though their princes have
ufually foreigners in their fervice. As it is, we have no
fchool for compofition, no well-digefted method of ftudy,
nor, indeed, models of our own. Inftrumental mufic, there-
fore, has never gained much by our own abilities ; for though
fome natives of England have had hands fufficient to execute
the produftions of the greateft mafters on the continent,
they have produced but little of their own that has been
much efteemed. Handel's compofitions for the organ and
harpfichord, with thofe of Scarlatti and Alberti, were our
chief praftice and delight for more than fifty years ; while
thofe of Corelli, Geminiani, Albinoni, Vivaldi, Teffarini,
Veracini, and Tartini, till the arrival of Giardini, fupplied
all our wants on the violin, during a ftill longer period.
And as for the hautbois. Martini and Fiftier, with their fcho-
lars and imitators, are all that we have liftened to with
pleafure.

If a parallel were to be drawn between Purcell and any
popular compofer of a different country, reafons might be
affigned for fuppofing him fuperior to every great and fa-
vourite contemporary muCcian in Europe.

Cariffimi and Stradella, if more poliftied in their ftyle,
were certainly lefs varied, and knew ftill lefs of inftruments,

than

PUR

P U R

than our countryman. They had both, perhaps, more
grace and regularity, but infinitely lets pafTion and lire.

The elder Scarlatti was more recherche and learned, but
never fo natural and cftedting.

In Germany, if Keifer, during an aftive and much longer
life, furpalTed him in the number and exc.Uence of his dra-
matic compofitions, his produdlions for the church, could
they be found, would, we believe, bearno comparifon.

LuHi, bleft likcwife with fuperior longevity, compofed
alfo more operas than Purcell, and was the idol of the nation
for which he laboured ; but tiiough his overtures long ferved
as models> even to Purcell, as well as to the compofers of all
the reft of Europe, and his mufic was performed by better
fingers, and a more numerous band, fupported by the pa-
tronage of a court, and all the fplendour of ingenious and
coftly exhibition ; it is eafy to fee that even his theatrical
works are more manicr'ees, monotonous, and uninterefting in
themfelves, than tliofe of Purcell ; but in relinquiiliing the
Itage, and flepping on holy ground, we (hould have found,
even in France, during all his glory, and the enthufiafm he
rarfed, none of his votaries who would attempt to put his
facred mufic in comparifon with that of our countryman.

Rameau, the fucceflbr of Lulli in court and popular fa-
vour, and who had more learning and theoretical knowledge
in the art, than perhaps any practical mufician of modern
times ; yet, \\\ pathos and exprellion of words and the paf-
fions, he was Purcell's inferior, even upon the ftage ; and in
.the church, he had no claim to celebrity.

Handel, who flourished in a lefs barbarous age for his art,
has been acknowledged his fuperior in many particulars ; but
in none more than the art and grandeur of his chorufes, the
harmony and texture of his organ fugues, as well as his
great ftyle of playing that inilrunient ; the majefly of his
hautbois and grand concertos, the ingenuity of the accom-
paniments to his fongs and chorufes, and even in the general
melody of the airs themfelves ; yet in the accent, paffion,
and exprellion of Englifb nuords, the vocal mufic of Purcell
is, fometimes to our feehngs, as fuperior to Handel's as an
original poem to a tranflation.

PURCHAS, Samuel, was born at Thaxtead, in Eflex ,
in 1577. He was educated at Cambridge, and was pre-
fented to a vicarage in his native county. This cure he
religned to his brother, and came to live in London, for
the purpofe of cnndufting the great work he had under-
taken. The firft volume folio appeared in 161 3, under
the title of " Purchas his Pilgrimage, or Relations of the
World and the Religions obfcrved in all Ages and Places
difcovered from the Creation unto this Prefent :" the other
four volurses were publiflied in 1625. To thefe the general
title is " HakJuytus Pofthumus, or Purchas his Pilgrims :
containing a Hiftory of the V/orld in Sea-voyages and
Laud-travels by Englifhmen and others :" the name of
Hakluyt is introduced, beqaufe Purchas became poflefTed of
the papers which he left behii.d him. This great work,
of which the objedt is to conneft ancient and modern hif-
tory, was well received, but probably involved the author
in debt. He had been collated to the reftory of St. Mar-
tin's Ludgate, and was chaplain to Abbot, archbifhop of
Canterbury. He died about the year 1628, at the age of
liftv-one. Biog. Brit.

PURCHASE, in Laiu, in its largeft and moft extenfive
fenfe, is defined by Littleton to be the polieflion of lands
and tenements, which a man hath by his own aft or agree-
ment, and not by defcent from any of his anceftors or kin-
dred. In this fenfe, it is contradiftinguifhed from acqui-
fition by right of blood, and includes every oth'.r method of
coming to an eltate, but merely that by inheritance ; in

which the title is vefled in a perfon, not by his own aft or
agreement, but by the fingle operation of law. (Co.
Litt. 18.) Purchafe, in its vulgar and confined accepta-
tion, is applied only to the acquifition of goods, lands, tene-
ments, or the like, by means of money, or fume other
valuable conlideration.

What we call purchafe, perqu'ijtlw, the feudifts call con-
quejl, conqudtjlus, or conquifiiw, (fee Conquk.st) ; both de-
noting any means of acquiring an ellate out of the
common courfe of inheritance ; and this is ftill tiie pro-
per phrafe in the law of Scotland. The difTcrence,
in effedl, between the acquifition of an cttate by defcent
and by purchafe, confifts principally in thefe two points.

1. That by purcliafc the eltate acquires a new inherit-
able quality, and is defcendible to the owner's blood in
general, and not tiie blood only of fome particular anceftor.

2. An eftate taken by purchafe will not make the heir an-
fwerable for the afts of the ancellor, as an eltate by defcent
will. According to tliis legal fignification of the woxA pcr-
qujfuio, or purchafe, it includes the five following methods
of acquiring a title to eftates, viz. efcheat, occupancy, pre-

fcript'wn, forfeiture, and al'icnni'ton, conveyance, or purchafe, in
its limited fenfe : under which latter head may becomprifed
any method in which eftates are voluntarily refigned by one
man, and accepted by another : whether that be effefled by
fale, gift, marriage-fettlcment, devife, or other tranfmillion
of property, by the mutual confent of the parties. See
the feveral articles, and Title.

Natural perlons, incorporate perfons, fole or aggregate,
deaf, dumb, and blind perfons, minors, and all reafonable
creatures, may purchafe, except in fome cafes ; but fome
have capacity to purchafe, and not to hold, as aliens,
felons, &c. ; and others have ability to hold or not to hold
upon a purchafe, at the eleftion of themfelves or others,
as infants, and feme coverts, i Inft. 2, 3. ! i Rep. 77.
7 Rep. 17.

Purchase and "value of land. See Valuation of Land,
and Political Economy.

Purchase of ivrits. See Writ.

Purchase, in the Sea Language, has the fame fignifica-
tion with dra'w in, at land. Thus, they fay, the capflern
purchafes apace, i. e. draws in the cable apace ; and when
they cannot draw or hale any thing in with the tackle, thej
fay, the tackle will not purchafe.

Purchase is alfo a name given by failors to any mecha-
nical power employed in raifing or removing heavy bodies,
or in fix'ing or extending the (hip's rigging. Such are the
tackles, windlafies, capfterns, fcrews, and handfpikes.

VuRCUASE- Booh, among Traders, is the name given to a
book, which is a kind of journal, containing an account of
all the purchafes made, or things bought in the day.

PURCHASER, First, Perquifitor, in Law, denotes
the perfon who firft acquired an eftate to his family,
whether the fame was transferred to him by fale or by gift,
or by any other method, except only that of defcent. See
Descent.

PURCHASING of EJlates, in Agriculture, the bufinefs
of buying landed property. In order to perform this fort
of bargain with propriety, and to the beil advantage, atten-
tion is neceftary to be had to a great variety of circum-
ilances of different kinds, which refpedl the nature,
quality, fituation, condition, value, and conveniences of the
property. See Valuation of Land.

But it is probably beft done, when to any extent, by a

furveyor or other perfon who is perfedlly converfant with

the nature of the bufinefs, and fully acquainted with the

I real

PUR

real value of landed property in the diftrlft where the pur-
chafe may be fituated or met with.

It has been obferved by Mr. Marfliall, that there are
two methods of making bargains of this kind, the one by
public biddings, the other by private treaty or contraft :
in either of which, a certain degree of caution is common
prudence. In the former, however, the conditions being
fixed, an accurate valuation is the bell fafeguard ; and, in
the latter, among honeft men little more is required.

In purchafing by private contraft, the particulars which
may be previoufly required to be furnifhcd by the feller,
are the quantities of the feveral pieces of the lands which
are on fale, together with the maps, or rough drafts, of
the fame ; the tenure under which tiiey are held ; fome
affurance as to the title of the feller ; and his right of aliena-
tion ; the tenancy under which the feveral farms are let ;
and, if on lives, the ages of the nominees ; if for a term
of years, the number which are unexpired ; if at will, the
notices with which the tenants have been ferved, if any
have been given.

An abllraft of the covenants under which they are let ;
particularly of thofe which relate to taxes and repairs, to
the expenditure of produce, to the ploughing of grafs-
lands, &c. &c.

The exifting rents and profits receiveable ; whether for
tenanted lands, appurtenances, or abftraft rights ; with the
eilimated value of the demefne, and the woodlands in hand ;
together with the eftimatcd value of the timber growing
upori the eftate on fale ; as well as of the minerals and
foflils which it may contain.

The outgoings to which tlie eftate is hable ; the pro-
pofed time of the delivery of pofl'effion ; the price and
the mode of payment which are expefted.

And next, it will be proper to fet down the particulars
of the inftruAions to be given to a furveyor, or other
valuer, of the eftate to be purchafed. It will be right,
however, to premife, that much, in this refpeA, depends
on the probability of purchafing ; and on the time which
is allowed for making the eftimate. In eafes of fale by
public auftion, when there can be no certainty as to pur-
chafe, and where the time for valuation is limited, a rough
eftimate of each farm, and a general idea of the value of
the timber and other appurtenances, may be all that can be
prudently afcertained. But in a fale by private contract,
where the refufai of an eftate is granted, and time allowed
for deliberate lurvey, a more minute inveftigation may be
proper ; efpecially where there is every reafon to believe
that a bargain will take place. For the fame report will
not only ferve as a guide to the purchafe, but will become
a valuable foundation, on which to ground J:he future ma-
nagement of the eftate. And for thefe and other reafons,
a purchafe by private contract is moft to be defired by one
who is not in the habit of perfonally attending public fales,
and is unacquainted with the bufinefs of an auftion room.

It may be noticed, that the particulars to be required
from a furveyor, or furveyors, in thefe cafes, are principally
thefe : the rental value of each field or parcel of land, with
the ftate in which it lies, as to arable, meadow, pafture,
or woodland : the value of the timber and other appur-
tenances : the charafteriftic, and the ftate of management
of each farm or tenement, with the ehgibility of the occu-
pier ; together with the ftate of repair of buildings, gates,
fences, water-courfes, and roads, the amount of the en-
cumbrances and outgoings. And, laftly, the probable
value of the improvements of which the eftate may appear
to be capable ; whether by the feveral means that are com-
monly praftifed, or by new regulations and improved modes

II

PUR

of agricultural management, that may admit of being
introduced.

It IS added, that thefe feveral particulars of information
being procured, the fubjefts of treaty are few. The two
ftatements having being duly compared, fo that no mif-
underftandiiig can take place between the parties, the price,
and the times and mode of payment, are the principal mat-
ters of agreement. A clear underftanding refpedting the
cuftody of title deeds and the expences of conveyance, re-
quire, however, to be enumerated among the preliminarici
of puixhafe.

In thefe tranfaftions, it is alfo fuppofed, the bufinefs of
negociation is beft carried on by letter* ; which become
vouchers of fafts. Whatever is done by interview, requires
to be reduced to writing, and to be read by or to the par-
ties before they feparate, that no poffibility of mifcon-
ception may arife. And, added to thefe precautions, it is
proper in large purchafes, and when abftrafts of intricate
title deeds are to be made out, and examined, that a legal
contraft or memorandum of agreement fhould be entered
into, for the mutual fatisfadlion and furety of the parties.
This contraft and the deed of conveyance, whicli is the in-
ftrument which is legally to transfer the property from the
feller to the purchaier, may be faid to conclude and ratify
the bufinefs of purchafe. And in this part of it, legal
afllftance is eflentially neceftary ; to examine exifting deeds,
and fee that the feller has a legal right and clear title to tiic-
land, and a legal power to difpofe of it ; as well as to draw
up or examine the frefh deed of conveyance, and fee that
it is fufficient to transfer the property legally and adequately
to the purchafer.

PURCHENA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the
province of Grenada ; 60 miles E. of Grenada. N. lat.
37^ 19'. W. long. 2^30'.

PU RE, fometliing free from any admixture of foreign or
heterogenous matters.

Pure Fire. See Fire.

YvTM. Hyperbola, in Conks, is an hyperbola without any
oval, node, fpike, or conjugate point. See Curve.

Pure Mathematics . See Mathematics.

Pure Propofition. See Proposition.

Pure Qiiadratics. See Quadratic.

Pure Reftgnatlons. See RESIGNATION'.

Pure Villenage. See Villenage.

PUREA, or Purax, in Geography, a town of Chili ;
80 miles S.S.E. of La Conception.

PUREEWAR, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 10
miles N. of Bahraitch.

PUREG, anciently Pura, once the capital of Gedrofia
(Mekran), and termination of the toilfome march of Alex-
ander towards the frontiers of Caramania, is now a mean
village.

PURENDERA, in Mythology, a name of Indra, the
Hindoo regent of the firmament. (See Indra.) The
word is faid to mean dejlroyer of towns, the Indian Jupi-
ter having, in revenge for facrificial flights or negligences,
frequently, according to the Hindoo books, aflumed that
charafter. The ancient city of Ougein, the capital of
Malwa, was, according to tradition, deftroyed by Indra.
Sec Ougein.

PURESIL, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
ciiH;ar of Cicacole; 40 miles N.W. of Vizniagram.

PURETTA, a name given by fome writers to the com-
mon lliining black fand, ufed to ftrew over writing, and er-
roneoufly called by lome Jleel-dujl.

It is a natural mineral fubftance, found on the fhores near
Genoa, and in other places.

PURFLED,

PUR

PUR

PURFLED, ornamental work, whether in ftone or
other materials, reprclenting embroidery or lace work.

PURFLEW, a term in Heraldry, expreffing ermines,
peans, or any of the furs, when they compofe a border
round a coat of arms.

Thus they fay, he beareth gules a border, purflew, vairy ;
meaning, that the border is vairy.

PURG, or FoiiG, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in
the province of Lariftan ; 60 miles N.E. of Lar. N. lat.
28° 30'. E. long. 54° 40'.

PURGATION, PuRGATio, the aft of purging, fcour-
ing, or purifying any thing, by feparating and carrying off
any impurities found therein.

PuKGATlON, in Pharmacy, is the cleanfmg of a medicine
by retrenching its fuperfluities ; as taking the woo'd and
feeds out of caffia, and the ilones out of dates, tamarinds,
and other fruits.

Purgation is alfo ufed, in Chemiflry, for feveral prepa-
rations of metals and minerals, intended to clear them of
their impurities ; more ufually called purification and rejiiiing.

The ordinary purgation of mercury is performed, by
pafiing it through a chamois flcin. (See Mercury.) Gold
is purged by the coppel, cementation, &c. See Gold,

CoPPEi,, &c.

Purgation, in other metals, is performed by repeated
fufion, &c.

Purgation, Catharfis, in Medicine, the evacuation of
the alimentary canal of its faecal contents, by means of fub-
Itances which ilimulate its fibres, and excite them to a more
aftive periftaltic motion. Purgation is alfo fometimes car-
ried farther, and, by caufing a copious difcharge of fluids
from the exhalent veflels of the inner furface of the bowels,
produces a confiderable evacuation from the fyftem at large.
For an elucidation of the doftrine of purgation, fee Ca-
thartic.

Purgation, in Lam, is the clearing one's felf of a crime,
whereof publicly fufpefted or accufed before a judge, called
alfo judicium Dei.

Of thefe purgations there was anciently much ufe in
England, efpecially touching matters of felony charged on
clerks ; and there is fomething of them ftill retained in the
ecclefiaftical court on fufpicion of incontinency, Sec. Pur-
gation is either canonical or vulgar.

Purgation, Canonical, is that prefcribed in the canon
law, the form of which, obtaining in the fpiritual court, is,
that the party fufpefted fliall take his oath that he is clear of
the faft objefted againlt him ; and bring fo many of his
honeft neighbours, not above twelve, as the court Ihall aflign
him, to fwear, on their confciences, that they believe he
fwears truly.

The canonical doftrine of purgation, whereby the parties
were obliged to anfwer upon oath to any matter, however
criminal, that might be objected againli them, continued
till the .middle of the I7tli century to be upheld by the
fpiritual courts ; when the legiflature was obliged to inter-
pofe, to teach them a leflbn of fimilar moderation. By the
llatute of 13 Car. II. cap. 12. it is enafted, that it fhall
not be lawful for any blfhop, or ecclefiailical judge, to
tender or adminifter to any perfon whatfoever, the oath
ufually called the oath ex officio, or any other oath whereby
he may be compelled to confefs, accufe, or purge himfelf
of any criminal matter or tiling, whereby he may be liable
to any cenfure or puniihment. But this doth not extend
to oaths m a civil fuit ; and, therefore, it is itill the prac-
tice both in the fpiritual courts, and in equity, to demand
the perfonal anfwer of the party himfelf upon oath. Yet if
in the bill any queftion be put, that tends to the difcovery

Vol. XXIX.

of any ci-ime, the defendant may thereupon demur, and re-
fufe to anfwer. Anciently, upon the allowance of . the
benefit of clergy, the perfon accufed v/as delivered to the
ordinary, to make his purgation, which was to be before a
jury of twelve clerks, by his own oath affirming hi§ inno-
cence, and the oaths of twelve compurgators as to their
belief of it. But now, by the ftat. iSEliz. cap. 7. this
kind of purgation is alfo taken away ; and the perfon ad-
mitted to his clergy (hall not be dehvered to the ordinai-y.

Purgation, Vulgar, being the moft ancient manner, was
by fire, or water, or combat ; ufed by infidels, and by
Chriftians too, till abohlhed by the canon law. See Oudeal,
and CoR.SNED.

Combat, though now difufed, may yet be ftill praftifed
by the laws of the realm, in cafes where evidence is wanting,
and where the defendant rather choofes combat than any
other trial. See Combat.

Terris bonis, &c. redhabendis pojl Purgalionem. See Terhis.

Purgation, in Rhetoric, is ufed for that kind of defence
which takes place when the accufed perfon owns the faft,
but denies that he did it with defign, or with any bad
intention.

Purgation, in Tragedy, is a term which Ariftotle ufes
for the effeft of tragedy on the mind.

That philofoplier obferves, that tragedy, by means of the
terror and compaffion which it excites, purges paffions out
of the foul.

Indeed, Corneille adds, that tragedy frequently creates
paflions, inftead of purging them ; fo that he takes Arif-
totlt's purgation to be no more than a chimera.

Purgations, Menjlrual, the catamenia or menfcs of
women.

PURGATIVE, or Purging- Aftv/iani", a medicament,
which evacuates the contents of the bowels by ftool. See
Cathartic.

PURGATORY, Purgatorium, in the Romifh church,
a place where the juil are fuppofed to fuffer the pains due
to their fins, for which they have not fatisfied in this
world.
* It is by the mercy of God, the indulgences of the church,
and the prayers of the faithful, that people are fuppofed to
be delivered out of purgatory.

This doftrine of purgatory, which fome derive from the
Platonic fancies of Origen, the Montanifm of Tertullian,
pretended vifions, and pagan ftories, rhetorical flourilhes,
and doubtful expreffions of the later fathers, and in which
we may difcern an obvious refemblance to the famous pagan
doftrine, concerning the purification of departed fouls by
means of a certain kind of fire, was partly introduced, at
leaft in the fpirit of it, towards the clofe of the fifth cen-
tury, and by Gregory the Great in the fixth century ; but
it was not, however, pofitively affirmed' till about the year
1 140, nor made an article of faith till the council of Trent.
Sefl". 25. Decret. de Purgat. See Papists and Popery.

In Ireland is a place called " St. Patrick's purgatory-,"
where, as the legend has it, at the prayers of St. Patrick,
bifliop of the place, there was made a vifible reprefentation
of the pains which the wicked undergo after death, in order
to deter finners, &c.

PURG ATT Y, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Cicacole ; 40 miles N.W. of Vizniagram.

PURGE, in Medicine, a term frequently ufed for a dot
of fome purgative medicine.

PURGING Ale, Butler's. See Ale.

Purging Grain, Oily, in Botany. See Sesamum.

Purging Nut, m Botany. See Jatropha.

Purging Thorn. See Buckthorn.

E , PURGLITZ.

PUR

PUR

PURGLITZ, or Krziwokt.ad, in Geography, a citadel
of Bohemia, in the circle of Rakonitz, where the royal
treafures were anciently kept, and ftate prifoners confined ;
feven miles S.E. of Rakonitz.

PURGOT, a town of Hindooftan, in Coimbctore; 35
miles W. of Ardenelle.

PURGOW, a town of Hindooftan, in Baglana ; 25
miles E.N.E. of Bafleen.

PURGSTALL, a town of Auftria ; four miles N. of
Scheibs.

PURIFICATION, in Chemijlry, &c. the ad of puri-
fying or refining natural bodies ; or of feparating the fxces
and impurities from thorn.

For the methods of purifying metals, gold, filver, iron,
copper, tin, &c. fee poLD, SiLVEU, &c. and REiiNiNC.

For the purification of femi-metals, minerals, and other
matters, as antimony, fulphur, camphor, faltpetre, &c. fee
Antimony, Sulphuk, CA.Mi-HOR, &c.

Purification', in Pharmacy. See Trying.

Purification, in Matters of Religion, denotes an offer-
ing made the prieft by women rifing out of child-bed,
before they are re -admitted into the church.

By the law of Mofes, a woman, after bringing forth a
male child, was unclean forty days ; after a female, eighty
days ; during which time, fhe was not to touch any thing
holy, nor to go near the temple, but was to continue
within doors, feparate from all company, and commerce
of others.

This term expired, file was to prefent herfelf at the tem-
ple, and at the door of the tabernacle, to offer a lamb,
as an holocauft, and a pigeon or turtle ; which the prieft
taking, offered to God, and prayed for her, that fhe might
be purified. ^

This ceremony, which confifted of two things, an holo-
cauft, and a facrifice of expiation, was called nTHD "IHC'
punficatio, purgatio.

The holy Virgin, though, according to the fathers, exempt
from the terms of the law, yet complied with it, and, at
the time prefcribed, went to the temple, and accomplifhed
the law ; in commemoration of which the church yearly
folemnizes the feaft of the Purification of the Virgin, on the
fecond of February ; called alfo the Feaft of Candlemas.

Purification, The Feajl of the, feems to be very ancient.
It is ordinarily faid to have been inilituted in the time of
Juftinian, in the year 54Z, and this on occafion of a mor-
tality, which that year difpcopled almoft the whole city of
Conflantinople. Ytt there are fome, who imagine it to have
been obferved before, though in another manner, and on a
different day from that fixed by Juftinian ; toz. between the
Circumcifion and Epiphany. See Candlbmas.

Tlie fame day is the prefontation of our Saviour in the
temple. *

Purification, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Xalifco ; eight miles S. of Compoftella Nuova.
N. lat. 19° 58'. W. long. 105° 46'.

PURIM, a folemn feaft held among the Jews on the
fourteenth and fifteenth of March, in memory of their
dehverancc from the confpiracy of Haman by Efther. See
Esther.

This feaft, which derives its name from the Pcrfian word
purim, q. d. hts, becaiife it was by the cafting of lots that
_Hsman determined this time for the deftruftion of the Jews,
is the Bacchanals of thcfc people, which they celebrate with
all manner of n^joicing, mirth, and jollity ; indulging them-
felves with every kind of luxury, cf'ptcially in drinking wine
even to drunkennefs, which they confider as part of the
duty of the folemnity ; becaufe it was by means of the wine

banquet (they fay) that Efther made the king's heart merry,
and brought him into that good humour, wliich inclined him
to grant the requeft prefented by her for their deliverawce ;
and, therefore, they think they ought alfo to make their
hearts merry, when they celebrate tlic commem.oration of it.
During this feftival the book of Efther is folemnly read in
all their fynagogues from the beginning to the end, at which
they are all to be prefent, men, women, children, and fer-
vants, becaufe all fhared in the benefit of the deliverance
which Efther obtained for them. And as often as the nam*
of Haman occurs in the reading of this book, the cuftom i-
for all to clap with their hands, and ft amp with their feet,
and cry out, Let hi^ memory perifh. Prideaux's Conn. vol. ii.
p. 456.

PURITANS, in Ecckfiaflical Biflory. See Cathari
and Novatians.

Puritans is alfo a term anciently ufed for the Calvinifts
of Great Britain, from their profeffing to follow the pure
word of God, in oppofition to all traditions, human confti-
tutions, and other authorities.

The feparatioii, whence this diftinguifhing appellation
took its rife, commenced on the following occafion. Upon
the acceffion of queen Mary, it is well known that popery
revived in this kingdom ; the ftatutes of kirfg Edward were
repealed, and the penal laws againfl heretics were put in
execution againft the reformers. Many fuffered at home ;
and others efcaped the fury of perfecution by feeking refuge
in foreign countries. Some went into France and Flanders ;
fome to Geneva ; and others into thofe parts of Germany
and Switzerland, where the reformation had taken place,
and where the magiftrates received them with great humanity,
and allowed them places for public worfhip. The exiles
were moft numerous at Frankfort ; and there that conteft
and divifion began, which gave rife to the Puritans, and to
that reparation from the church of England, which con-
tinues to this day. In the year 1554, fome of the Englifh
fugitives fettled in this city ; and agreed to conduft their
worfhip, without anfwering aloud after the minifter, and
without ufing the liturgy and furplice ; to begin the public
fervice with a general confeflion of fins, then to fing a pfahn,
after which the minifter prayed for the divine afliftancc, and
next proceeded to the fermon ; after fermon, a general
prayer for all eftates, and particularly for England, at the
end of which was fubjoined the Lord's prayer, and a re-
hearfal of the articles of belief ; tlien the people were to
fing another pfalm, and the minifter to difmifs them with a
bleffing. Such was the order which they had unanimoufly
adopted ; and having chofen a minifter and deacons, they in-
vited their difperfed brethren to join with them. In the
year IJ56, Dr. Cox, afterwards bifhop of Ely, came to
fettle at Frankfort with feveral of his friends ; who inter-
rupting the public fervice by anfwering aloud after the
minifter, and reading the whole litany, in violation of the
agreement upon which the congregation was formed, over-
powered the firft fettlers ; and obtaining leave of the ma-
giftrates for the free ufe of king Edward's fervice-book,
performed divine worftiip according to the rites that had
been authorifed by that prince ; while others, who preferred
the Genevan method of worfhip, as more pure and fimple,
left the city of Frankfort, and removed to Bafil and Geneva.
Thus commenced the difliniflion of Puritans and Con-
formifts, by which the two parties were afterwards known.
The former were called Conformifts, on account of their
compliance with the ecclefiaftic.1l laws enafted by Edw. VI.
and the denominations of Nonconformifts and Puritans were
given to the latter, from their infiiting upon a form of wor-
fhip, more exempt from fuperftition, and of a purer kind

4 than

PURITANS.

than the liturgy of Edward feemed to them to be. Upon
the accefiion of queen Ehzabetli, the exiles returned to
England, where each party ilroveto advance the reformation
according to their own llandard. Tlie queen, with thofe
who had weathered the ilorm at home, were only for
refloring king Edward's liturgy ; but the majority of the
exiles were tor the worfliip and difcipline of the foreign
churches, and refufed to comply with tiie old eftablifhment,
declaiming loudly againft the popifh habits and ceremonies.
However, the queen's party prevailed ; and in 1559 a com-
mittee of divines was appointed to review king Edward's
liturgy, who were inltrufted to ftrike out all offcnfive
pafTages againft the pope, and to make people eafy about
the belief of the corporal prefencc of Ciirift in the facra-
mcnt. But no alterations were made in favour of thofe who
now began to be called Puritans, from their attempting a
purer form of worfhip and difcipline than had yet been
eftabhlhed ; and whofe ientiments in many points were
agreeable to thofe maintained by John Wickliffe, the lirll
reformer. For they agreed with him in opinion, that in the
lacrament of orders there ought to be but two degrees,
prefbyters or bifhops, and deacons ; that all human tra-
ditions are fuperfluous and finful ; that we muft pradlife
and teach only the laws of Chriil ; that myilical and figui-
ficant ceremonies in religious worfliip are unlawful j and
that to rellrain men to a prefcribed form of prayer is con-
trary to the liberty granted them by God. The old feftivals,
with their eves and the popifli habits, were continued as they
were in the fecond year of king Edward VI. In 1558 the
aft of fupremacy was pafled, in which there is a remarkable
claufe, that gave rife to the court of high-commiflion,
which proved afterwards fo oppreffive ; and in 1559 was
pafled an aft for the uniformity of common prayer, and
fervice in the church, and adminiftration of the facraments.
The Puritans remonftrated againft thefe proceeding's, and
complained, that the grofs fuperftitions of popery, which
they had looked upon as abrogated and aboliflied, were
now revived, and even impofed by authority. Some re-
quired nothing lefs than that the church of England fliould
be exaftly modelled after that of Geneva ; others only de-
fired liberty of confcience, with the privilege of celebrating
divine worfhip in their own way ; but neither party ob-
tained the objeft of their wifhes. The queen, intent upon
the fuppreflion of this troublefome feft (as flie was ufed to
call it), permitted its enemies to employ for that purpofe all
the refources of artifice, and all the feverity of the laws.
The court reformers pleaded, that every prince had authority
to correft all abufes of doftrine and worfhip within his own
territories ; the Puritans, on the other hand, whilft they
difowned all foreign authority and jurifdiftion over the
church, could not admit of that extenfive power which the
crown claimed by the fupremacy ; apprehending it un ■
reafonable, that the religion of a tvhole nation fhould be at
the difpofal of a fingle lay perfon. However, they took the
oath, with the queen's exphcation in her injunftions, as
reftoring her majefty only to the ancient and natural rights of
fovereign princes over their fubjefts.

Farther, the court reformers allowed, that the church of
Rome was a true church, though corrupt in fame points of
doftrine and government ; that all her miniftrations were
valid, and that the pope was a true bifliop of Rome, though
not of the univerfal church. But the Puritans affirmed the
pope to be antichrift, the church of Rome to be no true
church, and all her miniftrations to be fuperftitious and ido-
latrous ; they renounced her communion, and durft not
fufpend the validity of their ordinations upon an uninter-
f lipted line of fuccefiion from the apoftles through her hands.

Moreover, it was agreed by all, that the holy fcriptures
were a perfeft rule of faith ; but the bifliops and court re-
formers did not allow them to be the ftandard of difcipline
or church government ; affirming that our Saviour and his
apoftles left it to the difcretion of the civil magiftrate, in
thofe places where Chrittianity fliould obtain, to accommo-
date the government of the church to the policy of the ftate.
But the Puritans apprehended the holy fcriptures to be a
ftandard of church difcipline as well as of doftrine ; at leaft
that nothing fliould be impofed as neeefTary but what was
exprefsly contained in, or derived from them by neceflary
confcqucnce, and, befides, they maintained that the dif-
cretionary power was not lodged with the civil magiftrate,
but with the fpiritual officers of the church. Farther, the
court reformers maintained, that the praftice of the primitive
church for the firft four or five centuries was a proper
llandard of church government and difcipline, and in fome
refpeftsa better than that of the apoftles, which (according
to them ) was only accommodated to the infant ftate of the
church while it was under perfccution, whereas theirs was
I'uilcd to the grandeur of a national eftablifliment. Whereas
the Puritans were for adhering to the bible in the main prin-
ciples of church government, and for admitting no church
officers or ordinances, but fuch as are herein mentioned ;
and they apprehended, that the apoftles, in eftablifliing the
firft Chriftian church on the ariftoeratical plan then obferved
in the Jewifli fanhedrim, defigned it as an unchangeable
model to be followed in all times and places. The court
reformers alfo maintained, that things indifferent in their
own nature, which are neither forbidden nor commanded in
the holy fcriptures, fuch as rites, ceremonies, habits, &c.
might be fettled, determined, and made neceffary by the
command of the civil magiftrate, and that in fuch cafes it
was the indifpenfible duty of all fubjefts to obferve them.
But the Puritans infifted, that thofe things which Chrift had
left indifferent, ought not to be made neceflary by any
human laws, and that fuch rites and ceremonies as had been
abufedto idolatry, end had a manifeft tendency to lead men
back to popery and fuperifition, were no longer indifferent,
but to be rejefted as unlawful. Neverthelefs, both parties
agreed too well in aflerting the neceffity of an uniformity
of pubhc worfliip, and of calling in the fword of the
magiftrate for the fupport and defence of their feveral prin-
ciples ; which they made an ill ufe of in their turns, as they
could grafp the power into their hands. The ftandprd of
uniformity, according to the bifliops, was the queen's
fuprem.acy, and the law of the land ; according to the
Puritans, the decrees of provincial and national fynods,
allowed and enforced by the civil magiftrate ; but neither
party was for admitting that Uberty of confcience, and free-
dom of profeflion, which is every man's right, as far as is
confiftent with the peace of the government under which he
lives.

In the year 1564, upon a report that the habits, enjoined
on the clergy, were generally neglefted, and alfo of inat-
tention to other impofed forms, the queen direfted the
ecclefiaftical commiflioners to confult fome proper methods
to reduce them to an exaft uniformity ; upon which they
agreed on certain adverlijements (as they were called), partly
for due order in preaching and adminiltering the facraments,
and partly for the apparel of ecclefiaftical perfons. To
thefe advertifements certain proteftationa were annexed, to
be made, promifed, and fubfcribed by fuch as fliould here,
after be admitted to any office or cure in the church. The
queen, though flie would give no authority to the advertife-
ments, which had occafioned muoli remonftrance and com-
plaint, iflued out 3 proclamation in 1565, peremptorily re-

E 1 auirin<?-

PURITANS.

quiring uniformity in the habits, upon pain of prohibition
from preacbing, and deprivation. Parker, the archbifliop
of Canterbury, was violent and unrelenting ; and by various
methods of feverity, haraffed, fdenced, and deprived many
of tliofe who fcrupled the ufe of the habits. The fufpended
minifters, finding that renewed apphcations to the queen and
her commiffioners were ineffeftual, publifhed, in 1566, a
fmall trea^ife in vindication of their conduct ; in which they
allege, that neither the prophets of the Old Teftament, nor
the apoftles of the New, were dillinguillied by their gar-
ments ; that a diftinftion of garments in the ChrilUan church
did not generally obtain till long after the rifing of anti-
chrift ; that the garments againft whieh they objefted, had ■
been abufed to idolatry, forcery, and all kinds of conju-
rations ; that they were an offence to weak Chriftians, an
encouragement to ignorant and obllinate papifts, and the
ufe of them an afFeftation of returning to their communion ;
that at beft they were only human appointments, fubjeft to
the apoftle's reproof. Col. ii. 20 — 22 ; that allowing them
to be indifferent (which they did not grant), yet they ought
not to be impofed, becaufe it was an infringement of the
liberty with which Chrift had made them free ; and finally
they urged the fuffrage of foreign divines, who all condemned
the habits, though they were not willing to hazard the re-
formation in its infancy, on account of them.

If, at this time, the habits and a few ceremonies had been
left indifferent, both minifters and people would have ac-
quiefced ; but it was the compelling of thefe things by law
that made them feparate from the citablifhed church. Ac-
cordingly, in I ^66, they came to a 'refolution, alleging it
to be their duty, in tlieir prefent circumftances, to break off
from the pubhc churches, and to affemble, as they had op-
portunity, in private houfes, or elfewhere, to worfliip God
ill a manner that might not ofl'end againft the light of their
confciences ; and it was debated among them, whether they
fliould ufe as much of the common prayer and fervice of the
church as was not offenlive, or refolve at once, lince they
were cut off from the church of England, to fet up the
pureft and befl form of worfhip, moft confonant to the holy
fcriptures, and to the praftice of the foreign reformers.
The latter of thefe meafures was concluded upon ; and
accordingly they laid afide the Englifh liturgy, and made
ufe of the Geneva fervice-book. However, it is neceflary
to obferve, that though all the Puritans of thefe times would
have remained in the church, if they might have been in-
dulged in the habits and a few ceremonies, yet they were far
from being fatisfied with the hierarchy. They had other
objeftions befides thofe for which they were deprived ; of
which we fhall here fubjdin a fummary. They complained
of the bifhops aifefting to be thought a fuperior order to
prefbyters, and claiming the fole right of ordination, and the
ufe of the keys ; and affuming, in conneftion with their
office, temporal dignities, titles, and employments. As
long, however, as the Englifh bifliops pretended to derive
their dignity and authority from no other fource than the
laws of their country, and pleaded a right, merely human,
to the rank they held in the church and ftate, the controverfy
was carried on without excefTive animofity and zeal ; but the
■flame broke out with redoubled fury in the year 1588, when
Bancroft, afterwards archbifhop of Canterbury, ventured
to aflert that the order of bifhops was fuperior to the body
of prefbyters, not in confequence of any human inftitution,
hut jure divino, or by the exprefs appointment of God him-
felf. Farther, the Puritans excepted againft the titles and
offices of archdeacons, deans, chapters, and other officials,
belonging to cathedrals, as having no foundation in fcrip-
ture, or primitive aatiquity, and intrenching upon the

privileges of the prefbyters in the feveral diocefes. TJjey
complained of the exorbitant power and jurifdidtion of the
bifliops and their chancellors in their fpiritual courts, as de-
rived from the canon law of the pope, and not from the
word of God, or the ftatute law of the land. They la-
mented the want of a godly difcipline, and were uneafy at
the promifcuous and general accefs of all perfons to the
Lord's table. Though they did not difpute the lawfulnefs
of fet forms of prayer, provided a <lue liberty was allowed
for prayers of their own compolure before and after fermon,
yet they dillikcd the frequent repetition of the Lord's
prayer in the liturgy, the interruption of the prayers by the
frequent refponfes of the pcopk-, fome paflages in the office
of marriage, as With my body I thee worjh'ip, and in that of
burial, as Injure and certain hope of the refurreclion to eternal
life, pronounced over the worft of men, if not excommuni-
cated, &c. They alfo objedted againft the reading of the
apocryphal books in the church, while fome parts of
canonical fcripture were omitted ; and though they did not
diflike the homilies, they thouglit that no man fliould be
ordained a minifter in the church who was not capable of
preaching and expounding the holy fcriptures. They dif-
approved of feveral of the church fettivals or holidays, as
having no foundation in fcripture, or primitive antiquity ;
and they difallowed of the cathedral mode of worfliip ; nor
did they approve of mufical inftruments in the church
fervice. Finally, they fcruplsd conformity to certain rites
and ceremonies, which were enjoined by the rubric, or the
queen's injunftions ; as the fign of the crofs in baptifm,
baptifm bymidwives, or other women, in cafes of ficknefs,
and the mode of churching women ; the ufe of god-fathers and
god-mothers, to the exclufion of parents from being fureties
for the education of their own children ; the cuftom of con-
firming children, as foon as they could repeat the Lord's
prayer and their catechifm, by which they had a right to
come to the facrament, without any other qualification, and
the impofition of hands, as a fign of the divine favour,
which feeraed to them to imply a facramental efficacy in
this ceremony ; kneeling at the facrament of the Lord's
fupper, whilft they confidered that Chrift gave it to his dif-
ciples rather in a pofture of feafting than of adoration ; that
it had no foundation in antiquity ; that it had been grofsly
abufed by the papifts to idolatry in their adoration of the
holt ; and that, if the pofture were indifferent, it ought not
to be impofed as a neceffary term of communion ; nor did
they approve of adminiilering either of the facraments in
private, even in cafes of danger ; bowing at the name of
Jefus ; giving the ring in marriage, which they confidered
as derived from the papifts, who made marriage a facrament,
and the ring a fort of facred fign or fymbol ; the prohibition
of marriage during certain times of the year, and the licenfing
it for money ; and, laftl)-, the wearing of the furplice, and
other veftments to be ufed in divine fervice.

In points of dottrine there was, at this time, no difference
between the Puritans and Conformifts ; and if we add one
article more to the preceding, we fhall have the principal
heads of controverfy between the church of England and
the Proteftant Diflenters, at this day ; iiiz. the natural
right which every man has to judge for himfelf, and make
profeffion of that religion he apprehends moft agreeable to
truth, as far as it does not affeft the peace and fafety of the
government under which he lives ; without being determine^
by the prejudices of education, the laws of the civil magif-
trate, or the decrees of councils, churches, or fynods. See
Protejlant Dissenters.

Towards the latter end of queen Elizabeth's reign, there
arofe a party, which were lirft for foftening, and then for

overthrowing.

P U II

PUR

overthrowing, the received opinions concerning prcdeftina-
tion, perfcvL-rance, free-will, effectual grace, and the extent
oi Chrill's redemption. The clergy of the epifcopal church
began to lean towards the notions concerning theli- intricate
points, wliich Arminius propagated fome time after this ;
while on the other hand, tiie Puritans adhered rigoroully to
the fyllem of Calvin. Several epifcopal dodlors remained
attached to the fame fyllem in the reign of James I. &c.
and all thefe abettors of Calvanifm, whether epifcopal or
preibyterian, were called doSnnal Puritans. At length, ac-
cording to Mr. Fuller, (Church Hift. book ix. p. 97. book x.
p. 100.) the name was extended to itigmatize all thofe
who endeavoured in their devotions to accompany the miniiler
with a pure lieart, and who were remarkably holy in their
converfation ; fo that a Puritan was a man of fevere morals,
a Calvinilt in doftrine, and a Non-conformift to the ceremo-
nies and difcipline of the church, though he did not totally
feparate from it.

Queen Elizabeth was violent in her oppofition to the Pu-
ritans through the whole courfe of her reign ; and befides
the ordinary courts of the bifiiops, fhe eredted, as we have
already obierved, a new tribunal, called the court of high-
commilFion, which fufpended and deprived men of their liv-
ings, not by the verdidl of twelve men upon oath, but by
the folemn determination of three commifTioners of her own
nomination, founded not upon the ftatute law of the realm,
but upon the canon law ; and inftead of producing witneifes
in open court to prove the charge, they aflumed a power of
admmiltering an oath ex officio, by which the prifoner was
obliged to anfwer all queftions the court fliould put to him,
though never fo prejudicial to his own defence. If he re-
fufed to fwear, he was imprifoned for contempt ; and if
he took the oath, he was convifted upon his own con-
feffion.

During the reign of .Tames I. from whom the Puritans
expefted more indulgent treatment, they were treated with
great feverity, and many of them were obhged to leave the
kingdom, and retire to Holland ; and from thence confider-
able numbers migrated to America in the year 1 620. All
were Puritans, in the eftimation of king James, who adhered
to the laws of the land in oppofition to his arbitrary govern-
ment, though otherwife ever fo good churchmen. Thefe
were called Puritans hi thejiate ; and thofe who fcrupled the
ceremonies, and adhered to the doftrines of Calvin, were
Chnrch Puritans, who, though comparatively few, yet being
joined by thofe of the other clafs, became the majority of
-the nation. The fuccefs that attended the iirft emigrators,
who fettled in that part of America afterwards called New
Plymouth, engaged great numbers of Puritans, who groaned
under the oppreffion of the bifhops, and the feverity of a
court, by which this oppreffion was authorifed, to follow
the fortunes of thefe religious adventurers ; and this produced
a fecond emigration in tlie year 1 629, which gave birth to
the fecond grand colony, commonly known by the name of
the Maffachufett's Bay. The colony of Connecticut was
formed by emigrants of the fame clafs in 1636, and that of
New Haven in 1637, who fled from the perfecution of Laud,
and the oppreffions of the ftar-chamber and high-commiffion
courts. Afterwards, when the Puritans were not allowed
to tranfport themfelves to New England, many of them re-
moved, with their families, into the Low Countries.

After the reftoration of Charles IL in the year 1662, the
name of Puritans, fays bifhop Burnet, was changed into
that of Proteftant Non-conformiits, who were fubdivided
into Prefbyterians, Independents, Anabaptifts, and Quakers.
At this time a public law, called the Aft of Uniformity,
was enafted, by which ;ill who refufed to obferve the rites,

and fubfcribe the doftrines of the church of England, were
entirely excluded from its communion. From this period until
the reign of king William 111. the Non-conformifts were in
a precarious and changing iltuation, fometimes involved in ca-
lamity and trouble, and at ottier times enjoying fome inter-
vals of tranquilhty and certain gleams of hope, according
to the varying fpirit of the court and miniltry, but never
entirely free from perplexities and fears. But in the year
1689, their affairs took a favourable turn, when a bill for
the toleration of all Proteftant Diflcnters from the church of
England, except the Socinians, palled in parliament, almoft
without oppofition, and delivered thofe who could comply
with the conditions it impofed, from the penal laws to which
they had been fubjefted by the aft of uniformity, and other
afts paffed under the houfe of Stuart. For the prefent ftate
of the toleratioE, fee Toleration. See alfo Cokpora-
•rroN jia and Test. Neal's Hilt, of the Puritans, in
4 vols.Svo. paflim.

PURITY, in Oratory, is one of the conftituent parts of
elegance, and denotes the choice of fuch words and phrafes
as are fuited-and agreeable to the ufe of the language in
which we fpeak. Grammarians reduce the faults which
they oppofe to it to' two forts, which they call barbarifm
and folecifm ; the former of which refpcfts fingle words,
and is an offence againft etymology, and the reproach of it
is incurred by the ufe of words entirely obfolete, by the
ufe of words entirely new, or by new formations and com-
pofitions, from fimple and primitive words in prefent ufe.
Tlie latter refpefts the conftrudtion of words, and is an
offence againft fyntax : to which Dr. Campbell adds a third
clafs of faults, under the denomination of impropriety, which
is an offence againft lexicography, the bufinefs of which is
to affign to every word of the language the precife meaning
or meanings which ufe hath affigned to it. This impro-
priety occurs both in lingle words and in plu-afes. Dr.
Ward recounts the principal things that vitiate the purity of
language. It often happens, he fays, that fuch words and
forms of fpeaking, as were introduced by the learned, are
afterwards dropped by them, as mean and fordid, from a
iceming balenefs contrafted by vulgar ufe ; and it is com-
mon to language, with all other human produftions, that it
is in its own nature liable to a conftant change. (Hor. Art.
Poet. V. 68.) We muft, therefore, no lefs abftain from an-
tiquated, or obfolete words and phuafes, than from fordid
ones. On the other hand, we fliould refrain from new ones,
or fuch, whofe ufe has not been yet fufficiently eftablifhed,
at leaft among thofe of the beft tafte. Befides, any miftake
in the fenfe of words or their conftruftion, is oppofed to
purity : for to fpeak purely is to fpeak correftly. And
farther, a diftinftion ought to be made between a poetic
diftion, and that of profe writers : for poets in all lan-
guages have a fort of peculiar dialeft, and take greater li-
berties, not only in their figures, but alfo in their choice
and difpofition of words : fo that what is a beauty in them,
would often appear unnatural and affefted in profe. Ward's
Or. vol. i. p. 308, &c. Campbell's Phil, of Rhet. vol. i.
p. 4.09, &c. _ _ ,

PURKI, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar;
33 miles N. of Ramgur.

PURLIEU. See Puni.uE.

PuRLiEU-Zfooi/f, fuch as formerly conftituted parts of
the royal forefts, but of which the owners have obtained
grants from the crown, and permiffion to disforeft them,
and which not being now fubjeft to "any of the laws or re-
gulations by which different interefts in foreft woods are
condufted, may, Mr. Donaldfon fays, be to all intents and
purpofes coufidered as private property. And, he adds,

that

PUR

that the manner in which thefe woodlands are occupied is
exaftly the fame as that of many of the royal forells, vfith
the exception of the right of pallurage, and for that reafon
much more produAive and beneficial. See Woods and

Royal Forcjh. r ■ , i_

PURLINS, in Building, thofe pieces of timber that
lie acrofs the rafters on the infide, to keep them from iTnk..
ing in the middle of their length.
' PURLUE, Purlieu, or Pouraxlee, formed from tlie
French pur, pure, and lieu, place, is all that ground near any
foreft, which, being added to the ancient forelt by our kings,
was, by perambulation, granted by fome of their fucceflbrs,
fevered again from the fame, and made purlieu, i. e. pure
and free from the laws and obedience of the forell.

A purlieu, or pourallee, is defined a circuit of ground ad-
joining to the foreft, and circumfcribed with immoveable
boundaries, known only by matter of record ; which com-
pafs of ground was once foreft, and afterwards was dif-
afforefted by the perambulations made for fevering the new
foreft from the old.

Purlieus, or pourallces, commenced after the manner fol-
lowing. King Henry I. at his acceffion to the crown in
1 154, took fo much delight in the forefts of this kingdom,
that, not being contented with thofe he found here, though
many and large, he began to enlarge divers of them, and to
afforeft the lands of his fubjefts nearly .idjoining to the fame.

His fucceflors, Henry II. and Richard I., far from re-
trenchincr or reftoring any thing, made ftill farther encroach-
ments : and thus did the lands continue till the 1 7th year of
king John ; at which time, the grievance being grown
notorious, and generally felt by all degrees of people, divers
noblemen and gentlemen befought the king to grant, that
they might have all thofe new afforeftations made by his
predecefibrs aforefaid, and by himfelf, difafforefted again ;
and the king, after much felicitation, was at length pre-
vailed on to fubfcribe and feal fuch articles concerning the
liberties of the foreft, as they then demanded ; being, for
the moft part, fuch as are now contained in the Charter of
the Foreft.

Hereupon choice was made of divers noblemen, &c. to
the number of twenty-five, who were fworn, vnxh others
their afliftants, to fee the faid liberties, fo granted and con-
firmed by the king, to be in every point obferved.

But, before any thing was done to the purpofe, king
John died ; and king Henry III. fucceedmg, frefh foh-
citations were made to him ; who, for the better accom-
pliftiing of the faid difafForeftation, ordered inquifitions to
be taken, by fubftantial juries, for fevering all the new
forefts from the old : upon which, two commilTioners were
fent to take thofe inquifitions ; in virtue whereof, many
great woods and lands were not only difafforefted, but were
improved to arable lands by the owners thereof. After
this charter was niade and confirmed, fome of thefe new
afforeftations were perambulated, and proper inquifitions
taken, and the certainty was determined by matter of re-
cord, which were the old, and which the new : though it
appears, that the greateft part of the new afforeftations
were ftill remaining during the life of king Henry III.

Under Edward I. frefh petitions and folicitations being
fet on foot, three biftiops, three earls, and three barons,
were at lengtli appointed to fee thofe perambulations per-
formed and continued ; who caufed them to be made ac-
cordingly, and inquifitions to be taken thereupon, and re-
turned into the court of chancery ; and all thofe that were
ancient foreft to be meered, and bounded with irremoveable
boundaries, to be known by matter of record for ever.

Tliofe woods and lands, that had been newly afTorefted,

PUR

the king likewife caufed to be feparated from the old, and
to be returned into the chancery by marks, meres, and
bounds, to be known in like manner by matter of record
for ever.

Thus it appears how the purlieus, or pourallees, had
their firft beginning ; for all fuch weods and lands as were
affbrefted by Henry II. Richard I. or king John, and, by
perambulations, fevered from the ancient forefts, were, and
yet are, izA\e6. pourallees, q. d. woods and lands fevered from
tlie old forefts, and difafforefted by perambulation ; pourallee-
being the fame as perambulatio, in Latin.

But, notwithftanding luch new afforeftations were dif-
afforefted by perambulation, whereby the fame became
pourallee, or purlieu, yet they were not thereby fo difaf-
forefted as to every man, but that they do, in fome fenfe,
continue foreft ftill as to others. For, by the words of
Charta de Forejla, if the king has afforefted any woods or
lands of his fubjedts, to the damage of the proprietors,
they fliould forthwith be difafforefted again ; that is, only
as to thoie perfons whofe woods and lands they were : who,
as the proper owners tliereof, might fell and cut down their
woods at their own pleafure, without any licence from the
king ; as alfo convert their meadows and paftures into til-
lage, or otherwife improve their ground to the beft advan-
tage. So alfo they might hunt, and chafe the wild beafts
of the foreft towards the fame, &c. But no other perfon
ffiould claim fuch benefit of hunting in the pourallee, be-
fides the proper owner of the foil thereof, who is left at
liberty to fuffer the pourallee to remain foreft ftill, as fome,
in effeft, have thought moft expedient, becaufe hereby en.
titled to the benefit of the common within the foreft, which
otherwife they were excluded from. Hence, if the beafts
chance to wander out of the foreft into the pourallee, the
king hath a property in them ftill, againft every man, but
the owner of the ground wherein they are, who hath a fpe-
cial property in them, ratione foli ; yet fo as he may only-
take them by hunting, or chafing with his greyhounds or
dogs, without any foreftaUing or forefetting them in their
courfe again towards the foreft.

Befide what hitherto has been faid of the difference be-
tween foreft and purlieu, or pourallee, there is this farther
diverfity, that all the woods and lands vrithin the regard of
the foreft are abfolutely within the bondage or charge of the
foreft, as well in refpeA to the owners thereof, as of any
other perfon ; for no one may cut down his own woods, or
improve his own lands, within the regard of the foreft, with-
out licence from the king or his chief juftice in e)Te of the
foreft. Neither ftiall any perfon hunt, chafe, or moleft the
wild beafts of the foreft in his ground, within the regard of
the foreft, without licence or warrant from the king, or his
chief juftice of the foreft fo to do.

But thofe, whofe grounds are within the pourallees, are
not fubjeft to thefe reftriftions. Yet are not the woods
and lands in the pourallees abfolutely freed from the bondage
of the foreft, in refpeft of the wild beafts having their
haunts therein, when they happen to ftray out of the foreft ;
but as they were once abfolutely foreft, fo they are ftill con-
ditionally fo.

PuULUE-^an, or Purlieu-man, or P ourallee-man, is one
who has land within the purine ; and is allowed or qualified
to hunt or courfe within the fame, though under certain
reftriftions.

By itat. 13 Ric. II. he who may lawfully hunt in any
pourallee, ought to have woods or lands of freehold within
the pourallee, to the yearly value of ips. ■ By ftat. Jac. i.
he ought to have lands of inheritance of the yearly value
of 10/. or lands of freehold of the yearly value of 30/. or

have

P U R

have goods worth 200/. or be the fon ot a knight or baron,
or perfon of a liigher degree, or fon and heir apparent of
an efquire. But, by a later aft, Car. II. no man may keep
greyhounds within the pourallec, or elfewhere, within
England or Wales, unlefs he have a free warren, or be
lord of a manor, or fuch a freeholder as is feifed, in his
own right, or in right of his wife, of lands, tenements, or
hereditaments of the clear yearly value of 40/. over and
above all charges and reprifcs of fuch eftate of inheritance ;
or of lands, tenements, or hereditaments, in his own right,
or in right of his wife, for term of life or lives, of the yearly
value of 80/. over and above all charges and reprifes, or that
is worth in goods or cliattels 400/.

The pourallee, or purlieu, tlien, is faid to be for him that
is fo qualitied : others, not qualified, and therefore not pur-
lieu-men, yet having land in the pourallee, may, if they
find any wild beails of the foretts in their own grounds
within the pourallee, chafe them thereout with little dogs ;
but not with greyhounds, or other dogs.

Nor is the purlieu-man left at large to hunt at his own
difcretion ; but he is tied down to feveral rules : as.

That he always begnis his chafe in his own ground ;

P U K

and, that, though he finds fuch wild beafts in his own
pourallee, and in refpeft thereof, hath a property in them,
ratlone foli, againil all perfons, but the king ; yet fuch his
property is only on this condition, that he can ilay them
with his dogs in chafe, without foreftalling them, before
they can recover the forelt. If they be within the lifl of
the forell:, before the dogs fatten on them, they are the
king's, or other owner of the foreft.

2. But if the pourallee-man firll make his chafe in his
own freehold, he may purfue the fame through every man's
ground within the pourallee, and his dogs fallen on a wild
bead, before he can get within the bounds of the foreil, and
the beaft draw the dogs into the forell, and is there (lain by
them ; here the pourallee-man (hall not enter into the fored,
nor take the bead fo killed, becaufe his courfe was irregular
from the beginning, as he could claim no property in the
beaft, ratione foli.

3. A pourallee-man may hunt in his own poXirallee with
no more company than his own fervants ; neither may he
apponit, licenfe, or warrant any other perfon, except his
fervants, to hunt by his commandment in his pourallee.

4. Every pourallee-man is forbidden, by the laws of the
foreft, to hunt in his own grounds within the pourallee every-
day, or oftener than three days in any one week, Sunday
excepted.

5. Nor is any man to difturb, or make a courfe after any
deer found in his pourallee, withm forty days after the king
hath made a general hunting m the foreft adjoining there-
unto ; becaufe then the wild beafts of the foreft come not
into the pourallees of their own accord, but as they are
forced into the fame by the hunters, with clamours, and
blowing of horns, fo that they fly thither for ref\ige.

6. No man (hall hunt within feven miles of the borders of
the foreft, or in his own pourallee, v/ithm forty days next
before the king hath ilfued oat his proclamation, declaring
his royal will and pleafure to nuke a general hunting in that
foreft.

Inafmuch as the pourallees were once, and in fome fenfe
ftill are foreft, it was neceffary to have officers to attend,
and take on them the charge of the prefervation of the
game that may happen to wander out of the foreft into the
pourallees ; fince otherwife the laws of the pourallees could
not be executed, but the foreft itfelf would foon be deftroyed
by the pourallee-men.

For this reafon, rangers were firft appointed, who,

though not ofiicers in the foreft, yet appertain thereto ; for
all officers in the foreft have charge of the vert and venifon
of the foreft ; but a ranger hath no charge of the vert, but
only of venifon coming out of the foreft, into the pourallees,
his place of charge ; from whence his office is to conduft
the fame back again into the foreft.

This officer is appointed by the king, or his chief jufticc
in eyre, anvi is made by patent, with a fee commonly of
twenty, thirty, or forty pounds, or more, by the year,
payable out of the exchequer, as alfo certain fee-deer, both
red and fallow, to be taken annually, at proper feafons, out
of the foreft.

Tlie fubftance of his oath is, to rechafe, and with^is
hounds drive back, the wild beails of the foreft, as often as
they range out of the fame into his pourallec ; to prevent all
unlawful hunting and hunters of wild beafts of venery and
chafe, as well within the pourallees, as within the foreft ;
and to prefent thofe and other offences, at the next court of
attachments or fwainmote, which ftiall (irft happen.

Rangers, it is to be obferved, belong only to fuch pou-
rallees as were once the woods and lands of the fubjeft , and
were afterwards difaiforefted again, and fo became pou-
rallees. Hence, as there are fome forefts in England, which
never had any enlargement by new aflforeftations, and there-
fore have no pourallees at this day, there can be no rangers
belonging to them. Manwood's Foreft Laws, part 2. c. 20.
4 Inft- Z°h 4- I Jones's Rep. 278. • Moor. 706. 987.

PURMALL, m Geography, a town of Hindooftan ; ic
miles W.S.W. of Allahabad.

PURMERENT, a town of North HoUand, on a.brook
of the fame name, governed by a council, bailiff, and burgo-
mafters. The town had a voice in the affembly of the ftates ;
10 miles N. of Amfterdam. N. lat. 52° 33'. E. long. 4°
46'. — Alfo, a fmall idand near the coalt of Java, on which

lies an hofpital for the difeafed poor of Batavia Alfo, a

fmall idand in a large bay on the N. coaft of New Guinea.
S. lat. 2° 16'. E. long. 135° 12'.

PURNA. See Pannah.

PURNEAH, a circar of Bengal, bounded on the N.
by Morung, on the E. by Dinagepour, on the S. by Ra-
Jemal, and on the W. by Bahar ; about 80 miles long from
N.E. to S.W., and 70 from N.W. to S.E. The capital
of the fame name is fituated on a river which runs into the
Ganges ; 200 miles N. of Calcutta. N. lat. 25° 48'. E.
long. 87° 40'.

PURNITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Iglau ;
7 miles S.E. of Iglau.

PURPARTY (Fr. pour part, i. e. pro parte) is that
part or (hare of an eftate, firft held in common by parceners,
which is by partition allotted to any of them. To make
purparty is to divide and fever the lands that fall to par»
ceners, which till partition they held jointly, and/iro indivifo.
Old Nat. Br. II.

PURPLE, Purpura, Tojipufa, a red colour, bordering
on violet ; now dyed cliierly with cochineal.

Purple was much efteemed among the ancients ; efpecially
the Tyrian purple, which underwent more dyes than the
reft, and which was almoll peculiar to the emperors and
kings. Yet this purple did not exceed that now in ufe.
The chief reafons why the ancient purple dye has been dif-
ufed are, that the latter is both cheaper and finer.

The ancient purple was tinged or given with the blood
or juice of a precious turbinated teftaceous fea-fi(h, called
by the Greeks tto^Im^-x, and by the 'L?Xms purpura ; of
which we have defcriptions in feveral authors, ani (liells in
moft of the cabinets of the curious. See FvRPLE-Fi/ii.

■^ The

r u R

The method of obtaining the colour, Mr. Cole (fee
VvRVhV.-Fi/h) defcribes thus :

The (hell, which is very hard, being broken, (with the
mouth of the lifh downwards, fo as not to crulh the body,)
and the broken pieces being picked off, there appears a
white vein lying tranfverfely in a little furrow or ckft next
the head of the fidi.

lu this vein is the purple matter lodged ; fome of which,
being laid on linen, appears at firft of a light green colour ;
and.^if expofed to the fun, foon changes into a deep green,
and in a few minutes, into a fea-green, and, in a few more,
into a blue ; thence it foon becomes of a purplifli-red, and,
in an hour more, of a deep purple red.

And here the fun's aftion terminates ; but by wafhing in
fcalding water and foap, and drying it, the colour ripens
to a moil bright and beautiful crimfon, which will bear
■wafhing admirably without the addition of any ilyptic.
While the cloth marked with this colour lies in the fun, it
will yield a very ftrong and foetid fmell, as if garlic and affa
foetida were mixed together.

The juice which gives this beautiful purple colour is,
fays M. du Hamel, while it remains in the body of the
animal, and while that is in health, vvlioUy white ; but no
fooner is it expofed to the fun, than it begins to change
colour, and in lefs than five minutes goes through the fe-
veral changes of pale green, yellowirti, and a beautiful
emerald green ; after this it becomes of a deeper and duflcier
green, then blueifli, reddidi, and finally a deep and very
beautiful purple. Sometimes the juice is found naturally
green in the animal : this is probably from the creature's
being in a difcafed ftate. But when it is naturally thus, it
immediately becomes red, and afterwards purple, on being
expofed to the fun ; its feveral preceding changes feeming
to have been made already in the body of the animal.

If a piece of linen be rubbed over with this juice, and
part of it expofed to the fun, part not, that only will turn
red which is fo expofed, the other remaining green without
any alteration ; and it is obferved, that the itronger the fun
fhines, the quicker the change appears, and probably the
colour is in proportion alfo the more beautiful and hvely.
And it is very remarkable, that if a needle, or any other
opaque body, be laid upon the hnen which is yet green,
and is to become red on being expofed to the fun ; after
fuch an expofure, the whole fllall be changed red or purple,
excepting only that fmall fpot which is covered by the
needle, which will ftill remain green.

A plate of glafs, though it be three inches thick, vi'ill
not prevent the colour from changing purple by being laid
over it ; but the thinned; piece of metal will keep it wholly
green. The one being opaque, and the other pellucid, are
evidently the only x'eafons for this difference.

If the coloured linen be fucceffively covered by three
pieces of paper, the one blacked with ink, the other in its
natural ftate, and the third rubbed over with oil, it will
change colour on being expofed to the fun in different de-
grees ; and that exaftly in proportion to the degree of trauf-
parence in each of the papers : moft of all in that which
was covered with the oiled- paper ; fomething lefs in that
covered by the paper in its natural ftate ; and leaft of all in
that which was covered v/ith the blacked paper, as that is
leaft tranfparent.

The common Iieat of a fire, or that of a red-hot iron,
produces no change at all in the colour when green. ■ The
vapour of burning fulphur produces a little ; but the green,
which had not changed to purple by thefe experiments, im-
mediately clianged to it on being expofed to the rays of the
fun.

PUR

Thefe experiments were all made in the months of Ja-
nuary and February, by M. du Hamel, in Provence ; and
the fun having power to change the colour fo fpeedily tliere
in thefe cold months, probably in a warmer climate or fea-
foR the air would have been fufficient for the purpofe, with-
out the open fun ; fince it feems, from experiment, that
both the folar rays, and the light alone in a cloudy day,
can aft upon this colour. The light and heat of the fun
botlt aft on this colour : light is always fufficient to pro-
duce the effeft, biit the heat may eafily be too great or too
little ; and to do the whole in perfeftion, it muft be at a
certain m.iddle degree.

This beautiful purple, if it can ever be brought into ufe
in dyeing, will have one very great advantage from its vif-
cofity. The pieces of cloth that had been itained by it
retained their colour, in fpite of feveral boilings in different
liquors, which M. du Hamel made them pafs through ;
and the colour, on examination, was found not to be fuper-
ficial, but penetrated the whole body of the ftuff, which
w^as tinged by it. There are many inconveniences which
muil naturally attend the ufe of this fubftance as a dye,
but they may, perhaps, all be got over by care and appli-
cation. It is very certain, that it is of too vifcid a nature
eafily to penetrate many fubftanccs ; but it is alfo certain,
that this might be obviated by did'olving it in fome proper
liquor. It appears very plainly, that the ancients had a
method of thus diflolving their purple ; but we neither
know what was their purple, nor what was its diflolvent ;
nor, which would be of much more confequence to us at
prefent, what is the proper diflolvent for ouf own. Mem.
Acad. Scien. Par. 1736.

M. Reaumur has alfo difcovered another very different
kind of purple. This is produced in oval grains about a
quarter of an inch long, full of white liquor bordering on
yellow, which cover certain ftones or fands, about which the
buccina of Poiftou ufually aflemble.

By the experiments M. Reaumur has made, it appears
that thefe grains are neither the eggs of the buccinum, nor
the feeds of any fea-plants, nor any rifing plants, but the
eggs of fome other unknown fifh.

Thefe grains, being bruifed on a white linen, at firft only
tinge it yellow, and that infenlibly ; but in three or four mi-
nutes they give it a very beautiful purple red, provided the
linen be expofed to the open air ; for the air of a room, even
though the windows be open, will not do. This colour fades,
however, a little by repeated walhings.

M. Reaumur concludes, from fome experiments he made,
that the effeft of the air on the liquor does not confift in its
taking away any particles of it, nor in giving it any new
ones, but only in its agitating it, and changing the ar-
rangement -of the parts that compofe it. He adds, that
the liquor of the buccinum, and that of the grains, feem
to be nearly of the lame nature ; except that the latter is
more watery, and only fahne ; vv'hereas the other is hot, and
pungent.

P. Labat gives us the defcription of another purple dye,
produced by a tree growing in the Antilles. The juice of
this tree, when cut ftanding, is of a blood-red, and com-
municates the fame colour to cloths ; though, like the former,
it lofes much in often wafhing.

Purple, Dyeing. See Dyeing.

Purple Go/J. See Gold Precipitate, Sec.

Purple, iji Medicine, an epithet applied to every difeafe,
in which eruptions of purple fpots, or petechia:, appear, and
thefe being ufually the accompaniments of fevers of every
kind in their worft and moll dangej-ous forms, fo purph

1 2 fever

PUR

PUR

fever was nearly fynonimous with putrid, or malignnut fever.
See PuTECiii/t;, and Prui-uRA.

PuRl'LE Apple, in Botany. Sec Annoxa.

PuRFi.E Fifi, Purpura, in Natural Hijlory, the name of a
genus of fhell-fifh, the cliarafters of wliich are ihefe : it is
an univalve (hell, jagged and befet from head to tail with
fpines, tubercles, umbos, or ftrise. The mouth is fmall and
roundifh ; the tail is fhort, and ufually the bafe runs out into
a long beak. Sec Dyeing.

It has been ufual with moft authors to confound together
the genera of the murex and purpura, and to ufe the words
as fynonimous : but though there is fome external refem-
blance between many of the (hells of the two genera, yet
they are eafily dillinguidicd by this, that the mouth of the
purpura is Icfs long, and is lefs dentatcd and alated than that
•of the murex. The body and the head of the fhells of this
genus are not fo elevated as thofe of the murex kind, and
are not covered with points or buttons at the mouth. If a
(hell is therefore found to have a fmall, fmooth, and round
mouth, and a body covered with undulated leaves, as it were,
like thofe of favory or endive, and fometimes witli long
points, and its tail, whether long or fliort, be hollowed
and fomewhat bent, this may be called a purpura, and
not a murex. Linnoeus makes the purpura a fpecies of the
murex.

The ancients diftinguiflicd three kinds of purpura ; one
which had a long and crooked tail, made hollow like a tube
or pipe ; a fecond which had either no tail at all, or at the
moft a very fhort one ; and a third which had no fpiral head,
or, as we fhould exprefs it, no clavicle.

On examining the whole family of the purpura, we may
diltinguifh four remarkable fpecific differences among them.
The nrft of thefe comprehends thofe purpura which have
the body of the fhell garnifhed with a fort of undulated
foliage in clouded ridges, and have a (hort and crooked tail.
The fecond comprehends thofe which have the body of the
{hell covered with acute points, and have a long tail. The
third comprehends thofe which have as long a tail as the
former, but have a fmooth body, or at the utmoft have only
a few (light protuberances and wrinkles on it. And the
fourth takes in thofe which are fmall, and have an elevated
clavicle, a fliort crooked tail, and the body of which is co-
vered either with flender fpines or hairs.

This fpecies of fifh, as well as the murex, ferved among
the ancients to dye the fine purple colour they were fo fond
of, and fome of the buccina i^e. g. the lapUlus of Linnaeus)
have been of late found to have the fame juice. The pur-
pura and murex are both fifhed up in great plenty in the
gulf of Tarentum ; but the fmall quantity of the coloured
iuice which each fifh contains, and the neceffity of ufmg
It before the animal dies, makes it impolTible to bring it to
any regular article of trafiic. The ancients ufed this colour
only on cotton and woollen fluffs ; whereas our cochineal,
which was unknown to the ancients, flrikes equally well on
fdks and fluffs. Thefe fhells are alfo found in various parts
of the Mediterranean.

In the feas of the Spanifh Weft Indies about Nicoya, is
found a fhell-fifh, which perfectly refembles the ancient pur-
pura, and, in all probability, is the very fame. This fifh, Gage
tells us, ufually lives feven years ; it hides itfelf a little be-
fore the dog days, and continues to difappear for three hun-
dred days running.

They are gathered plentifully in the fpring, and, by rub-
bing one againft another, they yield a kind of faliva or thick
glair, refembling foft wax : but the purple dye is in the throat
of the fifh, and the finefl part is lodged in a little white vein ;
the reft of the body is of no ufe. He adds, that the chief

Vol. XXIX.

riches of Nicoya confift in this fifh. Cloth of Segovia,
dyed with it, is fold for twenty crowns the ell ; and none
but the greateft Spanifli lords ufe it.

There arc alfo found upon the coafts of the South-fta,
near the equator, in the neighbourhood of point St. He-
lena, in the province of Guayaquil, certain fea-fnaiis, as
Don Antonio de UUoa calls them, flicking to the ftoncs, and
covered by th" fea at high water, about the lize of fmall nuts,
which contain a liquor or juice that has the true colour of
purple. The colour is very bright, and fo durable, that
wafhing rather increafcs than diminifhes its luftre, nor does
it fade or decay by ufe and wearing. Woven ftuffs are not
dyed with it, but only cotton threads. As foon as a fufficieut
quantity of the liquor is fqueezcd from the fifh, the cotton
thread is drawn througli it, and it takes and retains the tinc-
ture without any farther trouble ; but the purple colour is
not difcovered till the thread is dry, the juice being of a
milky colour at firft, but it foon changes into green, and at
laft fettles in a purple.

Bcfides the Indian purple fifhes, we have others much
nearer home. In the Philofoph.Tranfaft. abr. vol. ii. p. 823,
we have an account of purple fifh difcovered in 1684, by
Mr. W. Cole, on the coafts of Somerfetfhire, South Wales,
&c. where it is found in great abundance. The modern
purple fifh, M. Reaumur obferves, is a kind of buccinum,
a name given by the ancients to all fifhes whofe fhell
bears any refemblance to a hunting-horn ; and it appears
from Phny, that part of the ancient purple was taken
from this kind of fhell-fifh : fo that this may be efteemed
a recovery of what had been fuppofed entirely loft. See
Dyeing.

The fifh, he obferves, is good ; and adds, that there are
feveral kinds of it differing in fize and fhell, and alfo in
the colour of the tinging liquor. There are fome found
on the coafts of Poiftou.

The Caribbce iflands have likewife their purple fifti. This
is called burgan, being of the fize of the end of the fin-
ger, and refembling our periwinkles ; its fhell is of a
brownifh azure, its flefh white, its inteftines of a very
bright red, the colour of which appears through the body ;
and it is this that dyes the froth, which it cafts forth when
taken, and which is at firft of a violet hue, bordering on
blue.

To oblige them to yield the greater quantity of froth, they
lay them on a plate, and fhake and beat them againft one an-
other ; upon which the plate is immediately covered with the
froth, which is received on a linen cloth, and becomes purple
in proportion as it dries.

P. Labat obferves, that if this be the real Tyrian purple,
the fecret of preparing and fixing it is loft ; this colour
being found to dwindle and diflipate, in proportion as the
linen dved with it is waflied.

The purpura lives on other fifh. It ufually hides itfelf at
a fmall depth in the fand, fometimes even in frefh-water
rivers, and as it lies hid, it thrulls up a pointed tongue,
which wounds and kills any thing that comes over it. We
frequently find fea-fliells with round holes bored through
them, as regularly as if made with a boring inftrument :
thefe are generally allowed to be made by the tongue of the
purpura, in order to its feeding on the fifh within,

The purpura has two horns like tliat of a fnail ; and
Fabius Columna fays, that they have eyes in thefe, not
placed at the ends, as in the fnail, but in the middle of each
horn.

The purpura is a fhell-fifh very well known, and has been
known alfo in almoft all times to afford a purple hquor ; but
as there has been no method difcovered of bringing this li-

F quor

PUR

quor into ufc in dyeing, the fi(h has been neglcfted, and its
juice never attempted to be brought into ufe.

PuRPLE-^For/, iu Botany, a name given to feveral fpeciea
of trefoil.

PURPRESTURE, in our yincient Laiu Booh. Sec

POURPRESTURE.

PURPRISUM, of the French /our/nV, denotes a cloie,
or inclofure : alfo the whole compafs or extent of a manor
or place.

•' Donavi eis meum purprifum dc Kirkeham, & domes
meas, & molcndinum, & prata, &c." Charta Walteri Efpec.
Priorat de Kirkeham.

PURPURA, Persia.-*, the fame v/ith the Perfian flicll,
a fpecies of dohum.

Purpura, \w Medicine, in the nomenclature of cutaneous
difeafes propofed by Dr. Willan, iignifies an eruption of
purple fpecks and patches, that is oi petechia, ecchymomata,
and vibices, accompanied with general debility, but not always
with fever.

Under this limitation, the purpura is fynonimous with the
" petechia fine febre" of fome medical writers, (fee Rom-
bergius, Ephem. Natur. Curiof. dec. iii. ann. 9 and 10,
obff 108 ; and Dr. Graaf, Did". Inaug. de Petcchiis Hne
Febre, Gott. 1775); with the " himorrhxa petechialis"
(fee Dr. Adair, Diff. Inaug. Edin. 1789, and Dr. Bateman,
Dili. Tnaug. ibid. 1801); with the " land-fcurvy," &c.
of others. Riverius, Diemerbroeck, Sauvages, Cuilon, and
one or two others, appropriated the terra purpura in like
manner to petechial fpots only, and rightly excluded from
this appellation all other eruptions of a character effentially
different.

In thus limiting the acceptation of the term, however, it
is proper to mention, that in the writings of many phy-
ficians it is applied to various other eruptive difeafes, which
have no affinity with petechial blotches, and very little with
each other. Thus, under the name of purpura, the red-
gum, or ftrophulus, is defcribed by Etmuller, — the fcarlet
fever by Schultz and Juncker, — the meafles by HafenrefFer
and Morton, — the nettle-ra(h, mihary veficles, and lichen,
by Hoffmann and others. See Willan on Cutan. Dif.
p. 452.

The purpura occur* under various degrees of violence,
which induced Dr. Willan to make two fpecies, which he de-
nominated_//m/>/f.v and httmorrhagica, according as the eruption
occurred alone, or with difcharges of blood. It is impoffible,
however, to draw fo diftindl a line, where nature prefents no
clear difference. We can only flate that, iu the milder de-
grees, there is an eruption of petechia; only, chiefly appear-
ing on the extremities and breaft, and feldom afFefting the
face. The complexion is generally pallid or fallow, and
there is a confiderable degree of debility and languor, and
fometimcs pains in the limbs.

In the more fevere cafes of the difeafe, the failure of
ftreugth is coufiderably greater, and often precedes, for
fome time, the appearance of the eruption. The fpots
commonly appear firfl on the legs, where they are ufually
the largeft and molt numerous, and are often accompanied
with anafarcous fwelhngs. When they firfl appear, they
are of a bright red hue, but they gradually become purple
or livid, and when about to diiappear, they change to a
brown or yellowifh hue ; fo that in the progrefs of the
difeafe, as the fpots appear and fade in fucccflion, the flcm
prefents a confiderabiy variegated appearance. In the more
fevere forms, the petechia; are mlrrniixed with ecchymofes and
vibices, or livid patches and ftripes, refembling the effefts
of a bruife, or of the flrokes of a whip, lii this ftate,
fomctimes, when thtfe patches do not appear fpontaneoufly,

PUR

the gentled preflure on the fkin, fucli as is applied in feeling;
the pulfe, will produce a purple blotch, like that wliich
follows a fevere blow.

When the difeafe is ftill more fevere, in addition to thefe
effufioHs of blood under the cuticle, confiderable difcharges
of blood take place from thofe parts which are defended by
a very delicate cuticle ; wlieiice thefe haemorrhages originate
particularly from the internal paffages and organs, and are
occafionally very profufe, endangering, and occafionally
deftroying life. Molt frequently, however, the bleeding is
flow, and" in fmall quantity, fometimes almofl a conftant
oozing, and fometimes returning at intervals. Thefe hae-
morrhages take place from the gums, noltrils, throat, the
infide of the cheeks, the tongue, and lips ; fometimes from
the lining membrane of the eye-hds, the urethra, and the
external ear ; and often from tiie internal cavities, the lungs,
ftomach, bowels, kidnies, uterus, and bladder. There is
great variety, however, in the periods of the difeafe at which
the hemorrhages commence and ceafe, and as to the pro-
portion which they bear to the cutaneous efHorefcence.

This fmgular difeafe occafionally appears fuddenly, in the
midft of good health, attacking during the night. Tt is
always accompanied by great feeblenefs and depreflion of
fpirits ; and often by pains in the cheil, loins, or abdomen,
by irregularity of bowels, or by cough ; and the pulfe is
fometimes flightly quickened and very feeble, as in a mo-
derate hcftic. But in fome cafes tliefe funftions are not
perceptibly difturbed. The duration of the difeafe is
equally uncertain : ip fome iiiflances it has terminated in
a few days, while in others it has continued not only many
months, but years. When it terminates fatally, it is com-
monly in confequence of a copious hemorrhage, either fud-
denly from fome important organ, or more (lowly from
feveral parts at the fame time.

The caufes of this difeafe are not clearly afcertained, nor
its pathology well underftood. It occurs at every period
of life, and in both fexes ; but mod frequently in women,
and in boys before the age of puberty, particularly in thofe
who are of a delicate habit, who live in clofe and crowded
fituations, and on poor diet, or are employed in fedentary
occupations, and fubjeft to grief, anxiety, fatigue, and want
of fleep. It has hkewife attacked thofe who are left in a
flate of debihty by previous acute and chronic difeafes, as
after meafles or fmall-pox, or during confinement in the
puerperal flate, or after a violent falivation from mercury.
On the other hand, however, the difeafe appears occafion-
ally in its roofl fevere and fatal form, where none of
thefe circumftances had previoufly exilted : for inftance, in
young perions living in the country, and fufiering no priva-
tion of any of the comforts of life, and previoufly enjoying
good health. This fadl tends greatly to obfcure the pa-
tJiology of the difeafe : for it renders the operation of
thefe alleged caufes extremely queflionable , and feems to
eftablifli an effential difference between purpura and fcurvy,
in the origin and natiu-e of the morbid aftions which con-
flitute the difeafe. In fcurvy (by which we mean the fcor-
butus, or true fcurvy, formerly prevalent among feamen in
long voyages, and among people in befieged towns, and
other fituations, when living upon putrid, falted, dried, or
otherwife indigeflible food, yielding imperfect nutriment,)
the reflcration of the proper nourifhment, with the ufe of
frefh vegetables and acids, invariably removes the fymp-
toms, and they never commence where fuch diet can be ob-
tained : while, in many cafes of purpura, this diet has been
taken abundantly, w-ithout the fmailefl alleviation of the
complaint, and the difeafe has come on, where there had
been no defisisncy. " On the other hand, the rapidity of
01 the

P U fl

PUR

the attack, the acuteiiefs of the pains in the internal ca-
vities, the aftiial iiiflar.imatory fymptoms that lometimes
fuptrvene, the occafional removal of the difeafc by fpoii-
taneous haemorrhai^e, the frequent relict derived from arti-
ficial dilchargcs of blood, (fee two cafes of purpura by
Dr. Parry, Edin. Med. and Surg. Journ. for Jan. 1809),
and from purging, all tend to excite a fufpicion that fome
local vifceral congeltion or obltruiflion is the caufe of the
fymptoms in different inftances." (Bateman's Praft-cal
Synopf. of Cutan. Dif. p. no.) Several fatls in proof of
thefe oblervations are itated in the work juil quoted ; but
a fufficient number has not yet been collected to afford any
general inference refpefting the usture of the difeafe.

The cure of purpura is, therefore, not eftablifhed upon
any clear prmciple, and there has beea confiderable differ-
ence of opinion upon the fubjeft. Dr. Willan has given
a very imperfeft view of this point. All that he fays
relative to tlie cure of the worft form of purpura, is com-
prifed in thefe few lines. " In tlie treatment of this dif-
eafe, we fhould recommend moderate exerciie in the open
air, a generous diet, and the free ufe of wine, Peruvian
bark, vitriolic acid, &c. Without air, exercife, and an eafy
ftate of mind, the effeft of medicines is very uncertain."
(On Cutan. Difeafes, p. 461.) Of this, indeed, he has
given an ample proof in the next fentence, where he tells
us that a patient " took for two or three months Peruvian
bark in confiderable quantities, the vitriolic and marine
acid, and wine, without much advantage." In trnth, the
cure of purpura is, we believe, not to be effected by thefe
means. In the (lighter degrees ^f the difeafe, occurring
in children who are ill fed and nurfed, and excluded from
the air and from all exercife, thefe tonics may feem to do
good, when combined with air and exercife. " But," as
Dr. Bateman obferves, " when it occurs in adults, efpecially
in thofe already enjoying the benefits of exercife in the air
of the country, and who have fuffered no privation in refpett
to diet ; or when it appears in perfons previoully fl:out, or
even plethoric ; when it is accompanied with a white and
loaded tongue, a quick and iomewhat {harp, though fmall,
pulfe, occaofinal chills and heats, and other fymptoms of
feverifhneis, however moderate ; — fymptoms which may be
prefumed to indicate the exiltence of iome local congeftion ;
— then the adminiftration of tonic medicines, particularly
ot wine, cinchona, and other warmer tonics, will be found
inefficacious, if not decidedly injurious. In fuch cales, free
and repeated evacuations of the bowels, by medicines con-
taining fome portion of the muriate of mercury, will be found
moft beneficial. The continuance or repetition of thefe
evacuants muft, of courfe, be regulated by their effedts
on the fymptoms of the complaint, or on the general con-
Ititution, and by the appearance of the excretions from the
inteftines. If the pains are fevere and fixed, and if the
marks of febrile irritation are confiderable, and the fpon-
taneous haemorrhage not profufe, local or cjeneral blood-
letting may doubtlefs be employed with great benefit, ef-
pecially in robuft adults." Praft. Synopfis, before quoted,
p. 114.

The importance of free purgation in purpura has been
clearly flated in a {hort but valuable communication from
Dr. Harty, of Dublin, publifhed in the Edinburgh Medical
and Surgical Journal, for April, 1813 : in more than a
dozen cafes treated in this manner by Dr. Harty, the
hemorrhages ceafed, and the purple fpots difappeared, after
a few dofes of calomel and jalap had been taken. In the
two cafes related in the fame ufeful journal by Dr. Parry,
of Bath, before alluded to, and which were fpeedily cured
by two bleedings from the arm, the blood drawn exhibited

a tenacious contracted coagulum, covered with a thick
coat of lymph, as in difeafes of an inflammatory nature.
The patients were a lady and an officer, the latter of whom
was accullomed to free living ; in botli cafes fome degree of
feverilhnefs accompanied the purpura.

There is one variety of the difeafe, which Dr. Willan dif-
tiuguiflied as a third fpecies, by the title of purpura urf/i-flnj-,
becaufe the eruption commences in the form of rounded
and reddiih elevations of the cuticle, refembling the wheals
of nettle-ralh ; but they are not accompanied by the fame
fenfations, tingling and itching, which belong to the ncttle-
rafh. Thefe little tumours gradually dilate ; but within
one or two days they iubfide to the level of the furround-
ing cuticle, and at the fame time their hue becomes darker
and at length livid, or purple. As thefe fpo^s are not per-
manent, but appear in fucceflion in different places, they are
commonly feen of different hues ; the frelh and elevated
ones being of a brighter red, while the level fpots exhibit
different degrees of lividity, and become brown as they
difappear. They are molt common on the legs, where they
are frequently mixed with pctcchis ; but they fometimcs
appear on i.ther parts of the body.

Tlic duration of the purpura urticans is various, from
three to five weeks, in the courfe of which time the hands
and ankles are affefted with cedematous fwellings : there is
alfo a diilreffing degree of languor and debility, and a lofs
of appetite, but feldom haemorrhage. It generally appears
in fummer and autumn, affefting thofe who are expofed
to fatigue, and live on poor diet, and delicate young wo-
men of indolent and luxurious habits. The fame precepts,
as to treatment, are applicable to this as to the other va-
rieties of purpura.

When purple fpots occur as fymptomatic of bad fevers,
they require no peculiar treatment. They are much lefs
frequent concomitants of fevers than they were formerly ;
a circumftance which is probably to be afcribed partly to
the more liberal ufe ot purgatives at prefent in all febrile
difeales, and partly to the more free admiffion of frefh air,
to the fuperior cleanlineis, &c. now obferved in thefe ma-
ladies. The appearance of thefe fpots has been occaiion-
ally noticed by various authors in agues, remittent fevers,
palfies, dropfy, and atrophy. Dr. Willan obferves, that in
the laft ftage of pulmonary confumption they fometimes
occur as the immediate forerunners of death. (See Pete-
CHi.T,.) For hiftories and cafes of purpura, fee Duncan's
Med. Comment, vols. xiv. and xx. and Med. Cafes and Ob-
ferv. p. 90. Annals of Medicine, vol. ii. Memoirs of the
Med. Society of London, vol. iii. art. 20 ; and vol. iv.
art. 17. Medical Trafts and Obf. vol. ii. Willan's Reports
on the Dileafes of London.

PURPURATI, in our Ancient Hiflarians, denote the
Ions of emperors and kings.

PURPURE, PouRPRE, or Purple, in Heraldry, ac-
cording to fome, is one of the five colours of armoi-ies,
mixed or compounded of gules ;ind azure, bordering on
violet ; and, according to others, of a little black and much
red colour. It is, by the heralds, fuppofed a fymbol of
temperance, liberality, dignity, authority, faith, and piety.
Moll; authors in heraldry, as Favyn, Geliot, Monet, and
Meneftrier, do not allow purple for a colour, in regard it
is not fimple, but compofed of a mixture of other colour?.
They rather efteem it a kind of intermediate tinfture, fome-
times metal, and fometimes colour : hence the Spaniards
call it una mijlion : fo that one cannot lay it on metal and
colour without falfifying the arms.

Add, that many take the purple, as it is accounted, on.

many ancient bearings, by which fome of the moderns would

F 2 evince

PUR

PUR

evince the regularity and legitimacy of this colour in armory,
to be no other than filver tarnifhed.

Spelman, however, in his Afpilogia, allows purple the pre-
ference before all other colours, as having been an enlign
of royalty for many ages ; yet even he allows it to have
been excluded, by the ancient heralds, as only an imperfeft
colour.

It is reprefented in engraving, by diagonal lines drawn
from the finifter chief to the dexter bafe point. In the coats
of noblemen it is called amethyji ; and in thofe of princes,
Mercury.

PUliPURINA, a name ufed by Caneparius, and fome
other authors, for the aurum mol'aicum, or aurum mulivum
of the fliops, the prefent preparation of which differs
from that of that author only in the proportions of the
ingredients.

PURPURISSUS, in the Jncietit IVrhers, both Greek
and Roman, the name of a compound colour or fucus of a
fine purplifh red, ufed to paint women's cheeks.

It feems by the compofition to have been fomewhat like
our rofe pink, as it is called by the colourmen. It was
made of the creta argentaria, or line white kind of chalk,
diilolved in a llrong purple tindture of fome of the roots
of wood which dyed red ; and when the coarfer part
was fubfided to the bottom of the veU'el, tlie hquor,
while yet thick, was poured off into another veffel ; and
what fubfided from this, which was as fine as flour, was
of a beautiful pale purple, and was the purpuriflus faved
for ufe.

PURREL, anno 35 Eliz. cap. 10. a lift ordained to be
made at the ends of kerfeys,to prevent deceit in diminifliing
their length.

PURRONGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan,
in the circar of Bilfa ; 20 miles S.E. of Bilfa.

PURROWNAH, a town of Hindooflan, in Oude ; 28
miles E. of Gooracpour. N. lat. 26" 57'. E. long. 84° 17'.

PURRUAH, a* f mall circar of Bengal, about 16 miles
in circumference ; N. of Mauldah. — Alfo, a town of Ben-
gal, and chief town of the faid circar ; 26 miles E.S.E. of
Burdwan. N. lat. 23° 4'. E. long. 88° 25'.

PURSAH, a town of Hindooflan, in Bahar ; i8 miles
N.W. of Chuprali.

PURSAUMMAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
35 miles E. of Durbungah.

PURSE, a manner of accounting ; or, as fome call it,
a fpecies of money of account, much ufed in the Levant,
particularly at Conftantinople, where it is 500 afpers ; three
afpers being equal to a para, and forty paras equal to a piaflre,
called by the Turks grouch, and by the Enghfh dollar. By
the regulations of 1 780, the purfc of 500 piattres was to weigh
28 1 2^ Turkifh drams. A fingle piattre weighed 5^ drams,
or 277 Enghfh grains ; and the other pieces in proportion.
Their llandard of fmenefs was reduced at the fame time to
50 carats (or hundredth parts) of fine filver, and 50 of
alloy : which gave the value of the piattre at l,()\d. ftcrling,
and the other filver coins in proportion. But finca that
period tlie Turkifh coins have undergone a deterioration, fo
that a piaftre of the lateft coinage being weighed and af-
fayed by the king's afTay matter of the Mint, appeared to
be in weight 8 dwt. 6 gr. ; in finenefs, 5 oz. 6 dwt. worfe
than the Englifh ftandard. This gives its finenefs 47 carats
a grains Turkifh, and its value, in fterling, l^id. Kelly's
Un. Cambitt.

This money of account is called purfe, becaufe all the
jrrand fignior's treafure in the feraglio is kept in leather
bags of this value.

In this, however, there is fome difference ; for the purfe

in Egypt is 25,000 medinis, or 75,000 afpers; and in other
parts of Turkey it is only 20,000.

This method of accounting the Turks derive from the
Greeks, and they from the Romans ; the emperors of which
brought it to Conftantinople, as appears from a letter oi
Conttantine to Cecilian, bifhop of Carthage, quoted by
Eufebius and Nicephorus. See FoLLls.

PuRSE-A'^e/, in Rural Economy, a net ufed for taking
both hares and rabbits at certain times ; and three or four
dozen of them are fufficient to lay over their holes : they
are to be fattened, by tying firings to flicks thrufl into the
earth, otherwife when the rabbits bolt out, they will run away
and get out of the nets ; but when the nets are fixed, and
all tilings are in order, there mufl be one or two perfons to
lie clofe, to fee what game comes home ; while, in the mean
time, you beat the bufhes, to force them homewards. But
another way to take rabbits with thefe nets is, at their
coming out of their parraces : and they Ihould be fecreted
in this manner. Firfl hunt them up and down, to force
them all in, then put in a ferret, with a bell about her neck,
whicli gives the rabbit notice of her coming, who, in en-
deavouring to avoid the ferret, runs into the net.

PURSER, an officer aboard a man of war, appointed
by the lords of the admiralty, who receives her victuals
from the vidlualler ; and it to take care that it be in good
condition, and well laid up and flowed. He is alfo to fee
that they are carefully diftributed to the officers and crew,
according to the inftruftions which he has received from
the commiffioners of the navy for that purpofe. To him
alfo belongs the dittribution of flops, &c.

He is alfo to keep a lift of the men and boys belonging
to the fhip, and to fet down, exaftly,the day of each man's
admittance into pay ; that the paymafter or treafurer of
the navy may iflue out his difburfements, and pay off the
men according to the mufter-book.

PURSIVENESS, or PuRSINESs, among Farriers, thick-
nefs of wind, a name common to all thafe difeafes in horfes
which arife from obftruftions in the paffages of the lungs.

Purfivenefs, fometimes alfo called broken wind, may pro-
ceed from an ulcer, or fome inward wafting of the lungs,
in which the fmall veflels are worn or abraded by the fharp-
nefs or acrimony of the common difcharges.

The like diforder may alfo arife from a ftagnation, hin-
dering the air from penetrating fo as to lift up the lungs
in the aft of refpiration ; or from fome tough and muci-
laginous matter feparated in the branches of the wind-pipe.

The ufual occafions are cold, furfeits, and other difeafes
not thoroughly carried off. Purfive difordersmay alfo arife
from unwholefome food, bad air, and hard riding when a
horfe is full. The figns are commonly a heaving and beat-
ing of the flanks ; a wheezing and rattling. Sometime*
the kernels about the throat will fwell, and there will be a
glandulous running at the nofe, which is the utmoft ftage
of the difeafe, and ufually reputed defperate.

PURSLANE, in Botany. See Portulaca.

Purslane, Horfi. See Trianthema.

Purslane, Sea. See Atriplex.

PtiRSLANE Tree. See Portulacaria.

Purslane, Water. See Peplis.

PURSOTTUMPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in Bahar ; 35 miles W.S.W. of Arrah.

PURSOYAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 25
miles W.S.W. of Gavah.

PURSUIVANT.' See Pouusuivant.

PURSURjin Geography, a town of Hindooflan, in Oude ;
1 3 miles N. of Mahomdy.

PURVER, Anthony, in Bhgraphy, was born at Up-
1 1 Hurftorn,

PUR

Hurlborn, in Hampfhiie, about the beginning of the i8th
century. His education was extremely limited, but he
exhibited a flriking proof ot his capacity for learning while he
was very young ; for, being prevented by illnefs from attend-
ing fchool almoft fix weeks, he applied, by himfelt, during
that time, with luch diligence and luccefs to the (tudy ot
arithmetic, that upon his return to fchool he was able to
explain the procefles of evolution to his mailer, whofe at-
tainments had not carried him fo far. At this time of life
he exhibited great powers of memory, by committing to
it ^welve of the longeft chapters in the bible in as many
hours. He was put apprentice to a (hoe-maker, who
was alfo a dealer in (heep, and employed Anthony a
good deal in looking after his flock. Tiiis was not by any
means an irkfome bufinefs, as it afforded him an opportU!ilty
for reading the fcriptures, to which he was particularly
attached. As he advanced in years, he found tliat his
favourite book contained dodtrines that weie very differently
interpreted by different perfons, and he was refolved to
lludy the Old and New Tellament in their original lan-
guages. Having renounced the occupation for which he
was originally intended when he was about twenty years
of age, he commenced teacher in a fchool, but afterwards
removed to London, for the fake of more eaiily acquiring
the means of profecuting his iludies. Here he probably
refided in 1727, when he publiflicd his work, entitled " The
Youth's Delight." While at London he became a Quaker,
and officiated among the friends in the charafter of a
minifler. He returned to Hurfborn, and refumed his
fchool in 1727, and probably continued it for fome time,
during which he began to tranflate the books of the Old
Teilament, from the original Hebrew. While thus em-
ployed, he felt it his duty to become a milTioiiary, and
travelled through feveral counties of tlie kingdom, till he
came to Stambrook, near Briftol, towards the latter part
of the year 1738. Here he refided at the houfe of a
maltller, whofe fon he inltruftcd in claffical learning, while
he devoted his leifiire to his favourite employment of tranf-
lating the fcriptures. In 1 746 he made an attempt to
publifh his tranflation of the Old Teftament in numbers ;
but for want of encouragement he did not proceed beyond
two or three numbers. When he had completed the
tranflation of the whole bible, he could find no bookfeller
who would embark in the publication. Thus was the
labour of thirty years likely to be loll, till Dr. Fothergill
made him a prefent of 1000/. for the copy, and took upon
himfelf the expence of printing the work. Under his
aufpices, it made its appearance in the year 1764, with the
title of " A new and literal Tranflation of all the Books
of the Old and New Teftament, with Notes critical and
explanatory," in 2 vols, folio. It was the author's inten-
tion to have publifhed a fecond edition, with various cor-
reftions and alterations, but he did not live to accontplifh
the defign. He died in 1777, about the age of 75.
Purver was defcribed by Dr. Fothergill as " a man of great
fimplicity of manners, regular conduft, and a modefl re-
ferve : he is fteadily attentive to truth, hates falfehood, and
has an unconquerable averfion to vice ; and to crown the
portrait, he is not only greatly benevolent to mankind, but
has a lively fenfe of the divine attributes, and a profound
reverence of, and fubmiflion to, the Supreme Being."
Gent. Mag.

PURVEYANCE. SccPourveyance.

PURVEYOR. See PouRVEVoK.

PURVIEW, from the French, pourveu, a gift, grant,
provtfion, &c. a term frequently ufed, by iir Edward Coke,

PUS

for the body of an adl of jjarliament, or that part which
begins with £e it etiaSccl, 8:c. as contradillinguiflied from
the preamble.

The fhitute of 3 Hen. VII. ftand^ upon a preamble and
a purview. i 2 Rep.

PURULENT, PORULRNTUS, in Medidue, fomething
mixed with, or partaking of, pus or matter.

Phthifical people frequently fpit a purulent matter. In
a dyfcntery, the ftools are purulent : when there is an
ulcer in the reins or bladder, the urine is purulent.

PURUSHA, in Mythology. See Paku.siia.

PURUZ, in Geography, a river of La Plata, which rifes
about S. lat. 17° 20', taking the name of " Rio Beni,"
and afterwards called " Aniaru-Mayu," or " I'he Serpent :"
from S. lat. 1 2- its coiirfe is not afcertained till it comes
to S. lat. 6°, after which it affumes the name of Puruz,
and runs into the river of the Amazons, or Maranon,
S. lat. 3' 44'. W. long. 45° 6'. Its whole courfe is
northerly about 800 miles.

PUR WAR, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore ; 14
miles S. of Sealcot.

PURYSBURG, a handfonie town of South Carolina,
in Beaufort diflrift, which diftrift contains 25,887 in-
habitants, on the E. fide of Savannah river, 37 miles from
the ocean, and 20 from Savannah. It derives its name
from a Swifs, John Peter Pury, who fettled a colony of
his countrymen here about the year 1735, with a view to
the culture of filk. The mulberry-trees are Hill ftanding,
and fome attention is paid to the raifing of filk. The town
contains between 40 and 50 dwelling-houfes, and an epif-
copal church ; 64 miles W.S.W. of Charleftown. N. lat.
32° 23'. W. long. 81° 12'.

PUS, from -avov, matter, the fluid contained in ab-
fceffes, and difcharged from ulcerated furfaces, and fome-
times from membranous furfaces which are merely inflamed,
and quite free from ulceration, as is illullrated in cafes of
gonorrhea, empyema, &c. Pus is formed by a peculiar
procefs, which is termed fuppuration, of which we fliall have
occafion to fpeak in a future volume of this work.

In the prefent place, we (hall content ourfelves with in-
ferting a few obfervations on the qualities and ufes of pus,
chiefly taken from the writings of Mr. Hunter.

True pus has certain properties, which, when taken
fingly, may belong to other fecretions, but which, con-
jointly, form the peculiar character of this fluid, -viz.
globules iwimming in a fluid, which is coagulable by a
folution of fal ammoniac, which no other animal fecretion is,
and, at the fame time, a confequence of inflammation.

The colour and the confidence of pus are the two
qualities which tirfl attradl the notice of every, the mofl
fuperfjcial, obferver. The colour arifes from the largeft
portion of this fluid being compofed of very fmall round
bodies, very much like thofe little globules which, fwim-
ming in a fluid, make cream. The fluid in which the
globules of pus fvvim, we might at firll fuppofe to be the
ferum of the blood, for it coagulates with heat, Like the
latter fluid. Pus is alfo probably mixed with a fmall quan-
tity of coagulating lymph ; as it partly coagulates after it is
fecretcd.

The fluid part of pus, however, is known to have pro-
perties which ferum has not. There being a fimilarity be-
tween pus and milk, experiments have been made to afcer-
tain whether the fluid of pus could be coagulated with the
gaftric juice of animals ; but no coagulation could be
effefted in this manner : a folution of fal ammoniac made
the fluid part of pus coagulate ; but not any other fecretion,

or

PUS.

or natural fluid ; and hence it was concluded, that when-
ever n;lobules were found fwimming in a fluid, coagu-
lable by fal ammoniac, the matter was to be confidL-red
as pus.

The proportion which the white globules bear to the
other pai'ts of pus, depends on the health of the parts pro-
ducnigthe difcharge. When the globules are very abun-
dant, the matter is thicker and whiter, and is called healthy
pus ; the meaning of which is, that the folids, which pro-
duced it, are in good health ; for thefe appearances in the
matter are no more than the refult of certain falutary
proCefles going on in the folids, the effeft of which pro-
cefles is to produce the difpofition, on which both fuppura-
tion and granulation depend.

Pus is fpecifically heavier than water, and is probably
about as heavy as blood.

Befides the above properties, pus has a fweetilh mawkifh
taite, very different from that of moll other fecretions, and
the fame tafte takes place, whether it is pus from a fore, or
an irj-itated inflamed furface.

Pus has a fmell in fome degree peculiar to itfelf ; but
this differs in different cafes. Some difeafes, it is faid,
may be known by the fmell, as, for inftance, a gonon-hoea.

Pus finks in water ; mucus floats. Pus communicates
to water an uniformly troubled white colour ; mucus gives
the appearance of Itringy portions floating in it. Mucus
is faid to be more readily diflolvcd by fulphuric acid than
pus IS. It has alfo been aflerted, that if water be added to
iuch folutions, the pus is precipitated to the bottom of the
veflel ; while the mucus, inilead of being completely pre-
cipitated, forms fwimming flakes. A folution of cauftic
alkali diflolvcs both pus and mucus ; but when water is
added, the pus is faid to become feparated, but not the
mucus.

Though folutions in chemical menftrua and precipitations
have been thought a teft of the diftmftion between thefe
'two fluids ; yet the method has been thought abfurd and
unphilofophical. It has been conceived, that all animal
fiibftances whatever, when in folution, either in acids or
alkalies, vvould be in the fame ftate, and therefore, that the
precipitation would be the fame in all. Calcareous earth,
when diffolved in muriatic acid, is in that acid in the fame
ftate, whether it has been difiblred from chalk, limeftone, mar-
ble, or calcareous Ipar, and precipitations from all are the
fame. Hence experiments were made on organic animal mat-
ter, fuch as mufcle, tendon, cartilage, liver, and brain ; and on
inorganic, fuch as pus and the white of an egg. All thefe
fubrtances were didolved in lulphuric acid, and precipitated
with the vegetable alkali. Each precipitation was examined
with fuch magnifiers as plainly fliewed tlie forms of the
precipitates, all which appeared to be flaky fubftances.
The precipitate by the volatile alkah had exaftly the fame
appearance. The fame' appearances were feen when the
above kinds of animal matter were diffolved in the vegetable
cauftic alkali, and precipitated with the muriatic acid. A
flaky fubftance, void of any regular form, compofed each
precipitate.

Pus does not irritate the particular furface which fecretes
it, though it may be irritating to any other. Hence no
fuppuratmg furface, of any fpecific kind, can be kept up
by its own matter. If this had not been the cafe, no fore
of a fpecific quality, or producing matter of an irritating
kind, could ever have b:-en healed. This is fimilar to every
other fecrftion of ftimulating fluids, as the bile, tears, Sec.
which fluids do not ttimulate their own glands or dufts,
but are capable of ftimulating any other part of the body.

Whenever a real difcafe attacks either the fappurating
furface or the conftitution, the produftion of true pus
ceafes, and the fluid becomes changed in fome meafure, in
proportion to thefe morbid alterations. In general it be-
comes thinner and more tranfparent, and it partakes more
of the nature of the blood, as is the cafe in moft other
fecretions under fimilar circumftances. Sanies is the term
ufually applied by furgeons to pus in this degenerated ftate.
This unhealthy fort of matter has more of the ferum, and
frequently more of the coagulating lymph in it, and lefs of
the combination, which renders it coagulable by a folution
of fal ammoniac. It has alfo a greater proportion of the
extrane(<u3 parfs of the blood, which are folubie in water,
fuch as falts ; and it has a greater tendency than true pus
to become putrid. Such unhealthy matter may even be
irritating to the furface which produces it.

The difcharge, when of an irritating fort, is more ftimu-
lating to the adjoining parts with which it comes in contaft,
than to its own fecreting furface. In this manner it fre-
quently produces excoriation of the fliin and ulceration.
Thus the tears excoriate the i\<m of the cheek, in confe-
qucnce of the quantity of falts which they contain. From
this effeft, matter has been called corrofive, a quality which
it has not ; the only property which it pofleftes being that
of irritating the parts which it touches, fo as to caufe their
abiorption.

When the veffels thus lofe tlie power of producing good
pus, they alfo lofe more or lefs the power of forming
granulations. This may depend on fome deviation from
the due ftrufture and aftion which fuch veflels ftiould
poffefs, in order to be qualified for the performance of thefe
two operations.

PLs, from feveral circumftances, would appear in general
to have a greater tendency to putrefaction than the natural
juices have ; but, perhaps, this is not the cafe with pure
pus, which, when firft difcharged from an abfcefs, is com-
monly perfeftly fweet. There are, however, fome excep-
tions to this, but thefe depend on circumftances entirely
foreign to the nature of pus itfelf. Thus, if the abfcefs had
any communication with the air, while the matter was cen-
fined in it ; or if the colleftion has been fo near the colon,
or rectum, as to have been infefted by the feces, then we
cannot wonder that the matter ftiould become putrid.
W^hen blood is blended with pus ; when floughs are mixed
with it ; when the parts forming the feat of the abfcefs are
in a gangrenous ftate from an eryfipetalous affeftion ; the
matter has a greater tendency to putrify than the pure pus
difcharged from found abfcelfes, or healing fores. Pure
matter, though eafily rendered fufceptible of change by
extraneous additions, is in its own nature tolerably uniform
and immutable. It appears fo unchangeable, that we find
it retained in an abfcefs for weeks, without having under-
gone any alteration. Thefe qualities, however, only belong to
perfeft pus.

In the preceding paragraph it is ftated, that matter remains
very often unchanged in abfceffes for weeks. This expreffion
of Hunter's is not ftriftly correft ; for it is well known, that
the furfaces of the cavities of abfceffes are always abforbing,
as well as fecreting ones ; confequently there muft be a conti-
nual mutation going on in the contained matter.

When there are difeafed bones, or other extraneous
bodies, exciting irritation, fometimes even to fo great a
degree as to make the veffels bleed, and often wounding the
veffels of the part, the matter is always found to be very
offenfive. This ftate of the difcharge is one mark of a
difeafed bone.

The

PUS

PUSHERS, a name given to Canary birds when new
flown. See Brancihcr, and Canaiiv i«-^.

PUSHING, in Gedgrajihy, a tonliderable town of Perfia,
in the province of Khorafan, a little to iht N. of Herat,
built on the banks ot the Herirood, and celebrated for the
beauty of the cyprefs trees which grow in its vicinity.

PUSHPADANVA, in Mythology, one of the names
as a conftitutional difeafe, "changed into a local one, v/liich of the Hindoo deity Kama, the cupid of their mythology,
conflitutional malady is difcharged, or thrown out of the It means with a flowery bow ; his bow, which is made of a
body, either in the form of pus, or together with this fluid, fugar cane, having its ilring conipofed of flowers and bees.
Critical abfceUes have been thought to be cafes of this See Kama.

fort. Suppuration has alfo been imagined to carry off PUSHPAKA, the name of a flowery car, in which the
local complaints from other parts of the body, on the old Hindoo Plutus, named Kuvera, is conveyed. See Ku-
principle of derivation or revulfion. For this reafon, fores vera.

PUS

The difcharge of an unhealthy fore blackens filver probes,
and preparations of lead. This efl'ed is imputed by Dr.
Crawford to the fulphurated hydrogen gas generated in
the matter. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxx. for the year 1790.
p. 391, Sec.

Ufe of Paj. — By fome it is fuppofed to carry off humours
from the conilltution. Suppuration is fometimes regarded

or iffues are made in found parts before allowing other
fores to be dried up. Suppuration is fometimes excited
with a view of making parts, fuch as indurated fwellings,
diflblve into pus ; but we have endeavoured to (hew that
no difi'olution of the folids is concerned in^ the produftion
of pus.

A fecretion of pus is looked upon as a general prevention
oi many, or of all, the caufes of difeafe. Hence iilues are
made to keep off both univerfal as well as local difeafes.
However, the ufe of pus is perhaps unknown ; for it is
brmed mofl; perfedfly from healthy fores, and in healthy
:onllitutions ; and large difcharges from parts not very
■flential to hfe, produce very little change in the conftitu-
lion, and as little upon being healed up, whatever fome may
luppofe to the contrary.

This is certainly the cafe with many old ulcers, the fup-
]uration from which feems to have httle or no effedl in
mpairing the health. Nor is there any real reafon to be
Ifraid of heaUng fuch ulcers, when poiuble, lell a worfe
lifeafe ftiould follow from the itoppage of the difcharge,
o which the fyllem is fuppofed to be habituated fo much,
hat the continuance of fuch difcharge is eflential to health.
Every one knows, that when there is no interference of
-rt, that is, when the furface of a fore is left uncovered,
ne thin part of the matter evaporates, and the thick part
ri-ies and forms a fcab. Nature, therefore, feems to have
•jficrned, that one ufe of pus (hould be to make a cover
irprnteftion for ulcerated furfaces.
Among the fecondary ufes of fuppuration may be men-
oned, opening a communication between a difeafe and the
-.ternal furface of the body ; forming a paflage for the
:it of extraneous bodies, &c.

PUSA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
!2 miles E. of Hajypour.
PUSBACH, a town of Germany, in the principality of
almbach ; 13 miles S. of Culmbach.
PUSCHENGA, a river of Ruffia, which rifes in lake
rus, in the government of Archangel, and runs into the
mega near Kevrol.

PUSCHIAVO, a town of Switzerland, in the Grifons,
)m which is derived the name of one of the jurifdidions
fled by the duke of Milan, in the year 1436. The
•eater number of the inhabitants confifts of Roman Ca-
olics. The town lies three miles N. of a lake of the
ne name, abounding in fifh, and dittant 14 miles S.W.
Bormio, and is lituated 17 miles W.S.W. of the fame
vn, and 20 miles E. of Chiavenna

PUSILLATUM, a word ufed by fome medical writers
to exprefs a coarfi; powder, or any medicinal fiibltance, beat
into fmall pieces for infufion, or the like purpofes.

PUSTING, in Geography, a town of Hungary, on the
Waag; eight miles N.N. W. of Leopoldlladt.

PUSTOMERZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Brunn ; 16 miles E.N.E. of Brunn.

PUSTOZIRSK, a town of Ruflia, in the government
of Archangel, near the Petchora. N. lat. 67^ 15'. E.
long. 51° 14'.

PUSTULE, PusTULA, in Medletne, a fmall elevation
of the cuticle, upon an inflamed bafe, containing ^aj-.

Pullules originate from an inflammation of the flcin, and
the confequent partial efliufion of purulent matter under the
cuticle, by which the latter is elevated into Imall circuin-
icribed tumours. Puftules are of various fizes, fometimes
very minute, and fometimes extending to half an inch in
diameter ; and they terminate either in fmall ulcerations, or
more commonly in fcabby crulls. Dr. Willan conftituted
an order of cutaneous difeafes under the head of pujiules,
including five genera, impetigo, porrigo, ecthyma, va-
riola, and fcabies ; but he never completed this part of his
work, a brief compendium of which has been drawn up by
Dr. Bateman. (See his Practical Synopfis of Cutaneous
Difeafes, 1813.) See alfo Impetigo, Poi;rigo, Small-
pox, and Itch.

By many writers the ufe of the word pujlule is very
general, including not only purulent elevations of the fliin,
but veiicles and even pimples ; and it mull be admitted
that the befl; ancient authority fanftions even a more extenfive
acceptation of the word, including even wheals, " quae ex
urtica vel fudore nafcuntur." (Cellus, lib. v. cap. 28.)
But not only the etymology (quafi pus tullt), but accuracy
of language would lead us to limit the term to purulent erup-
tions, as in the above definition, and as fome correct writers
have done. See Prof. Arnemann, Comment, de Aphthis.
Eiiini-us, Gen. Morbor. clais xi. ord. 4, 3cc.

PUSTVOLA, in Geography, a river of Afiatic Turkey,
which runs into the fea of Marmora; 16 miles W. of Ar-
taki, in the province of Natolia.

PUSU, in Botany, the name of a famous plant growing
in China, and greatly efteemed there. Tnis and the gin-
feng thefe people a long time kept to tlierafelves ; but at
length it was difcovered, that the one was eiteemed a certain
prolonger of life, and the other a prefervative againil ail
difeafes.

They, in their manner of fpeaking, fay, that the pufu

(PUSCHIMA, a town of Ruifia, in the government of gives immortaUty. We have not been fo happy to obtain

wgorod ; 40 miles N.N.E. of Bielozerfli.

PUSHAN, in Mythology, a name for Siu-ya, a perfoni-

ition of the fun, among the Hindoos, and a name alfo

their god Siva.

PUSHENG, in Geography. See KoosHiNjEE.

any of this famous plant for the trial, but the ginfeng
having been brought over, and found not to poffefs thole
great virtues they afcribe to it, and the people in China,
who are poffeffed of the pufu, dying, as well as thofe who
have it not, we find, that the virtues of both are fo greatly

exaggerated

P U T

exaggerated by the eallern dialeft, that there is not mucli to
be cxpcfted from them.

PUSULA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Nyland ; 37 miles N.N.W. of Helfingfors.

PUT, in tlie Manege, called in Frencii tnettrc, is ufed for
the breaking or managmg of a horfe : thus.

To put li horfe to corvets, or caprioles, is to teach him
thofe parts of the manege.

To put a horfe upon his haunches, called in Frencli
ajfcoir, is to make him bend them handfomely in galloping
in the manege, or upon a ilop. See Haunches.

To put a horfe to the walk, trot, or gallop, is to make
him walk, trot, or gallop.

To put a horfe under the button, fee Button.

PUTAGE, PuTAGiuM, in our old Lain Books, denotes
whoredom or fornication on the part of a woman.

The word is formed from the French putte, 'uihore ; puta-
gium, q. d. putam agere. " Quod autum generaliter folet
dici, pwtagium haereditatem non adimit ; illud intelligendum
ell de putagio matris ; quia filius hires legitimus eft, quem
nuptifE demonftrant." Glanv. lib. vii. cap. 12.

PUTALA, in Geography. See Pateli.

PUTALLOM, a town on the coaft of Ceylon, near
Calpenteen, remarkable for its fait -pans. This place, before
the arrival of Europeans on the ifland, fupplied the natives
with fait ; and on account of its convenient fituation, was
pitched upon by the Dutch for the manufafture of the fait
with which they fupplied the king of Candy's dominions,
according to the articles of their treaty with him. The
fait -pans are formed by an arm of the fea which overflows
part of the country between Putallom and Calpenteen. A
very large quantity of fait was manufaftured here by the
Dutch ; they looked upon it as of the higheft importance
to their interefts in the ifland, and the moft formidable
weapon which it was in their power to employ againft the
native king, as it was impoflible for him to procure any but
through their means. Since the Britifh have obtained pof-
fefTion of the ifland, this manufafture has been almoft en-
tirely neglefted. It is capable, however, of being rendered
vei-y profitable, as it is the only one of the kind on this fide
of the ifland, and the moft conveniently fituated for fupply-
ing the king of Candy's dominions. The Dutch enafted
very fevere laws to prevent individuals from manufacturing
or trading in this article ; the government taking upon it-
felf the management of the works, and the care of fupplying
both its own fubjefts and the Candians. In order to keep
a conftant check on the latter, the Dutch were careful not
to allow them too great a quantity at once ; and whatever
remained at Putallom, after fupplying the demands of each
year, they deftroyed, that it might not be feized upon by
furprife.

PUTANGES, a town of France, in the department of
the Orne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of Ar-
gentan ; nine miles N.W. of Argentan. The place con-
tains 502, and the canton 11,934 inhabitants, on a temtory
of 212^ kiliometres, in 31 communes.

PUTANISM, PuTANisMO, an Italian term, naturalized
by fome Englifh writers, fignifying whoredom, or the life or
condition of a courtezan.

The word we borrow immediately from the French, puta-
oifme ; and they from the Italian /u/tonrt, whore; of putia,
girl.

PUTAO, in Geography, a town on the S. coaft of the
ifland of Lu9on. S. lat. 13° 6'. E. long. 123=' 28'.

PUTATIVE, SupposlTiVE, fomething reputed to be
what it really is not.

The word is feldom ufed but in the phrafe putative father.

PUT

Thus we fay, Jofeph was the putative father of Jefus
Chrift.

PUTAVERI, in Biography, a native of Otaheite,^'
brought into France by the circumnavigator Bougainville ;
of whom a gentleman, who had refided a confiderable
time in Italy, and was an excellent judge of mufic, aflured
us that the effefts of French mufic, when fairly tried upon
him immediately on his arrival, were not thofe of rapture,
but ridicule. He danced to it, indeed, as we would to a
marked meafure beat on a drum or a table ; for as foon as
he returned from the great opera, whither he was carried, he
mimicked what he had heard and feen in the moft natural
and ridiculous manner poflible ; giving the company a fpe-
cimen of the French opera, which was the moll admirable
parody imaginable of French finging, or rather of the
fcreams and bowlings at the Academic Royale de la Mufique
in the time of Louis XV. Our friend wifhed to try the
effefts of Italian mufic upon this demi-favage native of
Otaheite ; but there was no opportunity, for how could it
be properly executed at Paris ? However, according to the
late lord marftial, the experiment had been fairly made on
another occafion.

A young Greek lady being brought from her own
country to Paris, fome years fince, was, foon after her
arrival in that city, carried to the opera by fome French
ladies, fuppofing, as ftie had never heard cultivated mufic,
that flie would be in raptures at it ; but, contrary to thofe
expeftations, flie declared that the finging only reminded
her of the hideous bowlings of the Calmuc Tartars, and as
to the machinery, which it was thought would afford her
great amufement, flie proclaimed her diflike of many parts
of it, and was particularly ftiocked by what flie called the
impious and wicked imitation of God's thunder. Soon
after this expenment ftie went to Venice, where another trial
was made on her unprejudiced ears, at an Italian opera, in
which the famous Gizziello fung, at whofe performance flie
was quite dilfolved in pleafure, and was ever after paf-
fionately fond of Itaban mufic.

PUTAWATAMES, or Pootootamies, in Geography,
Indians who inhabit between St. Jofeph's and Detroit in
North America, and can furnifli about 500 warriors.
There are two tribes of this name, the one of the river St.
Jofeph, and the other of Huron. At the treaty of Green-
ville, Auguft 3d, 1795, they ceded lands to the United
States, who paid them a fum of money, and engaged to give
them goods to the value of 1000 dollars p>er annum, fo:
ever.

PUTBUS, a town and fort of the ifland of Rugen ; fiv(
miles S. of Bergen.

PUTCABARY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal
45 miles S.E. of Moorfliedabad.

PUTEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa pro
pria, S. of Adrametum, between Campfa and Caraga, ac
cording to Ptolemy. — Alfo, a town of Syria, in the Palmy
rene, between Oriza and Abada. Ptol.

PUTEAL, among the Romans, a fmall kind of edific
raifed in the place where a thunder- bolt had fallen. Se

BiDENTAL.

PUTELKAW, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, i
the province of Ermeland ; fix miles S.W. of Frawer
burg.

PUTEMAHRY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal
1 6 miles N. of Kiftienagur.

PUTEOLANUS Pulvis. See Pozzolana.

PUTHLOSE, or PwTl.os, in Geography, a town <
the duchy of Holftein ; four miles N.W. of Oldenburg.

PUTI, or PoTi, a town of the principality 'of Gurii

I

PUT

P U T

at the mouth of the Rionc, on the Black fea ; Jo miles
W.S.W. of Cotatis. N. lat. 42°. E. long. 41° 28'.

PUTICULI, among the Romans, ditches or holes in
the earth, a little without the Efquiline gate, in which the
poorer fort of people were Ijiiriod.

PUTIGNANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
the province of Bari ; 33 miles S.E. of Bari.

PUTIVLI, a town of Rufiia, in the government of
Kurllc, on the'Sem ; 72 miles W.S.W. of Kurft. N. lat.
51'^' 20'. E. long. 34" 14'.

PUTLACH, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of
Bamberg; fivemiiesE. of GolTvveinftein.

PUTLITZ, or PuDLiTz, a town of Brandenburg, in
the Mark of Pregnitz ; 10 miles N. of Perleberg. N. lat.
53° 16'. E. long. 12° 3'.

PUTLOGS, or PuTLOCKS, in BuUdtng, fhort pieces of
timber, about feven feet long, ufed in building fcafFolds.
They lie at right angles to the wall, with one of their
ends bearing upon it, and the other upon the ledges or
poles which ftand parallel to the iide of the wall of the
building.

PUTNA, in Geography, a town of Moldavia ; 32 miles
W. of Suczava. — Alfo, a river of Moldavia, which runs
into the Milcow, at Focfani.

PUTNAM, a county of America, in the fouthern dif-
trift of Georgia, containing 6809 free pcrfons, and 3220
flaves. Its chief town is Eatonton.

PUTNEY, a town of America, in Windham county, and
ftate of Vermont, containing 1607 inhabitants.

Putney, a village and parirti in the weft half hundred
of Brixton, and county of Surrey, England, is fituated
on the fouth bank of the river Thames, at the diftance of
four miles from Hyde Park corner, London. The parifh
contains 1630 acres, of which the greater proportion is an
open common or heath. In the time of the civil wars it
was the fcene of fome very interefting tranfaftions. The
parliamentary army lay at Putney, for a confidcrable time,
in the year 1 747 ; and here the general officers, after long
debates in the church, completed their propofitions for the
future government of the kingdom, and fent them to the
king at Hampton Court. Here alfo were born two cele-
brated ftatefmen, Nicholas Weft, bifhop of Ely, and
Thomas Cromwell, earl of Eilex, the protegee of Wolfey,
and the fucceifor to his power and misfortunes. In this
parifh are many agreeable villas ; in one of which the late
Uluftrious William Pitt breathed his laft. The church was
originally built as a chapel of eafe to Wimbledon, not long
after the conquefl ; but was, in a great meafiire, re-ere£led
in the reign of Henry VII. It is a fmall edifice, with a
ftone tower at the weft end. A little chapel at the eaflern
extremity of the fouth aifle, built by bifliop Wefl, is, how-
ever, its chief ornament. Monuments and infcriptions are
numerous, but few of them deferve notice. Over the
Thames, in this parifh, is a wooden bridge, conftrufted in
the year 1729, at the expenc? of 23,975/. and yielding a
revenue, by tolls, to the proprietors, of above 3000/. per
annum. A fifhery here was poffefTed by the lord of the
manor, previous to the conquell ; and is now rented for a
confiderable fum. All flurgeons and porpufes are claimed by
the lord mayor of London, but the filhermcn receive 1 3^.
for each of the former, and a guinea for each of the latter,
when delivered to the water bailiff. On the common ftands
an obelifli, erefted, in 17S6, in memory of Hartley's in-
vention for fecuring buildings againfl fire.

According to the parliamentary returns of 1 8 1 1 , this
parifh contains 492 houfes, and 2881 inhabitants. Lyfons's
Environs of London, vol. i. 1795. Supplement, 181 1.

Vol. XXIX.

PUTNOK, a town of Hungary; 36 miles W.N. W. of
Tokay.

PUTORIUS, in Zoology, the Pole-cat, a fpecies of
Muflela ; which fee. See alfo Pole-cat.

PuToiutJS Serpens, a name given by fome to that fpecies
of ferpent called by others dryiniis.

PUTREFACTION, or Putkifaction, in Chemjlry,
is a fpecies oi ferment al'wn (which fee) ; being the lad Hage
of the fermentatory procefs, and conliiling not merely in the
decompofition and tranfpofition of the particles of putrefying
fubflances, whether animal or vegetable, by which new
combinations are produced, but alfo in the extrication and
expulfion of fome of the conflituent parts of thefe fub-
flances.

This decompofition or derangement of the conflituent
parts of vegetable fubflances is ufually called fermentation,
and that of animal bodies, is denomhrdled putrefaction. The
agents that produce both kinds of decompofition, and the
circumflances that attend them are, in various refpefts, very
fimilar, and the chief difference of the produfts that are
obtained from both depends upon the diverfity of their
conflituent parts. The procefs of putrefaflion, and its efFeft
in diffolving the combination of the conflituent parts of
bodies, are fufficiently obvious to fenfc ; but the rationale
of the procefs, and the mode in which gafeous and volatile
compounds are feparated from bodies that are diforganized
and afterwards form new combinations, are flill involved in
confiderable obfcurity ; and different writers have difagreed
in their explication of them. Several fafts, however, are
univerfally acknowledged ; and of thefe we fhall give a
brief account in the fequel of this article, together with a
detail of fome of thofe principles and theories that have
been adopted for explaining them. Becher long ago ob-
fervcd, in his " Phyf. Subt. 1. i. §. 5." that air is the
principal agent of decompofition, but that water and heat
very much facilitate its aftion. Thus he fays, " Fermen-
tatio ergo definitur quod fit corporis denfioris rarefaftio,
particularumque acrearum interpofitio ; ex quo conclu-
ditur debcre in acre fieri nee nimium frigido, ne rare-
fadlio imped iatur ; nee nimium calido, ne partes raribiles
expellantLir."

An animal fubflance may be preferved from putrefaftiou
by depriving it of the contaft of the air ; and this procefs
may be accelerated or retarded by varying or modifying the
purity of the fame f^iiid. When we obferve putrefaftion
occurring without the accefs of atmofpherical air, the effeft
is produced by the water which impregnates the animal
fubftance, becomes decompofed, and affords the element
and the agent of putrefaction. Hence it appears, that
moiflure is an indifpenfible requifite to facilitate putrefac-
tion. A moderate degree of heat is alfo a condition favour-
able to animal decompofition.

Dr. Hales, it is well known, afcribed the cohefion and
foHdity «f bodies .to the air, which exifls in them in a fixed
flate, and forms, as he expreffes it, the cement or bond of
union between their feveral conflituent particles. To this
purpofe he obfcrves, that air abounds much more in folid
than in liquid bodies ; and that folid bodies being generally
denfer than water, the attraftion of the air of thefe folid
bodies in a fixed flate, and its repulfion when in an elaflic
ftate, are greater than the attraftion and repulfion of the
lighter watery particles in a fixed and in an elaflic ftate ;
and hence the particles of air are fitter to be the principal
bond of union in folid bodies, than the particles of water.
This opinion was afterwards adopted by baron de Haller,
who maintains, that air is the vinculum elementorum prrma-
ritim, or the true cement which binds together the earthy
G particle*

PUTREFACTION.

particles of bodies. Mr. Macbride, as we have elfewhere
mewn, has taktii occalion, by :i variety of experiments, to
JUullrate and eftablifli this opinion ; and in fupport of it he
alleges, that the prefervation of finnnels and foundnefs in
bodies depends oh reftraining the efcape of that principle,
fince known by the name of fixed air, and which he fup-
pofes to be the immediate caufe of cohefion : for the mo-
ment it flies off and refumes its clailicity, the other conlli-
tuent particles, vk.. tiie earthy, the faline, the oily or in-
flammable, and the aqueous, being thereby put in motion,
immediately begin to exert their feveral peculiar attra£live
and repulfive powers, and run into new combinations, which
firil change, and at length altogether deflroy the texture
of the fnbftauce they formerly compofed ; provided that
this fubilance contained in itfelf a fufficient quantity of
water to allow of the intefline motion, by giving the proper
degree of fluidity ; for without fluidity there can be no
inteftine motion ; and without inte tlinc motion there can be
no change of combination : beca\ife we fee that fuch animal
and vegetable bodies as are fuddenly deprived of their water,
or naturally contain very little, are almoft as durable and
unchangeable in their texture as minerals. Hence Acofla
obferves, that in Peru, and others have obferved the fame
in Egypt, wiiere it very rarely rains, every thing will con-
tinue a long time uncorrnpted ; uiilefs we fliould rather
afcribe this effeft to the abundance of nitrous fait in the air
of thofe places, which is known to refill putrefaftion. In-
deed all putrefattions, both of animal and vegetable bodies,
are affirmed by the learned Boerhaave to be performed by
means of water alone. Take, fays he, a pound of frefti fiefh,
and keep it in a heat like that of our body, and, in a few days
the putrefaftion will be completed; but if you firft drain
out, or exhale, all the watery part from the fame in fome
chemical veflel, though the fait and oil remain, the flefii will
harden like a ilone, and may be kept for ages without
putrefaftion. Though whei\ thus hardened, water poured
on it, or even the common dew, will foon fet it a putre-
fying. Thus Villaris and Cazalet of Bourdeaux, as Chap-
tal informs us, dried meat by means of floves, whicli was
preferved for feveral years without contrafting any bad
flavour.

By fuch means, bread, flefh, or the like foods, may be
preferved for many ages ; provided regard be had to the
place. Hence it is that in dry cour.tries, as Egypt, dead
carcafes never putrefy, but dry and harden uncorrupted :
as we fee alfo in the mummies found buried under the
fand.

The fands and light porous earths preferve human bodies
by exhaufting their juices and drying the folid parts. Hence
it is, that entire caravans have been difcovered in Arabia,
confiding of men and camels, preferved in the fands under
which the impetuous winds have buried them. In the
library of Trinity college, Cambridge, a human body may
be feen in a perfect, ftate, which was found under the fand
in the ifland of Teneriffe. Hence fubilances putrefy much
more flowly when expofed to a drying wind, than in a
fheltered place.

Neverthelefs, too much humidity impedes putrefaftion.
To this purpofe Bccher obferves : " Nimia quoque humi-
ditas a putrefaftione impcdit, prout nimius calor ; nam
corpora in aqua potius gradatim confumi quam putrefcere,
fi nova femper aflfluens fit, experientia docet : unde longo
tempore integra interdum fubmerfa prorfus a putrefaftione
immunia vidimus ; adeo ut nobis aliquando fpeculatio occur-
reret, tra£tando tah modo cadavera anatomia: fubjicienda,
quo diutius a foetore et putrefaftione immunia forent." Ac-
cordingly it is necefl'ary, that in order to a body's putre-
4

fying by moifture, that tlie water fliould impregnate but
not mundate it. It is alfo ncceflary, that it ihould re-
main in the texture of the animal body, without being re-
newed; for thus the lymph is diflolved, and the molt
putrefcible fubfl^ance is prefented to the air with the greatefl-
extent of furface ; and the water itfelf is decompofed, and
by tliis means affords the putrefaftive principle.

Even human blood, which, naturally, is fo prone to
putrefaftion, if you deprive it of its watery part, may be
kept for fifty years. Goat's blood, we actually find kept
fo long in the fltops, without corrupting ; though, if you
diflbve it in water, and expofe it to a gentle warmth, it
will putrefy immediately. Blood is faid tu be the mod pu-
trefcent animal fubft;ance that is known ; and this property
is afcribed partly to its fluidity and partly to the large
quantity of fibrin and uncondcnfed albumen, which it con-
tains, and efpecially to the former. See Blood.

We fliaH here add, that animal fubltances feem to be (cxterii-
paribus) more putrefcent in proportion to the number of
conflituent parts which they contain. The fubilances either
abfolutely or nearly imputrefcible are bone and condenfed
albumen, the latter being fuch as exiils in cuticle, nail,
hair, &c. which long remain unaltered in the midll of putre-
fying fubilances. Animal oil alfo putrefies with great dif-
ficulty, and hence the people that live in the moil northern
parts of America, the Efquimaux and others, preferve fifh
and meat to a certain degree from putrefaction by immcrfion
in fifli-oil.

In p';trefaclion there is a great inteftine motion, which,
when carried to an extreme, and when the putrefying fub-
ftance is. much comprefTed, is accompanied with heat and
fmoke, and fometimes flame. However, M. Beaume affirms,
that putrefaftion is not attended with any fenfible heat :
when, indeed, it proceeds flowly, and the quantity of putre-
fying matter is but fmall, the heat, if any, is very little.
That putrefcent fubilances emit hght, is an unqueflionable
faft ; and on this principle philofophers account for the
luminoufnefs of the fca, the ignis fatuus, &c. To this
purpofe M. Ant. Martin (Swed. Abhad. vol. xxiii. p. 225,
cited by Dr. Prieftley, in his Hiftory of Light, Sec.
p. 576.) obferves, that human bodies have fometimes
emitted light about the time they begin to putrefy ; and
that the walls and roof of a place in which dead bodies
had often been expofed, had a kind of dew or clamminefs
upon them, which was fometimes luminous. And he ima-
gmes, that the fights which are faid to be feen in burying
grounds may be owing to this caufe. It has been ob-
ferved, that heat extinguiflies the light of putrefcent fub-
ilances ; Mr. Canton, attending to this circumltance in
fome experiments for afcertaining the caufe of the luminouf-
nefs of the fea, remarks, that though the greateft fummer-
heat is well known to promote putrefaftion, yet twenty
degrees more than that of the human blood feems to hinder
it ; for putting a fmall piece of luminous fifh into a thin
glafs ball, he found that water of the heat of one hundred
and eighteen degrees would extinguifli its light in lefs than
half a minute ; but that on taking it out of the water, it
would begin to recover its light in about ten feconds : but
it was never afterwards fo bright as before. See Light.

It has been obferved, that a temperature from about
forty degrees to the higheft natural heat is favourable to
the putrefaftion of animal matter, whereas a freezing tem-
perature is known to flop putrefaftion, as it is the cuftom
in cold countries to bring viftuals frozen to market, and in
this ftate they are kept for any length of time without any
other preparation ; and befides, bodies of men or of other
animals remain unaltered under ice for many weeks. We

might

PUTREFACTION.

riiighl allege many other circiimftancfs of a fimilar nature.
On the other hand, a fcorching heat alfo prevents piitre-
faiitioii ; probably by expelling the moidure whicli is eflen-
tial to the procefs, becaufe by an inferior degree of heat
putrefnftion is promoted. The influence of temperature
on animal putrefaftion is thus dated by Becher : " Acr
calidus et humidus maxime et pntrefaftionem facit — corpora
frigida et fitcadjfficulter, imo aliqua prorfiis non putrefcunt:
qux ab imperitis proinde pro fanftis habita fuere ; ita acr
frigidus el ficcus, imprimis calldus et ficcus, a putrefac-
tione quoque prefervat : quod in Hifpania videmus, et locis
aliis culidis, licco, calido acre prjeditis, ubi corpora non
putrefcunt et refolvantur ; nam cadavera in oriente in
arena, imo apud nos arte in furnis, ficcari, et fic ad fmem
niundi ufque a putredine pra;fcrvari, certum eft : inteiifum
quoque frigus "a putredine praefervare : unde corpora Stock-
holmix tota Iiyeme in patibulo fufpenfa fine putredine ani-
madvertimus." From the fafts already ftated, we may de-
dnce the molt efFeftiial means of preventing, and increafing
putrefaction, and alfo of modifying it at pleafure. A body
may be preferved from putrefaftion by depriving it of the
contaft of atmofpherical air : for this purpofe nothing
more is required than to place the body in a vacuum, or to
envelope it in a covering, which may defend it from the
immediate aftion of air ; or alfo to envelope it in an at-
mofphere of fome gafeous fubftance, which does not cou-
tain vital air. Putrefaftion may alfo be favoured by keep-
ing bodies at a fuitable temperature. A degree of heat
from between fixty-five and ninety degrees diminilhes the
adhcfion of the parts, and favours the aftion of the air ;
but if the heat be greater, fays Chaptal, it volatihzes the
aqueous principle, dries the folids, and retards the putrefac-
tion. Hence it is inferred, that for the decompofition of
ah animal fubftance, it is neceflary that it ftiould hare the
contaft of atmofphcric air, and that the purer the air is,
the more fpeedy will be the putrefa£tion : that it be expofed
to a moderate degree of heat : and that its texture be im-
pregnated with humidity.

The moit fudden and remarkable changes produced upon
a body by putrefaction, are upon its colour, fmell, and tafte.
Fle(h beginning to putrefy, is well known to exhale very
foon after a penetrating foetid fmell, its colour becomes pale,
then inclining to blue, and afterwards livid and black, and
its tafte nauleous. Tranfparent liquor, as urine and broth,
during putrefaction, becomes alfo turbid : as the putrefac-
tion advances, the fmell becomes more and more foetid, and
it alfo acquires great pungency, which is caufed by a large
quantity of volatile alkali, difengaged from thofe fubftances
that are completely putrefied. Solid bodies, whilft they
are putrefying, fwell, become foft, lofe the cohefion of their
parts, and are laftly reduced to a very difagrecahle putrid
pulpy mafs : the fluids become turbid, and the effluvia are
loathiome and fickening, and after a time a putrid gas is
difengaged in a flow but fenfible effervefcence. A foul and
brown ferum then fweats out from the pulpy mafs, and
about this time the effluvium is very fenfibly ammoniacal,
which is indicated by its eftefts on the eyes and throat, and
by forming a white vapour with muriatic acid gas. For
fome time a large part of the putrid fubftance is evapo-
rated, and carried off in the putrid gas and difperfed in the
atmoiphere, after which the extreme fcrtor fubfides ; and
finally the procefs of putrefadtion ceafes, and leaves a kind
of fat fcetid earthy matter. All the gafes certainly known
to be produced by putrefaftion, are carbonic acid, carbu-
rettcd hydrogen, fulphuretted and phofphuretted hydrogen,
and ammonia ; but either thefe, or fome of thefe, muft be
sonfiderably changed by the folution of the animal matter ;

or fome compound not yet examined, mud be produced in
that ftate of putrefaftion, when the gas evolved occafions
fuch dreadful effedts upon thofe that have the misfortune to
fall in the way of it, even when diluted coniiderably with
common air. This is faid to be the cafe when the abdomen
of a large animal is firft burft, after iome days or perhaps
weeks of putrefaftion ; the gas from which caufes inftant
fainting, and fometimes death, and even when the perfon
expofed to it receives the firft (hock, it leaves exceliive de-
bility and other alarming fymptoms for a conliderabls time.
Tlie moft deleterious gas that is known is, perhaps, car-
buretted hydrogen, but the eifcdts of this, as obtained by
chemical means, are far iliort of thofe above-mentioned,
when equally diluted. The generation oi ammonia has been
fatisfaftorily accounted for, fmce the difcovery of the con-
ftituent parts of the volatile alkali, by the new combination
formed between the azote of the animal matter, and the
hydrogen, of which latter there are many fources, and par-
ticularly that of the decompofition of water. As ammonia
is always produced during putrefaftion, it feems rational to
fuppofe, that one important purpofe of the moifture necef-
fary to the procefs, is to afford, by its decompofition, the
hydrogen of the volatile alkali. The nitrous acid is alfo an
undoubted produft of putrefaftion ; but farther experiments
and fafts are neceflary for explaining the reafon, why in
fomecafes the azote tends to unite with oxygen to form this
acid, and in others with hydrogen to form ammonia. For
an account of the peculiar chanires which animal flefti under-
goes, by which it is converted into a fpermaceti-like fub-
ftance, initead of pafiing through the ufual procefs of putrid
decompofition, we refer to the article Adipocike.

Sir Jolin Pringle has obferved, that, as all the humours
of all animal bodies become thinner by putrefaftion, fo the.
folid or fibrous parts are thereby relaxed, and rendered more-
teiider : and hence the extraordinary bulk of the heart, liver,
and fpleen, incident to pcrfons labouring under putrid
difeafes, may be accounted for. It is remarkable, that in
diffeftions of perfons who die of the plague, the heart is
almoft always found of an uncommon magnitude ; and as
to the fcurvy, the liver and fpleen are fometimes enlarged
to fuch a degree, that the tumour may be feen outwardly.

From matters completely putrefied may be obtained by
diftillation volatile alkah, fome hquid and fome folid ; a
pungent foetid oil, which at firft is thin, and afterwards be-
comes more thick ; and a rcfiduum of coal, not eafily redu-
cible to aflies. Some writers on this fubjeft have appre-
hended, that putrid fubftances are not to be regarded as
alkaline. Sir John Pringle, finding from the experiments
which he made in the year 1750, that fyrup of violets was
not changed into a green colour by the ferum of putrid
blood ; that this ferum did not make any effervefcence,
when fpirit of vitriol was poured upon it ; that water, in
which corrupted flefli had been for fome time infuied, neither
effervefced nor changed the colour of the fyrup ; and that
alkahne falts, both fixed and volatile, powerfully oppofe
putrefaftion ; was led to adopt this opinion. But wheji he
became acquainted with the experiments made by M. J. Bapt,
Gaber of Turin (Adta Taurinenf. vol. i. p. 78, &c.) he
embraced with the liberality of a true philolopher, the firft
opportunity of acknowledging his miftake. M. Gaber,
having poured a drop or two of aqua fortis upon bile, taken
out of the gall-bladder of a perfon who had died ot an inve-
terate jaundice without a fever, and whofe body had lain
about twenty-four hours in a cold place in winter, found,
that the mixture immediately effervefced, became fenfibly
warm, and that feveral air-bubbles rofe to the iurlace. H«
alfo expofed the remainder cf this bile in three open glaffes

O 3 te

PUTREFACTION.

to thf- thirty-fifth, twenty-fifth, and tenth degrees of heat,
indicalsd by Rcaiiimir's thermometer, and at the end of
twenty-four hours mixed them with acids; and he found,
that the bile which had been placed in a degree of heat au-
fweririjf to thirty-five, was molt dilated, and gave very flight
indications of effervefcence ; that which had flood in twenty-
five was alfo dilated, and the acid produced a more fenfible
effervefcence, but ItiU very flight ; and the bile wliich had
been expof-d only to the temperament of the air, varying
from feven to ten, preferved its tenacity, and fermented as
much as that in his firlt experiment. Having mixed fome
blood, taken out of a vein of tiie dead body at the lame
time, and which appeared to be of the yellowilh-rcd, with
fpirit of nitre, the mixture effervefced, but in a much lefs
degree than the bile : this mixture, being left to digeft for
fome hours, a yellow ferum feparated from the blood, and
covered its whole furface ; and the blood, being lubjedted
to the fame heat as the bile, and for the fame time, ap-
peared more difpofed to effervefce than the bile, though this
difpofition afterwards gradually diminidied. From thefe
experiments the ingenious writer infers, that in difeafed bo-
dies the humours may become fo alkalefcent as to effervefce
with acids : that a very flight degree of putrefaftion and
fator, which is not fufficient to produce alkalefcence out
of the body, will produce it in the body ; that alkali formed
in the body, and contained in the bile, is extremely volatile,
fince the heat of twenty-five degrees made a great part of it
evaporate ; and that the fame alkali contained in the blood,
being a little more entangled vi'ith other elements, is confe-
quently lefs volatile, fince the fame degree of heat continued
for the fame time, difTipated but a very inconfiderable part
of it : and, therefore, that the different phenomena taken
notice of by thofe who have profecuted experiments of this
kind, fome of whom affirm that they have feen undoubted
proofs of the prefence of an alkali, and others that they
have fcarcely difcovered any iuch indications at all, are the
effefts of different degrees of heat, the flalenefs of the fub-
flance expofed to the heat, or the different volatility of the
alkali arifii-ig from its coheCon with other principles. Having
made fimilar experiments upon healthy bile, blood, and
ferum, and fubraitted them to the action of mineral acids,
he found the bile mofl difpofed to effervefce ; that human
bile was more difpofed to effervefce than the bile of an ox ;
that corrupt blood ferments with acids ilill flower; and that
■ferum ferments ffower than blood. He alfo obferved, that
putrefcent humours not only effervefce with mineral acids,
but with very weak diftilled vinegar : and that thofe hu-
mours that have been expofed to artificial heat, become
foetid and effervefce fooneft, and foonefl arrive at the laft
(tage of fermentation ; in which cafe the fermentation ceafes,
though the heat is continued ; and the fmell, which till then
is intolerably foetid, becomes herbaceous^ and is not dif-
agreeable. The factor, he fays, manifefls itfelf fooner and
lails longer than the alkalefcence.

M. Gaber farther obferves, in relation to the experiments
of fir John Pringle, that at the degree of heat to which he
expofed putrefcent fubflances, and which was equal to the
hundredth degree of Fahrenheit, correfponding nearly to the
thirtieth degree of Reaumur, animal humours very foon be-
come putrid ; but that they as foon lofe the alkalefcence
which they derive from putrefattion, if this degree of heat
is continued : fo that as the corrupting humours manifefl
their alkalefcent quality only for a very fhort time, it might
eafily happen that no fign of alkalefcence appeared in his ex-
periment, if it was not made in the critical moment, /. e. if
he examined the putrefcent humours a little before the alkali
was formed, or a little after it had evaporated. And he,

therefore, apprehends, that if fir John Pringle's experiments
were made with a degree of heat jull equal to his own, the
refult, ctsteris paribus, mull have been the fame.

From other experiments this writer infers, that blood re-
ceived from the arm, agitated and left to putrefy, does not
putrefy fo foon, nor fo foon manifefl figns of alkalefcence,
as the red part feparated from tlie ferum, becaufe the ferum
putrefies more flowly than any other animal humour ; and that
the alkali, which evaporates with a degree of heat from twenty-
five to twenty-eight of Reaumur, being collected in a receiver,
will effervefce, and that the refiduum is a mafs extremely
foetid, wholly delHtute of alkali, and, confequently, that no
effervefccnce is to be expeftcd by pouring acids upon it.
Having kept fome blood in a glafs vefiel clofe flopped, he
found that it retained its alkalefcence a long time, though ex-
pofed to a degree of heat equal to twenty-five ; but upon un-
flopping the vefiel, it flew ofl with great violence, in an ex-
tremely foetid vapour. Thefe explofions he attributes to the
expanlion of the air, in cor.fequence of the putrefaction ; and
hence he deduces the reafon, wiiy the humours that are con-
tained in the veffels of a human body become alkalefcent
while they are yet fcarcely foetid, although when drawn
from the body, and kept in open veffels, they become foetid,
before they give figns of alkalefcence. As foon as they begin
to form alkali in the veffels, the alkali is retained ; but as it
exhales from veffels expofed to the air, a greater quantity
mull be formed than exhales before it can become fenfible.
Having collected the difliUcd liquor of blood in fuch a itate
of putrefcence as to effervefce with acids, and expofed it to
the aftion of various acids, a violent effervefccnce enfued ;
and when poured upon fyrup of violets, it produced as fine
a green as fpirits of hartfhorn ; and this tinfture, having been
changed into a red by the effufion of a few drops of aqua
fortis, became again blue, upon pouring into it fome more
of the diHilled hquor ; whence he concludes, that putrefcent
humours form a true alkali, which exhales with a very flight
heat. From other experiments he infers, that the alkali of
putrefcent fubflances is not the produftive caufe of their
foetor, becaufe the latter remains when the former is departed.
But as both appear in the fame degree of heat, when long
continued, it appears, he fays, that this foetor is produced
by the effluvia of parts extremely volatile, but different from
volatile alkali, which, though fooner produced, are more
flowly diffipated. Alkalefcence, however, may be fome-
times connefted with a flight fostor; and, on the contrary, ex-
treme foetor may fubfifl without alkalefcence. And this
fail confirms the obfervation of fir John Pringle, who found
a difference between the foetid and alkahne particles ; fince
the exhalations of frefh urine are not pernicious, though they
contain more alkah than any fubilance in a flate of pu-
trefaction, the odour of which is pernicious in the higheft
degree; and, therefore, putrid effluvia are of a different na-
ture from alkaline falts. M. Gaber farther adds, by way of
inference from this fadl, that a volatile alkali is not a ne-
ceflary produdl of putrefattion, and that the degree of
alkalefcence is not equal to that of putrefaftion. Dr.
Crell, profeffor of chemiflry at Brunfwick, has objected to
this doftrine, as not conformable to the phenomena (Phil.
Tranf. vol. Ixi. part i. art. 39.) ; for he fuppofes, that as
all fmell depends on a faline matter joined with phlogiflon,
and the faline matter producing the putrid flench was very
probably not an acid, it mutt be a volatile alkali, v.hich,
involved in phlogiflic matter, might fly off before the alkali
was developed. From fome experiments made with a view
of afcertaining this fail, he infers that the volatile alkali is
prcfent as long, at leall, as the putrid fmell continues, and
that this volatile alkali is the bafis of it ; becaufe, as this was
9 difliUed

PUTREFACTION.

Jiftilled over in his experiments, the refidiic, being ftill in
inteftine motion, roqnired only the herbaceous imcll. The
reafon why thevohitile alkah has been diltindly obferved at
a certain period of putrefaflion, and not in the other, he
apprehends to be this : the volatile alkali has, it I'ecms, a
tendency to difentangle itfelf, by inteftine motion, of all
fucli matter as it is involved with ; but if it is not combined
with fuch fixed matK-r as retains it till it has gone through all
its evolutions, it is, being itfelf volatile, carried off by the
ftill more volatile phlogiilic matter with which it is commonly
joined. For this reafon, he fuppofes the putrefying matter
ihews in its beginning no figns of volatile alkali, becaufe its
fmell depends only on thole particles which have been on
the furface, without any llrong cohefion with the fubllance.
In the farther progrefs of putrefadlion, the matter involving
the alkali, or forming it, is intermixed, and in cohefion with
the folid particles of the fubftance, and is by thefe means
retained till tlie alkali is come to its purer ilate. Towards
the end of putrefaclion, the cohefion of the particles being
almoft entirety taken of!', tiie volatile alkali is carried off before
it can go through all its ftates.

Dr. Macbride made feveral experiments with putrid blood
and putrid bile, which alcevtain the fa<ft, that as foon as an
animal fubilance begins to putrefy, it begins to difcover an
alkaline quality ; and this volatile matter, now produced in
it, may be feparated by diftillation in a very gentle warmth ;
but he obferves, that the volatile alkali obtained from pu-
trid fubltaiices is not exadtly fimilar to that obtained by
violent heat from animal fubftances not putrid. It differs
remarkably in the flavour, which is naufeous and difagreeable,
is not fo pungent, and is much weaker than the common
volatile alkali ; and this latter is capable of difpolielling the
putrid alkali, and of driving it off from any body to which
it has been united. But to return from this digreflion. As
to the caufe and procefs of putrefaftion, it has been generally
believed, that the contaft of atmofpherical air is neceflary
for this purpofe, and that bodies become putrid, becaufe air
communicates fomewhat to them : accordingly it has been
alleged, that bodies buried deep under the earth, or in
water, out of the reach of any air, have remained entire for
ages ; which, when expofed to the open air, have foon
rotted and mouldered away. It is alfo well known, that
bodies are preferved from putrefadlion by covering them with
wax, fuet, &c. ; and Mr. Boyle relates, that he has preferved
lemons, oranges, and other fruits, from putrefaftion, during
feveral years, by including them in an exhauited receiver.
Experiments of the lame kind have been lately made by
M. EUer of Berlin, which fhew that fubftances, even of
the moft putrefcent nature (fuch as blood) may be kept
found in vacuo for many years. But Dr. Macbride has
urged a variety of fafts and confiderations to prove, that
putrefaftion enfucs in confequence of the lofs of lome prin-
ciple, which cemented the conftituent particles of bodies,
and that, when this is difengaged from them, they feparatc,
and are dilunited. This principle he difcovcrcd to be air,
which, in putrefaflion and fermentation, is extricated and
thrown off, from a fixed and non-elaftic ftate, into one that
is volatile and elaftic ; but which immediately, upon meeting
with a proper recipient, returns again to its former nature.
Thus he found, that canftic alkali and quicklime may be
rendered mild by abforbing this air, extricated from putre-
fying and fermenting fubftances ; that without the extrication
of this air no putrefailion can happen ; and that even by ab-
forption of it, putrefied fubftances may be correfted and
rendered fweet. To the fame purpofe Dr. Alexander has
endeavoured to prove, that putrid matter will preferve other
fubftances from putrefaAion ; which is not improbable, be-

caufe, being already faturatcd with the putrid effluvium,
they cannot readily ta.ke any more. Dr. Macbride, having
expofed putrid matters to the vapours arifing from ferment-
ing mixtures, or from alkaline fubftances etfervefcing with
acids, found that the putrid quality was deftroyed ; and
hence he confiders the fixed air as powerfully antifeptic.
And it appears alfo from the experiments of Dr. Prieftley,
that fixed air correfts and renders wholefome air tainted with
refpiration or putrefaftion. Hence he infers, that hme-kilns,
which difcharge great quantities of this air, may be wholefome
in the neighbourhood of populous towns, the atmofphere of
which mult abound with putrid effluvia. Sir William Lee, in
a hot feafon, contrived, by impregnating water with fixed air,
in the manner defcribed under PvkmoM' ■zi/^^fr, and waftiing
meat with it two or three times a-day, not only to preferve
it as perfectly fweet and good to the extent of ten days, as
at the firft killing, but alfo to recover fome meat that had
begun to change. And it is farther well known, that fixed
air, or carbonic acid, has been lately introduced into the materia
medica, and adminiftered with fuccefs in a variety cf putrid
cafes. Dr. Macbride has alfo proved, that putrefaction is
accelerated by taking off the prcilure of the atmofphere ;
and from lome experiments he was led to conclude, that it will
take place fooner in vacuo than in the open air ; but making
a more complete vacuum by means of two brafs hemifpheres
joined together, he found that the obfervation of Mr. Boyle
and others was agreeable to fa£l. It appeared alfo, by in-
clofing flefh in condenfed air, that increafing the preffure
of the furrounded air, retarded putrefaction ; and hence he
deduces, what he deems to be a demonftrative proof, that
bodies do not putrefy, becaufe the air adds fomewhat to
them ; for if they did, then a piece of flefti which lay in
condenfed air ought to have putrefied the fooneft, becaufe it
had the greateft quantity of air applied to its furface. But
the reafon why, according to his lyftem, condenfed air pre-
vents putrefaction is, that the preffure of every fide muft force
the conftituent particles clofer together, thus increafe their
cohefion, and prevent the inteftine motion ; and without
inteftine motion there can be no change of combination.
However, it is obferved by fir John Pringle, that the putre-
fadtion of meat and other fubftances, advances quicker in a
confined than free air ; for as the moft putrid parts are alfo
the molt fugitive, they inceliantly iflue from a corruptible
fubftance, and difperfe with the wind ; but in a Itagnation
of air they remain about the body, and in the nature of a
ferment excite its corruption.

It has been long obferved, that putrefaftion generates air.
Hence, though fleffi, as well as blood, be fpecifically hea-
vier than water, yet dead bodies are found to float, after
lying fome time at the bottom, from air generated in the
bowels by putrefaction. And fince it has been found by
experiments, that the blood and other animal fubftances
begin to emit air before they are fo far corrupted, as they
frequently are in putrid difeafes, it is probable that feveral
of the fymptoms in deep furfeits may be owing to the adtion
of the confined air. As dead bodies become putrid from
the lofs of their fixed air, according to Dr. Macbride's
theory, he fuggefts, that the immediate caufe of putrefadtion
in living bodies may be the detachment of too large a pro-
portion of their fixed air. This fadt he endeavours to evince
by an enumeration of the fymptoms that occur in the fcurvy,
and other highly putrid difeafes, which ihew that the air
is adtually detached from the blood in fuch cafes ; as well
as from an examination of the principal and prevailing caufes
of fuch diforders. And fince the air tainted with animal or
vegetable putrefadtion is the fame with air rendered noxious
by animal refpiration ; fince both equally estinguilh flame.

PUTREFACTION.

are equally noxious to animals, are equally and in tlie fame
way offenfivc to the fmell, equally precipitate lime in lime
water, and are rcflored by the fame means, Dr. Prieftley
fuggefts, that one ufe of the lungs is to carry ofl' the
putrid effluvia, without which, perhaps, a living body might
putrefy as foon as a dead one. See Blood and Rksimra-

TION.

We fliall here obfervc, that putrfying and fermenting
fubftances have been found, by the experiments of Mr.
Cavendiili, Dr. Prieftley, &c. to yield not only fixed but
vijlammahk nir. From an experiment of Dr. PriaiHey, in-
tended to determine the proportion of each of the kinds of
air in the different ftagcs of the putrefaftive procefs, it
appears that a piece of mutton weighing four penny-weights
fix grains, yielded in all 244 mcafures o{ air, ot which 2^,', J-
was fixed, and the reft inflammable ; and that all the in-
flammable part wasexhaulled a confiderable time before the
fixed air. The fame ingenious writer has obierved, that tlie
diminution of common air, by means of putrefaction, amount;
to a complete fourth part of the whole, notwithltanding tlie
produftion of fome permanent air from the putrefying fnb-
ftance, and has, in all rcfpeifls, the appearance of being
produced folely by the precipitation of fixed air. It mull
occur to every reader, in any way acquainted with tliis fub-
jeft, if the phlogiftic theory be admitted, (which indeed
is now generally difcarded, ) that if inflammable air be tlie
fame with phlogifton, as Dr. Prieltley feemed to have
difcovcred, many of the phenomena of putrefaftion, de-
pending on this principle, fuch as the fmell, colour, light,
&c. will probably from hence admit of an eafy explication.

We fhall here fubjoin fome obfervations with refpeft to
the decompofition of animal bodies that are interred in
burying-grounds. In this fituation, the decompofition is
four times as flow as when the putrefying animal is expofed
to the air. It is not perfeAly ended, according to Mr.
Petit, till three years after the body has been interred, at
the depth of four feet ; and it is flower in proportion as the
body is buried at a greater depth. Thefe fa£ls agree with
the principles which we have already eilablilhed for bodies
buried in the earth, and fubjedled to laws of decompofition
very different from thofe vi-hich take place in bodies expofed
to the open air. In this cafe, the decompofition is favoured
by the waters which filter through the earth, and diflolve
and carry with them the animal juices. It is alfo favoured
by the earth, which abforbs the juices with more or lefs
facility. MefTrs. Lemery, Geoffroy, and Hunaud, have
proved that argillaceous earths exert a very flow aftion
upon bodies ; but when the earths are porous and light, the
bodies then dry very fpeedily. The feveral principles of
bodies abforbed by the earth, or carried by the vapours,
are difperfcd tbrough a great fpace, imbibed by the roots
of vegetables, and gradually decompofed. This is what
pafTes in buryin-g-grounds in the open air ; but it is very far
from being applicable to the fepulchres which are made in
churches and covered places. Here is neither water nor
vegetation ; and confequently no caufe which can carry
away, diflolve, or change the nature of the animal fluids :
and we cannot but applaud the wifdom of government, which
has prohibited the burying in churches ; a praftice which
was once a fubjeft of horror and infeftion.

The accidents which have happened at the opening of
graves and vaults are but too numerous, to render any
apology neceflary for our fpeaking a few words refpefting
the method of preventing them.

The detompofition of a body in the bowels of the earth
<ran never be dangerous, provided it be buried at a fufficient
(depth, and that the grave be not opened before its entire and

complete decompofition. The depth of the grave ought ty
be fuch that the external air cannot penetrate it ; that the
juices, with which the earth is impregnated, may be con-
veyed to its furface ; and that the exhalations, vapours, or
gafes, whicli are developed or formed by decompofition,
fliould not be capable of forcing the earthy covering which
detains them. The nature of the earth in which tlie grave
is dug, influences all its effefts. If the flratum which covers
the body be argillaceous, the depth of the grave may be
lefs, as this earth difficultly affords a paflage to gas and
vapour ; but in general it is admitted to be neceffary that
bodies fhould be buried at the depth of five feet, to prevent
all thefe unhappy accidents. It is likewife neceffary to at-
tend to the circumftance, that a grave ought not to be
opened before the complete decompofition of the body.
This decompofition, according to Mr. Petit, is not perfedl
until the expiration of three years, in graves of four feel
depth ; or four years, when they are fix feet deep. This
term affords many varieties, according to the nature of the
earth, and the conftitution of the fubjefts buried in it ; but
we may confider it as a medium. The pernicious cuftom,
which allows a fingle grave to families more or lefs nu-
merous, ought therefore to be fuppreffed ; for in this cafe,
the fame grave may be opened before the time prefcribed.
Thefe are abufes which ought to occupy the attention of
government ; and it is time that the vanity of individuals
fnould be facrificed to the public fafety. It is likewife ne-
ceffary to prohibit burying in vaults, and even in coffins.
In the firfl cafe, the principles of the bodies are fpread into
the air, and infeft it ; in the fecond, their decompofition is
flower and lefs perfeft.

If thefe precautions be negicdled ; if the dead bodies be
heaped together in too confined a fpace ; if the earth be not
proper to abforb the juices, and decompofe them ; if the
grave be opened before the entire decompofition of the
body ; — unhappy accidents will no doubt be produced ;
and thefe accidents are but too common in great towns,
where every wife precaution is neglefted. An inftancc of
this happened, when the ground of the church of St. Benoit
at Paris was dug up a few years ago : a naufeous vapour
was emitted, and feveral of the neighbours were aflefted by
it. The earth whicli ivas taken out of this grave was
unftuous, vifcid, and emitted an infeftious fmell. MefTrs.
Maret and Navier have left us feveral firailar obfervations.
Chaptal's Elem. of Chem. vol. iii.

Putrefaftion is one of the inftruments in nature by which
many great changes are brought about. In the procefs of
vegetable putrefaftion, if we throw together any of the
tender, green, and fucculent parts of recent vegetables,
whether acid or alkaUne, in a large heap, in the warm open
air, and prefs them down with an additional weight, if their
own be inconfiderable ; the middle part of the heap will, in
a little time, fpontaneoufly conceive a fmall degree of heat,
and pafs fucceflively through the other degrees, till it arrive
at a ftate of ebullition, and be perfectly putrefied.

In the fpace of three days, from the firfl putting them
together, they will yield a heat, perceivable by the hand,
c(]ual to that of a human body in a healthy ftate ; by the
fifth, the heat will be too great for the hand to bear with-
out piin ; and, laflly, by the fixth, feventh, or eighth day,
the juices will generally appear ready to boil ; and fome-
times the matter will even flame, and burn away.

By this fpontaneous operation, the vegetable acquires an
abominably putrid, ftercoraceous, or cadaverous, tafte and
odour ; and turns entirely into one foft, fimilar, pulpy mafs,
or crafTamentum, greatly refembling foetid human excre-
ments in the fcent, and putrefied flefli in the tafte.

If

PUTREFACTION.

If now tliis fcctid matter, thus obtained, be dirtftly,
whilft it remains in its Txtid ftatc, committed to a glals re-
tort, and dillilled witli pr()i)er degrees of fire, there will
come over, i. A water impregnated with an urinous fpirit,
porfeftly hke that obtainable from animal fubjeds, and fe-
parable by a frefh dillillation flovvly made in a tall glafj,,
into elementary wat^j-, and a large quantity of pure, white,
volatile, dry, alkaline fait, not to be dillinguilhed from
animal i'alts. 2. A vi)latile, alkaline, oily fait, that ftioots
into globes. 3. An exceedingly volatile and thick fcetid
oil, both which are entirely like thofe of animals. And,
lallly, the remainder, being calcined in an open tire, af-
fords not the leall particle ot iixed fait ; jull as if the fubjcft
had really been of the animal, and not of the vegetable
kingdom.

This procefs is truly univerfal, and holds equally in all
kinds of vegetables, though ever fo different in then' nature
and virtue.

Experiments have been made in the coldeft and mofl fuc-
culent, or watery, plants ; fuch as purflane, forrel, &c. as
well as with the hotteil or mofl acrimonious, luch as the
fpurges, &c. and it was always found to fncceed ; but that
the fooner, as the vegetable employed contained the greater
quantity of oil ; though with the fame phenomena.

It will likewife fucceed witii dry vegetable?, provided
they be moiftened with water before they are thrown into
heaps ; and thus we fometimes fee, that ftacks of hay will
fpontaneoufly take fire, and burn away ; efpecially if the
hay was not well dried in the making.

The conditions neceffary for the putrefadlion of vege-
tables are fimilar to thofe required in the putrefaftion of
animal fubflances. It is neceiiary that the organization be
impregnated with water ; the contaft of air is neceflary, as
is ;ilfo a certain degree of heat ; and for the due effett of
this kind of decompofition, the vegetables fhould be heaped
together, and their juices be abundant. In thefe circum-
ilances, the phenomena of decompofition are as follow :
the colour of the vegetable is changed ; the green leaves be-
■■ome yellow, the texture becomes lax, and the parts lefs
i:oherent ; the colour of the vegetable itfelf changes to black
or brown ; the mafs rifes, and perceptibly fwells up ; the
heat becomes more intenfe, and is perceived on approaching
the heap ; and the fumes which arife have already a fmell,
which fometimes is not difagreeable ; at the fame time
bubbles arife, and break at the furface of the liquid, when
the vegetables are reduced to a magma. This gas is a mix-
ture of nitrogene, hydrogene, and carbonic acid. At this
epocha, hkewife, an ammoniacal gas is emitted, which is
formed in thefe circumllances : and, in proportion as thefe
appearances diniinilh, the ftrong and offenfive odour is fuc-
ceeded by another which is fainter and milder, and the mafs
becomes dry. The internal part Hill exhibits the vegetable
ftrudlure, when the ilcm is folid, and the fibrous matter has
been the predominating principle ; and it then conftitutes
manure or foil. Hence it arifes that the herbaceous plants
of a loofe texture, and abounding in juices, are not capable
of forming manure by their decompofition, but are reduced
into a brown mafs of httle confiilence, in which neither fibre
nor texture are obferved ; and this is what, for the mofl
part, forms vegetable mould.

Vegetable mould ufually conftitutes the firft covering or
ftratum of our globe ; and in fuch cafes wherein it is dif-
covered at a depth in the earth, there is no doubt but it has
been buried by fomo revolution.

When a vegetable is converted into earth by this tu-
multuous fermentation, it ftill retains the remains of the
vegetable, mixed and confounded with the other folid earths

and metallic produfts ; and by diflillation it aflords oil, ni-
trogene gas, and often hydrogene. It may, therefore, be
confidired as an intermediate fubflance between crude and
organic bodies, whicli participates of the inertia of the one,
and the activity of the other ; and which in thi:; flate is dill
fubjecl. to an infcnfible fermentation, that changes its nature
flill more, and deprives it of all its organi.c contents. Thefe
r mains of vegetables, llill contained in vegetable earth,
fcrve as food for other plants that may grow in it. The
infenfible progrefs of fermentation, and the fuftion of vege-
tables, impovcritli the vegetable earth, deprive it of all its
or vanic matter, and there remain only the earths and me-
tallic refidue which form the (lifF poor foils, and ochres
when the ferruginous principle is very abundant.

As this muddy earth is a mixture of all the primitive
earths, and fome of the metals which are the produdl of
vegetation, as well as the oils, the falts, and other produfts
we meet with in it ; we may confider it as the rclldue of
vegetable decompofition, as the great agent and means by
which nature repairs the continual lofTes the mineral king-
dom undergoes. In this mixture of all the principles the
materials of all compounds exifl ; and thefe materials are fo
much the more difpofed to enter into combinations, as tkey
are in a more divided and difengaged ftate. It is in thefe
earths that we find diamonds, quartz-cryflals, fpars, gyp-
fum, &c. It is in this matrix that the bog ores, or
ochreous ores of iron, are formed ; and it appears that na-
ture has referved the impoverlflied refidue of vegetables for
the reproduftion or reparation of the earthy and metallic
fubflances of the globe, while the organic remains are made
to ferve as nourifhment for the growth of other fucceedinj
vegetables.

Some have taken occafion to apply the procefs of putre-
fadlion to that of digeflion, or the change which the aliment
fuffers in the human body. (See Digestion.) For the
change our vegetable foods undergo in the body, being fuch
as brings them to be of the fame nature, and to afford the
fame principles, with the change induced by putrefaftion,
is a prefumption, that digeflion is nothing elfe. Befides, as
we know that neither animal nor vegetable fubflances can
become aliment, without undergoing fome degree of putre-
faftion, many diilempers mufl proceed from a deficiency of
this aftion : the crifis of fevers feems to depend upon it ;
and even animal heat, according to Dr. Stevenfon, does the
fame.

Now, that the concoftion of the humours is nothing elfe
but putrefaftion, feems probable from hence, that when-
ever they are in that flate, they are aUvays more fluid, and
fitter to pafs through the fmaller velfels, where they flag-
nated before. Again, the offenfivenefs ef the fweats, or
otlier excretions confequent on a crifis, is likewife a fure
fign of a high degree of corruption. The time of refolu-
tion or putrefaftion depends on the degree of heat, the
habit of the patient, and on the part obftrufted. Refolu-
tion is the putrefaftion of the impafted humour only, but
luppur.ation implies a corruption of the veffels alfo. This
manner of fpeaking, indeed, has been difufed, from the pre-
judice that nothing was putrid but what was ofFenfively fo ;
whereas, in faft, every fibre becoming more tender, and
humour thinner, may be confidered as putrid in fome degree,
whether the change tends to the better health, or to the de-
flruftion of the perfon, or whether it becomes grateful or
offenfive to the fenfes.

Mr. Boyle has ufed the wordi fermentation znA putrefadion
of the blood promifcuoufly, in his Treatife on the Human
Blood. Stahl and other celebrated cheraifts likewife ufe the
termputrid/frmM/; which fee.

It

PUTREFACTION.

It is, therefore, juftly obfcrvod by lord Bacon (Nat. Hid.
cetit. iv.) that an enquiry into the means of preventing or
ftaying putrefaflion is of excellent ufe in phyfic. Sir John
Pringle lias made many curious experiments with a view of
deteririning the power of certain fubftances to promote or
to prevent putrefaftion, together with remarks on this fub-
jeft, which are publifhcd in the Phil. Tranf. vol. xlvi. p. 480.
525. 550, and by way of appendix to his Obfervations on
the Difeafes of the Army. From the experiments of tliis
learned and judicious phyfician, it appears, that falts of
every kind, whether acid, alkahnc, or neutral, fixed or vo-
latile, as well as the allringent and gummy-refmous part of
vegetables, all of them refill and mod of them correct pu-
trefadion ; aud he purfued this branch of enquiry fo far as
to enable hira to form a table {hewing the comparative anti-
feptic power of the feveral fubftances, that of fea-falt being
the ftandard. See this table under the article Antiseptic.

Of all refinous fubftances, he found that camphor re-
fifted putrefaftion moft; powerfully ; its antifeptic power
being three hundred times greater than that of fea-falt.
Decoftions of wlieat, barley, and other farinaceous grains,
checked putrefaftion, by becoming four. He alfo made
experiments to difcover the effefts of mixing vegetable with
animal matters.

Two drams of raw' beef, as much bread, and an ounce
of water, being beat to the confiltencc of pap, and expofed
to 90° of heat, according to Fahrenheit's thermometer, be-
gan to ferment in a few hours, and continued in a fermenta-
tion two days. When it began to ferment and fwell, the
putrefaftion had begun ; and in a few hours afterwards the
I'mell was ofFenfive. Next day the putrid fmell ceafed, and
an acid tafte and fmell fuccecded. Frefh alimentary vegeta-
bles, as fpinach, afparagus, fcurvy-grafs, produced fimilar
effefts as bread on flefh, but in a weaker degree. From fe-
veral other experiments, he found that animal fubftances ex-
cite the fermentation of vegetable fubftances ; and that the
latter fubftances correft the putrefcency of the former.

By adding faliva to a fimilar mixture of flefti, bread, and
water, the fermentation was retarded, moderated, but ren-
dered of twice the ufual duration, and the acid produced at
laft was weaker than when no faliva was wfed.

By adding an oily fubftance to the common mixture of
flelh, bread, and water, a ftronger fermentation was pro-
duced, which could not be moderated by the quantity of
fahva ufed in the former experiment, till fome fixed alkaline
fait was added, which fait was found, v/ithout faliva, to ftop
fuddeuly very high fermentations.

He did not find that fmall quantities of the following
falts, fal ammoniac, nitre, vitriolated tartar, fal diureticus,
fait of hartfliorn, fait of wormwood, were feptic, as fmall
quantities of fea-falt were.

Sugar was found to refift putrefaftion at firft, as other
falts do, and alfo to check the putrefaction after it had be-
gun by its own fermentative quality, like bread and other
fermentative vegetables.

Lime-water made fome fmall refiftance to putrefaflion.

Port-wine, fmall beer, infufions of bitter vegetables, of
bark, and the juice of antifcorbutic plants, retarded the
fermentation of mixtures of flefti and bread. But an
unftrained decoftion of bark confiderably increafed that
fermentation.

Lime-water neither retarded nor haitened the fermenta-
tion of fuch a mixture ; but when the fermentation ceafed,
the liquor was neither putrid nor acid, but fmelt agreeably.

Flelh pounded in d- moi-tar was found to ferment fooner
than that which had not been bruifed.

The tough inflammatory crufl of blood was found to be

moft putrefccnt, rcxt to which the crafl'amentura, or red
coagulated maf'^, and laftly the ferum.

Charcoal is a powerful antifeptic : hence all forts of glafs-
veflels and other utenfils may be purified from long retained
fmells of every kind, in the eafieft and moft perfect manner,
by rinfing them out well with charcoal powder, after the
grofliir impurities have been fcowered off with fand and
potafh. Rubbing the teeth and waftiing out the mouth
with fine charcoal powder will render the teeth beautifully
white, and the breath perfeftly fweet, when an offenfive
breath has been owing to a fcorbutic difpofition of the gums.
(Crell's Journal, vol. ii. ) Meat alfo, which is a little tamted
with putridity, may at once he made fweet by charcoal ; and
it has been faid, tliat common raw fpirits agitated with char-
coal v.'ill be deprived of their bad flavour, but they are apt to
refume their old flavour, if kept in the cafl< only a few
weeks.

The experiments of the author of the " Elfai pour fervir
a I'Hiftoire de la Putrefaclion," fliew that metallic falts,
refinous powders, extrafts of bark and opium, are very
powerfully antifeptic, and that falts witli earthy bales are lefs
antifeptic than any other falts.

The fame ingenious phyfician made fome attempts to-
wards the fweetening of corrupted flefli by means of mild
fubftances. For this purpofe he put a piece of putrid flefti
into an infufion of chamomile flowers, which was renewed
twice or thrice in as many days, and its fweetnefs and firm
texture were recovered. Several pieces of putrid flefti were
alfo fweetened by repeated aftufions of a Itrong decocHon
of the bark ; and he conftantly obferved, that not only the
corrupted fmell was removed, but a firmnsfs reftored to the
fibres. The corrupt yolk of an egg, diluted with water,
was fweetened by mixing it with a ftrong infufion of chamo-
mile flowers. He found alfo that decoftions of wormwood,
of the bark, and infufions of chamomile flowers, and of
fnake-root, preferved yolks of eggs for a longer time than
water, even with th(*'addition of a confiderable quantity of
fea-falt ; and that they were preferved better by fait of
hartfliorn than by four times tiie weight of fea-falt. Ox-gall
was kept for fome time from putrefaftion by fmall quanti-
ties of lev of tartar, fpirit of hartfliorn, crude fal ammoniac,
and the faline mixture ; and ftill longer by a decoction of
wormwood, infufion of chamomile flowers and of fnake-
root, and by folutions of myrrh, camphor, and fait of
amber. The ferum of human blood was preferved by a
decoftion of the bark, and an infufion of fnake-root, as
efleftually as flefli. See Antiseptic.

For an account of fir John Pringle's experiments and ob-
fervations with refpetl; to thofe fubjefts that haften or pro-
mote putrefaftion, fee Septics.

Dr. Macbride's experiments confirm many of thofe above
related, efpecially thofe which ftiew that the fermentation of
vegetable fubftances is increafed by a mixture of animal or
putrefccnt matter, that the putrefcency of the latter is cor-
rected by the fermentative quality of the former ; and that
the putrefaftion and fermentation of mixtures of animal
and vegetable fubilances were accelerated by additions of
abforbent earths and of Peruvian bark. He alfo found,
that although unburnt calcareous earths were feptic, quick-
lime and lime-water prevented putrefaftion, but that they
deftroyed or diflblved the texture of flefli.

From his experiments we learn alfo, that acids, even
\Then greatly lowered, have a ftrong degree of power to
refift putrefaftion, and alfo to correft it ; but that they
deftroy the texture of the fubftance whofe foundnefs they
were fuppofed to reftore ; that falts in general, by a pro-
perty which is common to them all as falts, have the fame

power.

PUTREFACTION.

power, but that they exceed the acids in their efficacy for
corrcdting putrefaflion ; that fermenting and effcrvcfcent
mixtures are the molt powerful of all known antifeptics ;
and, in general, that whatfoever hath a power to reilrain
the efcape of the fixed air, or hinder the inteftine motion,
mud of courfe prevent putrefaftion ; and that fixed air,
when transferred frjm a found body to one that is putrid,
appears to reftore to that body the principle which has been
dellroyed or loll.

Dr. Macbride objefts againlt the adminillration of acids
in putrid difeafes, for the following reafons ; becaufe, if
they came unchanged to the abforbent velTels, they would
not admit of them, and if they did, they would be dan-
gerous, and they are quite changed before they leave the
prims vije. Dr. Crell (Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixi. part i. p. 340.)
has replied to this reafoniiig, and propofed experiments to
prove, that acids, though changed in the alimentary canal
lo far as not to effervefce with alkalis, may, notwitiiltand-
ing, check putrefaftion, and, therefore, that their ufe is of
great confequence, and ought not to be omitted in putrid
difeafes.

With regard to the exhibition of ilkalis, Dr. Macbride
obferves, that the point is not yet fatisfaftorily fettled.
There can be no doubt of their power to refill and correA
putrefaftion in dead bodies ; but whether, upon the pre-
iumption of this virtue, they can be given with propriety
as antifeptics, he adds, is not fo clear. Dr. Crell affirms, that
they can never be ufed in living bodies as antifeptics ; for, lay-
ing alide their ftimulating quality, which mull prevent their
ufe in mod of the putrid difeafes, they would, he apprehends,
increafe the morbific matter, by being intimately mixed by cir-
culation with phlogillic matter, which they find abundantly
in fuch bodies. Aftringents, fays Dr. Macbride, prevent
putrefaction very powerfully, but they have not the leall de-
gree of efficacy in correfting it ; and as antifeptics, they
can be of importance only in thofe cafes where, from ex-
treme relaxation and refolution of the folids, the difTolved
fluids are fullered to tranfude, and either form fpots of dif-
ferent hues, or run off by aftual haemorhage ; and he appre-
hends, that acids act in thofe cafes where they have been ad-
minillered with fuccefs, merely as aitringents. The antifep-
tic virtue of the gummy-refinous vegetables, judging of their
effedl by that of the bark, appears to depend on their fer-
menting in the body, and parting with fixed air in the courfe
of their fermentation, and throwing a great quantity of it
into the blood ; and attending to the things that prevent
putrefaftion in living bodies, we fhall find that the dependence
is on the quantity of air. Thus, vegetable food prevents
the putrefaftive diathefis ; and to the frequent ufe of frefh
vegetables and fugar, in the diet of the European nations, it
is owing that putrid difeafes or plagues are now fo uncom-
mon. And what proves almoll to ademonftration the anti-
feptic power of the fermentable fubftances, is the cure of
the fea-fcurvy.

Dr. Crell difagrees with the opinion of Dr. Macbride,
that putrid difeafes may be cured with fermentable fubftances
only ; nor is he convinced that putrefaftion depends only on
the lofs of fixed air. This, he apprehends, is an effeft ra-
ther than the caufe of putrefaftion. We lliall here only add,
that Dr. Macbride recommends,' in the putrid yellow fever
of the Weft Indies, to give the patient repeated dofes of
the alkaline falts, in frefli hme-juice, or the like, and to let
it be fwallowed during the efFervefcence ; and to order the
patient's drink to be fomewhat of the highly fermentable
kind ; fuch as the juice of the green fugar-cane, diluted and
acidulated with fome of the recent four juices. The natives
on the coaft of Africa give in fevers of this kind, with good
Vol. XXIX.

fuccefs, a drink prepared by macerating in water a fruit of
the plum kind, that grows there in great plenty. He adds,
that by throwing in fuch a quantity of antifeptic vapour as
would be furnifhed from this kind of materijJs, the putre-
fadlive acrimony, which at firll (eems chiefly to afFedl the
biliary fyftem, might be corredled and faturated. See on
the fubjeft of this article Dr. Macbride's Eliays, 1776,
paffim.

Putrefaction, in PhyRology, the fpontaneous changes
which animal fubftances undergo, wh^n deprived of life.
See Death.

Putrefaction, in ylgrkuUnre. It is by means of putre-
faftion, as ftated under its appropriate article, that various
fubftances and bodies are decompofed, reduced, and brought
into the ftate proper for being applied to lands for tiie
fupport of crops ; but this is more fully explained, in fpcak-
ing of the nature of the different materials that are capa-
ble of being made ufe of in ameliorating land for the grovnh
of crops. See Manure.

Putrefaction of Water. It is faid to be the peculiar
quality of the Thames water, that it will ftink and yet be
wholefome ; and after this will recover itfelf again. Many
failors have been obliged to drink it ftinking, fo that they
held their nofes while they poured it down their throats, yet
no ficknefs enfued from it. It generates a fort of fpirit alfo
in this ftinking ftate, which will take fire at the approach of
a lighted candle, as if fpirit of wiae were touched by the
fame.

It appears from the article Putrefaction, that though
a volatile alkali may be obtained from putrid fubftances by
diftiUation, fuch fubftances mull not be fuffered to remain too
long before they are diftilled, unlefs they are kept in clofe
veflels ; becaufe the volatile alkali, which is the offspring of
putrefaftion, is diffipatcd as faft as it is generated, infomuch
that, at length, nothing is left behind but an infipid water,
or a fohd matter, being an earth fimilar to common mould.
It is in this way, fays Dr. Macbride, that ftinking water,
after fome time, becomes fweet : the volatile alkali, gene-
rated by the putrefaftion of the animal and vegetable fub-
ftances at firft contained in the water, being, after a while,
entirely diffipated, leaves the remainder without any difagree-
able fmell.

Putrid water is immediately deprived of its offenfive fmell
by charcoal. If putrid water be agitated with a fmall quan-
tity of magnefia, it will lofe its bad tafte and fmell in a few
minutes. See Crell's Journal, and Prouft, Journal de Phy.
fique.

A method of preferving water free from putrefaftion was
fome years fince propofed by Dr. Alfton. It confifted in
adding a quantity of lime to every caflc of water ; and as lime
is known to have a ftrong antifeptic property, water, as
long as it retains the impregnation of lime, never putrefies.
In order to free the water, at the time of ufing it, from
the lime, Dr. Alfton propofes the precipitation of the lat-
ter by throwing a quantity of magnefia alba, on this princi-
ple, that as lime-ttone is rendered foluble in water by the
deprivation of its fixed air, and has a greater affinity with
that air than magnefia has, the particles of quicklime diflblved
in the water would attraft the air from the magnefia, and
thereby becoming ho longer foluble, would fall to the bot-
tom, and leave the water taftelefs and fit for economical ufes.
See LiME-wa/cr and Magnesia.

The expence, however, attending this procefs prevented the
execution of the propofal. Mr. Henry has not long ago fug-
gefted a cheap and eafilyprafticable method of precipitating
the hme, and thus of reftoring the water to its original tafte.
The following is aftiort flcetch of the author's procefs. To

H preferve

P U T

P U T

preferve the water from putrefaftioii, two pounds oi good
tjuicklime are direftod to be added to each cade of water of
;i hundred and twenty gallons. To free the water after-
wards from the lime with which it has been impregnated, it
is to be drawn off into a ilrong calk, containing about lixty
gallons, with an aperture at one end large enough to admit a
vellel, which is to be let down into it by means of firings,
and which contains a proper quantity of cffervefcent mate-
rials, that is, of marble or chalk, and vitriolic acid. Eight
ounces of mild calcareous earth, and ilx ounces of llrong
vitriolic acid, will be fufficient for fixty gallons of hme-
water. The mouth of this lall vcdel ic to be (lopped with
a tubulated Hopper, through which the fixed air, let loofe
from the marble, pafles up through the body of the water.
The lime is thus rendered infoluble, and is foon precipitated
in the form of an impalpable powder of chalk ; the water
being thusreitored to the fame Hate of purity as when it was
firll (liipped on board ; or, at Mr. Henry believes, to a Hate
of ftill greater purity ; feveral hard waters having, in confe-
qucnce of this procefs, been rendered as fo(t as rain water,
and freed from different impregnation. For farther particu-
lars, and the defcription and drawing of an apparatus for
this operation, fee Henry's Account of a Method of pre-
ferving Water at Sea, &c. p. lo, &c. 1781.

PUTRESCENT Matters in ^griculiun; fuch fub-
ftances as are ia a Hate of putridity. V.inous materials of
this kind are capable of being made ufe of by the farmer.
It has been lately fuggefted by Dr. Hunter, of York, in a
paper in the third volume of the Farmer's Magazine, that
different materials of this nature may form a fubllitute for
the folding of fheep.

The trouble and expence of keeping a flock of iTieep for
the purpofe of folding, may probably be avoided by forming
large ponds, lo conllrufted as to receive and hold water.
Into thefe ponds let drains from the llables, cow-houfes, ox-
Halls, pigeon and walh-houfes be diredled ; and, in order to
enrich the water, let all kinds of vegetable and animal fub-
Hances be thrown in, particularly the contents of the ne-
ceffaries and flaughter-houfe. It is prefumed, that this
putrid water, when put upon the land by means of water-
carts, will prove as beneficial as a flock of fheep kept for
the exprels purpofe of folding ; and where no fheep are
kept for that purpofe, fuch will prove an excellent manure
for meadow land. A pond of fixty feet diameter, by fix feet
deep, which will contain upwards of 700 hog&eads of water
and putrefcent bodies, may be equal in its effefts to a con-
fiderable fold of Hieep. The putrefcency of the water may
be greatly increafed, by occafionally fupplying the ponds
with the refufe of fifh, and fea-weed, where they can be
conveniently procured ; and in all places within a reafon-
able diHance of fea-ports, where (hips are employed in the
Greenland fi(hery, tlie farmer will find a feafonable fupply
of putrefcent matter by the purchafe of the whale blubber,
after the od has been taken from it. Such is the Hrength
of the laft named fubHance, that it is well worth the
farmer's while to be at the expence of carrying it in caflis
to a confiderable diHance, for the purpofe of giving vi-
gour to his compoH dunghills. The ancients were fcru-
pulouQy nice in the formation of their dunghills ; and it is
a reproach lo the prefent race of farmers, that fo material
a branch of their bufincfs (hould, at this day, be fo imper-
feftly knovi'n or attended to. And in many large cities,
and efp;c;ally Edinburgh, it would be a great improve-
ment, if a well-GonHrudled refervoir was made to receive the
•excrementitious matter, the bafon being occafionally re-
pleuifhed with earth and fmall ruhbilh. In this manner,
jnanj- thoufands of loads of rich manure might be faved

5

from the fea, to which place the excrementitious matteM
are upon their paflage.

PUTRID, PuTuiuus, fomcthing rotten, or putrefied.
See Putrefaction.

Thus we fay, p\itrid flclh ; a putrid humour : putrid
limbs, i. e. mortified ones, arc to be cut off.

Putrid D'ifeafes. See Putrid Fever, &c.

Putrid Fcrmenl. See Fek.mkst.

Putrid Fever, l^c. in Medicine, an epithet originating
in tlie chemical fchool of phyfic, in which the true ope-
rations and phenomena of life were miilakcn for the fer-
mentations and decompofitions of the laboratory. Thi')
miHake was probably the refult of the offenfive fmell, and
actual putrefadlive odour of lome of the difcharges from
the living body, in the lull Hages of fevere feyers ; but far-
ther obfervation has demonllrattd that, however the excre-
tions may undergo the procefs of putrefaftion after they
are thrown out of the living fyHem, no degree of putre-
faftion can cxiH for a moment in the circulating blood, with-
out occafioning indant death.

The fymptoms which were formerly afcrjbed to putre-
faftion, but which are now believed to originate from a
great deficiency' of the vital or nervous power derived from
the brain and nervous fyftem, are fuch as occar m typhus
gravior, the hofpit.d and gaol fever, and in tlie worH cafes of
dyfentery, and fmall-pox ; among which are a black tongue
and mouth, extreme proHration of Hrength, fcetid evacua-
tions from the Homach, bowels, and bladder, hsemorrhages,
petechix, and purple blotches, &c. See Feveu, and

TyI'IIU.S.

Putrid Ulcer. See Ulcer.

PUTRINE, m Geography, a town of Pruflia, in Ober-
land ; fix miles W. of Paffenheim.

PUTT, in Rural Economy, a provincial word, applied
commonly in fome dillriifls to the mole-hill. Alfo, fome-
times to animals which put or thruH with their horns.

Putt, or Pitne, \\\ Geography, a town of Anterior Pome-
rania ; eight miles S.W. of Stralfuiid.

PUTTAN-SUMNAUT, atown of HindooHan, in Gu-
zerat ; near which was a famous pagoda, much venerated
and frequented by devotees from all parts of the country.
In the year 1002 this town and temple were taken by Mah-
mood, king of Ghizni, and plundered of their great wealth.
In the temple was found a Hatue, in which, on being broken,
wae found a vaH quantity of precious Hones. The Hindoos
believed that the fouls of deceafed perfons came to this
place to be transferred to other bodies ; 80 miles S. of No-
anagur. N. lat. 21° l'. E. long. 69° 40'.

PUTTEN, Vaxder, Henry, in Biography, was born
at Vandloo in 1574: after fludying at tlie univerfities of
tlie Low Countries, he vifited Italy, and for a confiderable
time was profellor of rhetoric at Milan, where he took the
degree of doctor of laws. He was nominated hiftorio-
grapher to his Catholic majcHy, and received the honour of
citizenlhip at Rome. In 1606 he was invited to the chair
of Lipfius, who had been his tutor. He was alfo made a
counfellor to the archduke Albert, and entruHed with the
government of the citadel of Louvain. When a truce was
negotiating between the Dutch and the king of Spain, in
1633, he publiflied a work, entitled " Statera Belli et
Pacis," in which he (hewed how important a peace would
be to the Spanifli Netherlands. This work gave great
offence, and the author had nearly experienced the ufual
fate of thofe who counlel pacific meafures, at a time when
paffion, prejudice, and intereft, urge the continuance of war.
He died at Louvain in 1646, aee 72. Befides his " Statera,"
mentioned above, he pubhflied " Hiltoria Infubrica ;"

" OrcheHra

P u w

I' U Y

" Orchcftra Biirgundica ;" " Theatrum Hiiloricum Impe-
ratorum ;" " Comus, feu dc Luxu ;" " Dc ufu Biblio-
tlicca!," with a catalogue of the Ambrofiaii hbrary ; be-
lides feveral trails rehilive to clafhcal antiquities, printed
among the collctlions of Gra:vius and Gronovius. Moreri.
Bayle.

PuTTEN, in Gcogr.iphy, a fmall ifland of Holland, in the
Meufe, E. of Voorn,

PUTTERAHEE, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Gohud ; 27 miles E.N.E. of Gohud.

PUl'TOCKS, or VvvTOCK-Shrouds, otherwife called
futtock or foot-hook firoiiils, in a Ship, are fmall /hrouds
which go from the Ihrouds of the main-mail, fore-maft, and
mizen-maft, to the top-maft fhrouds ; and if there be any
top-gallant mail, there are puttocks to go from the top-malt
ftirouds into thefe. Thefe puttocks are at the bottom feized
to a llafF, or to fome rope which is feized to a plate of iron,
or to a dead-man's eye, to which the laniards of the fore-
mail (hrouds come. See Shrouds.

PUTTY fometimes denotes a wliite powder of lead and
tin calcined togctlier, in the proportion of two parts of lead
to one of tin ; ufed in pwlifliing, and giving the laft glofs to
works of iron, fteel, Itone, and glafs. This is alfo the bafis
of white enamels, and glazings for earthen-ware.

Putty is alfo ufed to denote fpodium.

Putty, in its popular fenfe, denotes a kind of pafte, com-
pounded of whiting, with or without a little white lead, and
linfeed oil, beaten together to the confillence of a tough
dough ; ufed by glaziers for faftening the fquares of glafs in
fa(h-windows, &c. and by painters, to Hop up the crevices
and clefts in timber and wainfcot, to prevent the wet from
getting in, and ruining tlic work.

PUTTYRAM, in Geography, a town of Hindooitan, in
Bengal; 18 miles E.S.E. of Dinagepour.

PUTUAY, a fmall ifland on the coaft of Bengal. N-
lat. 22°4i'. E. long. 89° 28'.

PUTUMAYO, a river of South America, which rifes
about 80 miles S. of Popayan, purfues an eaftern courfe,
inclining to the fouth, about 300 miles, and after being
joined by a branch of the Caquet, takes the name of lea,
and running S.E. about 200 miles, joins the river of the
Amazons in S. lat. 3° 30'. W. long. 50° 40'. — Alfo, a
town of South America, in the government of Popayan, on
a river of the fame name ; 50 miles E. of Paito.

PUTURA, a cullora claimed by the keepers of forefts,
and fometimes by bailiffs of hundreds, to take man's meat,
horfe's meat, and dog's meat, of the tenants and inha-
bitants, gratis, within the perambulation of the forell,
hundred, &e.

" Johannes clamat vmam puturam in prioratu de Penevoft-
ham, qui eft quiedam cella abbatix de Evelham, pro fe & mi-
niltris, equis, & garcionibus fuis, per unum diem & duas
noftes, de tribus feptimanis, in tres feptimanas, viz. de
viftualibus, ut & efculeiitis & potulentis, ad collas prio-
ralus prasdifti indebite." Placit. apud Praellon. lyEdw.III.

This cuftom, within the liberty of Kuarelburg, was long
(jnce turned into the payment of four-pence, pro piitura.

The land fubje<& to this fervice is called terra piiturata.
The learned Soniner has erred in his expofitiou of this
word.

PUTYAJURY, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 30
miles S.S.W. of Silhet,

PUTZIG. See Pauzk.

PUVIGLIO, a town of the duchy of Parma ; nine
miles N.E. of Parma.

PUWAKHAGAi in Botany, the name by which fome

authors call the faufel-trec, of whofe fruit the expreliej
juice called terra Japoiiica, or Japan earth, is made.

PUXUANAIRO, in Geography, a town of Mexico,
in tiie province of Mechoacan ; 25 miles N.W. of Mc-
choacan.

PUY, Pktku I)U, in Biography, the third fon of Claude
du Puy, a magillrate in the parliament of Paris, was born
in tliat city in 1582, and was educated with great care under
his father. While a youth, he made extraordinary pro-
ficiency in literature, and ftill further improved himfelf by a
journey to Holland, whither he accompanied the French
ambailador. After his return he laboured with great affi-
duity in afcertaining the rights of the crown of France
over fome of the neighbouring diftridfs, and for that pur-
pofe was indefatigable in his examination <,. ancient charters,
and thereby acquired a profound knowledge of French hif.
tory. The reward of this, and other labours of the fame
fort, were the places of king's couniellor, and keeper of the
royal library, in both of wliich he was diftinguirtied by his
patriotifm and love of letters. His works were numerous
and valuable. In almoft all of them he aims at reprcfiing the
ecclefiaftical authority, and the claims of the fee of Rome 5
hence they were not well received at the papal court. They
are, however, faid to contain a rich treafure of fadts relative
to all the matters on which he treats^ He died at Paris in
1 65 1, at the age of 69, and his life was written by his inti-
mate friend Nicholas Rigault. Some of his writings are as
follow : " Preuvcs des Liberies de I'Eglife Gallicane ;"
" Hiltoire Veritable de la Condemnation de I'Ordre des
Templiers ;" " Traite de la Loi Salique ;" " Du Con-
cordat de Bologne entre le Pape Leon X., et le Roi
Francis I ;" " Apologie de I'Hiftoire de M. le Prefident de
Thou." He had a brother, James, prior of St. Sauveur,
who became keeper of the king's library after the death of
Peter, whom he allifted in all his works, of the greater part
of which he was the pubhfher. He died in 1656, leaving
behind him a high charafter for learning and probity. An-
other brother, Chrillopher du Puy, was prothonotary to the
cardinal de Joyeufe, and by his remonllrances he prevented
the congregation of the Index from putting the firft of De
Thou's hiftory in the lift of heretical books. He was
king's alriioncr, and, wlule attached to cardinal du Perron,
he made a colleftion entitled " Perroniana." He became a
Carthufian, and died at Rome in 1554, proftor-general of
his order.

Puy, Louis du, a man of letters, was born at Clarey,
in Bugey, in 1709 ; he ftudied in the college of Lyons, and
came to Paris in 1732. He was for a confiderable time
principal editor of the Journal des S5avans, and during thirty
years enriched this colleftion with a great number of critical
differtations. He was well verfed in the learned languages,
and in the mathematics, and acquired an extenfive know-
ledge of hiltory and antiquities. The prince of Soubife en-
trufted him with the management of his library, and by his
care it was rendered one of the moit valuable in the metro-
polis. In 1753 he was nominated fecretary to the Academy
of Infcriptions, in which iituation he pronounced the eu-
logies of twelve of his affociates, and edited from the 36th
to the 41ft vols, of its memoirs. He died in 1795. He was
author of " Obfervations on infinitely fmall Quantities, and
the metaphyfical principles of Geometry," inferted in the
Journal des S9avans for 1759; "A Tranllation of four
Tragedies of Sophocles," 1762; "A Tranflation of the
Greek Fragments of Anthemius on mechanical Paradoxes,
with Notes ;" fome memoirs on the Roman coin, the filver
denier of Charlemagne, and other antiquarian and literary
fubjeds. Du Puy v.-as highly eileemcd for itrjft probity,
H 2 fincerity,

P U Y

fincerity, and an obliging difpofition, which difplayed itfelf
in ufeful advice and information to tliofe who confulted him
on literary topics.

Puv, Mademo'ifdle du, a celebrated performer on the
harp, who had acquired a coulidcrable fortune by the
exercife of Iier talents in different parts of Europe.
She died at Paris in 1777, and made a will that feemed
diftatcd by infanity. Among other articles, fhe ordered
that no blind, lame, or deformed perfon (hould attend
lier funeral. She ordered that her honfe (hould be let
to none but nobility. She left a large piece of ground to
be formed into a public garden, upon condition that no
ftunted trees (hould be allowed a pkice in it. And lailly,
die bequeathed an annuity for the maintenance of cats, of
which (he was fond, and for a perfon to take care of them.
But the annuity depended wholly on the hfe of the cats.
The harp upon which (he had acquired her pofFefTions, was
left to a blind harper in the Hofpital des Ouinze Vingts,
who played tolerably well on many different inftruments.
Great pains were taken to fet this will alide, but without
effeft. It was declared valid by law, and obliged to be
executed. Laborde.

PuY, Le, in Geography, a town of France, and principal
place of a diftrici, in the department of the Upper Loire,
and capital of the department, fituated on a fmall river
near the Loire ; before the revolution, the fee of a bi(hop ;
a place of eonfiderable trade, efpecially in lace ; 38 miles
S.W. of Lyons. The place contains 15,915 inliabitants, in
two cantons, the one containing 13,396, and the other
14,100, on an extent of 185 kihometres, in 16 communes.
N. lat. 45° 2'. E. long. 3° 57'.

PuY-Laurens, a town of France, in the department of
the Tarn, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt of
Lavaur ; 12 miles S.E. of Lavaur. This place contains
5648, and the canton 9817 inhabitants, on a territory of
1 25 kiliometres, in 9 communes.

FvY-l'Eveque, a town of France, in the department of
the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Cahors ; 14 miles W. of Cahors. The place contains 2082,
and the canton 12,127 inhabitants, on a territory of 285
kiliometres, in 1 1 communes.

¥uY-Mirol, a town of France, in the department of the
Lot and Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Agen. The place contains 1263, and the canton
8072 inhabitants, on a territory of 125 kiliometres, in
1 1 communes.

PuY lie Belliard, a town of France, in the department of
La Vendee ; 1 8 miles N.W. of Fontenay le Comte.

PuY Cafquier, a town of France, in the department of
the Gers ; nine miles N.E. of Aucii.

PuY de Dome, a mountain of France, near Clermont en
Ferrand, 810 toifes in height.

PuY de Dome is alfo the name of one of the nine de-
partments of the central region of France, fo called from
the mountain that is fituated in it ; it is bounded on the
N. by the department of the AUier, on the E. by that
of the Rhone and Loire, on the S. by the departments
of the Cantal and Upper Loire, and on the W. by thofe
of the Correze and Creufe ; formerly Lower Auvergne,
in N. lat. 45° 40', containing 8450 kiliometres, or
abou' 35 French leagues in length, and 22 in breadth, or
447 fquare leagues, and 508,444 inhabitants ; divided into
fivedittriAs, I):;!;. Riom, including 126,640; Thiers, 61,530;
Ambert, 73,535; Clermont, 158,449; and Iffoire, 88,290
inhabitants ; 50 cantons, and 438 communes. The circles,
ace rding to Haffenfratz, are 8, the cantons 71, and the
population 516,593. Its capital is Clermont. The ge-

PUY

i.eral total of its contributions in the nth year of the new
French era, wa.s edimated at 3,656,547 francs; and its cx-
pences for adminiftration, judiciary, and tor public inilruc-
tion, at 374,681 francs, 37 cents. The foil of this depart-
ment, diverfitied with hills and plain*, is remarkably fertile,
producing abundantly grain, wine, fruits, hemp, and pallures.
It has mines of filver and lead, mineral fprings, &c.

PuY le Garde, a town of France, in the department of the
Lot ; 15 miles N.E. of Montauban.

PuY Guillaume, a town of France, in the department oi
the Puy de Dome ; eight miles N.E. of Lezoux.

PuY Laurens, a town of France, in the department of
the Aude ; feven miles S.E. of Quillan.

PuY Marin, a town of France, in the department of the
Upper Garonne ; 17 miles N. of St. Gaudens.

Puy Mir/an, a town of France, in the department of the
Lot and Garonne; lix miles E. ofMarmande.

PuY Moijfon, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Alps ; 15 miles S. of Digne.

PuY Noire Dame, or Puy en Anjou, a town of France,
in the department of the Mayne and Loire ; lO miles S.W.
of Saumur.

Puy de la Po'tx, a town of France, in the department of
the Puy de Dome ; 1 8 miles E. of Clermont.

Puy la Roque, a town of France, in the department of
the Lot ; 17 miles N.E. of Montauban.

Puy St. Martin, a town of France, in the department of
the Drome ; 1 1 miles N.E. of Montclimart.

Puy Val d'Or, a town of France, in the department of
the Eaftern Pyrenees; 10 miles N.W. of Montlouis.

PUYA, in Botany, the vulgar name, in Ch:h, of a plant,
which is figured in Feuillee, v. 3. 59. t. 39, and adopted as
a genus, after Molina, in Juffieu's Genera 447, under the
above barbarous appellation, with the following character.

" Calyx in fix deep fegments; the three innermolt largeft,
and vaulted. Stamens fix, inferted into the lower part of
the calyx ; their iilaments formed like a fcale at the bafe,
and bearing honey. Germen fuperior, triangular ; (ftyle
and ftigma unknown >. Capfule of tliree cells, with nume-
rous minute feeds, (doubtful whether furnifhed with down." )

Feuillee's defcription is to the following effeft. The
roots are fibrous, throwing up feveral ftems, about nine feet
high, as thick as a man's body at the bottom, where they
are clothed with the fcaly imbricated velliges of old leaves,
above which ftand the numerous leaves of the prefent year.
Thefe are three or four feet long, and about two inches
wide, refembling the foliage of the Pine-apple, their mar-
gins being fringed with very (harp hooked prickles, five lines
long, and about an inch and a half afunder ; the furface of
the leaves is fmooth, fliining, of a. fine bright green. The
Indians make ufe of thefe prickles as fi(h-hooks. The part
of the ftem above the leaves is round, two inches or more in
thicknefs ; of a blueifh-green externally ; white and watery
within, clothed with very (hort, alteraate, clafping leaves,
or fcales. The fummit confifts of a large pyramid of flower-
ing branches, or fpikes, the lowermoft a foot long ; all
clothed with fimilar fcales, or bracteas, each of which is ac-
companied by a feflile axillary flower. Each flower is com-
pofed of fix leaves, three large and throe fmall, in a double
row. The latter are three quarters of an inch long, (Feu-
illee fays, apparently by miilake, three inches,) and three
lines and a half broad, covered with minute white down :
the three larger are of a greenifh-yellow, two inches and a
half long, and nine lines broad, terminating like a Gothic
arcade. The flowers roll up fpirally as they fade. Six
ftamens fpnng from the bottom of each flower, furrounding
a triangular piftil, which extends beyond them, and becomes

I a fruit

P W L

a fruit of three cells, filled with an infinite number of feeds.
T'euillee met with feveral fpecimens of this plant in the king-
dom of Chili. He refers it to his genus of Renealm'ta, the
Tillandfia of Linnasus. Juliieu jullly fufpeCls its being the
fame genus with I'Heritier's PiitAiuMA, lee that article;
of which therefore the plant in quL-ftion may be prcfumcd
to conllitute an additional fpecies to the four we have de-
fcribed ; agreeing moll with P. braSeata in habit, fize and
colour, but differnig in having more ipinous leaves, as well
as a more compound inflorcfcence.

The reader will obferve that JuHieu, according to the
principles he had aliumed, calls the whole integument of the
flower a calyx, while we follow other writers in taking the
three inner parts for petals ; a meafure juftified, if wc mif-
take not, by their habit, and mode of withenng. The
little differences refpefting the fcales or nectaries may eafily
be reconciled.

PUYCERDA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Cata-
lonia, and capital of the county of Cerdagne, furrounded
with walls and bailions, and defended by a cattle ; 19 miles
E.N.E. of Urgeh N. lat. 42° 30'. E. long. 1° 48'.

PUYO, a town of France, in the department of the
Landes ; nine miles S.W. of Aire.

PUYS, a term ufed for the poles with which the keels
on the Tyne river are flowed along.

PUYSEGUR, James de Chastenet, Lord of, in Bio-
graphy, lieutenant-general under Lewis XIII. and XIV.,
was born in 1 600. He entered the army at the age of feven-
teen, and fervcd, without intermiffion, during forty-three years.
He was prefent at above thirty battles, and one hinidred and
twenty fieges, without ever having been fick or received a
wound, but he had not the good fortune to rife in his pro-
feffion, being more zealous for the king's fervice, than com-
plaifant to the miniilers. He drew up " Memoirs," com-
prifing the period from 161 7 to 1658, in which are contained
various remarkable particulars relative to the campaigns in
which he ferved, with ufeful military inftruttions. They
were printed at Paris and Amllerdam in 1690, 2 vols. i2mo.
under the infpeftion of Du Chefne, hilloriographer of
France, and they have the charafter of narrating with free-
dom and fidelity. He died at his country feat in 1682.
Moreri.

PuYSEGUR, James de Chatelet, Marquis de, was fon
of the preceding, born at Paris in 1655, and entered into
the army under his father, and gradually rofe to the poll of
commander-in-chief in the French Netherlands, and finally,
to the ftill more important one of a marfhal of France in
1734. He died at Paris in the year 1743, "^^ '^^ ""^^ °^
88. He was author of a work "On the>Art-MiIitary,"
piiblifhed by his only fon the marquis of Puyfegur. Moreri.

PUZZ ALO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Sicily,
in the valley of Noto, near the S. coaft of the ifland ; 1 2
miles S.W. of Noto.

PUZZLING Bay, a bay in the flraits of Magellan, on
the coafl of Patagonia. N. lat. 53° 35'. W. long. 74° 28'.

PUZZOLANA. See Pozzolana, and Calcareous Ce-
ment.

PUZZUOLI, in Geography. See PozzuOLl.

PWLLHELI, a borough, market, and fea-port town
in the parifh of Denio, cvsmmwd of Cannologion, cantref
of Lleyn, now called the hundred of Gyfflogion, county of
Caernarvon, South Wales, is fituated on the fouth fide of
the promontory of Lleyn, in St. George's Channel, at the
diftanee of 27 miles S.S.W. from Caernarvon, and 243-5
miles W.N.W. from London. This town coufiils chiefly
of a fingle flreet, running parallel to the (hore. It was
cenllituted a free borough by Edward the Black Prince, at

P Y A

the requell of Nigel de Loharcyn, .ind had its privilegei
confirmed by king Edward III. The government is veiled
in a mayor, recorder, and two bailiffs, who have the powers
of juflices. The market days here are Wcdnefday and
Saturday, weekly ; and there are befides fix annual fairs.
This port has a confider;ble trade ; and upwards of eighty
fliips, of different burthens, belong to it. Along the coaft
to Bardfea ifland, an extenfive and valuable herring fifhery
has been lately eflablilhed. The harbour is good, and well
flieltercd from the winds ; and the bay, to wliich the town
gives name, affords excellent anchorage ground. Pwllheli
is one of the contributary boroughs with Caernarvon, in
returning one member to parliament, and is likewife the feat
of the petty feffions for the diflrift of Lleyn, which extends
about twenty-two miles in length, and from three to ten ia
breadth, projefting into the fea in a manner fimilar to the
county of Cornwall. According to the parliamentary re-
turns of 181 1, the parifh contains 312 houfes, and 1383
inhabitants, of which number, above one-half are refident in
the town of Pwllheli.

At the diflance of five miles from this town is Carn-
Madryn, a flrong fortrefs, which formerly belonged to the
fons of Owen Gwynedd. The bottom, fides, and top are
filled with cells, varying in fize and fhape, many of which
are ftill nearly entire. Clofe to the fea-coalt is an entrench-
ment, called Dinas Dinlle, which conflitutes an objedl of
great attracflion from the road to Caernarvon by Clynnog
Fawr, a neat romantic village, boafting one of the largeft
and handf'omed churches in Wales. Near it is the valley
called Nant-y-Gwrtheyrn, or the valley of Vortigern, where
that prince is faid to have concealed himfelf, to avoid the
perfecution of his fubjefts. It is bounded on two fides by
ftony fteps, only produdlive of heath and ftunted gorfe,
and on a third by a tremendous precipice. The only open-
ing to this fecluded fpot is towards the fea, " a northern
afpeft, where chilling winds exert all their fury, and half
freeze, during winter, its few inhabitants." Nicholfon's
Cambrian Traveller's Guide, 1813. Carlifle's Topographi-
cal Didionary of Wales, 181 1, 4to.

PYANEPSIA, Yiva.n\m, in Jntiquity, a feafl celebrated
by the Athenians in the month Pyanepfion ; which, accord-
ing to the generality of the critics, correfponded to our
September.

Plutarch refers the inftitution of this feaft to Thefeus ;
who, at his arrival from Crete, made a kind of facrifice to
Apollo of all the provifions remaining in his veffel ; putting
them all into a kettle, boihng them together, and eating
them with his fix companions ; which cuftom was afterwards
continued. The fchohaft of Ariftophanes fays, this was
done to acquit himfelf of a vow he made to Apollo in a
tempeft.

M. Baudelot writes the word Puanepfia, and takes it to
be a feaft inflituted in memory of Thefeus's return after
killing the Minotaur.

The Greeks vary as to the origin and fignification of the
word Pyanepfion, whence the feaft is denominated. Har-
pocration calls it Pieanoptia; he addt, that others call it
Panopfa, becaufe then the fruits all appear to the eye.
Hefychius writes Pyanepfta; and derives it from vMam, bean,
and i]^!L', coquo; becaufe in this feaft the Athenians gathered
their beans, and made a kind of broth of them.

PYANEPSION, nLavsJ..^;, in the Athenian Chronology,
a month of thirty days, in which the feftival Pyanepfia was
celebrated, and called by the Bxotians Damatrius.

PYAPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar ; i x miles E. of Bahar.

^ PYBO-

P Y C

P Y C

PYBOLOWO, a town of Lithuania; 25 miles E. of
Minflt.

PYCIELT, ill Botany, a name pjivon by Hernandez,
and fome other authors, to a peculiar fpecies of tobacco,
diftinguiflicd by Mr. Tournefort by tlic name of nicotiana
major lato et rotundo folio, the broad roundifh-leaved great
tobacco.

PYCNANTHEMUM, a name contrived by Michaux,
from iiixTOf, denfe, and av5o,-, a flower, to exprefs the denfe
inflorcfcence. — Michaux Borcali-Amer. v. 7.. 7. Ait. Hort.
Kew. V. 3. 376. Purih v. 2. 409. (Brachyftemum ; Mi-
chaux Borcali-Amer. v. 2. J.) — Clafs and order, Didynamia
Gynmofpermia. Nat. Ord. Verticillatic, Linn. LablaU,
.luff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, inferior, tubular,
ftriated, ereft, permanent, with five avvl-fhaped, acute,
nearly equal teeth ; the mouth naked. Cor. of one petal,
ringent ; tube cylindrical, the length of the calyx ; upper
lip nearly ereft, oblong, (lightly convex, rounded, fcarcely
notched ; lower lip much the largeil, widely fprcading,
channelled, three-lobed ; the lateral lobes femi-elliptical ; the
middle one longeft. Slam. Filaments four, awl-(haped,
dillant, various in length ; two of them fliorter than the
reft. ; anthers with two parallel cells. Pijl. Germen fupe-
rior, four-cleft ; ftyle briftle-diaped, rather (horter than the
corolla ; lligmas two, fprcading, acute. Per'ic. none, ex-
cept the permanent calyx. Heeds four, roundifh.

Eir. Ch. Calyx five -cleft. Middle fegment of the low^r
lip of the corolla longer than the reft. Stamens diftant.
Anthers with parallel cells.

Obf. This genus feems to differ from Satureja principally
in the form of its corolla. The fpecies, as far as we know,
are all American.

Se£t. I. Stamens prominent. Pyenanthemum of yiichznx.

i. P. incanum. Hoary Tufted Savory. Michaux v. 2. 7.
Purfhn. I. Ait. n. I. (Clinopodium incanum ; Linn. Sp.
PI. 822. WiUd. Sp. PI. T. 3. 132. C. menthx folio,
incanum ct odoratum ; Dill. Elth. 87. t. 74. C. Serpen-
taria didlum, &c. ; Pluk. Mant. 51. t. 344. f. 1.) — Leaves
oblong-ovate, acute, flightly ferrated, downy. Heads
compound ; the lateral ones ftalked. Brafteas fetaceous.
— Found in low fields and copfes, from Virginia to Carolina ;
flowering from July to Oiilober. It was cultivated in She-
rard's garden at Eltham before the year 1732, but has
fcarcely been attended to by recent amateurs. The root is
perennial. Stem three feet high, ereft, fomewhat branched,
leafy, bluntly quadrangular. Leaves about two inches
long, on Ihort ftalks ; their under fide moft hoary or downy.
Flowers white, tinged with red, in denfe ftalked hoary
whorls, with a terminal head ; their inner braBeas briftle-
Ihaped. The whole herb is clothed with fine foft pubefcence ;
the leaves marked with pellucid dots ; their fcent aromatic,
partaking of the common, as well as fweet. Marjoram.

2. Y, ar'ijlatum. Briftly Tufted Savor)'. Michaux v. 2. 8.
t. 33. Purftj n. 2. Ait. n. 2. (Nepeta virginica; Linn.
Sp. PI. 799. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 56. Clinopodium ama-
raci folio, flore albo ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 85. f. 2.) — Leaves
ovato-lanceolate, fomewhat hoary, (lightly ferrated. Heads
feffile. Brafteas and calyx awned. — Native of dry woods,
on a limeftone foil, from Maryland to Carolina, flowering
in July and Auguft. Miller appears to have cultivated this
fpecies in 1752. It is perennial, with altogether the herb-
age and afpedt of an Origanum. The leaves are not an inch
long, nearly feflile, dotted, veiny, thick-edged, very mi-
nutely, and fcarcely perceptibly, hoary. Flowers white,
fmall, in numerous, denfe, terminal, hoary, compound heads.
Bra&eas lanceolate, entire, witU long, rigid, awn-like points.

3. P. monlatium. Mountain Tufted Savory. Michaux
v. 2. 8. Pur(h n. 3. — " Leaves oval-lanceolate, ferrated.
Head feflile. Calyxes crowded, ereft, with fhort teeth."
— Native of high mountains in Carolina, according to Mi-
chaux, the only perfon who appears to have gathered this
plant. The Jlcm, and part of the reft of the herb, are
ufually tinged with purple. We have feen neither fpecimen
nor figure.

4. P. Monardella. Monarda Tufted Savory. Michaux
V. 2. 8. t. 34. Purfh n. 4. (Origanum incanum ; Walter
Carolin. 165.) — Somewhat hairy. Leaves ovate, taper-
pointed, ferrated. Outer brafteas ovate, coloured, longer
than the flowers; iuner lanceolate, fringed. Calyx bearded.
— Found on the mountains of Virginia and Carolina, but as
yet a ftrangcr to our gardens. It flowers from June to
Auguft, and is perennial. The habit of the plant, and iti
coloured hradeas, refemble Monnrda Jijlulofa. The Jlower.i
are fmall, and pale red, according to Mr. Purfti, on whom
we depend for the fynonym of Walter.

5. P. linifolium. Flax-leaved Tufted Savory. Furfh
n. 5. Ait. n. 3. (Brachyftemum virginicum ; Michaux
V. 2. 6. B. linifolium ; Willd. Enum. 623. Thymus vir-
ginicus ; Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 13. 453. Willd. Sp. PI.
V. 3. 145. Satureja rirginiana; Linn. Sp. PI. 753. Herm.
Parad. 218. t. 218. Pulegium virginianum anguftifolium,
&c. ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 54. f. 2.) — Stemereft, much branched,
corymbofe, roughifh. Leaves lanceolate, entire. Heads
crowded, nearly globular. Brafteas ovate, fringed. —
Found in rather dry and mountainous meadows of North
America, from New England to Carolina, flowering in July
and Auguft. Miller had it in cultivation in the year 1739,
and it is ftill preferved in curious gardens, being a tolerably
hardy, fomewhat fhrubby, perennial, of a bufliy corymbofe
habit, about eighteen inches or two feet high. The whole
plant fmells ftrongly of Penny-royal. The Jlem is fquare,
pale, downy chiefly at the angles ; its upper branches rifing
all nearly to a level, and forming a corymbus of numerous,
globofe or hemifpherical, downy heads, of fmall white

Jlowers. The bradeas are numerous, all ovate ; the outer
ones large, the inner very downy. Such is the plant in-
tended by LinnKus under the above fynonyms, and which
is perhaps rather the P. lanceolatum of Purfh, than his lini-
folium. In the latter ihejiamens are longer than the corolla;
in the former they are fhorter ; but this is evidently, as in
Mints, a variable circumftance ; and therefore the Pycnan-
themum and Brachvjlemum of Michaux, are certainly one and
the fame genus. We are confident alfo that there is no fpe-
cific difference between Purlh's and Willdenow's linifolium
and lanceolatum.

Seft. 2. Stamens within the tube. Brachyjlemvm of Mi-
chaux.

6. P. muticum. Pointlefs Tufted Savory. Purfh n. 7.
(Brachyftemum muticum ; Michaux v. 2. 6. t. 32.) —
Leaves ovate, pointed, fmoothilh, fomewhat ferrated.
Heads terminal, felTile, folitary. Brafteas lanceolate, acute,
awnlefs. — Gathered by Michaux in Upper Carolina. Mr.
Pur(h never found this fpecies. The former writer is in-
correft in his definition of the leaves, which are by no means
" lanceolate-oval," nor are they " dentate," but truly fer-
rated, at leaft in his plate. The beads bear fome refem-
blance to thofe of our fifth fpecies, but are lefs globofe.

7. P. verticillatum. Whorled Tufted Savory. Pm-fh
n. 8. (Brachyftemum verticillatum ; Michaux v. 2. 6. t. 31.
Origanum clinopodioides ; Walt. Carol. 165.) — Leaves
ovate, pointed, entire. Flowers capitate and whorled.
Brafteas lanceolate, pointed. — Native of mountains in
North America, from Pennfylvania to Carolina, flowering

ill

P Y C

P Y G

in July and Au(ru(l. Pmjli. This, like the red, is pcrcii-
nial. It nearly rt-fcmbles the lait, but tlifTcrs in having en-
tire leaves, and one or two denfo axillary whorls oi Jlonuers,
befides the folitary terminal heads. The bradeas are alfo
faid to he more pointed. '

PYCNI, w^jKv :., in the Ancient Mnfic, was ufed for fuch
founds or chords of a tetrachord as might enter the fpillnm,
Or TOVK^cv.

Thefe were the hypatse, the parypatjc, and the lichani,
of the fcveral tetrachords. The hypatx were called Im-
rypycnl, ^y.fV7:vxmi; the parypatx, mf/o/i_)'fwi, i^so-o'^zvx.toi ; and
the lichani, oxypycm ; c^vrnv.'.m; becaui'e the iirfl were the
lowell notes ; the fecond, the middle notes ; and the third,
the highcll of the fpiffum. Such chords as could never
enter the fpifi'um were called apycni, a.'vjvy.wA, VTzc/.Tn-a^m,

Hence, in the Greek fcale or diagram, containing
eighteen chords, there were five barypycni, as many mefo-
pycni, and an equal number of oxypycni, together with
three apycni. The apycni and barypycni were llabiles or
fixed chords ; but the mefopycni and oxypycni were movea-
ble, or mobiles.

PYCNITE, in Mineralogy, is the mineral called feludite
by Klaproth, leucolite by Daubenton, and fchorlous beryl
by Werner, who (ir(l clailed it as a fiibfpecies of beryl. It
is now arranged with the topaz, to which its conltituent
parts bear a nearer refemblance. It is remarkable for con-
taining, like the topaz, a portion of fluoric acid. Pycnite
is generally fo\md cryllallizcd in long fix-iided prilms im-
bedded in granite rocks. Small four-fided prifms may be
obtained by a careful mechanical divifion from the large cryf-
tals ; the bafes of thefe are rhombs with angles of 120° and
60°. Bucholz cotifiders this to be the primitive form of
pycnite. The colour of this mineral is either various fliades
of white, paffing on one fide from greyifh and yellowifh-
white to ilraw-yellow, or from reddilb-white to a peacli
bloffoni and crimfon red. Some fpecimens are marked with
fpots of violet blue. The cryitals are tranflucent. The
crols frafturc is imperfetlly foliated, the longitudinal imper-
feftly imall conchoidal. It is harder than quartz, which it
Icratches, but is eafily broken in a direction perpendicular
to the axis of the cryitals. Its fpecific gravity is 3.61.
By the analyfis of Vauquelin, pycnite contams

Alumine -

-

60

Silex

.

30

Fluoric acid

-

6

Lime

-

2

Water

.

I

Lofs I.

99

Bucholz makes the proportion of fluoric acid 1 7 per cent.
There is no lefs difference in the proportion of fluoric acid
in difFerent fpecimens of the topaz, as given by Klaproth
and Vai.quelin. See Topaz. B.

PYCNON, -:j«..ov. See Spissum.

PYCNOSTYLE, 7ru~ioruXo , formed from •^ruxv,,-, clofe,
and ^lA . , column, \n\.\\e Ancient Jlrch'itecliire, a building where
the columns Hand very clofe to one aiiolhtr ; one diameter
and a half of the columu being allowed for the inter-
columnation.

The pvcnollyle is tlie fmalk-ft of ail the intercolumnations
mentioned by Vitruvius. Some make it the fume with
J\J}fh- ; others dliUnguilh the latter by its allowing half a
module more in the C' rinthian uitercolumnalion.

The pycnoftyle, Mr. Evelyn obfervcs, chiefly belonged

to the Compofite order, and was ufed before the moft mag.
nificent buildings ; as, at prcfcnt, in the peryllyle of St.
Peter's at Rome, confiltiiig of near three hundred columns ;
and fuch as yet remain ot the ancients among the late dif-
covered ruins of Palmyra.

PYCNOTICS, Incrahsants, or medicines of an aque-
ous nature, which have the faculty of cooling and condenf-
ing, or thickening, the humours.

The word, in its original Greek, wi/xmriMv, fignifies
fomething that has the power of thickening.

Purflane, the nenuphar or water-lily, folaiuim, Sec. are
ranked among pycnotics.

PYDNA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Macedonia,
in Pieria, on the coait of the Thermiean gulf, fome miles
N. of the river Ahacmon. It was near this town that the
Romans gained over Perfeus the battle which terminated the
kingdom of Macedon. Steph. Byz. calls it Cydna. — Alfo,
a town of the Rhodians. — Alfo, a mountain of the ifland
of Crete. — Alfo, a town of Afia, in Phrygia, in the vicinity
of mount Ida.

PYE, in Englifli y^«/;yu;/y. See PiCA.

Pyk, in Mechanics. See CuAB.

Pyk, in Ornithology. See PiciE.

PvE, Sea. See Pica Marina.

Pye's IJlancls, in Geography, a duller of fmall iflands in
the North Pacific ocean, near the W. coaft of North Ame-
rica. The iouthernmoll forms, in various appearances of it,
a very confpicuous peak ; its S. extremity is fituated in N.
lat. 59° 19'. E. long. 210° 21'.

PYGAIA, in the Materia Medica, a name by which
fome authors have called the ipecacuanha, or vomiting In-
dian root.

PYGARGA, in Zoology, a fpecies of Antelope ; which
lee.

PYGARGITES, in Natural Hiftory, a name given by
Pliny and fome other of the old writers to the eagle-flone,
when it was variegated with white, in the manner of the tail
of the eagle, called pygargus.

PYGARGUS, in Ornithology, a Ipecie: of eagle, called
alfo by lome authors albicilLi, and hirundinaria. Linnxus
has clailed this bird among the vultures, calling it the vulttir
alhicilla, becaufe its bill is rather ilraighter than is ufual in
the eagle ; but Mr. Pennant obferves, that it can have no
claim to be ranked with that genus, becaufe the pygargus
is wholly feathered ; whereas tlie charafterillic mark of the
vulture is, that the head and neck are either quite bare, or
only covered with down.

It is a large and fierce bird, of the fize of the commen
turkey ; its beak is yellow, and covered with a yellow mem-
brane at its bafe ; it has large hazel-coloured eyes ; its feet
are yellow, and its claws extremely llrong and fharp ; the
head is white, and there are no feathers, but fome fine hairs
between the eyes and noftrils ; the upper part of the neck
is of a reddilh-brown, and the rump black ; .all the body
befides this is of an obfcure rull colour, and its wings are
partly black, partly grey ; its tail is long, and the upper
half of it is white, and the relt black. It is from this white
part that it has its namie alhicilla. The male is of a darker
colour than the female. This bird inhabits Scotland and
the Orkneys, and feeds on filh as well as on land animals.

Authors who have written on this kibjedl feem not at all
agrcf d to call the fame bird by this name. The pygargus-
ot Aldrovand feems different from this, and the pygargui
prior of Bellonius feems no other than the male of that kind
of l:awk, called in Englilb the hcn-harritr.

Mr. Wilui^'liby imagines his firil pygargus, p. 61, to be
only a variety of the white-tailed eagle, having the fame

charac-

P Y L

P Y N

chara(?teriflic mark, and differing only in the pale colour of
the head.

PvGARGUs AcnpUer, a name by which many authors have
called the fubbuteo, a bird of the hawk kind ; the male of
which is called in Englifli the hen-harrier, and the female
fuppofed by fome to be the ring-tail. See Falco.

PYGELA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia Minor,
in Ionia, where was a temple of Venus Munychian, accord-
ing to Strabo and Steph. Byz.

PYGME, OTi/yK") the length, or exten*;, between the
elbow, and extremity of the hand, the fift being fhut ; called
alfo a cubit.

PYGMY, PvGMffiUS, TOuynaiot, formed of ■avy^i^, cubit,
a dwarf, or perfon of exceeding fmall ftature, not exceed-
ing a cubit in height. See Dwarf.

The appellation is given among the ancients to a fabulous
nation, laid to have inhabited Thrace ; who generated and
brought forth young at five years of age, and were old
at eight ; famous for the bloody war they waged with the
cranes.

Pygmy Ape, in Zoology. See Simia Sylvanus.

PYHA, HI Geography, a large lake of Sweden, in the
province of Savolax, N.E. of lake Saima, and communicat-
ing with It. — Alfo, a river of Sweden, which runs into the
gulf of Bothnia, at Braheftad.

PYHAJARVl, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Nyland ; 34 miles N.W. of Helfingfors.

PYHAJOCKl, a town of Sweden, in Eall Bothnia, near
the fea coaft ; 10 miles S.S.W. of Brahellad.

PYH AM AA, a fmall idand in the gulf of Bothnia, on
a peninfula of the coafl of Finland. N. lat. 69" 59'. E.
long. 21° 12'.

PYKEHAUS, a town of Bengal; 52 miles S.E. of
Pucculoe.

PY'KER, or Pycar, in our Writers, a fmall (hip or
herring boat.

PYLA, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ;
48 miles N. of Pofen. — Alfo, a river of England, in Mon-
mouthlliire, which runs into the Olvvy ; 2 miles N.E. of
Uik.

PYLADES, in Biography. See Bathyllus, Hvlas,
Mime, and Pantomime.

PYLyE Persides, in Ancient Geography, a famous ftrait
in Afia, between the Perlide and Sufiana, according to Dio-
dorus Siculus. This ftrait is named Ports Perficx by
Strabo, and Pylte Sufiades by Arrian.

Pyla; Sarmaticte. Sarmatia is bounded on the S. by
mount Caucafus, which feparates it from the neighbouring
countries. Ptolemy fpeaks of two ftraits or palfages in this
famous mountain ; one called Portoe Caucafije, which affords
entrance into Siberia ; the other named Pyls Albaniae, and
gives entrance into Albania.

PYL-iEA, a town of Macedonia, in Trachinia, fituated
at the foot of mount Oeta, according to Philoftratus. This
gave name to the Pylaic gulf, mentioaed by Strabo.

Pyl^ea, roijAocia, in Antiquity, a name given to the af-
fembly of the Amphitlyons, as well when they met at Del-
phi as at Thermopylx. The concourfe of people at thefe
aflemblies was fo great, that the term pyliea came to be ufed
for any very numerous aflembly, or crowd of people. Mem.
Acad. Infer, vol. iv. p. 287. 290.

PYLAGORiE, YluXa-yofic, a name given to the Am-
phiftyons, becaufe they affembled at Thermopylae, or
PylsE.

PYLAU, in Geography, a town of Pruffia ; 18 miles S.
of Konigfbcrg.

PYLE, Thomas, in Biography, was born at Stodey, near

Holt, in Norfolk, in the year 1 674. He received his acade-
mical education at Caius college, Cambridge, where he took
his degrees, and became an excellent Icholar. When iii-
dufted to the church, lie difcharged all the duties attaching
to his fituation as curate with the molt confcientious in-
tegrity. His great aim was to amend and improve his
hearers, and his difcourfes and urgent manner gained him
the attention for wliicii he was anxious. In early life he
took part in the Bangorian coiitroverfy, and acquitted him-
felf fo much to the fatisfaftion of biflwp Hoadly, that his
lordihip prefentcd him with a prebend, aisd procured for
him a relidentiarj-fhip in the cathedral church of Sahlbury,
and likewife made his two fons prebendaries of Wincheiler.
He died in his 84th year. He was greatly admired as a
preacher, and no lefs fo as a faithful friend, an agreeable
companion, a man of the moft liberal fentiments, and fo
free from all pride and conceit of his o-xu abihties, that he
was apt to pay a deference to the opinions of many perfons
much inferior to himfelf. Archbifhop Herring fpeaks of him
as a worthy man, but who had not at all times the proper go-
vernment of his own temper. He was author of feveral
works : as " A Paraphrafe, with Notes, on the Ads of the
Apoftles, and Epiltles," being a fupplcment to Dr. Clarke's
Paraphrafe on the Four Gofpels : " The Scripture Pre-
fervative againil Popery ; being a Paraphrafe, with Notes,
on the Revelation of St. John." He pubhlhcd alfo, be-
tween the years 17 15 and 1725, "A Paraphrafe, with (hort
and ufeful Notes, on the Books of the Old Teftament."
In 1773, his friends pubhihed two vols, of poilhumous fer-
mons, to which, in 1783, a third was added. Though thefe
fermons want the care and polifli of finifhed compofitions,
they are reckoned interefting and highly ufeful family dif-
courfes.

PYLE.RUDBAR, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in
the province of Ghilan ; 32 miles S. of Refhd.

PYLING the Ground for Foundations. See Foundation,
and Pallification. ,

PYLORIC Artery and Vein, in Anatomy, are blood
veffels belonging to the ftomach. See Stomach.

PYLORUS, the circular ring by which the ftomach
communicates with the fmall inteftine. See Stomach.

PYLSTART, in Geography, an ifland in the South Pa-
cific ocean, about fix miles in circumference, difcovered by
Tafman in 1643. It prefents to view two lofty hills,
which feem feparated from each other by a low valley : it is
called by Maurelle " La Sola." S. lat. 22° 22'. W. long.

'75" 59'-

PYLUS Mejfenix, now Na-uarin, in Ancient Geography,
was fituated on the weltern coaft of Meflenia, over-againll
the ifland of Afina.

Pylus [Zonchio), or Avarino Veccio, a town of Meflenia,
upon the fea-coaft, S.E. of Platamodes.

Pylus JElianus, a town of Triphylia, N.W. of Onus,
upon the Ladon.

PYMATUNING, in Geography, a town of America,
in Mercer county, Pennfylvania ; 23 miles W.S.W^. of Fort
Franklin. It contains 376 inhabitants.

PYNAKER, Adam, in Biography, a landfcape painter,
was born at the village of Pynaker, near Delft, in 162 1.
Whether his real name was that by which he is known or
not, IS not now to be afcertained. By an earneft ftudy of the
art, firft in his native land, and afterwards at Rome, he ac-
quired very confiderable Ikill and celebrity. He generally
exhibits brilliant effedts of funfliine, in fubjefts not always
happily feledled, but executed with great frelhnefs, purity,
and taile. In his pidlures we frequently fee ruins of elegant
and antique buildings, and figures well adapted to the

fcenery.

P Y R

P Y R

Icenery. In general his piftures are of a fmall fize, and
are rather fcarce. He died in 1673, at the age of 52.

PYNANG, in Botany, a name by which fome authors
call the faiifel, or areca-{ree ; a kind of palm, from the cx-
prcifed juice of which the drug commonly, but improperly,
called Japan -earth is made.

PYNY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Coim-
betore ; iR miles S. of Daraporum.

PYONY Wateh. See Water.

PYRACANTHA, in Botany, a name given by fome
authors to the lycium, or box-thorn.

PYRjEIA, or Pyketiiea, among the Eajlern Nations
of Antiquity, were great inclofures uncovered, and dedi-
cated to the fun, in which a perpetual fire was kept up in
honour of this luminary, which was worfliipped by moil of
them. See Ciia.manim.

PYRALIS, thzjire-fly, a name given by authors to a
fuppofed infetl, which they fay is produced in the violent
fires of the glafs and metal furnaces. Plin. lib. ii. c. xxxvi.
See Lampyris.

PYRAMID, TO'jfa^i,-, in Geometry, a folid (landing on a
fquare, triangular, or polygonal bafis, and terminating at
top in a point ; or a body whofe bafe is a regular rcftihnear
figure, and whofe fides are plain triangles ; their feveral ver-
tices meeting together in one point.

Euclid defines it a folid figure, confifting of feveral tri-
angles whofe bafes are all in the fame plane, and have one
common vertex.

Wolfius defines it a folid, bounded by as many triangles,
ADC, D C B, and A D B, terminating in one point D,
as the bafe A B C has fides. Plate XI. Geometry, fig. 18.

The pyramid is faid to be triangular, quadrangular, quln-
quangular, &c. according as the bafe is triangular, quadran-
gular, &c. The pyramid may be called a fquare, triangu-
lar, &c. cone ; or the cone a round pyramid.

Pyramid, Properties of the. I. All pyramids and cones
ftanding on the fame bafe, and having the fame altitude, are
demonilrated to be equal.

2. A triangular pyramid is the third part of a prifm,
ftandins; on the fame bafe, and of the fame altitude.

3. Hence, fince every multangular may be divided into
triangulars, every pyramid is the third part of a prifm,
ftanding on the fame bafis, and of the fame altitude.

4. If a pyramid be cut by a plane, ab c, parallel to4ts bafe,
ABC, the former plane, or bafe, will be fimilar to the latter.

5. All pyramids, prifms, cylinders, &c. are in a ratio
compounded of their bafes and altitudes : the bafes, there-
fore, being equal, they are in proportion to their altitudes ;
and the altitudes being equal, they are in proportion to
their bafes.

6. Similar pyramids, prifms, cylinders, cones, &c. are
in a triplicate ratio of their homologous fides.

7. Equal pyramids, &c. reciprocate their bafes and alti-
tudes ; i. e. the altitude of the one is to that of the other,
as the bafe of this to the bafe of that.

8. A fphere is equal to a pyramid, whofe bafe is equal
to the furfacc, and its height to the radius of the fphere.

Pyramid, to meafure the furface and folidtly of a. Find
the folidity of a prifm that has the fame bafe and height
with the given pyramid. And divide this by three ; the
quotient will be the folidity of the pyramid. Or, multiply
the bafe by the perpendicular height ; and one-third of the
produft will be the content.

Suppofe, V. gr. the folidity of the prifm be found
67010328, the folidity of the pyran^d will be thus found
72336776.

Vol. XXIX.

The furfacc of a pyramid is had, by finding the areas,
both of a bafe, ABC, and of the lateral triangles, A CD,
C B D, D B A. (See Triangles. ) The fum of thefe ic
the area of the pyramid.

The external furface of a right pyramid, fl;anding on a
regular polygonal bafe, is equal to the altitude of one of
the triangles which compofe it, multiplied by the whole
circumference of the bafe of the pyramid.

Py'RAMID on a plane, to dejcrihe a. I. Draw the bafe,
•0. gr. the triangle ABC (if the pyramid required be tri-
angular) ; fo as that the fide A B, luppoied to be turned
behind, be not exprefled. 2. On AC and C B, conftruft
the triangles ADC and C D B, meeting in any affumed
or determined point, v. gr. D ; and draw AD, CD, BD;
then will ADBC be a triangular pyramid.

Pyramid of pajleboard, &c. to conflruB a. Suppofe,
1), gr. R triangular pyramid required, i. With the radius
A B defcribe an arc BE {fig. 19.) ; and to this arc apply
three equal chords, BC, CD, and DE. 2. On CD con-
ftruifl an equilateral triangle, DFC, and draw the right
lines A D and A C. This palleboard, &c. being cut off
by the contour of the figure, what remains within will
turn up into a pyramid.

Pyramid, Truncated. See Truncated.
Pyramid, Fi ufium of a. See Frustum.
Pyramid, in Archiietlure, denotes a folid, maffive edifice ;
which, from a fquare, triangular, or other bafe, rifes dimi-
nifliing to a point, or vertex.

Some derive the word from wupo;, 'wheat, ai'd a^aa,
colligo ; pretending that the firll pyramids were built by the
patriarch Jofeph, for granaries. But ViUalpandus, with
much better reafon, derives the word from vrKp , fire ; be-
caufe of their ending in a point like flame.

Wilkins, converfant with the Coptic tongue, fuggefts
(Difl. de Ling. Copt.) another derivation from that lan-
guage, in which poure fignifies a king, and mifii, a race or
generation ; and he fays, the pyramids were thus called,
becaufe they were erefted to preferve the memories of the
Egyptian kings and their families ; and that thofe who de-
fcended from them had recourfe to thefe pillars in order to
prove their pedigree.

When they are very narrow at bottom, t. e. their bafe
very fmall, they are called obeltfks, and needles.

Pyramids are fometimes erefted to preferve the memory
of Angular events, and, fometimes, to tranfmit to pofterity
the glory and magnificence of princes ; but, as they are
the fymbols of immortality, they are more commonly ufed
as funeral monuments

Such is that of Ceftius at Rome, the maufoleum of this
diftinguilhed Roman, who was one of the feven officers
called Epulones, and is faid to have lived under Auguftus,
repaired in 1673, by Alexander VII. and thofe other
celebrated ones of Egypt, as famous for their fize as
their antiquity ; and reckoned by the ancients among the
wonders of the world,

Thefe lad are all fquare in their bafes ; and it is a thing
that has been frequently propofed, to eftablifh a fixed mea-
iure from them, to be thereby tranfmitted to pofterity.
See their defcriptions, meafures, &c. in Thevenot, Pietro
della Valle, Greaves, Pococke, Shaw, Perry, Maillet, Sa-
vary, &c. The pyramids of Egypt, comprehending the
great and fmall, are very numerous ; of thefe there are about
twenty of the largelt fize. The mofl remarkable are the
three pyramids of Memphis, or, as they are now called, of
Ghcifa, Geeza, or Gize. The dimenfions of the greateft
of thefe have been ditTerently Hated both by ancient and

I moderB

PYRAMID.

modern writerg. Herodotus (lib. ii.) makes the bafe of
it to be 800 Grecion feet long; Diodorus (lib. i.) 700;
Strabo (lib. xvii.) lofs than 600 ; and Pliny (lib. xxxvi.
c. 12.) 883 feet. Among the moderns, Sandys fou.:d it
to be 300 paces; Bellonius 324; Greaves 693 Englifh
feet ; Le Bruyn 704 French feet, or 750 £ngli(h feet ;
Profper Alpinus 750 French feet ; Thevenot 682 ; Nie-
buhr 710 ; Chazelles 704.80 Englifli feet. In order to re-
concile thefe differences. Dr. Shaw obferves, that none of
the fides of this pyramid are e.Kaftly upon a level ; fo that
it !6 difficult to find a true horizontal bafe ; befides, it is irn-
poflible to fay how much the drifts of fand, to which it is
expofed, may have been accumulated above the foundation
of it ; and, therefore, all calculations depending upon the
time and circumftances of the fituation, when they were
made, muft be exceedir.gly precarious. The perpendicular
altitude of it, according to Greaves, is 499 feet ; but its
oblique height is equal to the breadth of the bafe, or 693
feet. The whole area of the bafe contains 480,249 fquare
feet, or i It?,'^„2t Enghfh acres. The height, according
to Herodotus, is 800 French feet ; according to Strabo 625 ;
accordino- to Diodorus Siculus 600 and a fraction ; as itated
by Le Bruyn 616 ; by Profper Alpinus 625 ; by Thevenot
520; by Niebuhr 440. The afcent to the top of the py-
ramid is by Heps, the lowermoil being near four feet high
and three broad ; the fecond of the fame dimenfions, but
retiring inward from the firft near three feet ; and in the
fame manner the third row is placed upon the fecond, and
the reit in the fame order to the top, which terminates in a
fmall flat or fquare ; and they are fo difpofed, that a hne
ftretchcd from the bottom to the top would touch the angle
of every ftep. Thefe fteps are called by Herodotus little
altars, on account of their form ; and their number has
been varioully afEgned ; Greaves Hates them at 207 ; Mail-
let at 208 ; Pococke at 2 1 2 ; Belon at 250 ; Thevenot at 208,
and Chazelles at 498.222 Enghfti feet. For a defcrip-
tion of the infidc of this pyramid, we mull refer to Greaves,
Savary, &c. ubi infra.

This pyramid, being that already defcribed, is lituated
on a rocky hill, in the fandy defert of Libya, about a
quarter of a mile from the plains of Egypt, above which
the rock rifes 100 feet or more, with a gentle and eafy
afcent. Upon this advantageous elevation, and fohd bafis,
the pyramid is erefted : the height of the fituation adding
to the beauty of the work, and the folidity of the work
affording it a liable fupport.

We may here obferve, that the fides of this pyramid
ftand exaftly facing the four quarters of the world, and
confequently mark the true meridian of the place : which
precife pofition could not' have been well owing to chance,
but was, probably, the effeft of defign and art ; and this
is faid to be confirmed by the pofition of the tomb itfelf,
which lies within it. We may hence infer that the Egyp-
tians had made an early progrefs in aftronomy.

The fecond pyramid itands at about a bow-(hot from
the firfl, towards the fouth of this. Herodotus fays,
after having meafured both, that it falls (hort of the
Other in magnitude ; that it has no fubterraneous cham-
bers, and that the Nile is not conveyed into it by a
channel, as into the former, but that it is of an equal alti-
tude. Diodorus informs us, that it refembles the firil in
its architeft ure, but is inferior to it in magnitude ; each
fide of the bafe containing a itadium, or 600 Grecian feet in
length, fo that by his computation each fide is lefs than
that of the former in length by 100 feet. Pliny makes the
difference to be greater by 46 feet. Thevenot makes it

but 63 1 feet fquare. Strabo fuppofes thefe pyramids to be
equal, and Greaves alTures us, that the bafes of both are
ahke, and that the iieight is not inferior to that of the firft.
This pyramid has no entrance like the other, and is built of
white Itones, not near fo large .3 thofe of the firll : the
fides do not rile with gradations, but are fmooth and equal,
and the whole fabric, except on the fouth fide, is quite en-
tire. On the N. and \V. fides of this fecond pyramid are
two very llately and elaborate pieces of architecture, about
30 feet in depth, and about 1400 in length, cut o.it of the
rock in a perpendicular dire&ion and fquared by achiliel ; fup-
pofed to be defigned for the lodgings of the Egyptian priefts.
The third pyramid (lands at about the diftance of a fur-
long from tlie fecond, on an advantageous rifing of the rock,
fo that at a diftance it appears equal to the tormer, though
it be much lefs and lower. Herodotus fays that it is 300
feet on every fide, and to the middle, built of Ethiopic
marble. Diodorus gives the fame dimenfions of its bafe,
and adds that the walls were raifed fifteen ftories with black
(lone, like Thebaic marble, and the rell rii]i(hed with iuch
materials as the other pyramids arc built with ; that this
piece of work, though it be exceeded by the two former
in magnitude, yet far excels them in rcfpeft to the (Iructure,
art, and magnificence of the marble ; and that on the fide
towards the north, the name of Mvcerinus, the founder, is
engraved ; but this infcription has been defaced by time.
Phny writes to the fame edecl, except that he makes this
pyramid 363 feet between the angles.

Dr. Shaw apprehends, that neither of thefe pyramids vras
ever finilhed, fuppofing that the ileps already mentioned
fhould have been filled up with prifmatical (tones, fo that
each fide of the pyramid might be fmooth and level, like
that of Ceilius at Rome.

But fron- the defcription of Maillet and Savary, the firft
pyramid appears to have been covered with a coating of
marble, and thus fini(hed on the outfide, but clofed ; and
that it has been fiuce forcibly opened, and the ilones which
(hut thL paflage and were of an enormous fize have been re-
moved. This paflage was compofed of marble, and the
Ilones which form its four fides are of the fined white and
hardeft marble. For other particulars we refer to Greaves,
Maillet, and Savary.

The ancients inform us, that the flones of the pyramids
were brought from the rr.ountains of Arabia, and Hero-
dotus (lib. ii. c. 124.) has defcribed the manner in which
they were conveyed ; but Dr. Shaw imagines, that they
were taken from the fpot where they were employed ; and
he obferves, that the greatell of them, efpeclally, is not
an entire heap of hewn (tones, becaufe that portion of it,
which lies below the horizontal feftion of the entrance,
may probably be no more than an incruflation of the na-
tural rock on which it is founded. Dr. Bryant conjeftures,
that, like the fphynx, which (lands direflly in the front of
the fecond pyramid, they were immenfe rocks which ilood
upon the brow of the mountain ; that the Egyptians cafed
them over with large iiones, and brought them by thefe
means to a degree of fymmetry and proportion. At the
fame time they filled up the unneceflary interftices with rub-
bi(h and mortar, and made chambers and apartments, as
the intervals in the rock allowed, being obliged to humour
the indirect turns and openings in the original mafs to exe-
cute what they propofed. This he infers from the narrow-
nefs and unneceflary floping of the paflages, which are
often very clofe and ileep, and alfo from the. fewnefs of
the rooms in a work of fo immenfe a ihudure. That the
pyramids were built upon a rock in the place where they
10 now

PYRAMID.

now ftand, was fuggefted by Mr. Hooke. See Birch's
Hiil. Royal Society, vol. iv. p. 245.

It is very furpnliiig that the pyramids, which have been
reckon d among the wonders of the world, rtiould not
have prefcrved a more certain era, and tradition of tlic
names of their founders. Phny reckons a number of authors
who iiave wrote concerning them ; and all, he informs us,
difagree in their accounts of thofe who built them. Some
modern writers maintain, that they were erefted by the
Ifraelites, under the tyranny of tlie Pharoahs, and allege to
this purpofe the teftimony of Jofephus, Antiq. lib. i.

According to the relations of Herodotus (lib. ii. ), and
Diodorns (lib.i.), the firft pyramid was erefted by Cheops,
or Chcmmis, a king of Egypt, who is faid to have cm-
ployed tiiroe hundred and fixty thoufand men for twenty
years in the ftrutture. Cephrsn, brother and fiicced'or to
the former king, is faid to be the founder of the fecond
pyramid ; and the third is faid to have been built by
Mycerinus, the fon of Chemmis, according to Diodorus,
but according to Herodotus, of Cheops. However, Hero-
dotus favs, that fome afcribed the lall to Rhodope, a cour-
tezan, and the other two to the (hepherd Philittion. The
learned Greaves places the three kings who eredled thefe
pyramids in the twentieth dynafty ; Cheops having begun
his reign in the year 3448 of the Julian period, 490 years
before the firft olympiad, and 1266 years before the
Chriftian era. He reigned fifty years, fays Herodotus, and
built this pyramid, as Diodorus obfeives, 1000 years before
hib time, or in the i8oth olympiad ; whereas, he might
have faid 1 207. C'^phren, the builder of the fecond, reigned
fifty-fix years ; and Mycerinus, the builder of the third,
feven years.

Dr. Bryant gives a different account of the origin of
thefe pyramids : he afcribes the ftrufture of them to the
Cuthites (fee Dispersion of Mankind), or Arabian (hep-
herds, who built Heliopolis, and who were the giants and
Titans of the firft ageS. Thefe fons of Chus, accord-
ing to this writer, feeni to have come into Egypt imme-
diately after their difp.rfion from Babel.

Many have confidered thefe ancient ftruftures with con-
tempt, as being vaft piles without any great fymmetry, and
have thought the labour idle, and the expence unnecefiary.
Thus Pliny (lib. xxxvi. cap. 12.) calls them regum pecunis
otlofa ac Jhilta oJlentaUo, l^c. built for oftentation, to keep
an idle people employ -d, and to prevent commotion and
rebellion. Ariftotle iPolit. lib. iii.) calls them the work
of t ranny.

The general opinion with regard to their intention and
life is, that they were fepulchres and monuments of the
dead, particularly of kings. This is exprelsly affirmed by
Diodorus lib. i.), and Strabo (lib. xvii.), and the opinion
is confirmed by the writings of the Arabians. And the
reafon, fays Greaves, of their ereding thefe magnificent
ftruftures is founded in the theology of the Egyptians, who,
as Servius ftiews in his comment upon Virgil (jEneid,
lib. iii. ), where he defcribes the funeral of Polydorus —
Ammamque fepuUhro condhnus — believed, that as long as the
body endured, fo long the foul continued with it ; and this
was alfo the opinion of the Stoics. Upon this principle,
that the bodies might neither be reduced to duft by putre-
faftion, nor converted into afties by fire, they embalmed
them, and laid them up in thefe ftately repofitories, where
they might continue free from the injury of time and of
men. The reafon of their building their fepulchres in the
form of pyramids, was either from a notion that this was
the moft permanent form of ttrufture, or becaufe they

hereby intended to reprefent fome of their gods : parti-
cularly, as Greaves conjeftures, Ofiris, or the fun with
many rays ; for, under this form, the ftatues of the gods
were frequently exhibited, and the gods themfelves wor-
flilppcd.

Among the Egyptians, the pyramid is faid to have been
a fymbol of human life ; the beginning of v.hich is repre-
fented by the bafe, and the end by the apex ; on which
account it was that they ufed to ereft them on fepulchres.
Herodotus.

Some, however, have objcfted to this defign of the
Egyptian pyramids, and are of opinion that they were
originally intended for fome nobler purpofe. If Cheops, or
any other perfon, fays Dr. Shaw, who was the founder of
the great pyramid, intended it only for his fepulchre, what
occafion was there for fuch a narrow crooked entrance
into it ; for the well, as it is called, at the end of the
entrance ; for the lower chamber, with a large nitch or
hole in the eaftern wall of it ; for the long narrow cavities
in the walls of the upper room ; or, for the two anti-
chambers and the lofty gallery, with benches on each fide
that introduce us into it.

As the whole of the Egyptian theology was clothed in
myfterious emblems and figures, it fcems reafonable to fup-
pofe, fays this writer, that all thefe turnings, apartments,
and fecrets in architefture were defigned for fome purpofe
of religion, and that the Deity, which was typified in the
outward form of this pile, was to be worfhipped within.
The fqnare cheft of granite marble, which is placed in the
upper chamber of the great pyramid, may be fup] ofed to
have been rather intended for fome religious ufe than for
the coffin of Cheops, It might have fervid for one of
their facred chefts, in which either the images of their
deities, or their facred veftments or utenfils were kept,
or it might have been a fa-viffa or ciftern, fuch as con-
tained the holy water ufed in their ceremonies. Its
length favours the opinion of its having been defigned for
a coffin, but its height and breadth far exceed the dimenfions
that were adhered to on fuch occafions ; the Egyptian
ftone coffins were made of a different form, and infcribed
with hieroglyphics. Nor is this cheft placed according to
the manner in which the Egyptians depofit their dead ;
for their mummies always ftand upright, whereas this cheft
lieth flat upon the floor. If, therefore, this cheft was not
intended for a coffin, it is inferred that the pyramid itfelf
could not have taken the name of a fepulchre from it.
Cheeps, indeed, and others might have been buried v^'ithin
the precinft of this or any other of the pyramids, and this
was no more than was praAifed in other temples, and there-
fore could not deftroy the principal ufe and defign for which
they were ereded. Upon the whole, Dr. Shaw concludes,
from the outward figure of thefe piles, the ftrufture and
contrivance of the feveral apartments in the infide of the
greateft, together with the ample provifion that was made
on each fide of it for the reception, as may be fuppofed, of
the priefts, that the Egyptians intended the latter for one
of the places, as all of them were to be the objefts, at lealt,
of their worfhip and devotion.

Dr. Bryant has lately maintained, with confiderable force
of argument, this opinion, that the pyramids were defigned
for high altars and temples, and were conftrufted in honour
of the Deity. If the chief pyramid were defigned for a
place of burial, what occafion, fays he, was there for a well,
and for paffages of communication, which led to other
buildings ? The apartments near the pyramids he fuppofes
to be defigned for the reception of priefts, and to be ap-
pendages not to a tomb, but to a temple of the Deity.
I 2 The

P Y R

P Y R

The ftone coffin, he apprehends, was a trough or rcfervoir
for water, whicli, by me.iiis of the well, they drew from the
Nile. The priells of Egypt dehghted in obfcurity, and
they probably came by tht- fubterrareous pallagcs of the
building to the dark chambers within ; where they per-
formed their lullrations, and other noclurnal rites. Many,
he adds, of the ancient temples in this country were caverns
in the rock, enlarged by art, and cut out into numberlefs
dreary apartments ; for no nation upon the earth was lo
addidied to gloom and melancholy as the Egyptians. From
the top of the pyramids they obferved the heavens, and
marked the conftellations ; and upon the fame eminence
it is probable that they offered up vows and oblations. See
on this article Greaves's Works, vol. i. p. i, &c. Shaw's
Travels, fol. p. 413, &c. Pococke's Dcfcript. of the Ealt,
vol. i. p. 41, &c. Perry's View of the Levant, p. 413, &c.
Bryant's Anal, of Ancient Myth. vol. iii. p. 523, &c.
Farmer's Worfhip of Human Spirits, &c. p. 379, &c.
Savary's Letters, vol. i.

The tomb of Porfenna, kmg of Etruria, at Clufuim in
Italy, is an ancient monument of fquare ftone, eacii fide of
which is three hundred feet broad, and fifty feet high.
Within the fquare bafe there is an inextricable labyrintli ;
apon this fquare there ftand five pyramids, four in the
angles and one in the middle, feventy-iive feet broad at
the bottom, and a hundred and fifty feet high, and ter-
minating in a point ; at top they are covered with a brafs
circle, from which are fulpended bells, which are put in
motion by the wind, fo as that tlieir found may be heard
at a great diftance. Upon this circle there are four other
pyramids, each a hundred feet high, above which, upon
one plane, there are five other pyramids. Such is the ac-
count which Phny gives from Varro, lib. xxxvi. cap. 13.

Pyramid, Scenography nf a. See SceNography.

Pyramid, Oj>lic. See Optic Pyramid.

PYRAMIDAL Fountain. See Fountain.

Pyramidal Mirrors. See Mirror.

Pyramidal Numbers are the fums of polygonal numbers,
collefted after the fame manner as the polygonal numbers
themfelves are extrafted from arithmetical progrefTion. See
Numbers.

Thefe are particularly called^^y? pyramidals. The fums
of firft pyrsmidals are called fecond pyramidals. And the
fums of thofe third pyramidals ; and fo on, ad infinitum.
Particularly, thofe arifing from triangular numbers are called
prime triangular pyramidals ; thofe arifing from pentagonal
numbers are called prime pentagonal pyramidal?, &c. The
numbers I, 4, 10, 20, 35, &c. formed by the addition of
the triangular numbers I, 3, 6, 10, &c. are .ufually called
by the fimple name of pyramidals ; and the general formula

for finding them is « x x ; i. e. the fourth

pyramidal may be found by fubflituting 4 for « ; the fifth,
by fubftituting 5 for «, &c.

PYRAMIDALIA Corpora, in Anatomy, two pro-
minences in the medulla oblongata. See BEain, and Ner-
vous Syjlem.

PYRAMIDALIS Abdominis, one of the abdominal
mufcles. See Obliquu.s.

Pyramidalis Na/i, a name given by fome anatomifts to
that portion of mufcular fibres whicli defcends from the
fronto-occipitalis along the fide of tlie nofe. See Epi-

CRANIUS.

PYRAMIDOID, called alfo parabolic fpindle, a fohd
figure, formed by the revohition of a femiparabola r
flue of its ordinate;-.

femiparabola round

According to the method of indivifibles, this may be con-
ceived to confift of an infinite fcried of circles, wliofe
diameters are all parallel to the axis of the revolving
parabola.

The parabolic fpindle is equal to T'jths of its circun
fcribing cylinder. See Spindle.

Pyramidoid, Parabolic. See Parabolic Pyramidoid.

PYRAMIDS, in Geography, rocks in the Eaft Indian
fea, near the E. coait of the ifland of Myfol. S. lat. i'
55'. E. long. 130^ 59'.

PYRAMUS, GlHON, in Ancient Geography, a rjvei of
Afia, rifing in the country of Cataonia, where it begins to
be navigable, and traverfing mount Taurus through the
rocks, it enters the plain of Cilicia, paffes by the foot of the
mountain of Anazarbus, and leaving it to the right, throv,;,
itfclfinto Mopfuete, and at length lofes itfclf in the Mediter-
ranean, at the point where was formerly fituated the town
of Megarfus.

PYRBAUM, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, and
capital of a lordfliip united to Salzburg; 13 miles SJi.
of Nuremberg.

PYREN^UM PuoMONTORiUM, Cape de Creus, in
/Indent Geography, a promontory of Hifpai-iia Citeriur ;
which terminates the Pyrenees eaftwards, and projects inti.
tin- fea.

PYREN^US Saltus, a name given by Cornelius
Nepos and Livy to that part of the Pyrenxan mountains-
winch Hannibal traverfed in his way to Italy, pafling from
Spain to Gaul.

PYRENE, a town of Gallia Celtica, near the place
where the Danube rife?, according to Herodotus.

Pyrene, in Natural Hi/lory, the name of a ftone found
always in the fhape of the ftone of an olive. It is of the
lapis Judaicus kind, being no other than the petrified fpinc
of fome fpecies of echinites.

PYRENE'ES, in Geography, a chain of mountains,
celebrated fincc the time of Herodotus, forming the bound-
aries between France and Spain, and extending from the
Mediterranean to the Atlantic, about 200 miles in length,
and in its greateil breadth 100 miles. Its various branches
are diftinguidied by different names, and may be confidered
as belonging either to France or Spain. The higheit fummits
of thefe mountains, which are in the centre of the chain,
have prefented to the refearck of the naturalift not only cal-
careous appearances, but even fhells. The higheft elevation
of the Pyrenees is Mont Perdu, for an account of which,
we refer to that article. The Canigou was formerly
reckoned the highell fummit, though it does not exceed
8544 Englifli feet. Other noted heights are Tuccarroy,
Marbore, the pic de Midi, 9300 feet high, the pic de
los Reyes, 7620 feet high, the pic d'Offano 11,700 feet
in height, the pic d'Arni, the Niege Veille, the Vigne
Mali, La Breche de Roland, &c. At a diftance the
Pyrenssan chain appears like a fhaggy ridge, prefenting
the fegment of a circle fronting France, and defcending at
each extremity till it difappears in the ocean and Mediter-
ranean. Thus, at St. Jean de Luz, only high hills appear,
and in like manner on the eaft beyond the fummit Canigou,
the elevations gradually diminifh. The higheft fummits are
covered with perpetual fnow. Blocks of granite are inter-
fperfed with vertical bands, argillaceous and calcareous, the
latter primitive or fecondary, and fupplying the marbles of
Campan and Antin, of beautiful red fpotted with white,
though the general mountain mafs be grey. To the S. and
W. the Pyrenees prefent nothing but dreadful fterihty, but
on the N. and E. the defcent is more gradual, and affords
frequent woods and paftures. Befidcs the dreadful fall of

3 rocks.

P Y R

P Y R

rocks, undermined by the waters, *they are cxpofed to La-
vanges, or the impetuous dcfcent of va(l mafles of fnow,
called Avalanches in Switzerland, and have their glaciers
and other terrific features of the Alps.

The opinion of Raniond, that the fummit of inont Perdu
(which fee) muft have been covered by the it-a, is confirmed
by Lapeyroufe, (Journ. des Mines, N 46.) A fiugular fea-
ture of the Pyrenees coidiilsof houhs, as they are called, or
walls difpofed in a circular form. Near the fummit of mont
Perdu is a confiderable lake, more than 9000 feet above the
level of the fea, which tiirows its waters to the E. into the
Spanifh valley of Beonlia ; and which the travellers allege
as a proof that mont Perdu really belongs to Spain, and
that Tuccarroy forms the boundary. Lapeyroufe fuggells
it as probable that the fole accefs to the fummit of mont
Perdu will be found on the fide of Spain ; there being three
fuinniits called by the Spaniards •' Las Tres Sorrellas," or
the Three Siitcrs ; the highell being to the N., and the
loweft OH the S., but feparated by large glaciers. Hence
he infers the exillence of chains of mountains, in which
bands of granite, porphyry, trap, hornblende, and petro-
Clex, alternate vertically with primitive Umeitone, and are fo
intermingled as to prove a common origin. But in the Py-
renees thefe bands are furmounted by fecondary lime-ftone,
replete with marine fpoils, and containing even fkeletons of
animal.-, fo that he concludes that the highell mountains of
the chain muft have yielded to the fury of the ocean, and
that the fecondary parts only now exill. Mr. Townfend
(Spain, i. 89.) obferves, that the lime-ftone and fchiftus
feed the vegetation on the N. of the Pyrenees, while the S.
is barren, and confifts of ~ granite ; while, in faft, mountains
m-e generally barren and precipitous on the S. and W., be-
caufe the moft violent rains and tempefts come from thofc re-
gions. Pinkerton's Geog. vol. i.

The paffages over thefe mountains from one country to
another are five ; the three principal of which are from St.
Sebaftian to St. Jean de Luz ; from Pamplona to St. Jean
de Luz ; and from Jonqueira to Perpignan. Thefe moun-
tains afford quantities of timber for (hipping, which are
conveyed, by means of the Ebro and other ft reams to the
fea, with abundance of pitch and tar. The Pyrenees give
name to three of the French departments.

Pyrenees, Eajlem, one of the nine departments of the
foutliern region of France, in N. lat. 42" 40', formerly
. RouffiUon, bounded on the N. by the departments of the
Arriere and the Aude, on the E. by the Mediterranean, on
the S. and W. by Spain ; about 58 miles from E. to W.,
and from 18 to 25 from N. to S., or 28 Fr. leagues in length,
and 15 in breadth, containing 4337^ kilionietres or 212
fquare leagues, and 1 17,764 inhabitants ; it is divided into
3 diftrifts, 17 cantons, and 249 communes. The three
diftrifts are Perpignan, including 51,961 inhabitants, Ceret,
24,750, and Prades, 41,053. According to Haffenfratz,
the number of circles is 3, of cantons 25, and of inhabit-
ants 114,158. The contributions in the nth year of the
Frenchcraamounted to 1,010,520 fr., and the expences for
adminiftration, education, &c. to 181,961 fr. 85 cents.
. The capital is Perpignan. This department is fertile in
corn, wine, oil, flax, hemp, fruits, and paftures. On
the hills there is little wood, but variety of medicinal plants
and herbs. There are feveral lofty mountains on the S. and
W. boundaries, as MalTane, Canjgou, &c.

Pyrenees, Lower, a department of France, in the
S.W., or Garonne region, compofed of BearH, Navarre,
Bafque-Fran^ais, with a part of Chalofla and of Landes,
in N. lat. 43° 10', and bounded on the N. by the departments
of the Landes and Gers, on the E. by the department of the

Upper Pyrenees, on the S. by Spain, and on the W. by the
fea ; 70 miles in length, and from 15 to 45 in breadth, or
16 Fr. leagues in length and 10 in breadth. It contains
8072^ kiliometres, or 388 fquare leagues, and 384,030 in-
habitants. It is divided into 5 diflricts, 40 cantons, and
660 communes. The diftricts or circles are, Pau, including
99,486 inh.ibitants, Oleron, 69,484, Mauleon, 65,447,
Bayonne, 69,486, and Orthcs, 80,127. According to
Hadentratz, its circles are 6, its cantons 44, and the number
of its inhabitants 138,339. Its capital is Pau. Its con-
tributions in the nth year of the French era amounted to
1,523,760 fr. and its expences for adminiftration, &c. to
290,740 fr. 66 cents. This department, bounded on one
fide by the Pyrenees, and on the other by the ocean, pre-
fents a great variety of foil and diverfity of profpeft. The
mountains are crowned with woods ; the hills are covered
with vines ; the vallies are rich and populous ; the heaths are
wild and uncultivated. Tlie plains yield wheat, rye, barley,
oats, millet, flax, fruits, and paftures. It has mines of
filver, copper, iron, quarries of marble, granite, flate, and
mineral fprnigs.

Pyrenees, Upper, a department of France, in the Ga-
ronne region, formerly Bigore, in N. lat. 43% bounded on
the N. by the department of the Gers, on the E. by that of
the Upper Garonne, on the S. by Spain, and on the W. by
the department of Lower Pyrenees ; 20 Fr. leagues long
and 16 bro.id, or 53 Englifti miles in length, and from 25
to 38 in breadth ; a fmall diftridl towards the N. being
fcarcely more than feven miles in breridth. It contains
49372 kiliometres, or about 235 fquare leagues, and
206,680 inhabitants. It is divided into 3 diftrifts, 26 can-
tons, and 501 communes. Its diilrifts or circles are Tar-
bes, including 87,005 inhabitants, Bagncres, 78,099, and
Argeles, 41,376. According to Halienfratz, its circles
are 5, and cantons 30, and the number of its inhabitants
188,690. Its capital is Tarbes. Its contributions in the
I itii year of the French era amounted to 893,637 fr. and
its expences for adminiftration, &c. to I73,759fr. izcents.
The plains in this department yield little wheat, but abundant
crops of rye, barley, and millet, excellent wine, flax, and
paftures. The hills produce confiderable forefts, witli
mines of iron and lead, quarries of marble, flate, and
mineral fprings.

PYRENOIDES Puocessu.s, in Anatomy, a procefs of
the fecond vertebra of the neck ; called alio odonto'tdes, and
denUformis, or the tooth-like procefs.

The word iri/fuvosi^')!.-, is formed of tou^hv, nucleus, kernel,
or berry, and !iJo-, figure.

PYRETHRUM, in Botany, an ancient Greek name,
adopted by Haller, Gartner, and the writer of the prefent
article, who are followed by Willdenow and Alton, for
the genus in queftion, on account of its refemblance to the
TTt'ptOpoj of Diofcorides. The latter is, however, the j4n-
themis Pyrethrum of modern writers, or Pellitory of Spain ;
owing its Greek appellation to the fiery or pungent flavour
of the root ; whence alio it obtained the Latin name of Sa-
livaria, becaufe it caufes fo remarkable a flow of fahva.
Our prefent Pyrethrum is made up of feveral Linnaean
fpecies of Chryfanthemum and Matricaria, with fome new
ones. — Haller Helvet. v. 1. 40. Sm. Fl. Brit. 9C0.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 3. 2150. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 97.
Purfli V. 2. 527. Gaertn. t. 169. — Clafs and order, Synge-
nejia Polygamia-fuperjlua. Nat. Ord. Compofitii d'lfcoicien,
Linn. Corymbijerny Juil.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx hemifpherical, imbricated ; the
fcales clofe-prcfled, rather acute, membranous at the edges.
Cor, compound, radiated. Florets of the didi perfeiS,

numerous,

PYRETHRUM.

numerous, tubular, funnrl-fhaped, with five fpreading feg-
ments ; thofc of the radius more than 12, female, ligulate,
elliptic-oblong, tlircc-toothod. Slam, in the pirkdt florets.
Filaments five, capillary, very (hort ; anth'rs united into a
cylinder, hardly fo long as the corolla. J'i/l. Germen, in
all the florets, obovatc ; ilyle thread-lhapcd, longer than
the llameus ; lligmas two, divaricated, abrupt. Perk.
none, the calyx remaining unaltered. Seeds nearly alike in
all the florets, oblong, quadrangular, each crowned with
an ereift, membranous, more or lefs lobed border. Recept.
naked, dotted, convex.

Efl^. Ch. Receptacle naked. Seeds crowned with a mcm-
branons margin. Calyx hemifpherical, imbricated with
fharplfh fcales, bordered with a membrane.

Seftion I . Radius ivh'Ue ; rarely reddifli.

1. P. frutefcem. Shrubby Feverfew. Willd. n. i.
Ait. n. 1. (Chryfanthen.um frutefcens ; Linn. Sp. PI.
1251. Lcucanthemum canarienfe, fapore pyrethri ; Walth.
Hort. 31. t. 24. Buphthalmum canarienfe leucanthemum ;
Pluk. Almag. 73. Phyt. t. 272. f. 6.) — Stem {hrubby.
L-eaves flefhy, pinnatifid, linear, toothed ; three-cleft at the

extremities Native of the Canary iflands, from whence it

was brought very early ; flowering in the green-houfe molt
part ot the year. The woody j^cw is much branched. The
leaves are crowded about the ends of the branches, and in
their flefliy texture, as well as linear forked figure, refemble
thofe of a Crithmum, or Artem'ijia. The jlnivers are ter-
minal, folitary, on long naked italks, and refemble a white
daify.

2. Y . fimplic'ifolium. Simple-leaved Weft Indian Fever-
few. Willd. n. 2. (Matricaria ? prollrata ; Swartz Ind.
Occ. V. 3. 1366.) — Leaves obovate ; toothed at the ex-
tremity. Stalks axillary, fingle-flovvered. Branches prof-
trate. Gathered by Von Rohr in Cura9ao and the neigh-
bouring iflands. It has never been brought alive to Europe.
Stem herbaceous, branched, decumbent, round, downy,
efpecially the ends of the branches. Leaves alternate,
nearly fefiile, wedgc-fliaped, obovate, or roundifh, half an
inch long, downy, ribbeo, notched or ferrated ; moftly
accompanied by two minute leaves at the bafe. Stalks op-
pofite to the leaves, thickifli, an inch long, ercA, downy,
each bearing a yellovvifh-white, nearly globofe, jloiver,
whofe difl< is entirely yellow. Seeds crowned with a quad-
rangular minute border. S-wartz.

3. P. ptarmicifoHum. Goofe -tongue Feverfew. Willd.
n. 3. Ait. n. 2. — Leaves linear, finely ferrated. Flowers
corymbofe. — Native of mount Caucafus. Sir Jofeph Banks
fent it to Kew in 1803. Willdenow defcribea this as pe-
rennial, with the habit of AchUlea Ptarmica, only the

Jloiuers are twice as large. The Jlem is branched, either
ereft or decumbent. Leaves au inch long, very finely and
(harply ferrated. Corymbs terminal, limple, the ftalks
fingle-flowered. Radiant Jlorcts ovate. Crown half the
length of the feed.

4. P. ferot'inum. Creepuig-rooted Feverfew. Willd.
n, 4. Ait. n. 3. Purfli n. i. {Chi-yfanthemum fero-
tinum ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1251. ,Jacq. Obf. fafc. 4. 8. t. 90.
Bellis americana, procenor, ferotina, ramofa, flore am-
pliflTimo ; Pluk. Almag. 65. Phyt. t. 17. f. 2.) — Leaves
lanceolate ; the lower ones ftrongly ferrated ; the upper en-
tire. Branches corymbofe. — Suppofed to be a native of
North America ; but Michaux has it not, and Purlh merely
faw a fpecimen in Mr. Lambert's herbarium, probably, like
that of Linnjeus, from a garden. The plant was cultivated
by Miller, and is a hardy perennial, fluwering in Oftober or
later. Its jlem is herbaceous, two or three feet high, much
branched, leafy, furrowed and angular. Leaves alternate,

ftilile, two or tliree inches long, and half an inch wide, en-
tire or fparingly ferrated in th' upper parts of the ftem, but
molUy furniflud, in our fpecimen, with a fharp tooth on
each fide at the bafe, which we do not find mentioned by
authors. T\\i; Jloiuers arc terminal, folitary, much like our
common Chryfanthemum Leucnnlhtmum, but rather fmaller.

5. P. ullginofum. Bog FeverfvW. Willd. n. 5. Waldft.
et Kitaib. Hungar. — "Leaves lanceolate, all deeply fer-
rated. Stem ereft, branched at the top." — Native of wet
ground in Hungary and Spa'ii. Perennial. Very nearly
akin to thelalt, but different in having all the leaves deeply
ferrated throughout, and \.\\ejler,i branched at the top only.
WUld.

6. F. ffallerl. Hallerian Feverfew. Willd. n. 6. (P.
n. 97 ; Hall. Helvet. v. i. 41. Leucanthemum alpiiium
teiiuifolium ; Barrel. Ic. t. 458. f. 3 ?) — Stem-leaves Ian-
ceolate, deeply toothed ; radical ones pinnatifid, on long
Italks. Stem fingle-flowered. — Native of th'' Swifs alps, in
llony places. The roots are creeping, black, long and
flender, with very long fibres. Stems folitary, fimple, leafy,
afcending, three or four inches high. Leaves Imooth ; the
lowerm.olt fliort, wedgc-ftiaped, deeply pinnatifid, on long
ftalks ; the uppermoft fellile, deeply and ftiarply toothed,
an inch or more in length. Flowers folitarv, Italked, ter-
minal, large ; the calyx-fcales bordered with black ; the
radiant florets broad and elliptical. The above figure of
Barrelier feems to accord better with our Swifs fpecimens
than fig. 2. cited by Haller and his copyifts, except that
the upper leaves in fig. 3. are too narrow.

7. P. alpinum. Alpine Feverfew. Willd. n. 7. Ait.
n. 4. (Chryfanthemum alpinum; Linn. Sp. PI. 1253.
Leucanthemum alpinum; Chif. Hill. v. i. 335.) — Lower
leaves wedge-fliapcd, pinnatifid; uppermoft In.eir and en-
tire. Stem fingk-fluwered.— N.5tive of the German, Swifs
and Italian alps. The creeping roots throw out mai:y fhort
tufted leafy _y?fnu, each bearing en. long tim'^Xi Jloiuer-Jtalk,
downy in its upper part, and furnifhed below with one, two,
or more, alternate, fimple, linear, entire floral leaves. The
reft of the foliage is ftalked, pinnatifid, fomewhat peftuiate ;
the fegments elliptical, cnlire, fmooth, rather flefhy ;
each leaf, with its flat llalk, an inch or more in length.
Tht: Jlowcr IS large, much like the lalt.

8. P. Balfamita. Coftmary -leaved Feverfew. Willd.
n. 8. Ait. n. 5. (ChryfanthL-mum Balfamita ; Linn. Sp.
PI. 1252. Jacq. Obf. fafc. 4. 8. t. 89. Leucan hemum
orifntale, cofti hortenfis folio; Tourn. Cor. 37.) — Leaves
ovate-oblong, l.rrated, auricled. Flowers corymbofe. —
Native of the Levant ; rare in our gardens. Mr. Black-
burne is faid to havt cultivated it in his celebrated coll-ftion
at Orford about 35 y^ars ago. The habit of this fpecies is
fo much like Common Coftmary, J'c.-.acttiwi Balfamita of
Linnaeus, that one cannot help fulpecting they are mere
varieties of each other. The prefence of a radius, in the
plant before us, is known, by the examples of Bidens and
Coreopjis, to be no infalhble diftinftion. There is indeed
the membranous crown of the feed, as Willdenow remarks,
which makes this a Pyrethrum, not a Chryfanthimmn ; but
fuch belongs to Tanacetum, and confirms i^ur fufpicion, or
rather our belief, that the prefent is but a radiated variety
of the Coftmary. The radius is about twice the length of
the calyx, white, not yellow, as Linnaeus feems to defcribe it.

9. Y.palujlre. Marlh Feverfew. Willd. n. 9. (Leu-
canthemunT orientale, chryfanthemi folio, tanaceti odore ;
Touni. Cor. 37.) — "Leaves fmooth, ieflile, lyrato-pinna-
tifid. Stalks fingle-flowered, corymbofe." — Native of
marfliy places in Armenia. Tourmfort. — Stem ereft, fur-
rowed, fmooth, two teet high. Leaves an inch or inch

and

PYRETHRUM.

and half long ; their fegments lanceolate, toothed at the
outer mt.rgiii, the lowr o i s deep, the upper gradually
confluent iuto a large cut t'^rminal lobe, and entire. Stalks
fmgle-flo wired, leafy, alternate, five or lix at the top of the
Hem, coinpoiinn a corymhus. Flowers the fize of Chryfan-
themum Ltuconthcmuni. Willd.

lO.^.p'mnaltfi.lum. Pinnatifid Feverfew. Willd. n. lo.
^" Leaves downy, glaucous, nearly feUile, lyrato-pinnatifid,
unequally toothed. Flowers corymbofe." — Willdenow
defcribed this from living fpecimens, but did not know their
native country. T\»Jlem is faid to be ereft, two feet high,
branched, furrowed, (lightly downy. Leaves downy on
both fides ; pnuiate at the bafe ; pinnatiiid in the middle ;
cut at the end ; their kngth two or three inclies ; their feg-
ments lanceolate, unequally toothed. Corymbs limple, at
the tops of the Item an J branches. Floiuers almoll like the
common P. Partbenium.

11. r. macrnphyllum. Large-leaved Feverfew. Willd.
n. II. Ait. n. 6. (Chryfanthemum macrophylkim ;
Waldlt. et Kitaib. Hung. v. i. 97. t. 94.) — Leaves hairy,
nearly fellile, pinnatiiid, toothed, obtufe. Corymb ter-
mi.ial, compound. — Native of the woods and mountains of
Hungary. Sir J. Banks introduced it, in 1S03, to the
Kirw garden, where it is a hardy perennial, flowering in
July and Augult. I'his plant refembles Achillea macro-
phylla, for which fome botaniits have miftaken it, but is
much larger. We have feen no fpecimen.

12. P. rofeum. P.ofe-coloured Feverfew. Ait. n. 7.
Willd. Enum. 905. (Chryfanthemum coccineum ; Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 3. 2144. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 1080. Buph-
thalmum orieiitale, tanaceti folio ampliore, flore magno
coccineo ; Tourii. Cor. 37. Buxb. Cent. 2. 25. t. 20.) —
Leaves fmooth, pinnate ; leaflets once or twice pinnatifid,
ferrated, acute, ipreading. Stem erett, fingle-flowered.
Gathered by Touruefort in Iberia. It is found alfo on
mount Caucafus, from whence that dillinguilhed cultivator
Mr. Loddigps received feeds of tliis elegant fpecies in 1803.
The plant proves perennial and hardy, flowering in Augull
or S -jiteniber. 'V\\e.Jlem is 12 or 18 inches high, more or
lefs leafv, bearing one large handfome^ower, whofe dilk is
yellow, and the radius of a rich rofe colour, or crimfon, on
its upper fide ; fometimes varying to white. The leaves
are from two to four inches long, ftalked, rigid, paler be-
neath, pinnate, varioufly ferrated, cut or pinnatifid, all the
pouts and fcrratures very acute. Tournefort gathered
plan IV of this plant, and his original fpecimens are dif-
perfed Iirough many colleftions.

13. V . corymhofum. Mountain Feverfew. Willd. n. 12.
Ait. n. 8. (Chryfanthemum corymbofum ; Jacq. Auftr.
t. 379. Ch. corymbiferum ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1251. Tana-
cetum noa odorum ; Ger. Em. 650.) — Leaves pinnate;
leaflets lanceolate, pinnatifid, fiiarply ferrated ; the upper
ones confluent. Flower-ftalks corymbofe. — Native of
mountainous woods in Siberia, and many parts of Ger-
many. Gerarde appears, by the catalogue of his garden,
to have cultivated it in 1 591^. The root is perennial, woody,
with long fibres. Stems erefl, two or three feet high.
Leaves fomewliat like Tanfy, but without fcent or talle,
except that after a while, according to Jacquin, they caufe
a heat or pungency in the mouth. Tlie numerous large
whitc^owrt-j-, each with a bright yellow diflc, form an ample
terminal corymb.

14. P. Parthen'mm. Common Feverfew. Sm. Fl. Brit.
n. 1. Engl. Bot. t. 1231. Willd. n. 13. Ait. n. 9.
(Matricaria Parthenium ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1255. Woodv.
Suppl. t. 249. Fl. Dan. t. 674. Matricaria ; Ger. Em.
652.) — Leaves pinnate ; leaflets oblong, obtufe, pinnatifid

and cut. Stem branched. Flowers corymbofe. Radius
about twice tlie length of the c.il/ :. Seed crcwn toothed.
— Native of cultivated orv,'alle ground throughout Europe,
fpringing up abundantly with us in neglected gardens or
court-yards, flo'aering all iumnier long. The root appears
to be rather biennial than perennial. T!,c uliolc herb is
bitter and aromatic, hoary or downy. .SVrtn bnfhv. Leaves
llalked, fiat and dilated. Flowers numerous, each about
the fize of a common daify, but with a large yellowifh diflc,
and fhort white radius. Sometimes the Liter' is wanting;
and more frequently the flowers are double, the difl{ be-
coming white and ligulate, like the radius, but ach Jloret of
a fmaller proportion. The recept/icle is flat.

I J. Y. pnrthenifoltwn. Nari\. 1. Hoary Feverfew. Willd.
n. 14. — " Leav", pinnate ; leaflets oblong, obtufe, pin-
natifid, toothed. St'^m »and-like. Flowers corymbofe.
Radius thrice the length of tlie calyx. Si ed-crown en-
tire."— Willdenow defcribid this from a garden, without
knowing whence it came. He fays it is very like tlie laft,
but has a taller wand-like _y7im, narrower leaves, a rtV/J but
half fo large, though the radius is larger, and an er.tire, not
toothed, margin totheyf«/. A plant, new become a weed
in Kew garden, and iaid to have been imported from China,
anfwers precifely to this defcription in every point, except
that hs Jlem is fcarcely lefs bufliy than in P. Parthenium.
We are perfuaded, neverthelefs, that it is what Willdenow
meant. Its leaves are confpicuoufiy hoary, with narrower
divifions than thofe of the laft, and the Jlowers, on account
of their long and brilliant -white radius, are more Itriking.
We have had no opportunity of invelligating the crown of
the feed.

16. P. caucnficum. Caucafian Feverfew. Willd. n. 15.
Ait. n. 10. — " Leaves doubly pinnate ; leaflets linear-awl-
ftiaped. Stem iingle-flowered." — Native of mount Cau-
cafus. Sent to Kew in 1804, by the late Mr. G. Don.
" Root woody, horizontal, ^tem a fpan high, fimple, llriated,
fmooth. Leagues half an inch long, feflile, doubly pinnate ;
their leaflets linear-awl-lhaped, entire. Flower folitary, the
fize of P. alpinum, or rather larger. Seed-crown mem-
branous, two-lobed." Willd.

17. Y. fufcatum. Dingy Feverfew. Willd. n. 16. Sm.
Prodr. Fl. Grsec. Sibth. n. 2095. (Chryfanthemum fuf-
catum ; Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 283. t. 237.) — Leaves
downy, pinnate ; .leaflets with a few deep linear oblong feg-
ments. Stem branched from the bafe, diffule. — Gathered
by Desfontaines in uncultivated fields near Tunis. Sib-
thorp found it in Greece. The root appears to be peren-
nial, bearhig many widely-lpreading or procumbent Jlcms^
a fpan long, which are leafy, and fiighllv branched. The
haves are rather fucculent. Floicers terminal, folitary,
large, with a blackilh calyx, pale ycllowifh dilk, becoming
brown in decay, and broad white elliptical radiant florets.
It bloflbms in winter.

18. P. inodorum. Corn Feverfew, or Scentlefs May-
weed. Sm. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 676. Willd.
n. 17. Ait. n. 11. (Chryfanthemum inodorum; Lmn.
Sp. PI. 1253. Fl. Dan. t. 696. ) — Leaves pinnate, in
many capillary fegments. Stem branched, fpreading.
Seed-crown entire. — Found in fields and walle ground
throughout moil parts of Europe, efpecially where the foil
is gravelly, flowering in autumn. Rout tapering, ai.nuaL
Herb almoll without any peculiar fcent, by whicii it is
readily known, in every ftate of growth, fmm Jlnthemis
Cotula. The Jlem is a foot or more in height, widely
fpreading, clothed with pale-green imooth leaves, whofe
leaflets are deeply and varioufly divided into linear, almoit
capillary, pointed fegments. More fimple fegments are

numerouily

PYRETHRUM.

numeroufly crowded about the bottom of each leaf, render-
ing it, in a manner, lyrate, and furrounding the ftem or
branch. Branches iomewhat corymbofe, each terminated by
a rather large _y?owf/-, with long white rays, and a prominent
yellow difk. The late Mr. Crowe once found in Norfolk a
partly double-flowered variety.

19. P. marUimam. Sea Feverfew. Sm. Fl. Brit. n. 3.
Engl. Bot. t. 979. WiUd. n. 18. Ait. n. 12. (Matri-
caria maritima ; Linn. Sp. PI. 1256. Chamxmelum mari-
timum perenne humilius, foliis brevibus cralhs oblcure viren-
tibus; Dill, in Raii Syn. 186. t. 7. f. I.) -Leaves doubly
pinnate ; fegments hnear, poiiitlefs, fleftiy ; convex above ;
keeled beneath. Stem diifufe. Seed-crown lobed. — Native
of the fea-coaft in the north of Europe. Found in feveral
parts of Scotland, as well as on the foutli coaft of England,
and in Lancafliire and Durham, flowering in July and
Auguft. The root is perennial. Stems numerous, prol-
trate, fpreading circularly to the extent of two or three
feet. The leaves are more flefliy than in the foregoing ;
the dilk of the Jloiver broader, in proportion to the length
of the rays ; and the crown of the Jecd divided into three or
four lobes. The whole herb is (lightly aromatic, and of a
darker more (hining green than hiodorum.

20. P. parinjlorum. Small-flowered Feverfew. Willd.
n. 19. — "Leaves doubly pinnate; leaflets linear-thread-
fhaped, in two or three deep divilions. Stem ereft,
branched. Seed-crown two-lobed." — Defcribed by Will-
denow from living fpecimens, but the native country of this
fpecies is unknown. It is faid to be annual, greatly re-
fembling P. inodorum, but having a taller and upright

Jlem ; a fhorter radius ; and a green two-lobed crown to
the feed.

Section 2. Radius yellow.

21. P. niullicaule. Many-ilalked yellow Feverfew. Willd.
n. 20. (Chryfanthemum multicaule ; Desfont. Atlant.
V. 2. 2S2. t. 236.) — Leaves fimple, fmooth, fpatulate ;
the lower ones toothed. Stem erecl, much branched from
the bottom. — Native of fandy hills near Mafcar, in Bar-
bary. Root fibrous, apparently annual. Stem branched
from the bafe principally, bufliy ; the branches naked above,
each bearing a folitary Jloiver, about as big as a French
Marygold, whofe radiant florets are yellow, and of a very
broad elliptical form, about eight or nine or number.

22. P. trifurcatum. Three-forked Yellow Feverfew. Willd.
n. 21. (Chryfanthemum trifurcatum ; Desfont. Atlant.
V. 2. 281. t. 235. f. 2.) — Leaves fleihy, fmooth, linear,
acute ; the lovvermolt pinnate ; the uppermolt uadivided.
Stem afcending, fingle-flowered. — Native of fields near
Kerwan m Barbary, flowering in winter. The Jlem is
fimple, a foot high ; leafy below ; naked above ; terminated
by a very large Jloiver, with numerous yellow radiant
florets. Some leaves are partly bipinnate ; others three-
cleft ; the uppcrmuit fimple ; all linear, wavy, acute, and
of equal breadth.

23. P. Eocconi. Dwarf Pale-yellow Feverfew. Willd,
n. 22. (Chryfaiithemum aragonenfe ; Aflb Synopf. n, 845.
t. 9. f. I. Willd. Bellis incana, chryfanthemi cretici folio ;
Bocc. Muf. 136. t. 98.) — Leaves hoary, ftalked, pinnate;
leaflets linear-awl-fliaped : upper ones linear, undivided, and
entire. Stems fingle-flowered. — Native of Spain and Si-
cily. Willdenow delcribes it thus from dried fpecimens.
«' Root many-headed, woody. Stems feveral, fimple, a fpan
high, fingle-flowered. Leaves hoary ; the radical ones
tlalknl, oblong, fading when arrived at maturity, and alto-
gerlier wan'ing when th.e Jloiuers open; lower ftem-leaves
itafked, piri.ate at the extremity, with three or four pair of
very (hort linear-awl-fliaped leaflets, and a membranous

linear footflalk ; the upper ones linear, feffile, and entire.
Rays of the corolla pale yellow. It refemblcs Chryfanthe-
mum peBinatum, but differs abundantly in the calyx not being
membranous, and in having a crown to kSw feed."

We know nothing of Ado's plant. Willdenow cites an
additional fynonym, Barrclier's t. 1153. f. 1, which feems
to have no afiinity to the figure of Boccone, and much more
refembles Cineraria minula, Cavan. Ic. t. 33. f. 3, under
which indeed Willdenow likewife quotes it, Sp. PI. v. 3.
2086.

24. P. orientale. Oriental Yellow Feverfew. Willd.
n. 23. — " Leaves doubly pinnate; leaflets linear. Stems
afcending, fingle-flowered." — Native of Georgia. Stems
fix inches high, naked above. Lower leaves an inch long ;
the upper ones half as long, and onlv fimply pinnate.
Scales of the calyx withered at the edge. Flowers deep
yellow, the fize of Chryfanthemum fegelum. Willd.

25. P. millefoliatum. Milfoil-leaved Yellow Feverfew.
Willd. n. 24. Ait. n. 13. (P. n. 174; Gmel. Sib. v. 2.
207. t. 86. f. 1,2. Chryfanthemum millefoliatum ; Linn.
Syfl;. Veg. ed. 13. 643. Anthemis millefolia ; Linn. Sp.
PI. 1263. Achillea foliis pinnatis, &c. ; Mill. Ic. t. 9.) —
Leaves doubly pinnatifid, linear, bluntifli. Stem corym-
bofe. Rays half as long as the diameter of the diflc. — Na-
tive of Siberia. A hardy perennial, flowering throughout-
the fummer. The Jlem is twelve or eighteen inches high,
leafy, branched and corymbofe, bearing eight or more long-
ftalkcd y eWow Jloiuers, whofe diflc is about half an inch
in d'.ameter, and their radiant florets of a fliort roundifli
figure, hardly extending a quarter of an inch from the difl<.
Seed-croiun toothed. Leaves doubly and interruptedly pin-
natifid, with linear, bluntifh fegments, each tipped with a
minute point ; their furfaces both downy, or fomewhat
filky. The leaves, as well z.% Jloixiers zx\<^ feeds, are very
diftinft from Chryfanthemum italicum, to which Linnxus
compares this fpecies.

26. Y.bipinnatum. Wing-leared Yellow Feverfew. Willd.
n. 25. Ait. n. 14. (P. n. 172 ; Gmel. Sib. v. 2. 205.
t. 85. f. I. Chryfanthemum bipinnatum ; Linn. Sp. PI.
1255.)— Leaves doubly or triply pinnatifid ; their fegments
dilated upwards, minutely pointed. Stem nearly fimple.
Rays wedge-fliaped, not a quarter fo long as the diameter
of the diflc. — Native of Siberia, flowering in June. Intro-
duced at Kew by Mr. Bufli, in 1796. This differs from
the lail in having more compound leaves, whofe ultimate
fegments are almoft elliptical, and all their points diftinftly
awned. But the flowers efpecially differ in being fewer,
from one to three on e2.ch Jlem, and furnilhed with a diik
near an inch wide, while tlieir radiant marginal florets are
fhort, broad, and wedge-fliaped, with broad Ipreading teeth.
The calyx, as well as all the herbage, is fhaggy with foft
hairs.

27. P. indicum. Eall Indian Yellow Feverfew. Sims
in Curt. Mag. t. 152 1, Ait. n. 15. — Leaves pinnatifid;
their fegments dilated upwards, lobed. Stem branched.
Flowers on long ilalks, nearly globular. Radiant florets
few, very fliort.— Sent by Dr. Roxburgh, from the Eafl
Indies, to A. B. Lambert, efq. It proves a hardy annual
in our gardens, flowering moft part of the fummer. The

Jlem is much branched, but the pinnatifid, though more
fimple and broader, leaves, betray an affinity to the two laft
fpecies, which is confirmed by the (hort yellow radiant,

Jlorets. Thefe however are, according to Dr. Sims, moil
generally wanting, l^hejlowers are folitary, on long fwelL.
ing furrowed Jlalis, terminating each branch; tiieir di(k
nearly an inch wide, and finally convex. The herbage ap.
pears to be fmooth.

28. P.

P Y R

P Y R

28. P. Myconi. Tongue-leaved Yellow Feverfew.
(Chryfanthenuim Myconi; Dalecli. Hid. S73. I^inii. Sp.
PI. 1254. Willd. Sp. PI. V. 3. 2148. Ait. Hort. Kcw.
V. 5. 96. Jacq. Obi', fafc. 4. 10. t. 94.) — Leaves tongue-
ftiapcd, obtufe, toothed, clafping the much-ljcanched ftem.
Radiant florets numerous, roundidi. — Native of fields in tlie
fouth of Europe ; a hardy annual with us, but preferved
for the fake of variety, rather than ornament, the flowers
being inferior in fize and fplcndour to our wild Cbryfimlbc-
mum fcgetum, while the leaves refcmble thofe of C. Ltu-
canlhenuim. The plant liowever is very different from both
thofe, and a true Pyiethriim, akin to the laft defcribcd, the
feed having a very evident membranous crown, as Will-
denow, copying Linna;us, mentions ; yet he lUll left this
fpecies where he found it. Our predece<ibr, the excellent
Jvlr. Wood, has corredled this error. (See Chuysantiie-
MUM, at the end.) We venture likewife to correft the
fpecific name, which authors have copied incorrectly from
Dalechamp. He calls the plant Myconi, after its difcoverer
Myconus. The Jlem is very much branched. Lea-ves
fimple, an inch and a half or two inches long, fmooth.
Flo-wrrs on long folitary ftalks, at the ends of the branches,
bright yellow, an inch wide ; tiieir radiant florets numerous,
crowded, fliort, of a roundidi or oblong fhape. Seed-crown
large, jagged, and fringed.

PYRETICS, formed from ■zv=iro:, fever, of 'a-u^, fire,
medicines good againft fevers.

PYREXIA, in Medicine, from 'TtufiTo:, fever, a term
ufed by Dr. Cullen to fignify feverifh aftion generally,
whether idiopathic or fympathic. The fame writer alfo
ufed the term as the denomination of his firit clafs of difeafes,
including fevers and inflammations. See his Nofol. Method,
clafs I, Pyrexidt.

PYRGI, or PvRGOS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Italy, upon the coaft of Etruria ; placed by Ptolemy
between Caftrum Novum and Alfum, and faid by Livy to
have been a Roman colony. — Alfo, a town of the Pelo-
ponnefus, in Meffenia.

PYRGO, in Geography, a fea-port town on the S.E.
coaft of the ifland of Santoria. N. lat. 36° 26'. E. long.
zf 38'.

PYRGUS, among the Romans, a dice-box of the fhape
of a niodius, open above, and having a great many flielves
or partitions within it ; fo that when the dice were thrown
into it out of the fritillum, they were thereby overturned
many times before they could reach the bottom, in which
there was an opening for them to fall through upon the
table.

PvRGU.';, in Botany, a genus of Loureiro's, Fl. Cochinch,
120, which Mr. Brown, Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. i. 533, re-
duces to Ardisia, fee that article. The name is taken
from itv^ya:., a turret, alluding to the conical fhape afTumed
by the converging ftamens.

PYRHOPOECILOS, in the Natural Hiflory of the An-
dents, a ftone fo called from its having a great many fpots
of the colour of fire.

PYRIATERION, a word ufed by the ancients to ex-
prefs a fweating room.

PYRIATOS, a word ufed by fome authors to exprefs a
brick when heated, in order to be applied to the body
wrapped up in a cloth by way of a dry fomentation.

PYRICAUSTUM, a word ufed by medical writers to
exprefs a burn or fcald.

PYRICUBIUM, in Natural Hiftory, the name of a
genus of foflile bodies, ufually comprehended, with many
others of very different figure and flrufture, under the
general nzme pyrites.

Vol. XXIX.

The diftinguifliing charaftcrs of the pyricubia ara thefe ;
they are compound, inflammable metalhc bodies, of a cubic
I'igure, or refembliiig a die, being compofed of fix fides.
Of this genus there are only two known fpecies. Hill.

PYRIFORMIS, in Anatomy, a mufcle of the thigh,
flattened and triangular in its figure, fituated at the back of
the pelvis, and extending from the facrum to the great
trochanter. The poflerior furface is covered by the gluteus
maguus, and partly by the medius. The anterior is partly
in the pelvis, partly on the outfide of the cavity. Within
the pelvis it correfponds to the reftum, the fciatic plexus,
and the hypogaftric vcflcls : externally to the cavity it
covers the gluteus minimus, the os innominatum, and the
capfule of the hip. The upper edge correfponds to the
fciatic notch, and the gluteal artery ; it then lies clofe to the
gluteus medius. The inferior edge correfponds to the leffer
lacro-fciatic ligament, and then is parallel to the geminus
fuperior : it is at firfl feparated from the latter mufcle by
the great fciatic nerve, and afterwards approaches to, and
is united with it.

The balls of the pyriformis is attached to the fide of the
anterior furface of the facrum, in the intervals of the facral
foramina, to thefe foramina at their outer parts, to the an-
terior furface of the great facro-fciatic ligament, and to the
poflerior and upper part of the os innominatum. The
mufcle proceeds from within outwards, and rather down-
wards, pafles out of the pelvis at the great facro-fciatic
foramen, gradually diminifhes, and terminates in a fmall
tendon, fixed to the upper part of the internal furface of the
great trochanter.

The attachment of this mufcle to the great trochanter is
by means of a tendon, the lower edge of which is con-
nefted to that of the fuperior geminus. This tendon ex-
pands into an aponeurolis, which, after extending on the
front of the mufcle, enters into its fubftance. The flefhy
fibres arife from the parts mentioned above ; and are fixed
in all direftions to the tendon. Sometimes a portion of the
fciatic nerve pafTes through a flit in the mufcle.

When the thigh is extended, the pyriformis will rotate it
outwards ; but when it is bent, it will aft as an abduftor.
If the thigh is fixed, it will move the pelvis in an oppofite
direftion.

PYRIPHLEGES, a word ufed by the old writers in
medicine to exprefs a perfon labouring under an extreme
degree of a febrile heat.

PYRIPLACIS, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a
genus of pyritae, the charafters of which are thefe : they
are compound, inflammable, metallic bodies, found in loofe
detached mailes of a fimple and uniform, not ftriated in-
ternal flrufture, and are covered with an invellient coat or
crufl.

Of this genus of foflils there are three known fpecies.
Hill.

PYRIPOLYGONIUM, the name of a genus of
foflils, the charafters of which are, that they are compound
metallic bodies, of a regular figure, confifting of twelve
planes.

There is only one known fpecies of this genus, though
fubjeft to great varieties in its appearance ; and this has
been by authors hitherto confounded with many other bodies
of a very difterent nature and figure, under the general name
pyrites.

It is not unfrequent in Cornwall and Devonfliire ; but is
much more common in Germany. Hill.

PYRITES, Sulfure metallique, in Mineralogy and Chi-
miflry, a name given to certain ores which contain a large
quantity of fulphur, and have a metallic luftre. The Greek

K word

PYRITES.

word OTfilti?, formed of 7rt/;,/«, denotes fire-ftone; a denomi-
nation given to this fiibftancc on account of its inflamma-
bility. For the mineralogical characters of copper pyrites,
and iron pyrites, fee Copper Ore, and Ihon Ore.

Belides thcfe there are arfenical pyrites, auriferous pyrites,
and tin pyrites. Combinations of fulphur with the metals
are called by chemifts fulphurets ; and the different kinds of
pyrites are properly metallic fulphurets. Sulphur has a great
affinity for iron, and in combination with this metal, under
the form of pyrites, exifl;s in cxtenfive beds in primary
mountains, or is difleminated through the fecondary rocks
and ftrata, in veins and maifes, or varioufly cryllallized : it
occurs aUo in beds of coal and bituminous clay. Iron pyrites
may "be confidered, after the earths, as one of the moft
abundant fubftances in the mineral kingdom, forming a con-
ftituent part of the globe, and by it's decompofition giving
rife to many important fubterranean phenomena.

The proportions of iron and fulphur in the different fub-
fpecies of iron pyrites enumerated by mineralogiits are,

52 to 54 Sulphur

48 to 56 Iron.

Magnetic pyrites differs from common pyrites : its con-
ftituent parts, according to Mr. Hatchett, are,

36.50 Sulphur
63.50 Iron.

By the application of heat common pyrites becomes fuf-
ceptible of attraftion by the magnet ; the cxcefs of fulphur
being expelled. Iron pyrites is not worked as an ore of
iron, but is principally valued for the green vitriol or ful-
phate of iron, which it affords when expofed to air and
moifture. Sulphur may alfo be obtained from pyrites when
heated with chaixoal.

The decompofition of pyrites is effected fpontaneoudy by
the abforption of oxygen from water and the atmofphere,
which converts the fulphur into fulphuric acid, and the iron
into an oxyd. Thefe fubftances unite durmg the procefs,
and form the fulphate of iron, or green viti'iol.

Some kinds of pyrites are rapidly decompofed, others
require to have part of the fulphur expelled by heat. The
pyrites, or pyritous fubftance intended to form vitriol, is col-
lected in extenfive heaps, fpreading the furface as much as
can be conveniently done. The ground on which thefe heaps
are fpread fhould be impervious to water, and inclined, in
order that the faline matter which efflorefces may be waflied
off, and conveyed into refervoirs to cryftallize. As the de-
compofition proceeds the mafs becomes heated, and is occa-
fionally moiitened, particularly when the air is dry and warm.
Thefe beds continue produftive for many years, and if the
pyrites be pure, but httle refiduum is left. An excefs of
fulphuric acid is formed during the procefs, on which account
a quantity of old iron is added to the folution, to faturate
it, and obtain the fait in a cryftallized ftate. During the
decompofition of pyrites much heat is evolved, and a confi-
derable abforption of oxygen from the atmofphere takes place.
The faft was firft obferved by Henckel, who affirmed, in his
" Pyritologia," that air was neceffary to the procefs of vitri-
olization, and that it enters into combination with pyrites
and remains fixed in it : " non ut inftrumentum tranfiens fed
immanens." This may be confidered as a happy anticipation
of one of tfie moft important doctrines of modern chpmiftry.
Some geologifts have fuppofed that fubterranean fires, and
the temperature of hot fprings, are occafioned by the fpon-
taneous decompofition of immenfe beds of pyrites in the in-
terior of the earth, and an experiment made by Lemery
gives fome plaufibility to tliis opinion. He found that a

10

mixture of iron filings and fulphur, moiitened with a Jmall
quantity of water, becomes hot in a few hours, the mafs
fwells, and the parts adhere together : it then breaks with a
perceptible noife and crackling, and emits aqueous vapour,
and a fetid odour like that of fulpurated hydrogen gas. If
the mixture be made in a large quantity, it takes fire in
twenty-four or thirty hours. As foon as the eraiflion of
aqueous vapour has cealed, the heat becomes greater and
greater, is fucceeded by inflammation, the fmell is then much
itronger, and appears to arife from the hydrogen produced by
the decompofition of water. Beaume, who obferved this
phenomenon from a mixture of one hundred pounds of iron
filings, with an equal quantity of fulphur in powder, ftates
that the flames rofe to a foot in height, but did not continue
longer than two or three minutes ; the mafs, however, re-
mained red-hot for forty hours. Lemery the elder gave to
this experiment the name of the artificial volcano.

Dr. Watfon, in his Chemical Effays, vol. i. p. 187, fays
that he has repeated this experiment more than once. When
made in the open air the flame is of fhort duration, and the
whole mafs, after the extinction of the flame, continues at inter-
vals to throw out fparks. A ladle full of the ignited mafs
being dropped down from a confiderable height, defcended
like a fhower of red-hot afhes. The fuccefs of this expe-
riment depends on a due proportion of water. Haifa pound
of flower of fulphur, with half a pound of clean iron filings,
mixed with fourteen ounces of water, and worked into a
pafte, will acquire heat enough to make the mafs take
fire.

Some dark-coloured carbonaceous and bituminous earths
contain pyrites in minute grains, and decompofe with great
rapidity when expofed to moifture. In the month of Auguft
1 75 1, the cliffs near Charmouth, in Dorfetfhire, containing
a fimilar kind of pyritous earth, took fire in confequence
of a heavy fall of rain after a hot dry feafon, and con-
tinued at intervals to emit flame for feveral years. Almoft
all kinds of pit -coal in England contain more or lefs py-
rites : in fome the quantity is very inconfiderable, in other
kinds it abounds fomuch as to render them unfit for domeftic
purpofes, and totally inapplicable for forges or iron works,
on account of the fulphur which they emit when burned.
This pyritous coal may be diltinguifhed by its greater fpe-
cific gravity, and the brafs-like metalhc appearance of the
pyrites with which it is intermixed. Pyritous coal and
coal fhale, or bituminous clay, containing pyrites, frequently
take fire fpontaneoufly in coal mines, or when expofed in
heaps out of the pits, and continue burning many years.
Inftances of this kind now exift in the north of England ;
and fo intenfe is the heat produced by the ignition of thefe
maffes, that the coal fhale isfometimes fufed. We havefeen
fpecimens from thefe heaps which have all the characters of
cellular volcanic lava. In the vicinity of Leeds there is a
large heap of coal fhale which has been on fire near half a cen-
tury ; it is covered in parts with vegetation, and prefents no
appearance of ignition during the day ; but if a dry ftick be
thruft into it the furface is changed in a few minutes. In
fome of the coal mines in Leiceilerfhire, near Afhby de la
Zouch, the ftratum of indurated clay over the main bed of
coal contains fo much pyritous matter, and is fo fubjedt to
fpontaneous inflammation when it falls down and is intermixed
with fmall coal and moifture, that the miners are obliged to
clofe up the fpace with brick-clay where the coal has
been worked, to prevent the accefs of air to the com-
buftible m.atter. In this ftate, excluded from the air, the
pyritous earth fometimes becomes ignited, as is evident by
the heat communicated to the neighbouring parts of the
mine ; but the fire is prevented from fpreading among the

ood,

P Y R

P Y R

ooal, by the precautionary meafure of clofing the cavities
with clay.

The great heat evolved during the decompofition of
pyrites, may proceed in part from the combination of oxygen
with the fulphur and iron, and may be increafed by the
different capacity of the new compound for heat. When-
ever chemical changes take place rapidly, they produce a
change in the temperature of fubihaices, as in the well-
known inllances of lime and water, nitric acid and vegeta-
ble oils, &c.

The phenomena accompanying the mud volcanoes in
various parts of the world, prefent many appearances which
give probability to the opinion, that they proceed from the
decompofition of pyritic ftrata. See Volcano.

Tlie formation ot alum is alfo effcfted naturally, in many
fituations, by the decompofition of pyrites, the fulphuric
acid combining with the alumine of pyritoiis clay. This is
not unfrequently the cafe in excavations of coal mines that
have been long worked out.

At Hartlet, near Glafgow, in the excavations of an old
coal mine that has been worked fome centuries, there is a
very extenfive formation of alum, from the decompofition of
the roof of the pit. It is a pyrilous clay ten inches thick.
In the old workings of the mine which are dry the air cir-
culates flowly, and the roof gradually decompofes and ex-
foliates, and falls upon the floor, in which fituation the decom-
pofition proceeds, and the fubltance affumes the appearance
of a fpicular efflorefcence. In time the whole fpace to the
roof is filled ; it is then removed. The mafs confifts of'Carth
richly impregnated with fulphate of alumine, fulphate of
iron, and in fome inllances with fulphate of magnefia. Tiie
coal in this mine, contrary to the ufual pratlice, is worked
to the dip, fo that the old workings are always dry. To this
circuraftance may principally be attributed the great accu-
mulation of alum in this mine. In many of the mines in Eng-
land a fimilar formation of alum would take place, but they
contain too much water to permit the faline fubftances to re-
main. In general, alum rock or alum fliale require to be
expofed in heaps, and burned in the open air, to expel the
fulphur, and combine it with the oxygen from the atmofphere.
The fulphuric acid thus formed unites with a requifite portion
of the clay during the procefs.

The gypfum, or the fulphate of lime which occurs in beds,
among fecondary ftrata of red fand-ftone and beds of marie,
probably may owe its prefent ftate to maffes of pyrites, which
h.ivc exilled over common lime-flone, and been decompofed
naturally. The fulphuric acid thus produced woiJd unite
with the lime, and form gypfum. The great quantity of the
red oxyd of iron which is in the flone and marie that ac-
company this kind of gypfum, gives much probability to
this opinion. The cryftals of gypfum or felenite found de-
tached in beds of clay had probably a fimilar origin.

oulphuret of iron may be formed by heating together iron
filings and fulphur. From the experiments of Vauquehn it is
proved that there are four fulphurets of iron, according to
the degree of heat and other circumftances under which the
combination may be formed. The firft fulphuret conlifls of

78 Iron
22 Sulphur
The fecond fulphuret, of

I Artificial.

64 Iron 7 TvT 1

56 Sulphur \ N^^""^ magnetic pyntes.

36 Sulphur j
The third fulphuret, of

S;84 Sdphur}^'"*''^'^'-

The fourth fulphuret, of

''■' c™i" I J- Natural common pyrites.
33 Sulphur J '^•'

When the quantity of fulphur does not exceed ^opereent.
pyrites is foluble in muriatic acid, and may be rendered per-
manently magnetic. The fpecific gravity of common pyrites
is from 4.60 to 4.83. Of magnetic pyrites 4.51.

Arfenical pyrites, called marcafite, is dillingui(lied from iron
pyrites by its colour, which is a filver white, and by yielding a
fmell like garlic when rubbed or expofed to heat. See
Arsenic Ores.

Auriferous pyrites, or iron pyrites, with a fmaU alloy ot
gold : the richell fpecimens of this ore in Europe are found
in Tranfylvania, containing from 0.02 to 0.03 oi gld.
Thefe ores are dilUnguilhed from iron and copper pyrites
by their colour, malleability, and fpecific gravity.

Tin pyrites. See Tin Ore.

The pyrits, in fubftance, are never ufed medicinally ;
neverthelefs, in their produfts they are very important.
From thefe common fulphur is extrafted, in Sweden and
Saxony ; the native vitriols are produced in caverns of the
earth, or on its furface ; the greateft quantities of artificial
vitriol are prepared ; and the mineral waters, vitriolic, alu-
minous, fulphureous, hot or cold, are fuppofed to receive
their impregnation.

When the matter of the pyrites is mixed with the lead
ores, the method of feparating the metal by allaying is this :
roalt two centners of the ore, as in the ufual method, and
keep a flronger fire than when the ore is pure. The pyrites,
efpecially when it is merely iron, hinders ore from eafily
growing clammy or turning into large lumps, or entirely
melting. When the ore is fufficiently walhed, let it cool,
beat it to powder, and repeat the roafling to a third fire,
till when it is red-hot in the fire, there is no fmell of fulphur ;
then mix the ore with fix centners of the black flux, and two
of fandiver, and finifh the work in the common way, only
making the fire greater, and continuing it longer, toward
the end of the operation. Cramer's Art of AfTaying, p. 292.
See Lead Ore.

Pybites is applied by fome authors to the marcafite ores
of all metals ; the names of which are varied according to
the metals they partake of.

Thus chrvftlis is that of gold ; argyrlth that of filver ;
ftderitii that of iron ; chakhis that of copper ; and molybditis
[hat of lead, &c.

PYRITICUM LiQUAMEN. See Liquamen Pyriticum.

PYRITRICHIPHYLLUM, in Natural H'ljiory, the
name of a genus of foffils of the clafs of the pyrites, the
charadlers of which are thefe : they are compound, inflam-
mable, rnetalKc bodies, found in loofe maffes not of any
regularly angular figure, and of a ftriated texture, with
foliaceous ends to the ftrix, appearing on the furface, or
within the mafs.

Of this genus there are only two known fpecies : one
having the foliaceous ends of the ftrix on the outer furface
of the mafs ; and the other having a fmooth external furface,
and the fohaceous ends of the ftrise covering the fides of in-
ternal hollows.

The firft of thefe is found in many of the Englifh and
German mines ; the other lias been yet only found in the
mines on Mendip hills in Somerfetfhire, but there in con-
fiderable plenty. Hill.

PYRITRICHUM, the name of a genus of pyrites, the

charafters of which are thefe : they are compound, inflam-

mable, metallic foffils, always found in detached maffes of

K 2 no

P Y R

V Y R

no regularly angular figure, and of a fimply ftriated internal
ftrufture.

Of this genus of pyritas there are three known fpecies.
All the three fpecies are found plentifully in different parts
of the kingdom : the firft in all forts of llrata, and often
loofe on the ground ; the fecond principally in the chalk-
pits of Kent and Sudex ; and the lad in Efl'ex and Hamp-
ihire, and very frequently in the German mines, plill.

PYRITZ, in Geography. See Piiirrz.

PYRMONT, a town of Germany, and capital of the
country fo named ; its citadel is fortilied with a broad ditch,
high ramparts, and fubterraneous paflagcs and vaults; 12
miles S.W. of Hamala. N. lat. 51° 57'. E. long. 9'-" 17' —
Alfo, a county and principality of Germany, bounded on
the N. by the principality of Calenberg, on the E. by
Wolfenbuttle and Calenberg, on the S. by Wolfenbuttlc,
and on the W. by the county of Lippe ; about nine miles
long, and three broad. The revenues are eftimated at
30,000 rix-dollars, principally arifnig from the fprings and
falt-works.

Pyrmont Water, in Phyfiology and Msdk'ine, a very
brifl<, fpirituous chalybeate, abounding in fixed air, and
which, when taken up from the fountain at Pyrmont, in
Germany, whence its name, fparkles like the briftefl Cham-
paign wine. It has a pleafant, vinous tatle, and fomewhat
fulphureous fmcU. It is perfettly clear, and bears carriage
better than the Spa water.

The hiilory of thefe waters is accurately given by Hoff-
mann in his obfervations on them, both in their natural ftate,
and in mixture with other bodies.

He firfl obferves, that they contain 3 volatile and fubtile
principle, much more penetrating and ilrong, as well as in
larger quantity, than any other mineral water ; but that
this is not to be expected in them any where but upon the
fpot, for thofe who tranfport them to other places are con-
ftrained to let a part of this fly oft, to preferve the reft.
If either glafs or earthen veffels be tilled at the fpring, and
immediately corked and faftened down, the confeqiience is,
that they will burll on the firlt motion, or heat of the
weather. They are, therefore, forced to fill them only in
part at firft, and let them Hand awhile for this fubtile fpirit
to exhale ; and then awhile after the filling them up, to cork
and fit them for carriage.

2. If they are drank upon the fpot in a morning, on an
empty ilomach, they affett the nofe with a pungent tingling,
and difturb the head for many hours afterwards.

3. If they are taken at the fpriag, they purge but ver)'
little ; but if taken in another place, after tranfportation,
they purge confiderably more, and render the ilools black.
It is obfervable alfo, that if they are left in an open veffel a
few days, their virtue wholly exhales, and they no longer
purge nor render the flools black.

4. If tea-leaves, bauluftinc-flowers, or galls, are put into
this water, they firil change it to a blue, from that to a
purple, and finally to a black. This is a ready proof that
black is only a deep purple, and purple only a deep blue :
a little fpirit of vitriol added to this liquor deftroys all the
colour, and renders it limpid as before.

5. If any acid be mixed with Pyrmont water, there is
raifed an eftervefcence, and bubbles of air are carried up in
great quantity ; and this whether the ilronger acids, fueh
as fpirit of vitriol, or aqua fortis, be ufed ; or the weaker,
as vinegar, lemon juice, or Rhenifh wine.

6. If an alkaline liquor be added, whether it be volatile,
as tlie fpirit of fal ammoniac, or fixed, as the oil of tartar,

9

there is no ebullition raifed, but the liquor becomes turbitf
and milky. If fpirit of vitriol be afterwards added to this,
to faturate the additional alkali, the liquor becomes limpid
again.

7. Cow's milk mixed in equal quantity with Pyrmont
water does not coagulate, but, on the contrary, becom.es
thinner than before, and is proferved from turning four fo
foon as it otherwife would in hot weather. This is a proof
that there is no piedominating acid in thefe waters.

8. If fyrup of violets be added to Pyrmont water, it
turns it to a beautiful green. This is a proof of the alkaline
nature of thefe waters ; and it is further proved, by adding
fpirit of vitriol, or any other acid, to this green liquor,
which on that become8 limpid again.

9. Four pints of this water evaporated over a gentle fire,
yield no more than two fcruples of a dry refiduum. Oil of
vitriol being poured on this, an acid effervefcence arifes, and
with it an acrid and pungent vapour, like that produced
by mixing oil of vitriol and common fait. If fpirit of
vitriol be ufed inftead of the oil, the effervefcence is in a
lefs degree, and the fait is in part changed to a bitter falino
mafs, the remainder feparated from which proves to be
a calcareous earth, no longer fermenting with the fpirit of
vitriol.

10. If a quantity of Pyrmont water be expofed twenty-
four hours to the open air in a bafon, it will at the end be
found to have loft alt its virtues, tafbng wholly infipid, and
being turbid, inilead of the fine clearnefs it had before, and
a yellow ochreous earth is precipitated to the bottom : after
this the liquor will no longer fhew any of thofe qualities,
which were before its diilinguifhing characters ; it will no
longer ferment with acids, nor turn black with galls, nor
green with fyrup of violets.

It appears from the whole, that the Pyrmont waters pof-
fefs a pure, extremely penetrating, and elaitic mineral fpirit,
and that in a very large proportion ; and to this their virtues
are principally to be attributed. This mineral fpirit, while
it remains engaged in a calcareous earth, imitates the pro-
perties of an alkaline fubllance _: and when joined with a
fubtile martial earth, it emulates the properties of vitriol,
giving the Ifools a black colour, and turning a tinfture of
galls into ink : and while this remains in the water in thefe
forms of an alkaline or vitriolic principle of fo g^eat fubtilty,
it cannot but give them very great virtues in ilrengthening
the tone of the vifcera, opening obftrucfions, and ftimulat-
ing In a proper manner the excretory dufts, fo as to make
them duly perform their office ; but as foon as by the fland-
ing of the water open, or by any other accident, this fubtile
element is evaporated, all the virtues of the water mull be
gone with it.

The great quantity of this powerful fpirit contained in the
waters, makes them more fit for the robufl and itrong con-
ftitutions, when depraved by illnefs, than for the weak and
tender ones ; but even the tenderefl people may take them,
only obferving to take but a fmall dofe, or to dilute them
with an equal quantity of common water immediately before
the taking them.

Hoffmann alfo recommends the Pyrmont water mixed
with equal quantities of milk, on his own experience, in
fcorbutic and gouty cafes. Hoffm. Oper. torn. v. p. 143,
feq.

We have already obferved, under the articles Acidul.* and
Carboxic Ac'id, that Pyrmont '., aterj and other mineral wa-
ters of a fimilar nature, owe their acidulous tafte and peculiar
virtues to the fixed Air (carbo:iic acid) which they contain ;
and to thofe articles the reader is referred for a brief hiftory

of

.PYRMONT WATER.

of tliis important dlfcovcry. Wc (hall lierc add fomc farther
remarks on the efFefts and medical iifes of this water.

Pcrfons wlio drink it at the well are affeftid with a kind
of giddinefs or intoxication, which is probably owing to the
great quantity of carbonic acid with which tl'.e water abounds.
The common operation of this water is by urine ; but it is
alfo a gentle fudorific ; and if taken in large quantity,
proves laxative. However, in order to this efleft, it is
iifual to mix fome falts with the lirft glaffcs. It ir. drank
by glafsfuls in the morning, to the quantity of from one to
five m- fix pints, according to circumflances ; thofe who
drink it walking about between each glafs. This water is
recommended in cafes where the conititution is relaxed ; in
want of appetite and digeltion ; weaknefs of the llomach,
and heartburn ; the green fickneis ; female obftruftions and
barreniiefs ; the fcurvy, and cutaneous difeafes ; and in the
gout, efpccially, as Hoffmann obfcrves, when mixed witii
milk ; in colics ; bloody fluxes ; difordcrs of the breall and
lungs ; in which cafe it is beft taken lukewarm : in nervous,
hylleric, and hypcchondriacal diforders ; in apoplexies and
palfies ; in the gravel and urinary obftruftions ; in foulnefs
of the blood ; and in obllrudlions of the liner vefFels. It
amends the lax tenure of the blood ; exhilarates the fpirits
without inflaming, as vinous liquors are apt to do; and is
reckoned among the beft refloratives in decayed and broken
conftitutions. It is faid to pofTefs the general virtues of the
Spa water, and at the fountain it is more fpirituous, as well
as a ftrongcr chalybeate. Elliot's Medicinal Virtues, &c.
of Mineral Waters, 1781, p. l8l.

Near the famous well at Pyrm.ont is a ftone quarrv under
gi'ound, from fome parts in which a fulphureous fteam comes
out, which commonly lifes to a fmall height. Animals held
in this Iteam are foon fuffocatcd, bat recover, if quickly
taken out. When a man ilands in this fteam, but with his
head over it, it proves an excellent fudorific. Dr. Seip
propofes to perform cures in feveral difeafes with it. See
Phil. Tranf. N° 448, fed. 4, and Mifc. Berohn. torn. v.
part 2. feft. 4. See Grotta dc/ Serpi.

Pyrmont Water, Imitation of. This medicinal water
may be imitated very nicely by art in the following manner :
take a quart of the pureft and lighteft water, add to it
thirty drops of a ftrong folution of iron made in fpirit of
fait, a drachm of oil of tartar per dehquium, and thirty drops
of fpirit of vitriol, or a little more or lefs, as is found ne-
ceffary, not to let the alkali of the oil of tarlar prevail too
ftrongly, though it m.uft prevail a little. Shake all brillvly
together, and on tafting it will be found extremely to re-
femble the true Pyrmont water.

The bafis on which this is founded is the analyfis and trial
of the true Pyrmont water, by which it is found to contain
a fubtile aqueous fluid, a volatile iron, and a predominant
alkali, all joined together into one brifk pungent fpirituous
water. The artificial Pyrmont thus made, if the propor-
tions are carefully minded, will extremely i-efemble the na-
tural, and will have the fame effect as a medicine. Shaw's
Leftures, p. go.

But the beft method of forming artificial Pyrmont water is
by impregnating it with fixed air, or carbonic acid, for which
we are indebted to Dr. Prieftley. The firil perfon, we believe,
who afl ually compounded an artificial acidulous or fpirituous
water, like that of Sultzer or Pyrmont, was M. Venel; though
he was ignorant of the real nature of the ingredient to which it
owed thefe qualities, and which he erroneoufly fuppofed to be
common air. For this purpofe he diffolvcd in a pint of water
two drachms of foffile alkali, to which he added an equal
quantity of marine acid : in the procefs he made ufe of a
veffel with a narrow r.eck, and to prevent the efcape of the

air, he difpofed the ingredients in fuch a manner, that ther
could not communicate with each other till after the bottle
was corked. In this cafe the fixed air diflodged from the al-
kaline fait, in a pliial nearly full and clofely corked, being
conlined, fuffers a degree of comprellion that greatly pro-
motes its combination with the water. See Memoircs pre-
fentcs par les S^avans Etrangers, torn. ii. containing two
Memoirs of M. Venel, read before the Royal Academy of
Sciences in 1750; and Laviofier's Eflays, &c. by Henry,
]). 34, &c. However, Dr. Prieftley was undoubtedly the firft
who fo far improved upon the difcoveries made by himfelf and
others in relation to the principle then denominated fixed air,
as to contrive an ealy method of impregnating water with it.
The firft idea of this kind occurred to him in 1767, when,
having placed ftiallow veflels of water within the region of
fixed air on the furface of the fermenting veffels of a brewery,
and left them all night in that fituation, he found that the
water had acquired a very fenfible and pleafant impregnation.
He proceeded to accelerate the impregnation by pouring the
water from one veiliil into another, while they were both
held within the fphcre of the fixed air. The method of ef-
fedfing this by air diflodged from chalk and other calcareous
fubftances, did not occur to him till the year 1772, when he
publiftied his direftions for this purpofe, together with a
dravi'ing of the neceilary apparatus, which he had before
communicated to the Board of Admiralty. This apparatus,
reprcfcnted in Plate XV. Pneumatics, Jig. I, confiils of a
glafs veffel, a, with a narrow neck, and io formed, that it
will ftand upright, with its mouth downwards : this veffel,
when filled with water, and covered with a flip of paper or
thin pafteboard, preffed clofe to it, to prevent the admif-
fion of common air, is inverted in another veffel, b, with a
little water in it, fo that the flip of paper or pafteboard may
be withdrawn, and the end of the pipe, c, introduced into it.
This pipe is flexible and air-tight, and beft made of leather,
fewed with a flioemaker's waxed thread. It is kept open at
both ends by a piece of a quill, while one of them is intro-
duced into the veffel of water, and the other into the bladder
d; the oppofite end of which is tied round a perforated
cork, kept open by a quill, and the cork is made to fit a
phial, e, two-thirds of which fliould be filled with chalk juft
covered with water. Dr. Prieftley has fince found it meft
convenient to ufe a glafs tube ; and to preferve the advantage
which he had of agitating the veffel e, he makes ufe of two
bladders, communicating by a perforated cork, to which
they are both tied. He alfo obferves, that the flexible pipe
is not Bcceflary ; but inftead of this a bent tube of glafs
muft be ready to be inferted into the hole made in tlie cork,
when the bladder containing the fixed air is feparated from the
phial in which it was generated. The extremity of this tube
being put under the veflel of water, and the bladder being
compreft'ed, the air will be conveyed into it, as in the other
cafe. Inftead of the bladder, a fmall phial may be inter-
pofed between the phial containing the chalk, &c. and the
veffel of water : for thus the chalk and water that may be
thrown up the tube communicating with this phial will lodge
at the bottom of the other, while nothing but the air will
get into the pipe communicating with the water. The ap-
paratus being thus prepared, let the phial containing the
chalk and water be detached from the bladder, and the pipe
alfo from the veflel of water ; pour a httle oil of \-itrioI
upon the chalk and water ; and having carefully preffed all
the common air out of the bladder, put the cork into the
bottle prefently after the effervefcence has begun. Alfo
prefs the bladder once more after a little of the newly-gene-
rated air has got into it, in order the more effectually to
clear it of all the remains of the common air ; and then in-

troduce

PYRMONT WATER.

troduce tlie end of the pipe into the mouth of the vedel of
water, as in the drawing, and begin to agitate the chalk and
water brifl<ly. This will prefently produce a conhderable
quantity of fixed air, which will dillend the bladder ; and
this being preii'ed, the air will force its way through the pipe,
and afcend into tlie velfel of water, the water at the fame
timedefcending, and coming into the bafon.

When about one-half of the water is forced out, let the
operator lay his hand upon the uppermolt part of the veffel,
and fhake it as briildy as he can, not to throw the water out
of the bafou ; and in a few minutes the water will abforb the
air, and taking its place, will nearly fill the vellel as at tiie
firft. Then (hake the phial containing the chalk and water
again, 3ind force more air into the veflel, till, upon the
whole, about an equal bulk of *air has been thrown into it.
Alfo fhake the water as before, till no more of the air can
be imbibed. As foon as this is perceived to be the cafe, the
water is ready for ufe ; and if it be not ufed immediately,
ftiould be put into a bottle as foon as poflible, well corked,
and cemented. It will keep, however, very well, if the
bottle be only well corked, and kept with the mouth down-
wards.

It may be proper to obferve on this procefs, that the
phial, e, fhould always be placed conliderably lower than the
vefiel'fl ; that the water to which the chalk is put (hould be
changed after every operation ; that with a veflel of water
holding three pints, and a phial containing the chalk and
water of ten ounces, a little more than a tea-fpoonful of oil
of vitriol will produce air enough to impregnate fuch a quan-
tity of water, that the whole procefs does not take up more
than a quarter of an hour, and the agitation not five minutes ;
and that in this method the water is ealily made to imbibe an
equal bulk of air ; whereas Dr. Brownrigg found that Pyr-
mont water at the fpring-head did not contain fo much
as one-half. This apparatus has received confiderable im-
provements, which we Ihall briefly recite ; but in jullice
to the merit of the original inventor, his method deferves
to be recorded ; and befides, it requires lefs time, and
is much lefs expenfive than thofe that are now generally
ufed.

The apparatus contrived by Dr. Nooth, and improved by
Mr. Parker, is reprefented in Jig. 2. It is made of glafs,
and ftands on a wooden veflel, d d, refembling a tea-board ;
the middle veflel B has a neck, which is inferted into the
mouth of the veflel A, to which it is ground air-tight. This
lower neck of the veflel B has a glafs itopple S, compofed
of two parts, both having holes fufficient to let a good
quantity of air pafs through them. Between thefe two parts
is left a fmall fpace, «^ontaining a plano-convex lens, which
afts like a valve, in letting the air pafs from below upwards,
and hindering its return into the veflel A. The upper veffel
C terminates below in a tube ;-<, which, being crooked,
hinders the immediate afcent to the bubbles of fixed air into
that veflel, before they reach the furface of th.e water in the
veflel B. The veflel C is alfo ground air-tight to the upper
neck of the middle vciTel B, and has a ftopple, p, fitted to
its upper mouth, which has a hole through its middle. The
upper veflel B holds jufl half as much as the middle one B ;
and the end, /, of the crooked tube goes no lower than the
middle of the veilel B.

For the ufe of this apparatus, fill the middle veflel B
with fpring or any other wholcfome water, and join to it the
veflel C. Pour water nito the vefl'i'l A (by the opening m,
or otherwife) fo as to cover the rifing part of its bottom :
about three-fourths of a pint will be fufficient. Fill an
ounce phial with oil of vitiiol, and add it to the water, fliaking
the veflel fo as to mix tliem well together. As heat is gene-

rated, it will be bed to add the oil by a little at a time,
otherwife the veflel may be broke. Put to this, through a
wide gljfs or paper funnel, about an ounce of powdered raw
chalk, or marble. White marble being firft granulated, or
pounded like coarfe fand, is better for the purpofe than
pounded chalk, bccaufe it is harder ; and, therefore, the
aftion of the diluted acid upon it is flower, and lafts a confi-
derable time. On this account the fiipply of fixed air from
it is more regular than with the chalk : and befides, when
no more air is produced, the water may be decanted from
the veflel A, and the white fediment waftied off, and the re-
maining granulated marble may be employed again, by adding
to it frefh water and a new quantity of oil of vitriol. The
funnel in this procefs is made ufe of in order to prevent the
powder from touching the infide of the veflel's mouth : for
if that happens, it will flick fo Itrongly to the neck of the
veflel B, as not to admit of their being feparated without
breaking. Place immediately the two veflcls B and C (faf-
tened to each other) into the mouth of the veflel A, as in
the figure, and all the fixed air wliicli is difengaged from the
chalk or marble by the oil of vitriol, will pafs up through
the valve in S into this veflel B. When this fixed air comes
to the top of the veflel B, it will diflodge from thence as
much water as is equal to its bulk : which water will be
forced up through the crooked tube into the upper veflel C.

Care muft be taken not to fliake the veflel A when the
powdered chalk is put in ; otherwife a great and fudden
effervefcence will enfue, which will perhaps expel part of
the contents. In fuch cafe it may be necefl^ary to open a
little the ftopple *, in order to give vent, otherwife the
veflel A may burlt. It will be proper alfo to throw away
the contents, and wafh the veflel ; for the matter will ftick
between the necks of the veflels, and cement them together.
The operation muft then be begun afrefli. But if the chalk
be thrown in witiiout fliaking the machine, or if marble be
ufed, the effervefcence will not be violent. If the chalk be
put into the veflel loofely wrapt up in paper, this accident
wiUbe ftill better guarded againft. When the effervefcence
goes on well, the veffel C will foon be filled with water, and
the veffel B half filled with air ; wliich will eafily be known
to be the cafe, by the air going up in large bubbles through
the crooked tube r /.

When this is obferved, take off the two veffels B and C
together as they are, and fliake them fo that the water and
air within them may be much agitated. A great part of
the fixed air will be abforbed into the water ; as will appear
by the end of tlie crooked tube being confiderably under the
furface of the water in the veffel. The ftiaking them for
two or three minutes will be fufficient for this purpofe.
Thefe veflels muft not be fliook while joined to the under one
A, otherwife too great an effervefcence will be occafioned in
the litter; together with the ill confequences above-men-
tioned. After the water and air have been fufficiently agi-
tated, loofen the upper veffel C, fo that the remaining wa-
ter may fall down into B, and the unabforbed air pals out.
Put thefe veffels together, and replace them into the mouth
of A, in order that B may be again half filled with fixed air.
Shake the veffels B and C, and let out the unabforbed air as
before. By repeating the operation three or four times, the
water will be fufficiently impregnated.

Whenever the effervefcence nearly ceafes in the veffel A,
it may be renewed by giving it a gentle fhake, fo that the
powdered chalk or m.arbleat the bottom may be mixed with
the oil of vitriol and water above it ; for then a greater
quantity of fixed air will be difengaged.

When the effervefcence can be no longer renewed by
ftiaking the veffel A, either more chalk muft be put in, or

more

J^YRMONT WATER.

more oil of vitriol ; or more water, if neither of thefc pro-
duce the defired effefts.

The ingenious Mr. Magclhui has ftill farther improved
the contrivance of Dr. NoothandMr. Parker ; he has two
fets of the veflels B and C. While he is fhaking the air and
water contained in one of thefe fets, the other may be re-
ceiving fixed air from the veffcl A. By this means twice
the quantity of water may be impregnated in the fame time.
He has a wooden (land K {Jig. 3. ) to fix the velTels B, C on,
when taken oft from A, which is very convenient. He has
a fmall tin trough for mcafuring the quantity of chalk or
marble requifite for one operation, and a wide glafs funnel
for putting it through into the veftel A, to prevent its
flicking to the fides, as mentioned before.

and kept hollow by means of a fpiral wire pafling through
its whole length ; a conical brafs ])ipe E, with a (top-cock
fallened to the tube D ; another conical pipe F, witii a (top-
cock G, into which the end of the tube E i8 accurately
ground, fo as to be air-tight, and cutting off all communi-
cation with the atmofphere when the pipe E is removed ;
two large hog's bladders H, H, each of which ought to
hold two quarts; a Itop-cocii I, to prevent the water rifing
into the bladders, when the vefi'el A is agitated ; a blad-
der K, tifd to the crooked tube with the (top-cock L,
which occafionally opens or (huts the communication with
the veffel B ; a glafs funnel M, accurately fitted with the
glafs Hopper N ; an aperture O, fitted with a glafs ftopper
or a lilver cock, from which the impregnated water is to

He has alfo contrived a (topple without a hole, to be ufed be drawn for ule ; and, laftly, the tube P opening into the

occafionally, inftead of the perforated one p. It has a kind veffel A. When this apparatus is ufed, let the veflel A be

of bafon at the top, to hold an additional weight when ne- filled with pure water, and any other ingredients that are

ceffary. (See^^. 4.) The ftopple mull be of a conical required, in a proper proportion ; into the veflel B put as

figure, and very loofe ; but fo exaftly and fmoothly ground much marble or whiting, in fmall lumps, as will cover its

as to be air-tight merely by its preflure, which may be 111-
creafed by additional weights put into its bafon. Its ufeis to
comprefs the fixed air on the water, and thereby increafe the
impregnation : for by keeping the air on the water in this
comprefled Hate, the latter may be made to fparkle Hke
Champaign. And if the velfels are ftrong, there will be no
danger of their bnrfting in the operation.

bottom to the height of about two inches, and pour in
water to the height reprefented by the dotted line ; let the
mouth of the ve(fel A be well fitted with a cork, and through
a hole in the cork pafs the tube P, putting upon the cork
melted fealing-wax of the iofteft kind, or modelling-wax,
fo as to make the whole air-tight. Tlie modelling-wax
may be procured at the engravers, or it may be prepared

If the vedels be fuffered to (land fix or eight hours, the by adding to half a pound of melted bees-wax, two ounces

water will be fufficiently impregnated even without agitation.
But by employing the means above defcribed, it may be done
In as many minutes.

The water thus impregnated may be drawn out at the
opening k. But if it is not wanted immediately, it \\\\\ be
better to let it remain in the machine, where it has no com-
munication with the external air. Otherwife the fixed air

of tallow, and one ounce of Venice turpentine : to this
mafs add a fufficient quantity of red lead, or Spanifh brown,
to give it a colour, and let the mixture be (tirred till it is
cold : let the mouth of the veffel B be (lopped with a piece
of mahogany, turned into a conical figure in a lathe, and of
a fize fomewhat larger than the mouth of the glafs will ad-
mit ; put this piece of wood into melted bees-wax, and heat

flies off by degrees, and the water becomes vapid and flat ; as the wax till the wood begins to grow black: when cool,

alfo happens to other acidulous waters. But it may be kept tur i it again till it fits the mouth of the veffel : the tubes

a long time in bottles well fl;opped,efpecially if they are placed C, L, and M, are fitted into holes bored through the wooden

with their mouths downwards. ' (topper, previous to its being immerfed in the wax : pufh

Mr. Blades of Ludgate-Hill has ftill farther improved this thefe tubes through the holes, and prefs the ftopper into

apparatus, by changing the ftopple at h for a glafs cock, the orifice of the veffel B, and cement the whole with feal-

vvhich is more convenient. He has likewife altered the ing or modelling-wax : Ihut the ftop-cocks I and L, having

middle veflel B into a form more advantageous for the im-
pregnation. See Jig. 5.

For Dr. Hulme's method of impregnating water with fixed
air, we refer to his " Safe and eafy Remedy for the Stone,"

previoufly prefled the air out of the bladder K ; open the
flop-cocks G and E ; then fqueeze the air out of the blad-
ders H, H, and afterv^'ards prefs the conical pipe E into
the pipe F: pour about a large ipoonful of oil of vitriol

&c. 1778 : obferving, that he merely mixes the folution of tliroughthe funnel M, and ftop it with its ftopper N. The

fixed alkaline fait and water, containing as much vitriolic acid
as he finds neceffary, a priori, for neutralizing the alkali, and
expelling from it all its fixed air.

Dr. Withering, of Birmingham, has lately contrived a new
apparatus for impregnating water with fixed air, which, he
fays, is preferable to that in common ufe, becaufe it can
be made at lefs expence, and is more eafily prepared ; be-
caufe the whole quantity of fixable air produced is con-
verted to ufe, without any wafle of the vitriolic acid ;

fixable air let loofe by the effervefcence in the veffel B,
rifing through the tube C, paffes into the bladders H, H,
and diftends them. In this cafe open the flop-cock I, and
froin the aperture O draw out about a quart of water ;
and the fpace before occupied by the water w'-iA be filled
with fixable air, which foon begins to be abforbed by the
remaining water, and is ftill fupplied from the bladders
H, H, and from the" effervefcing mixture in the veffel B.
When tlie bladders are confiderably coUapfed, more vitriolic

becaufe it impregnates three times the quantity of water acid muft be added through the funnel M, fo that they

at one time, more completely and with lefs trouble; and
the impregnated water will always retain its virtue, if the
joints and cocks of the machine are made perfeftly air-
tight ; for whi:h purpofe they fhould once a year be fup-
I plied with a fmall quantity of unfalted lard. J'his appa-

may be always kept pretty fully diftended. When an im-
pregnation is fpeedily required, turn the ftop-cocks at G
and E, and open that at L ; then feparate the pipe E
from the tube F, and agitate the veflel A ; the fixable
air will pafs into the bladder K, and may be prefled into

ratus is exhibited in Jig. 6, and confifts of a glafs veflel A, the two other bladders, when the parts of the apparatus

about ten inches high in the cylindrical part, and fix inches are united. During the agitation, the Hop-cock at I fhould

and a half in diameter ; another glafs veifel B, about twelve be clofed, and open only occafionally to fupply out of the

inches high in the conical part, one inch and a half in the bladders H, H, the fixable air abforbed by the water. If

neck, and five inches in diameter at the bottom ; a copper a ftrong impregnation be required, this procefs fhould be

pipe C pafling through the ftopper of the veflel B, and tied carried on in a room, the heat of which does not exceed forty-

faft in the flexible tube D, made of ftrong leather, air-tight, eight degrees of Fahrenheit's thermometer. Dr. Withering

obferves,

PYRMONT WATER.

obferves, that the impregnated water receives no talte from
the bladders : and that if tlie vefl'el A with its impremiatcd
water be feparatcd from the vefl'el 13, at the conical part-
ing E F, it may be inclofed in a pyramidal mahofjany
cafe, out of the lower part of which the filver cock at
O projcfts ; and thus ferve for an ornamental as well as
a luxurious and falubrious addition to the fide-board, parti-
cularly in the fummer and autumnal feafons.

Mr. Henry has dofcribed a method of impregnating water
in large quantities with fixed air, fo as to give it^the pro-
perties of mineral water, for the ufe of the ficlc on board
of fhips, and in hofpitals. He has given the following ac-
count of his apparatus and procefs for xhis purpofe. Cut
ofFthetwoextremitiesof a calf's or pig's bladder/, {fg. 7.)
and having previoufly moiftened them, into one end infert
the top of the tubular Hopper e, round the neck of which
it is to be clofely fattened with (trong thread. Into the
upper end introduce the part g of the long bent tube /;,
and tie them round in tlic fame manner. The pipe ^ mull
be pafTed through a hole formed by a hot iron borer, in a
large cork adapted to the orifice i in the cade B B, hold-
ing about ten or twelve gallons, to which it mull be ce-
mented : and the length of the pipe from this point muil be
fuch as to reach within a few inches of the bottom of the
caflt B B, which is to be completely filled with frefli water,
or fuch as has been recovered from lime. See PuTKt:-
FACTION of Water.

To a quantity of mild calcareous e.irth and water, placed
in the air-velTel C, add a fmall portion of ftrong vitriolic
acid, and by the time moll of the commoh air may be fup-
pofed to be expelled by the fixed air arifing from the mild
calcareous earth, add a larger quantity of acid, and put-
ting the tubulated Hopper e in its place, the bladder / will
become inflated. Prefs it gently till its fides coUapfe ;
and then introducing the pipe h h, with its cork, iuto the
orifice i of the cade B B, again prefs the air forward, as
it dillends the bladder into the water cade, where, bubbling
up through the water, it vi'ill rife to the furface, and by
its preflure, force the water to afcend into the funnel k,
which is to be cemented into the iiead of the cade at /.
In proportion as the water in the cadi becomes impregnated
with fixed air, that in the funnel will return into its place ;
but if, at any time, the latter fhould rife fo high as to be
in danger of overflowing, a quantity of air may be let out
of the water caflj, by means of the fmall plug at m. And
this is neceiiary to be done, occafionally, to difcharge the
refiduum of the fixed air, which is not foluble in water.

If the operation be required to be performed more ex-
peditioufly, it may be quickened by agitating the water
caflc. To do this, the tubular ilopper e mufl; be with-
drawn from the air-veffcl, and fupported, together with the
bladder, by an aflillant, while the cade B B is fhaken.
During this time another tubular Hopper muil be put iuto
the air-vell'el, and it may be immerfed into a quantity of lime-
water to prevent walle. When the agitation has been con-
tinued for fome minutes, in proportion to the falling of the
water in the funnel, replace the ilopper attached to the
bladder / in the air-veflel when taken out of the lime,
water, and proceed as before, repeating the agitation oc-
cafionally.

During the procefs, additional quantities of vitriolic acid
may be introduced into the air-velTcl through the opening at
d, which is to be, at all other times, carefully fecured with
its ilopper.

By this procefs, fixed air may be imparted to wine, beer,
and almoil any hquor whatever. And when beer is become
flat or dead, it wUl be revived by this means ; but the deli-
cate agreeable flavour, or acidulous talte communicated by

the fixed air, and which is manifefl in watc-r, will hardly be
perceived in wine, or other liquors, which have much laile of
their own.

The artificial mineral waters thus made, are more pleafant
to the taile than the natural Pyrmont or Seltzer waters ;
which, befides their fixed air, contain faline particles of a
difagreeable taile, which are known to contribute little or
nothing to their medicinal virtues, and may, in fome cafes,
be hurtful. They are likewife coniiderably ilronger. Ac-
cording to fir Jolin Pringle, thefe waters may be made more
nearly to rcfemble genuine Pyrmont water, by adding to
each pint of them from eight to ten drops of tinftura
martis cum fpiritu falls. Or this may be done, by adding
to the water in the middle vedel B {Jig. 2.) in the pro-
portion of about thirty grains of Epfom fait, ten grains
of common fait, a fcruplc of magnefia alba, and a drachm
of iron filings, or iron wire, clean and free from rult, to one
gallon of fpring water, and impregnating the whole with
fixed air in the manner already defcribed. Let them re-
main till the other ingredients, and as much of the iron as
is neceflary, are diffolved, which will be in two or tliree
days ; or the magnefia may be omitted, and then the opera-
tion will be finiihed in lefs than half that time. Thefe
waters may be rendered ferruginous or chalybeate very
eafily, by pfitting in the middle veliel two or more flender
phials, filled with cuttings of fine iron-binding wire, or with
Imall iron nails ; becaufe the impregnated water will difiolve
the iron fo fail, as to become well faturated with it in a few
hours, according to the experiments of Mr. Lane. But the
method of rendering thefe artificial waters chalybeate, ufed
by Dr. Hulme, is to add one grain of fait of fteel to each
pint (fixteen ounces) of water already impregnated with
fixed air.

The difcovery of an eafy method of impregnating water
with fixed air is of great importance ; as it is now well
known that fuch water is a very powerful antifeptic, or
that it both refills and corrects putrefadlion. It is, there-
fore, given with great fuccefs in putrid fevers, in the fea-
fcurvy, in dyfenteries, in mortifications, and in other dif-
orders arifing from a putrid caufe, or attended with pu-
trefatlion, a draught of it being taken now and then, or
even by way of common drink. But the ingenious Mr.
Bewly has invented a ilill better method of exhibiting fixed
air as a medicine. He directs a fcruple of alkahne fait to
be diifolved in a fuihcient quantity (a quarter of a pint, or
lefs) of water, which is to be impregnated with as much
fixed air as it can imbibe ; this is to be drank for one dofe.
Mr. Bewly direfts it to be prepared in larger quantities at
a time, and calls it his mephitic julep. If immediately
after it a fpoonful of lemon juice, mixed with two or three
fpoonfuls of water, and fweetened with fugar, be drank,
the fixed air will be extricated in the llomach ; and thus a
much greater quantity of it may be given than the fame
quantity of water alone can be made to imbibe. Fixed air
afts as a corroborant ; and, therefore, may be given with
fuccefs in weaknefs of the ilomach, and in vomitings arifing
from that caufe. It has alfo been given with fuccefs in tne
Hone, and in nephritic complaints. When the lungs are
purulent, fixed air, mixed with the air drawn into the lungs,
has repeatedly been found to perform a cure. The bark
alfo may be given with advantage in water impregnated
with fixed air, as they both coincide in the fame intention.
Fixed air may be applied by means of a f)Tinge, funnel, or
otherwife, to inflamed brealls, putrid ulcers, mortified parts,
ulcerated fore throats, and has been found in fuch and fimi-
lar cafes to have very remarkable efficacy. It may alfo be
given internally at the fame time. In putrid dyfenteries,
and in putrid ilools, fixed air may be given by way of clyfter.

Ferment-

P Y K

Fermenting cataplafms are of fervicc chiefly as they fiipply
fixed air to the part. In cafes of putridity, fixed air Ijas
been fuccefsfully applied to the lurfacc of the body, cxpoled
to ftreams of it. It is alfo found an excellent cooling as
well as ilrengthening beverage in hot relaxing weatiier, and
has the advantage of being pleafant to the tafte. Sec on
the fubjeft of this article Frieilley's Exp. and Obf. on Air,
vol. ii. p. 263, &c. 298, &c. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixv. part i.
p. 59, &c. Magellan's Defcription of a Glafs Apparatus
for making Mineral Waters, &c. p. I, &c. Prieftley's
Exp. and Obf. vol. v. Appendix, p. 389, &c. Elliot's
Account of the Nature and medicinal Virtues of the princi-
pal Mineral Waters, &c. 1 781. Henry's Account of a
Method of preferviiig Water at Sea, &c. 1781. p. 19, &c.
PYROBOLOGY, or the art of miffile fires, is derived
from the Greek cti-j, Jire, and ^cXXhv, to throiu. See Pv-

KOTECHNY.

PYRO BOLUS, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by
many authors to the itoiie more generally called pyrites ;
others have called it fiderllcs, pyrobalanui, pyropus, and othoniia,
and the Greeks mylias.

PYROCHROA, in Entomology. See Lampyris.
" PYROCTOGONIUM, in Natural Hi/lory, the name
given by Dr. Hill to a genus of foffils ufually compre-
hended by authors, with many other bodies of a different
figure and flrufture, under the general name pyrites.

The charafters of the pyroftogonium are thefe : it is a
compound, inflammable, metallic body, of a regular o£lo-
Iiedral figure, or compofcd of eight planes.

There is only one known fpccits of this genus, which is
a very fingular and elegant fofTil, being compofed of eight
i triangular planes ; thefe being the fides of two quadrilateral
pyramids, with broad bafcs, which being joined bafe to
bafe, conftitute the pyroftogonium.

It is found very frequently in Cornwall, Devonfhire, and
moft other of our counties where there arc mines. It is
fometimes met with loofe m the earth, fometimes lodged in
the bodies of marcafites, or in the fohd foflils, and varies
fometimes from its iron colour to a dufliy yellow. It is
fometimes alfo found with many fpecimens connedled into a
mafs ; thefe are feldom uniform in fize, and cohere in vari-
ous direftions, often greatly injuring one another's figure.
Sometimes alfo, as in the cafe of the cryifals, they form a
large mafs, of which the outer furface only is concreted into
or covered with regular figures, the whole inner part being
a confufed fubitancc.

Mailes of this kind are not unfrequently found of a regu-
lar orbicular figure, and befet all over with regularly figured
pyroftogonia of various fizes. Hill.

PYRODMALITE, in Mineralogy, a mineral difcovered
forae years .igo in the mine of Bjelke, in Vermeland, a pro-
vince of Sweden, fituated on the N. fide of the lake Venner,
which was obferved to have the property of giving out the
odour of muriatic acid when heated, and hence dillinguifhed
by the name of pyrodmalite. J. G. Gahn of Fahlun has
given the following defcription of it. Its colour is com-
monly yellowifh-brown, pafling into greenifh : internally, it
is light greenifli-yellow. It occuri cryilallized in regular
fix-fided prifms, without any terrriinating pyramids. It is
compoled of plates lying on each other in a diretlion per-
pendicular to the axis of the prifm ; principal frafture,
refplendent ; crofs fratlure, uneven and without luitre ;
opaque ; femi-hard ; fcratched by fteel ; the cryftals are
often feveral inches long; fpecific gravity 3.081. Before
the blowpipe it becomes dark reddiih-brown, and emits the
odour of muriatic acid. It then melts into a black flag,
and at laft a fmall bead is obtained, more or lefs attratled
Vol. XXIX.

P Y Pt

by the magnet. It diffolves readily, and in confiderable
quantity in glafs of borax, and gives a colour indicating the
prefence of mangancfe and iron : — in phofphate of ammonia
and foda it diffolves with great difficulty. Its conflituents
are filica, lime, iron, manganefe, aiid muriatic acid. In
the mine of Bjelke 'it occurs mixed with iron ore, calcare-
ous fpar, and black cryftallized malacolite. Pyrodmalite
was lately analyfed by Mr. Hifinger, who found its confli-
tuents to be as foUow :

Silica - . .
Oxyd of iron
Oxyd of manganefe

Alumina
Muriatic acid
Lofs - - .

35-4

32.6

23.i

0.6

6-5
1.8

1 00.0

The efcape of the acid by heat feems to indicate the
prefence of a portion of water amounting to about two-
thirds of the lofs Hated as fuftained in the analyfis. Annals
of Philofophy, N° 12.

PYROENUS, formed of i^vc, Jire, and oiyo;-, •ivine, is a
term fometimes ufed for rectified fpirit of wine ; thus called
becaufe made by fire, or rather bccaufe rendered of a fiery
nature.

PYROET, PyroueT, or rather Pirouette, in the Ma-
nege. See Pirouette.

PYROLA, m Botany, a name adopted by Linnaeus from
the old authors, but not one of their bcfl. It is a diminu-
tive of Pyrus, and alludes to the refemblance of the leaves, in
this pretty genus, to thofe of a pear-tree. — Linn. Gen. 221.
Schreb. 297. WiUd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 621. Mart. Mill. Dift.
v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 58. Purfh 299.- Sm. Fl.
Brit. 443. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. i. 274. Juff. i6l.
Tourn. t. 132. Lamarck Illullr. 1.367. Gscrtn. t. 63.
(Chimaphila; Purtli 300.) — Clafs and order, Deeandria
Mcnogynia- Nat. Ord. Bicornes, Lmn. Ericit, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, frnaU, in five deep
fegments, permanent. Cor. Petals five, roundifh, concave,
fpreading. Stam. Filaments ten, awl-fhaped, fhorter than
the corolla ; anthers drooping, large, with two horns at
the bafe, each difcharging the pollen by a terminal orifice.
Pift. Germen fuperior, roundifh, angular ; flyle cylindrical,
permanent, various in length and diredtion, fometimes fcarcely
any ; ttigma thickifli, varioufly fliapcd. Perie. Capfule
roundifli, deprefled, five-fided, of five cells, burfling at the
angles. Seeds numerous, chaffy.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in five deep fegments. Petals five. Cap-
fule fuperior, with five cells, burfling at the angles, and
many feeds. Anthers with two pores.

Obf. In fome fpecies the flamens and flyle are ereft ;
in others inchned to one fide or the other ; in fome the
former fpread every way. The form of the lligma is dif-
ferent in different fpecies. In two American ones the fligma
is nearly, or quite, feffile ; on which mark Mr. Purfh's
genus Chimaphila is founded, its name being nearly fynoni-
mous with Winter-green, the Englifh appellation of Pyrola.
SeftioH I. Style elongated. Pyrola of Pnr{h.
I. P. rotundifolia. Round-leaved Winter-green. Linn.
Sp. PL 567. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Purfh n. I. Engl.
Bot. 213. (Pyrola; Ger. Em. 408. Camer. Epit. 723.
Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 136. f. 2. P. vulgatior ; Cluf. Hift.
V. 2. 116. Limonium ; Fuchf. Hift. 467. L. fylveifre ;
Trag. Hift. 707.) — Stamens afcending. Style twice as
long, deflexed and recurved. Clufler rrrany-flowered. Calyx
as long as the flamens. — Native of thickets, for the mofl

L part -

PYllOLA.

part 111 mountainous filuations, m the more northern parts
of Europe, alfo in North America, flowering in July. We
have gathered it on the plain of mount Cenis, and in moid
parts of the fandy downs of Holland ; oppolitc to which,
on the Norfolk coall, this plant has likewife been found by
the accurate Mr. Lily Wigg, growing among bufhes, on
BradwcU common, not far from Yarmouth ; where we like-
wife have feen it. There is more difficulty in aicertainiiig
an indubitable ftation of this fpecies in the northern or
mountainous parts of Britain, becaufe of the media having
been fo much confounded with it, nor have we any fpeci-
men from thofe countries. The roots are perennial, long,
creeping, thread-fhaped, fcaly. Stems very fhort and fimple,
leafy, folitary at the end of each fhoot of the root. Leaves
four or five; on bordered imoolh footjlalis of various lengths
(from one to two inches); roundiih or elliptical, obtufc, an
inch or inch and a half long, very obfcurely crenate, fmooth,
fhining, reticulated witli numerous veins ; paler beneath.
Floiver-Jialh terminal, folitary, about a fpan long, angular,
flightly twilled, fmooth, bearing a few fcattered lanceolate
membranous bradcas, and terminating in a long, rather loofe,
clujler, of from four to eight or ten large, handfome, white,
drooping, but not quite pendulous, fragrant _y?0TO£'rj, each
having a fimilar braflea to the rell, at the bafe of the partial
ftalk, and fully equal to it in length. Segments of the
calyx lanceolate, acute, full half the length of the petals,
which, though ufually rounded and blunt, have fometimes
a ponited appearance. Stamens about the length of thf
calyx, all turned upward, and crowded together ; their
anthers deflexed, yellow, with orange horns. Germcn fhort,
live-lobed. Style twice as long as the ilamens, (lender and
quite pendulous in its lower part, gradually fwelling to-
wards the extremity, which is recurved. Stigma dilated,
annular, with five fmall central points. Capfule the fize of
a pea, depreffed, five-lobed, crowned with the permanent
ilyle and ftigma.

2. P. chlorantha. Greenifli-flowered Winter-green. —
Swartz in Stockh. Tranf. for 1810. 190. t. 5:. (P. folio
obtufo, flore viridiufculo ; Rivm. Pentap. Irr. t. 138. f. i.)
— Stamens (lightly afcending. Style twice as long, club-
iTiaped, deflexed and recurved. Clulter many-flowerad.
Calyx fhorter than the ftamens. — Native of Sweden, and
probably, by the fvnonym of Rivinus, of Germany, flower-
ing .ibout the middle of July. Profeflbr Swartz diltin-
guifhes it from the foregoing, by the fmaller, often abrupt,
leaves ; Jlalk almofl deititute of braSeas below ; petals of a
whitifh, or yellowifli, green hue ; and Jlamens lefs curved
upwards. We gather alfo, from his figure and defcription,
that the bratleas which accompany each jlonver are much
fliorter than the partial ft^.lks, and that the calyx alfo is
fhorter, and more clofe-preded, than in P. rotundifoUa.
In the pofture and form o"f the Jlvle we find no difference.
The common _fo-uer-Jlali is remarkably fpiral. Poflibly the
P. folio rotundo of Rivinus, t. 137, may reprefent this
fpecies in fruit ; as the poiture of the permanent _//)i/« agrees
better with it than with the following.

3. P. media. Intermediate Winter-green. Swartz in
Stockh. Tranf. for 1804 (not 17S4), 257. t. 7. f. I. Engl.
Bot. t. 1945. Winch Guide, v. 2. 19. (P. rotundifoha;
Fl. Dan. t. no.) — Stamens regularly indexed. Style
twice as long, deflexed perpendicularly. Cluiter of many
pendulous flowers. Calyx Ihorter than the Ilamens. — Na-
tive of bulhy fhady places in Sweden, and vai-ious parts of
the north of England, flowering towards the end of June.
We fufpeft alfo that this is the Oxfordlhire fpecies, com-
monly niiftaken for minor, and that it has often in Scotland,
from whence we have fpecimcns, been taken for rotiindifolia.
The leaves mod agree with the laft-named, but the Jlo-wcrs
7

differ eflentially in being fmaller, more pendulous, and of
a lefs pure white. The Jlanuns are nearly twice the length
of the calyx, all regularly and equally inflexed, not at all
turned upward. Style bent in a curve downward, its extre-
mity furrowed, llightly tiiickened, vertical, not recurved.
The Jlalk is fpiral, as in the laft, with about two diftant
bratleas in its lower part, the hraSeas which accompany each
flower being nearly as long as the partial llalks. Even Lin-
nseus may perhaps have confounded this with his true minor.
4. P. minor. Lcffer Winter-green. Linn. Sp. PI. 567.
Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 158. Fl. Dan. t. 55.
Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 136. f. I. (P. rofea; Engl. Bot.
t. 2543.) — Stamens regularly inflexed. Style the fame
length, Itraight, iligma lobed, pointlefs. Cluft'.r of many
drooping flowers. Stalk llraight.— Native of woods and
thickets on the mountains of Europe ; occurring in feveral
parts of Scotland and the county of Durham, and flowering
in July. This is fmaller in general than any of the fore-
going ; the leaves more elliptical ; Jlalk llraight, not fpiral,
with three principal angles and a imaller oiie, bearing a few
broad braStas near the bafe, but fcarcely any other, except
the fmall awl-fliaped ones at each partial ftalk. The Jloivers
are very numerous, but fmall, drooping or even pendulous,
white with more or lefs of a pink tinge. Stamens regularly
incurved. Pores of the anthers dilated, not tubular. Style
ftraight, of a much (horter proportion than any of thofe
we have hitherto mentioned ; the Jligma large, five-lobed ;
deprefl'ed, and dellitule of points, in the centre. We can
no longer doubt that t. 158 and t. 2543 of Englilh Botany
reprefent one and the fame fpecies, which we poiTefs alfo
from mount Cenis, Savoy, and Switzerland, as well as mj
the Linna:an herbarium. P. media, having been confoiuided
by botaniils in general with this, lias caufed all our per-
plexity exprefled in Engl. Bot. 2543. The plant which
Mr. Lightfoot introduced at Bulftrode, we judge from me-
mory to have been media; fee Engl. Bot. 158.

5. P. afarifolia. Afarabacca-leaved Winter-green. Mi-
chaux Boreal-Amer. v. i. 251. Purfli n. 2. — "Leaves kid-
ney-(haped. Stalk with a few fheathing, convoluted, diftant
fcales. Flowers turned every way. Style declining."
Michaux. — Found by Michaux in Canada; by Purlh in
beech woods on the mountains of Pennfylvania, flowering in
July. Thejlowers are yellowi(h-green. If it were not for
the " (heathing fcales," we fliould fufpeft this might be the
fame as our chlorantha, n. 2, whofe leaves axe often, it feems,
fhort and abrupt ; but we have feen no fpecimens anfwerable
to either.

6. P. ckntata. Toothed Winter-green. — Leaves eUiptic-
obovate, obtuie, toothed. Stalk ftraight, obfcurely angu-
lar, nearly naked. Stamens afcending. "Style deflexed,
ftrongly recurved. Stigma with a cylindrical point. Ga-
thered by Mr. Menzies, on the weft coaft of North America.
This fpecies is readily diflinguiihed from all others, hitherto
diicovered, by its leaves, which are obovate, or fomewhat
elliptical, one and a half or two inches long, half or three
quarters of an inch broad ; their margin befet with very
remarkable diftindl, fmall, blunt teeth, ufually near a quarter
of an inch afunder ; their furface not reticulated, but fur-
niihed with one leries of connefted arching veins, on each
fide the midrib. Footjlalks triangular, about as long as the
leaves. Flower-Jlalk fix inches long, neai'ly naked, round,
very flightly angular, bearing a long loofe clujler oi jlo-wers,
much refembling thofe of the firft fpecies in fize and ftruc-
ture, as well as in the pofition of their Jlamens ; but their

Jlyle is (till more remarkably recurved, fo as to form a femi-
circle ; and the point of the Jligma much more prominent,'
of a cylindrical ihape, five-cleft at the fummit.

7. p. aphylla. Leaflefs Winter-green. — Stem and ftalk

fcaly,

' PYROLA.

fcaly, without leaves. Anthers beaked. Style ileflexed
and recurved. Stij^ma with a cylindrical point. — Gathered
on the welt coall of North America, by Mr. Menzics, who
affures us the plant is always quite dcftitute of Imvt-s, inllcad
of which the angular^™; bears numerous lanceolate, mem-
branous, pointed y^a/i-j, about lialf an inch in lenjrth, a few
fimilar but more remote ones being fcattercd along the J?u/i,
which is angular. The Jlowers :ire nearly as large as the
lall, but our dried fpecimen will not allow us to determine
the pollure of the J/nme/is. The anthers are long and narrow,
with a fmall acute point at the contrary end to the pores.
Sty/f deflexed, its end fomewhat recurved. Sl'igma witli a
long cylindrical point, like the lait.

8. P. pi3ii. Variegated Winter-green. — Leaves ovate,
fomewhat ferrated. Flowers drooping all one way. Pores
of the anthers contradted, tubular. Style curved. Stigma

abrupt, with five fmall points This alfo was found by

Mr. Menzies on the weil coaft of North America. In
fome points it agrees with the two lait, as well as with the
rotundifolta and its allies ; in others it refembles the follow-
ing, but is a totally diftinft fpecies. The leaves are near
ail inch and half long, and almofl an inch wide, ovate,
bluntiih, with fliallow, more or lefs dillant, ferratures,
rather flefliy, marked \vith large branching veins, and varie-
gated with white or yellowill-i blotches. Footjlalks nearly as
long as the leaves. Floiuer-Jlalk fix inches long, obliquely
afcending, quadrangular, twilled, bearing two or three (hort,
ovate, pointed fcales. Flowers numerous, as big as thofe
of the rotiwHifoUa, all, as far as we can judge from the dried
fpecimen, drooping toward one fide. Calyx fliort, broad,
and fpreading. Stamens all, as far as can be difcerned, alike
difpofed round the germen ; their anthers Ihort, ovate, mi-
nutely pointed, the pores prominent in the form of two
(hort narrow tubes, contrafted at the orifice. Style curved,
but we cannot tell in what diredlion. Stigma fcarcely at all
thicker than the ftyle, abrupt, with an acute edge, and ap-
parently five minute (harp central points.

9. P. feciinda. Serrated Winter-green. Linn. Sp.
PI. 567. Willd. n.3. Ait. n. 3. Purflin.4. Fl. Dan.
t. 402. Engl. Bot. t. 517. (P. fecunda tenerior ; Cluf.
Hift. v. 2. 117. Ger. Em. 408. P. folio niucronato ;
Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 138. f. 2.) — Leaves ovate, acute, fer-
rated. Flowers drooping all one way. Pores of the anthers
dilated. Style llraight. Stigma dilated, five-lobed.— Na-
tive of molly alpine woods in various parts of Europe, from
Lapland to Greece, as well as of fandy barren woods in
North America, from Canada to New Jerfey, flowering in
July. It occurs in fir or birch woods, in feveral parts of
the highlands of Scotland ; as alfo near Moffat in the low-
lands ; and according to Ray in Yorklhire. The Jlevis are
long and trailing. Leaves fcattered or crowded, an inch or
more in length, with numerous fine fliallow ferratures, and
abundance of reticulated veins. Footjlalks half the length
of the leaves. Flower-Jlalk iiom three to fix inches long,
ereft, llraight ; round below ; angular above ; with t\\'o or
three green ovate fcales. Clujler of many crowded greeni/h-
white jloioers, not half the lize of the foregoing, nor fo
much expanded. Stamens regularly placed round the ger-
men, at firfl curved, then llraight. jinthers whitifh, fhort,
pbintlefs ; their pores fomewhat oblique, but not tubular,
foon becoming dilated and jagged. Style llraight, twice the
length of the flower. Stigma much dilated, annular, but
thin-edged, terminating in a large five-lobed urabilicated
fummit.

10. P. uniflora. Single-flowered Winter-green. Linn.
Sp. PI. 568. Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 6. Purfh n. 5. Fl.
Dan. t. 8. Engl. Bot. t. 146. (P. quarta minima ; Cluf.
Hiil. V. 2. 118. Ger. Em. 408. P. flora fingulari ; Rivin.

Pentap. Irr. t. 139. f. i.) — Stalk bearing a folitary flower.
Pores of the anthers contrafted, tubular. Stigma with five
rays.-— Native of alpine foreils, among molly rills, in various
parts of Europe and North America. It was firit dif-
covered, in the Britifii dominions, by Mr. James Hoggan,
who gathered wild Ipecimens, now before us, in the weitern
iflaiids of Harris and Bernera, in 1783. 'Mr. James Hoy,
and Mr. Brodie of Brodie, have alfo gathered this mofl ele-
gant and curious plant in fir woods of the county of Moray.
It is, like the rell, pcreiiHial and evergreen, blofi'oming in
July. The leaves vary greatly in (liape and acutenefs, but
are generally roundifli, about an inch long, more or lefs
llrongly ferrated, and reticulated with many veins. Foot-
jlalks halt as long. Floiverjlalk folitary, fimple, ereft, three
inches high, with one concave braBea, and a large, terminal,
white, or flightly reddilli, Jlower, an inch in diameter, and
fmelling like lily of the valley. Stamens fpreading equally,
half the length of the corolla, three of them lyin^ on one
of the petals, one only on another, and two on each of the
three remaining. Anthers (hort, ovate, pointlefs ; their
pores tubular, confiderably elongated. Style eredl, ilraight,
the length of the germen. Stigma large, of five thick,
fpreading, acute, ray-like lobes. The wild fpecimen de-
lineated in Englifli Botany, having travelled from fo great
a didance, was in too imperfeft a condition to allow of that
figure being fo good as ufual.

Seftion 2. Stigma nearly fjjile. Chimaplnla of Purfli.

11. P. umhcllata, Umbelled Winter-green. Linn. Sp.
PI. 567. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 4. Curt. Mag. t. 778.
(P. tertia fruticans ; Cluf. Hifl. v. 2. 117. Ger. Em. 408.
P. folio arbuti ; Rivin. Pentap. Irr. t. 139. f. 2. Chima-
phila corymbofa ; Purfli n. 2.) — Leaves obovate, ferrated.
Flowers fomewhat umbellate. Stigma nearly feflile. Sta-
mens fmooth. — Native of woods in the northern parts of
Europe, Afia and America, but not found wild in Britain.
Mr. Menzies gathered it on the weft coaft of North Ame-
rica, and Mr. Purfli found it frequent in dry woods, from
Canada to Virginia. Linnxus, Gmelin, PoUich, Roth,
&c. give it in their Floras. Dr. Sims, who received this
fpecies in flower in June, from Mr. Loddiges, juftly afferts
it to be the moft beautiful of all the genus. The Jlem it
woody, a fpan high, fomewhat branched, angular, and
roughifh. Leaves crowded together into fomething like
whorls, ftalked, narrow-obovate, bluntifh, ftrongly ferrated ;
dark green and veiny above ; paler beneath ; about an inch
and a half long. Floiuerjlalks terminal, folitary, three
inches long, reddifh, bearing about five, imperfedlly umbel-
late, fimple, partial ftalks, each an inch long, fpreading.,
rough with glandular pubefcence, and fomctimes furnifhed
with a little lanceolate braSea. Flowers fmaller than that of
P. uniflora, but larger than any other of the foregoing,
drooping. Petals orbicular, concave, cream-coloured; crira-
foii at the bafe. Stamens fliort, red, all regularly inflexed.
Anthers (hort, purple, with white tubular pores, dilated and
lobed at the orifice. Germen globofe, green. Style thick
and very fhort, but certainly prefent. Stigma orbicular,
convex, with five flight notches. The American fpecimeiis
are ufually lefs umbellate, and more racemofe, than the
European.

12. P. maculala. Holly-leaved Winter-green. Linn. Sp,
PI. 567. Willd. n. 5. Ait. n. 5. Curt. Mag. t. 897.
(P. mariana, arbuti foliis angullioribus, &c.; Pluk. Mant.
157. Phyt. t. 349. f. 4. Chimaphila maculata ; Purfli
n. I.) — Leaves ovato-lanceolate, with tooth-like ferratures.
Stalks t\\'o or three-flowered. Stigma nearly feflile. Sta-
mens woolly. — This is exclufively an American fpecies.
Mr. Purfh obferved it in fhady gravelly or fandy woods,
from Canada to Carolina, and Mr. Menzies brought fpecU

L 2 mens

P Y R

P Y R

mens from the north-weft coaft. It is now and then met
witli ill our more curious gardens, requiring bog earth, with
ftiade and nioiiUire, and flowering in June and July. Its
ftirubby habit is like the laft, but of more humble growth.
Leaves tnore pointed, with (harper tooth-like ferratures ;
their upper furface marked, along the rib and veins, with
a pale (tripe. 'VsrU-AJJower-Jlalks ufually two, rarely three,
drooping. Flowers the lize of the lail, but white. Stamens
denfely fringed in their lower part. Anthers witli tubular
jagged-mouthed pores. Style very (hort and thick. Stigma
hemifpherical, nearly entire, green. Mr. Purfli fays this
plant is in high efteem among the natives of North America
for its medicinal qualities, and is called Slp-Jtfewa. He
witnelTed a fuccefsful cure of fevere hyilcrics by a decoc-
tion of this Pyrola. — We can by no means adent to the
e(tabli(hment of that able writer's genus Chlmaphila, hinted
at by Michaux ; there being furely no diver(ity of habit to
fupport it ; nor any charafter, but a difference of length
in the ftyle ; which the other fpecies of Pyrola (liew to af-
ford admirable fpeciiic, but no generic, diltinftions.

PYROLAMPIS, in Zoology. See Gl.Q\\-ivonn, and
Lampyris.

PYROLIGNEOUS Acid, or Empyreumatk acid of
luood, ill ChemiJIry, a fpecies of empyreumatic Acetous
yield (which fee), procured by diililling in a glafs or
earthen retort a quantity of fliavings of any kind of wood,
fuch as box, guaiacum wood, or beech ; in which cafe an
extremely ftrong-fmelhng dark-coloured empyreumatic acid
liquor is obtained, nearly one-third of the weight of the
wood. This acid is fourer, and alfo much blacker and more
empyreumatic, than either the pyroii'Mcous or pyrotartareoiis
acid, probably as requiring a ftronger heat for its production.
The acid of wood is obtained in a large quantity near London,
from the preparation of charcoal for gunpowder, by diftilling
wood in caft-iron cylinders. It itains the hands deeply, and
wood indelibly. This acid is procured in fuch a quantity as to
be an objedl of manufacture. At the bed it is only an in-
ferior acetous acid, and the difficulty of purifying it will
prevent the profitable ufe of it in many of the arts to which
vinegar is applied. However, as the procefs for procuring
radical vinegar at the fame time purifies this empyreumatic
acid, it may probably be ufed for this purpofe. It may be
added, that much of the acid from the diltilled charcoal for
gunpowder, near London, is employed by calico-jJrinters
in forming the acetated iron, ufed as a mordant, as in this
cafe the colour and fmell of the acid are not at all detri-
mental. Some time ago Vauquehn announced, as a new
difcovery, that pyroligneous acid is identically the fame as
the acetous ; but this was known to Glauber near 200 years
ago. In the folio edition of his works, p. 188, may be
(een direftions for its diftillation, with a copper-plate of the

apparatus which he employed. He there calls it the vine-
gar of wood. Parker's Chem. Catech. p. 195, note.

PYROMACHUS, a name given by fome to antimony,
when reduced to a (tony hardnefs ; and by others to copper,
when fufed with fulphur, and thus rendered lefs duftile.

PYROMANCY, Trpfi-Mtny., a kind of divination, per-
formed by means of (ire.

The ancients imagined they could fortell futurity by iii-
fpedting fire and flame : to this end they confidered its di-
reftion, or which way it turned. Sometimes they added
other matter to the (ire, e. gr. a vefl'el full of urine, with its
neck bound about with wool, watching narrowly on which
lide it would burll, and thence taking their augury.

Sometimes they threw pitch on it, and if it took fire im-
mediately, they cileemed it a good augury.

PYROMETER, formed of ■7:v^,Jire, and ^.st^^^, I mea-
Jure, in Phyfics, the name of a machine contrived to mea-
fure the alteration of the dimenfions of metals, and other
folid bodies, arifing from heat.

Thefe iultruments have been conftrufted of various forms ;
but as their objeft is to render the fmall expanfions of
folids apparent to the oblerver, they have confilted of a ma-
chine adapted to this purpofe, and of an apparatus fit for
heating the bodies under examination to a determined degree.

The mod ufual, and, indeed, the moft: eligible mode of
heating the bodies, is to place them in water, in which a
thermometer is placed, and to heat the water by means of
lamps. Tile (mall expanfions of the heated folids have been
rendered vifible, Jirjl, by multiplying-wheels, or by levers,
or by fine fcrews, which render a fmall motion communicated
to one end of the mechanifm productive of a great move-
ment at the other end ; and, fecondly, by magnifying the
fmall expanfion through microfcopes ; which feems, upon
the whole, to be the method that is both mofl; certain and
mod manageable ; for with wheels and pinions, and even
with levers or fcrews, there is always fome equivocal mo-
tion, arifing from the loofe connection of teeth and pinions,
or from the drefs and bending of other parts.

Mufchenbroek, who was the original inventor of this
machine, has given a table of the expanfion of the diflFerent
metals, in the fame degree of heat. Having prepared cy-
lindric rods of iron, deel, copper, brafs, tin, and lead, he
expofed them fird to a pyrometer with one flame in the
middle ; then with two flames ; and fucceffively to one with
three, four, and five flames. But previous to this trial, he
took care to cool them equally, by expofing them fome time
upon the fame done, when it began to freeze, and Fahren-
heit's thermometer was at thirty-two degrees. The effeCts
of which experiment' are digeded in the following table,
where the degrees of expanfion are marked in parts equal
to the -i-^-n-ijdth part of an inch.

Number of Flamej.

Expaii

loii of

Iron.

Steel.

Copper.

Brafs.

Tin.

Le:J.

By one flame

80

85

89

XIO

153

^55

By two flames placed clofe together

117

123

115

220

274

By two flames 2\ inches didant

109

94

92

141

219

263

By three flames placed clofe together

142

'168

193

275

By four flames placed clofe together

211

270

270

361

By five flames

230

310

310

377

'pyromp:ter.

It is to be obferved of tin, that it will eafily melt when
heated by two flames placed together. Lead commonly
melts with three flames placed together, efpecially if they
burn long.

From thefe experiments it appears, at firlt view, that
iron is the leaft rareiicd of any of thefe metals, whether it
be heated by one or more flames ; and therefore is moft
proper for making machines, or initruments, which we
would have free from any alterations by heat or cold, as
the rods of pendulums for clocks, &c. So likewife the
meafures of yards or feet fliould be made of iron, that
their length may be as nearly as poffiblc the fame, fummer
and winter.

The expanfion of lead and tin, by only one flame, is
nearly the fame ; that is, almofl: double of the expanfion of
iron. It is likewife obfervable, that the flames, placed to-
gether, caufe a greater rarefaftion than when they have a
fenfibb interval between them ; iron, in the former cafe,
being expanded 117 degrees, and only 109 in the latter;
the reafon of which difterence is obvious. By comparing
the expanfion of the fame metal, produced by one, two,
three, or more flames, it appears, that two flames do not
caufe double the expanfion of one ; nor three flames three
times that expanfion, but always lefs ; and thefe expanfions
difler fo much the more from the ratio of the number of
flames, as there are more flames afling at the fame time.

It is alfo obfervable, that metals are not expanded equally
at the time of their melting, but fome more, fome lefs. Thus,
tin began to run, when rarefied 219 degrees ; whereas brafs
was expanded 377 degrees, and yet was far from melting.

As to the confl;ru<?tion of M. Mufchenbroeck's pyro-
meter, together with Defaguliers's alterations and improve-
ments, the curious may confult Defagul. Experim. Philof.
vol. i. p. 421, &c. See alfo Mufchenbroeck's tranflation
of the experiments of the Academy del Cimento, printed at
Leyden in 1731. And for a pyrometer of a new confl:ruc-
tion, by which the dilatations of metals in boiling fluids may
be examined and compared with Fahrenheit's thermometer,
fee Mufchenb. Introd. ad Philofophiam Nat. 4to. 1762,
vol. ii. p. 61S.

But it has been obferved, that M. Mufchenbroeck's py-
rometer was liable to fome objeftions ; and a contrivance
was made, with a view of removing thefe, by Mr. Ellicott,
who has given a defcription of his improved pyrometer in
the Philofophical Tranfaftions, N° 443. This may alfo be
feen in Dr. Martyn's Abridgment, vol. viii. p. 464.

This infl:rument is formed with a flat piece of brafs A A,
(P/rt/f XXIII. Mifcellany, Jig. /^.) which is fcrewed down
to a thick piece of mahogany. Upon this plate are fcrewed
three pieces of brafs, two of which, B, B, ferve to fupport
the flat iron bar C, called the ftandard bar. The upper
part of the third piece of brafs is a circle D, about three
inches in diameter, divided into three hundred and fixty
equal parts, or degrees : within this circle is a moveable
plate d, divided likewife into three hundred and fixty parts,
and a fmall fteel index. The bar of metal E, upon which
the experiment is to be made, is laid on the ftandard bar.
F is a lever two inches and a half long, faftened to an axis,
which turns in two pieces of brafs, fcrewed to one of the
fupports B. To the end of this lever is failened a chain,
or filk-line, which, after beiag wound round a fmall cy-
linder, to which the index in the brafs circle, D, is faitencd,
pafles over a pulley, with a weight hung to the end of it.
Upon the axis, to wliich the lever is fixed, is a pulley, a
quarter of an inch in diameter, to which a piece of watch-
chain is faftened, the other end of which is hooked to a
■ ftrong fpring G, which bears againft one end of the metal E,

H is a lever, exaftly of tlie fame form and dimenfions with
the other ; but the chain faftened to the pulley on its axis
is hooked to the ftandard bar. The line faftened to the end
of this lever, after being wound round a cylinder, to which
the moveable plate is fixed, pafles over a fmall pulley, and
has a weight hung to the end of it ; or rather the fame line,
pafling under a pulley to which the weight is hung, has its
other end faftened to the lf-»er F ; fo that one weight ferves
for both levers. From this defcription it is plain, that
whenever tlie bar/E is lengthened, it gives liberty to the
weight to draw the lever I" upwards by its adtion to the
fpring G ; and the index will, at the fame time, by means
of the filk line, be carried forward in the circle ; and as the
bar fliortcns, it will return back again : the fame motion
will be communicated to the ftandard bar. When the bar
is lengthened the 20th part of an inch, the index will be
carried once round the brafs circle, whicli is divided into
three hundred and fixty degrees ; and, therefore, if the
metal lengthens the 720odth part of an inch, the index will
move one degree. In order to make an experiment with
this inftrument, lay a bar of any kind of metal, as E, on
the ftandard bar ; then heat this bar to any degree of heat
with a lamp, and mark the degree of its expanfion, as indi-
cated by the moveable plate ; obferve alfo the degree of
expanfion of the metal E, by the heat communicated to it
from the ftandard bar, as marked on the brafs circle by the
index : let the inftrument ftand, till the whole is thoroughly
cold ; then removing the bar E, lay any others fucceffively
in its place, and proceed exaftly as before; and_thus the
degrees of expanfion of different metals, by the fame degree
of heat, may be eftimated.

By the help of this inftrument Mr. Ellicott found, upon
a medium, that the expanfion of bars of different metals, as
nearly of the fame dimenfions as poffible, by the fame degree
of heat, were as follow :

Gold,

Silver,

Brafs,

Copper,

Iron,

Steel,

Lead,

73

103

95

89

60

56

149

The great difference between the expanfions of iron and
brafs, has been applied with good fuccefs to remedy the ir-
regularities in pendulums arifmg from heat. Phil. Tranf.
v»l. xlvii. p. 485. See Pesdulum.

Mr. Graiiam ufed to meafure the minute alterations, in
length, of metal bars, by advancing the point of a micro-
meter-fcrew, till it fenfibly ftopped againft the end of the
bar to be meafured. This fcrew, being Imall and very
lightly hung, was capable of agreement within the three or
four thoufandth part of an inch. On this general principle
Mr. Smeaton contrived his pyrometer, in which the mea-
fures are determined by the contatl; of a piece of metal with
the point of a micrometer-fcrew. A BCD {Jig- 5.) re-
prefents the main bar or bafis of this inftrument ; E F is the
bar to be meafured, lying in two notches, one fixed to the
upright ftandard A B, the other to the principal lever HI;
the end E of the bar E F bears againft the point of G, a
fcrew which is of ufe in examining the micrometer-fcrew ;
the other end of the bar F bears againft a fmall fpherically
protuberant bit of hard metal, fixed at the fame height as
G, in the pi-incipal lever HI; K is an arbor fixed in the
bafis, which receives at each end the points of the fcrews,
H, L, upon which the lever H I turns and ferves as a ful-
crum to it ; O is a flender fpring, to keep the lever in 3
bearing ftate againft the bar ; and P is a check, to prevent
the lever from falling forward, when the bar is taken out ;
N is the feeler, fomewhat in the ftiape of a T, fufpended,
and moveable lip and down upon the points ot the fcrews,

1, M,

PYROMETER.

I, M, which, as well as L, H, are fo adjuftcd as to leave
the motion free, but witliout fliakc ; Q R is the handle of
the feeler, moveable upon a loofe joint at R, fa that laying
hold of it at Q, the feeler is moved up and down, without
being affcdled by the irregular preflure of the hand ; the
extremity, S, of the feeler is alio furnilhed with a bit of
protuberant hard metal, to render its ccntaft with the point
of the micrometer-fcrew more perfeA ; T is the mierometer-
ferew ; V the divided index-plate ; and W a knob for the
handle ; the micrometer-fcrew paffes through two lolid
fcrewed holes at D and Y ; the piece Y Z is made a little
fpringy, and endeavours to pull the Icrew backwards from
the hole at D, and confequently keeps the micrometer-
fcrew conftantly bearing againft its threads the fame way,
and thereby renders the motion thereof perfeftly fteady and
gentle ; X is the index, having diviiions upon it, anfwering
to the turns of the fcrew. This piece points out the divi-
fions of the plate, as the face of the plate points out the
divifors upon the index. When the inftrument is ufcd, lay
hold of the knob at Q with one hand, and, moving the
feeler up and down, with the other move forward the fcrew
T, till its point comes in contadt with the feeler ; then will
the plate and index, V and X, (hew the turns and parts.
The bafis of this inltrument, as well as the other parts of
it, is brafs : one end of which is continued of the fame piece
at right angles, to the height of three inches and a half;
and the other end afts upon the middle of a lever of the fe-
cond kind, whofe fulcrum is in the bafis ; and, therefore,
the motion of the extremity of the lever is double the dif-
ference between the expanilon of the bar and the bafis.
Hence, having the length of the lever from its fulcrum to
the point of fufpenfion of the feeler, the diftance between
the fulcrum and the point of contaft with the bar, the inches
and parts that coiTefpond to a certain number of threads of
the micrometer, and the number of divifions in the circum-
ference of the index-plate ; the fraftion of an inch exprefled
by one divifion of the plate may be deduced. Thofe mea-
fures are as follow : from the fulcrum of the lever to the
feeler, 5.875 inches ; from the fulcrum to the point of eon-
taft, 2.895 inches; length of feventy threads of the fcrew,
2.455 inches ; and the divifions in the circumference of the
index-plate, 100. Hence the value of one divifion will be
the ^ /u"e 3d part of an inch : but if the fcrew be altered
one-fourth of one of thefe divifions, when the contaft be-
tween the fcrew and feeler.is well adjufted, the difference of
contaft will be very perceivable to the fligliteft obferver ;
and, confequently, . ^\ ; th part of an inch is perceivable in
this inftrument. When the inftrument is made ufe of, it is
immerged, together with the bar to be meafured, in a cif-
tern of water ; which water, by means of lamps underneath,
is made to, receive any intended degree of heat not greater
than that of boiling, and thereby communicates the fame
degree of heat to the inftrument, the bar, and to a mer-
curial thermometer immerged therein, for the purpofe of
afcertaining that degree. See ^g. 6, in which A B is the
ciftern, C the cover, which, when the inftrument (Jig. 5.)
is raifed upon blocks, goes on between the bar E F and the
bafis B C ; D a handle to take off the cover, when hot ;
E the mercurial thermometer ; F the cock, to let out the
water ; and G H a hollow piece of tin, which fupports
feven fpirit lamps, which are raifed higher or lower by the
fcrews I and K, in order to give the water in the ciftern a
proper degree of heat. With this pyrometer Mr. Smeaton
performed feveral experiments, which are arranged in a
table ; and their refult agrees very well, he obfervcs, with
the proportions of expanfions of feveral metals given by
Mr. Ellicott. The following table fhews how much a foot

in length of each metal grows longer, by an increafe of heat
correfponding to 180' of Fahrenheit's thermometer, or to
the difference between freezing and boiling water, expreffed
in fuch parts of which the unit is equal to the io,ooodth
part of an inch.

1. White-glafs barometer-tube ... 100.

2. Martial regulus of antimony . - 130,

3. Bliftered fteel - . - - . 138

4. Hard fteel ..... . 147

5. Iron . . - . - ' - - 151

6. Bifmuth ... . - - 167

7. Copper hammered . - . - 204

8. Copper eight parti, mixed with tin one - 218

9. Caft brafs - - - - - - 225

10. Brafs fixteen parts, with tin one . - 229,

11. Brafs wire ... ... 232

12. Speculum metal ... . 232

13. Spelter folder, to'z. brafs two parts, zinc one 247

14. Fine pewter . - . . - 274

15. Grain tin - - - . - 298

16. Soft folder, ii;z. lead two, tin one . . 301

17. Zinc eight parts, with tin one, a little hammered 323

18. Lead ....... 344,

19. Zinc or fpelter .... . 353

20. Zinc hammered half an inch ^fr foot - - 373

For a farther account of this inftrument, with its ufe, fee
Phil. Tranf. vol. xlviii. art. 79. p. 598, &c.

Mr. Fergufon has conftrufted and defcribed a pyrometer,
which makes the expanfion of metals by heat vifible to the
45,ooodth part of an inch. The upper furface of this
machine is reprefented hj Jig. 7. Its frame, A B C D, is
made of mahogany, on which is a circle divided into tliree
hundred and fixty equal parts ; and within that circle is an-
other, divided into eight equal parts. If the (hort bar E be
pufhed one inch forward (or toward the centre ot the circle,)
the index e will be turned 125 times round the circle of 360
parts or degrees. As 125 times 360 is 45,000, it is evident,
that if the bar E be moved only the 45,ooodth part of an
inch, the index will move one degree of the circle. But,
as in this pyrometer the circle is nine inches in diameter,
the motion of the index is vifible to half a degree, which
anfwers to the 9o,ooodth part of an inch in the motion or
puftiing of the fhort bar E.

One end of a long bar of metal F is laid into a hollow
place in a piece of iron G, which is fixed to the frame of
the machine ; and the other end of this bar is laid againft
the end of the ftiort bar E, over the fupporting crofs-bar
HI: and, as the end, f, of the long bar is placed clofe
againft the end of the ftiort bar, it is plain that if F expands.
It will pufti E forward, and turn the index if.

The machine ftands upon four ftiort pillars, high enough
from a table, to let a fpirit lamp be put on the table under
the bar F ; and, when that is done, the heat of the flame
of the lamp expands the bar, and turns the index.

There are bars of different metals, as filver, brafs, and
iron ; all of the fame length as the bar F, for trying ex-
periments on the different expanfion of different metals, by
equal degrees of heat auplied to them for equal lengths of
time ; which may be meafured by a pendulum that fwings
fcconds. Thus,

Put on the brafs bar F, and fet the index to the 360th
degree : then put the lighted lamp under the bar, and
count the number of feconds in which the index goes round
the plate, from 360 to 360 again ; and then blow out the
lamp, and take away the bar.

This done, put on an iron bar F where the brafs one

was

PYROMETER.

was before, and then ict the index to the 360th degree
again. I-ight the lamp, and put it under the iron bar, and
let it remain jull as many feconds as it did under the brafs
one ; and liien blow it out, and you will fee how many
degrees the index has moved in the circle : and by that
means you will know in what proportion the cxpanfion of
iron is to the expanfion of brafs ; which will be found to
be as 3 10 is to 360, or as 7 to 12. By this method, the
relative expanfion oi different metals may be found.

The bars ought to be exactly of equal fize, and to have
them fo, they Ihould be drawn, like wire, through a hole.

When the lamp is blown out, you will fee the index turn
backward ; which fhews that the metal contrails as it
cools.

The iiilide of this pyrometer is conltrufted as follows.
In Jig. 8. A a is the Ihort bar, which moves between
rollers ; and, on the fide a, it has fifteen teeth in an inch,
which take into the leaves of a pinion B (twelve in number),
on whofe axis is the wheel C of one hundred teeth, which
take into the ten leaves of the pinion D, on whofe axis is
the wheel E of one hundred teeth, which take into the ten
leaves of the pinion F, on the top of whofe axis is the index
above-mentioned.

Now, as the wheels C and E have one hundred teeth
each, and the pinions D and F have ten leaves each, it is
plain, that if the wheel C turns once round, the pinion F,
and the index on its axis, will turn one hundred times round.
But, as the firit pinion B has only twelve leaves, and the
bar A a that turns it has fifteen teeth in an inch, which is
twelve and a fourth part more ; one inch motion of the bar
will caufe the laft pinion F to turn one hundred times round,
and a fourth part of one hundred over and above, which is
twenty-five. So that if A a be pufhed one inch, F will
be turned one hundred and twenty-five times round.

A filk thread b is tied to the axis of the pinion D, and
wound feveral times round it ; and the other end of the
thread is tied to a piece of llender watch fpring G, which
is fixed in the ftud H. So that as the bar f expands, and
puflies the bar A a forward, the thread winds round the
axle, and draws out the fpring ; and as the bar contracts,
the i'pring pulls back the thre id, and turns the work the
contrary way, which puflies back the Ibort bar A a againit
the long bar_/". This fpring always keeps the teeth of the
wheels in contaft with the leaves of the pinions, and fo
prevents any fhake in the teeth.

In ^g. 7. the eight divifions of the inner circle are fo
many thoulandth parts of an inch in the expanfion or con-
traction of the bars ; which is juit: one thoufandth part of
an inch for each divifion moved over by the index. Fer-
gufou's Leftures on Mechanics, Supplem. p. 7, &c. 410.

Another pyrometer was invented by M. De Luc, in
confequence of a hint fuggeited to him by Mr. Ramfden.
The bafis of this inftrument is a rectangular piece of deal
board two feet and a half long, fifteen inches broad, and
one inch and a half thick, and to this all the other parts are
fixed. This is mounted in the manner of a table, with four
deal legs, each a foot long, and an inch and a half fquare,
well fitted near its four angles, and kept together at the
other ends by four firm crofs-pieces. This fmall table is
fufpended by a hook to a Hand ; the board being in a ver-
tical fituation in the' diretlion of its grain, and bearing its
legs forward in fuch a manner as that the crofs-pieces which
join them may form a frame, placed vertically facing the
obferver. This frame fuftains a microfcope, which is
firmly fixed in another frame that moves in the former by
means of grooves, but w'ith a very confiderable degree of
lightnefs ; the friftion of which may be increafed by the

prcffure of four fcrcws. The inner fiiding frame, which is
likewife of deal, keeps the tube of the microfcope in a
horizontal pofition, and in great part without the frame,
infomuch th.\t the end which carries the lens is but little
within the fpace between the frame and the board. This
microlcope is conitrudted in fuch a manner as that the
objeft obferved may be an inch diitant from the lens ; and
it has a wire which is fituated in the focus of the glaffes, in
which the objeifts appear reverfed. At the top of the
apparatus there is a piece of deal, an inch and a half thick,
and two inches broad, laid in a horizontal direftion from
the board to the top of the frame. To this piece the rods
of different fubffances, whofe expanfion by heat is to be
meafnred, are fufpended : one end of it flides into a focket,
which is cut in the thickncfs of the board, and the other
end, whicii reifs upon the frame, meets there with a fcrew,
which makes the piece move backwards and forwards, to
bring the objeft s to the focus of the microfcope. There is
a cork very ftrongly driven through a hole bored vertically
through this piece ; and in another vertical hole, made
through the cork, the rods are fixed at the top ; fo that
they hang only, and their dilatation is not counteracted bv
any preiiure. In order to heat the rods, a cylindrical bottle
of thin glafs, about twenty-one inches high, and four inches
in diameter, is placed in the infide of the machine, upon a
iland independent of the reft of the apparatus. In this
bottle the rods are fufpended at a little lefs than an inch
diilance from one of the fides, in order to have them near
the microfcope. Into this bottle is poured water of dif-
ferent degrees of heat, which muft be ftirred about by
moving upwards and downwards, at one of the fides of the
bottle, a little piece of wood fattened horizontally at the
end of a flick : in this water is hung a thermometer, the
ball of which reaches to the middle of the height of the
rods. During thefe operations the water rifes to the cork,
which thus determines the length of the heated part ; the
bottle is covered to prevent the water from cooling too
rapidly at the furfacc ; and a thin cafe of brafs prevents
the vapour from fixing upon the piece of deal to which the
rods are fixed. This pyrometer is reprefented in _/fo-. 9, in
which a a is the ftand to which it is fufpended ; b the hook
from which it hangs ; c c c the deal-board, which is the bafis
of the whole apparatus ; d, d, d, d, four arms, to which is
fixed the frame eeee: the other frame which carries the
microfcope is s s s s : g, g, are two crofs-pieces, through
which paffes the tube of the microfcope, and which fupport
it near both ends ; /j A is the microfcope ; /' its micrometer ;
k the cork, through which paffes the glafs rod //, and by
which it is kept fufpended ; m a rod of metal, or any other
fubflance lefs dilatable than glafs ; n the point of union,
obtained by means of two connefted rings, in which both
rods are faflened by fcrews : above thefe is another pair of
rings, in one of which the metal rod is free, and which rod
it fupports ; op the piece to which the glafs rod is fuf-
pended ; q a fquare piece fixed to the frame by four fcrews,
behind which is a box, in which, as weU as in a groove cut
in the bafis in p, the piece op flides ; r a fcrew, which paffes
through the fquare piece q, whofe ufe is to move backwards
or forwards the piece y, in order to bring the furface of the
metal rod to the focus of the microfcope : j-, s, s, s, four
fcrews, with round metal plates behind their heads, which
ferve to prefs the frame of the microfcope againfl the
frame eeee ; the longitudinal openings, through which the
fcrews pafs, permit the free motion of the firfl frame, when
one flrikes gently with a hammer to the bottom or the top
of one of the fides. If the microfcope is wanted higher
or lower than the grooves permit, the fcrews may be re-
moved

P Y R

moved to other holes made on purpofe in the fide pieces or
the frame c ece: tttl is the cyhndrical bottle, in which
hano- the rods in order to be heated at different degrees by
water of various temperatures ; :;, k, are the fiip.porters of the
bottle; X the thermometer fufpended in the water ; _yjr a
rod, to the lower end of which is fixed a fmall plate, to ilir
the water, by moving it up and down ; a z a fyphon, one
branch of which is within, and the other without, the bottle,
the latter being furnlfhed with a cock, which ferves to drav*
off the quantity of water that is neceflTary for changing the
temperature in the bottle. For a farther account of this
inllrument, together with the principle of its conilruftion
and ufe, both in the comparative meafure of the expanfions
of bodies by heat, and the mealure of their abfolute ex-
panfion, and the experiments made with it, we mull refer
to an elaborate efTay of M. De Luc on Pyrometry, &c. in
the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixviii. part i. art. 20. p. 419—546.

All the contrivances above defcribed mud be confidered
as inferior to that conilruftcd by Mr. Ramfden, of which
general Roy has given an accurate and minute account in
the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixxv. p. 462. We (hall here give fuch
an account as our limits will allow of this inftrument, the
conllruftion of which is fo accurate, fays major-general
Roy, that it feems not eafy to improvp it ; and refer for a
fuller account illuftrated by appropriate drawings. This
pyrometer, named the microfcopir, becaufe by means of two
microfcopes attached to it, the expanfion is meafured, con-
fifts of a ftrong deal frame, 5 feet long, nearly 28 inches
broad, and about 42 inches in height. The metallic bar,
whofe expanfion is to be meafured, and which may be even
five feet long, is placed in a copper trough little longer than
five feet ; and this is placed over 1 2 fpint lamps, the flames of
which heat the water of that trough fully to the boiling
point, and of coiirfe heat the bar which is plunged into it.
Two other wooden troughs, alfo full of water, are placed
parallel to, and at a httle dillance from, the copper one.
Each of thefe contains a caft-iron prifmatic bar. To the
ends of one of tkefe bars two microfcopes are fattened in
an horizontal iituation, perpendicularly to the bars. One
of thefe microfcopes is furnifhed with a micrometer, or
mechanifm, to meafure the magnified image of an objeft ;
\}\e other microfcope has a fimple mark. The parts of the
microfcopes, as well as the proper marks for meafurement,
are fo feparated and dii'pofed, partly upon the ends of the
caft-iron rods, and partly upon the ends of the rod under
examination, that if any of them be lengthened or (hortened,
that alteration is clearly perceived through the microfcopes,
and may be meafured by means of the micrometer. It fol-
lows, that if the temperature of the caft-iron prifmatic
bars be kept unaltered, whilft that of the bar under exa-
mination is increafed, then the increafe of length, which
is meafured by the micrometer, mull be attributed to that
bar only, and by thefe means the expanfions of feven fub-
ftances were afcertained. For further particulars relating
to the conitruftion and ufe of this inftnunent, we refer to
the Tranfaftions (ubi fupra), and to the article ExPANSIOX
in this Cyclopaedia. For an account of Wedgwood's pyro-
meter, fee THirKMOMETER. Alfo, for a defcription of Mr,
Troughton's pyrometer, we are under the neceffity of re-
ferring to the fame article.

PYROMUCOUS Acid, or Empyreumatic acid of fugar,
or Syrupous acid, is different from the acid of fugar, or
Oxalic ylc'id, (which fee,) and denotes that pungent acid
vapour of fugar, or any faccharine matter ftrongly heated,
which is familiar to every perfon who has ever entered a
fugar bakint;houfe. It is prepared by chemifts in the
following manner : Put into a very large glafs retort any

P Y 11

qaantity of pulverized fugar of any kind, fo as to fill oidy
^th of it, as the m.atter very much fwells in the procefs :
adapt to it a large receiver, not clofely luted, and heat it
gradually on a fand-bath. A great quantity of gas arifes
when the fugar begins to be fcorched, which is moftly car-
bonic acid mixed with an inflammable gas, probably the
gafeous oxyd of carbon. In the receiver is condenfed a
weak acidulous liquor, coloured by an oily matter, and
alfo apparently fouled by a portion of fuliginous matter
volatilized during the diftillafion. The quantity of acid,
obtainable in this procefs, varies according to the regulation
of the fire, which ftiould at leaft be pufticd fo as to make
the retort red-hot, and to reduce the fugar to a perfeft
charcoal ; but in general about ixXn of the weight of fugar
may be obtained of the diftilled acid. Gum mucilage,
manna, honey, ftarch, and other mucous or mucofo-faccha-
rine fubftances, yield, by diftillation, the fame acid as fugar.
Aikin, Dia. Min. '

PYRONOMIA, a term ufed by the chemical writers to
expreis tiie art of regulating fire, fo as to make it fubfer-
vient to all their proceftcs in a detetjninate degree.

PYROPE, in Mineralogy, a precious ftone, formerly
called tlie Bohemian garnet. (See Garnet.) The colour
is a dark blood red: when held between the eye and the
light, the red colour inclines to a yellow. The pyrope is
never found cryftaUized, but occurs in JVnall round or an-
gular fragments imbedded in ferpentiiie rock, or fcattered in
the fands on the fea-fhore, and in alluvial ground. It Icratches
quartz. The fpeciiic gravity is ilated by Klaproth 3.718.
On account of its lullre, tranfparency, colour, and hardnefs,
it is much prized by jewellers. The fmall grains, when
powdered, are applied to cut fofter ftones. According to
Klaproth, the conftituent parts of pyrope are

Silex

Alumine

40.0
28.50

Magncfia

- 10.00

Lime

Oxyd of iron

Oxyd of manganefe

Lofs

■ 3.50

- 16.50
0.25

- 1.25

13-

PYROPHAGI. See YmiL-Ealers.

PYROPHANES, in Mineralogy, a variety of the femi-
opal ; fo called becaufe, being heated in a fpoon, it be-
comes tranfparent, but returns to its opaque ftate when
cold, as Mr. Landriani has difcovered. M. SauflTurc, junior,
renders cormnon hydrophanes tranfparent, and of a topaz
colour, when heated by digefting them in melted wax . It
is faid that fome pyrophanes are found in Armenia, which
are tranfparent while expofed to the fun, and opaque at
night. See Gem.

PYROPHORUS, formed of ^i/f, /re, and ^;:., /fe^r,
in Chemijlry, the name ufually given to that fubftance called
hy [ome blach phofphorus ; a chemical preparation pofTefling
the Angular property of kindling fpontaneoufly when ex-
pofed to the air.

This fubftance was accidentally difcovered by M. Rom-
berg, who prepared it of alum and human faeces. (See
Phosphorus Fizcalis. ) See alfo M. Le Fevre's prepara-
tion, defcribed under Phosphorus of Sulphur.

It was apprehended for a confiderable time after the dif-
covery, that human faeces were effential to the operation,
till the youngeft fon of the great Lemery found, that honey,
fugar, flour, and, indeed, any animal or vegetable matter,
might be fubftituted inftead of the human fjeces ; and fince
that time, M. de Suvigny has (hewn that moift vitriolic falts
may be fubftituted for the alum ; having added to the alu-

12 mingus

PYilOPHORUS.

niinous pyropVionis of Hombfrg two other clafles of fub-
ilances of this kind, viz. the nrjtallic, or thofe made wit!i
tlic three vitriols of iron, copper, and zinc; and the neu-
tral, or thofc compofed of vitriolated tartar and Glauber's
fait.

The aluminous pyrophorus may be made in the following
manner. Take four or five parts of alum, and one part of wheat
flour, or any animal or vegetable fubltance ; calcine thefe
together to a brown or blackilh mafs : powder the mafs,
and put it into a phial ; ftop it loofely with paper, and fet it
in a fand heat, fo as to make it continue glowing-hot for
fome time ; after this remove the whole from the lire, fet
it to cool gradually, and finally ftop the bottle very clofe
down.

The following procefs is recommended by Macquer for
this preparation. Let three parts of alum and one part of
coarfe brown fugar be mixed together. This mixture mull
be dried in an iron ladle or (hovel over a moderate fire, till
it be almoft reduced to a blackilh powder or coal; during
which operation it muft, be ftirred with an iron fpatula.
Any large malles muft be bruifed into powder, and then it
xnuft be put into a glafs matrafs, the mouth of which is
rather ftraight than wide, and its length fevcn or eight inches.
This matrafs is to be placed in a crucible, or rather earthen
veftel, large enough to contain the belly of the matrafs, with
about a fpace equal to the thicknefs of a. finger all round it.
The fpace is to be filled with fand, fo that the matrafs
(hall not touch the earthen veflel : the apparatus is then to
be put in a furnace, and the whole to be made red-hot ;
the fire mull be gradually applied, that any oily or full-
ginous matter may be expelled. After which, when the
matrafs is made red-hot, fulphureoiis vapours exhale : this
degree of heat is be continued till a truly fulphureous flame,
which appears at the end of the operation, has continued
nearly a quarter of an hour : the fire is tiien to be extin-
guiflied, and the matrafs to cool without taking it out of
the crucible ; and when it ceafes to be red-hot, it muft be
ftoppcd with a cork. Before the matrafs is perfedlly cold,
it muft be taken out of the crucible ; and the powder it
contains muft be poured into a very dry glafs phial, which
muft be well clofcd with a glafs ftopper. If we would
preferve this pyrophorus a long time, the bottle contain-
ing it muft be opened as feldora as poflible. Sometimes
it kindles while it is poured into the glafs phial, but it may
be then estinguillied by clofing the phial expeditioufly.

Another excellent method of preparing pyrophorus, cited
by Aikin from Higgins's Minutes, is the following. Mix
together three parts of Roman alum, and one of flour, and
heat the mixture to dryneis in an irun pot, as already de-
fcribed : the black calcined mafs thus produced is to be
put into ounce phials of green glafs, coated without and
within with clay. The phials thus charged are to be lightly
ttopped with balls of tempered clay, and then fet up to
their necks in fand in an iron pot ; charcoal powder is
then to be ftrewed on to the depth of half an inch, over
which is to be placed an earthen cover, luted to the pot.
The whole apparatus is now to be placed in a furnace, and
kept at a red heat for an hour and a half; at the ex-
piration of which period, being taken out of the furnace
and cooled quickly, it is to be unpacked, and the phials con-
taining the pyrophorus are to be placed with their mouths
inverted in mercury, in which fituation the pyrophorus may
be kept for many years without injury.

When half a drachm of this pyrophorus is put on a piece
of paper and expofed to air, it quickly kindles, becomes
red like burning coals, emits a ftrongly fulphureous vapour,
and burns the paper or otjier combultible body which fup-

Vot. XXIX.

porta it : and nothing n left but the white earthy bafe of the
alum. When no fenfiblc change takes place in the pyro-
phorus, either from a ttvfedt in the preparation, or from
fome air remaining in the phial that contains it, the com-
buftion may be effcdted by breathing on the powder, and thus
lupplyiiig It with the moilture which Iceins to be the primary
agent in this phenomenon. The pyrophorus that is made
in the lall method we have recited is fo highly inflammable
as to take fire while it is falling from the mouth of tiie phial.
If it be poured into a jar of pure oxygen gas, it forms a bril-
liant fiery ftiower : the oxygen is for the moft part confumed,
and there remain in the jar fulpliureous acid and carbonic
acid gafes : the pyrophorus alfo being confumed with the
exception of its aluminous bafe.

The fpontaneous accenfion of the aluminous pyrophorus,
on its being expofed to the air, has been a fubjeft of con-
fiderable difcuffion among chemifts and philofophers ; feveral
of whom have adopted the hypothefis propofed by M. de
Suvigny, in tlie Memoires de Mathematique et de Phyfique^
torn. iii. To explain this curious appearance, M. de
Suvigny obferves, that the vitriolic acid in the alum, during
the calcination in the phial, leaves its earthy bafis, and unites
with the phlogifton in the coal. By its union with this in-
flammable matter, a part of it is undoubtedly rendered vo-
latile, and exhales partly under the form of volatile vitriolic
acid, and partly in that of a blue fulphureous flame ; while
another part of it combines likewife with the phlogifton
forming a real fulphur, or an earthy hepar fulphuris ; in
which the fulphur is protefted from the fire by the earth
with which it is combined, and the particles of which remain
every where intermixed with thofe of the powder. Thus far
(fays Mr. Bewly, an excellent chemift and philofopher)
M. de Suvigny is fupported by the appearances, and by a
juft chemical analyfis of the powder : but he proceeds far-
ther, and fuppofes that, at the end of the procefs, a part
of the vitriolic acid is left in a difengaged, or uncombined
ftate, and highly concentrated. In this itate it is well knawn
that this acid attra£ls moillure, and at the fame time gene-
rates a confiderable degree of heat. When the pyrophorus,
therefore, is expofed to the air, he again fuppofes that thi«
difengaged and concentrated acid fuddenly attrafts the
watery particles floating in the atmofphere, and by the heat
thus generated, fets fire to the fulphur and other inflammable
matter contained in the powder. This hypothefis he has
endeavoured to eilablifli by the following obfervations ; that
the pyrophorus, as he apprehends, can be made only with
fubftances fit for praducing fulphur, or with fulphur itfelf :
— that no pyrophorus will be produced, if the mixture be
calcined by too long or too violent a fire ; becaufe then the
whole vitriolic acid can be combined into perfeft fulphur, and
confequently is engaged, and not in a proper ftate to attraft
the moifture of the air ; or elfe if it does not combine into
fulphur, being half difengaged from its bafis, it is driven off
by the violence or long continuance of the fire ; and, con.
fequently, after this complete calcination, no acid remain*
partly difengaged, as it ought to be, that it might unite with
the water with fufficient adlivity : — that when the pyrophorus
is very flowly moiftened, as when it is kept in a bottle not
well clofed, it does not kindle, becaufe fufficient heat is not
produced by this flow and gradual attraclion of water ; it if
alfo fpoiled and rendered incapable of kindhng, when ex-
pofed to tbe open air ; becaufe its acid becomes then fatu.
rated, or nearly faturated with moifture, and cannot, there,
fore, unite with that of the air with fufficient adlivity :— «
that a pyrophorus, thus fpoiled by expofure to moifture,
may be reftored to its peculiar properties by making it agaia
red-hot in a matrafs ; fince by this calcination its partly,
M difengaged

PYROPHORUS.

difengaged acid is again concentrated, and refumea all its
force of combining with water ; — and, ladly, that the in-
flammation of the pyrophorus is afccelcratcd by placing it
upon. a paper a little wetted, or by breathing upon it ; becaufe
the acid then attradts the moiilure more hallily, and confe-
quently with more heat.

M. do Suvigny extends the fame reafoning to the fevcral
other pyrophori which he difcovercd, fimilar to that of alum ;
particularly to thofe which are made by fubftituting vitrio-
lated tartar, Glauber's fait, and other vitriolic falts with
metallic, earthy, or alkaline bafes, in the room of alum.
Mr. Bewly lias examined this hypothefis with his ulual
acutenefs and accuracy ; and from numerous well-conduAed
experiments he is led to conclude, that pyrophori of all the
above-mentioned clafl'es may be prepared, differing from them
in no other particular, except that they contain no vitriolic
acid, and which neverthelefs kindle asreadily, on beingexpofed
to the air, as thofe which have been impregnated witfi that
principle. In order to flicw that the pretence of vitriolic
acid is not necefl'ary to conilitute the pyrophorus made with
vitriolated tartar, he added to a quantity of this tartar
more than an equal weight of povv'dered charcoal, and cal-
cined the mixture a long time, in a red heat, in an open
crucible ; frequently ftirring the powder, in order to expel
from it as much of the vitriolic acid as poffible ; the cal-
cination was alfo fometimes repeated with freih charcoal :
and yet on heating the fait, thus deprived of a confiderable
part of its acid, with charcoal, in a crucible or tobacco-
pipe, in the manner which we (hall here fubjoin, he obferved
no diminution in its quality of producing a pyrophorus.

Mr. Bewly, in feveral of his experiments, made ufe of
the bowl of a tobacco-pipe, in which he combined the ma-
terials, which he witbed to examine in fmall quantities, and
in an expeditious manner ; preffing them down (lightly, fo
as to fill half or three-fourths of the bowl, and filling the
remainder of it with fine fand. This is kept in a red heat
twenty minutes, or half an hour ; or it may continue there
two hours longer, if the operator pleafes, without any in-
jury to the pyrophorus. The pipe being taken out of the
fire, the matter is knocked out of it as foon as it becomes
cool, and generally, pretty foon afterwards, takes fire fpon-
taneou(ly. Thus he formed his pyrophorus with a mixture
confining of two parts of alum, previoufly calcined in a
red heat ; and of powdered charcoal and fait of tartar each
one part.

In another experiment, having added fucceflively various
and increafing quantities of fixed alkali to the fait heated
as above, till the vitriohc acid contained in the mixture
might be confidered nearly as an evanefcent quantity,
a pyrophorus was ftill produced on calcining it with
charcoal as before. He alfo mixed equal parts of fait of
tartar, and vegetable or animal coal, or fometimes three
parts of the former with two of the latter, and calcined them
in the ufual manner ; and this compofition, on being expofed
to the air, generally kindled in half a minute or a minute ;
though, as it contained no fulphur, it did not burn with fo
much vivacity as the vitriolic pyrophori. This, which Mr.
Bewly calls the alkaline pyrophorus, differs in no circnm-
ftcince from M. de Suvigny's neutral pyrophori, except
in its not containing that principle to which he afcribes their
accenfion. However, lelt it might be fufpefted that the
fait of tartar which he employed might accidentally contain
yitriolated tartar, or vitriolic acid, he repeated the experi-
ment with tartar calcined by himfelf, as well as with nitre
fixed or alkalifed by deflagration with charcoal, and with
iron filings ; and in all thefe cafes with the fame refult.
By diverfifying in a like manner M. de Suvigny's experi-
Ji

ments on the metallic pyrophori, Mr. Bewly found that none
of the three vitriols, ht-ated with charcoal alone, in his ufual
method, could produce a pyrophorus. And thus he found
that the addition of an alkaline lalt to the compofition, which
was a part of M. de Suvigny's procefs, was eilential to its
fuccefs.

Treating in the ufual manner equal parts of calcined
green vitriol and charcoal, the powder which contained no
fulphur nor liepar fulphuris, did not acquire any of the pro-
perties of a pyrophorus. The vitriolic acid feemed to have
been entirely didipated ; having no bafe to detain it, when
diflodged from the metallic earth. The charcoal and calx
of iron, left in this procefs, were calcined again, togetlier
with fome fait of tartar ; and a pyrophorus was produced,
which exhibited indications of its containing a fcarcely per-
ceptible portion of hcpar fulphuris. Thirty grains of crocus
martis aftringens were calcined witli fifteen grains of char-
coal, and the fame quantity of fait of tartar ; and the mix-
ture burnt fpontaneoufly, though it contained no hepar ful-
phuris, or vitriolic acid. Having by thele experiments evinced
that metallic pyrophori may be prepared without vitriolic
acid, Mr. Bewly proceeded to form an aluminous pyro-
phorus of the fame kind. For this purpofe, he procured
the earth of alum by a long and violent calcination ; and
examming a part of it, he found, by the ufual tefls,
that it neither contained any fulphur, hepar fulphuris, nor
alum undecompounded. This he confidered as perfe£lly
pure, though he afterwards found that it contained a fmall
quantity of vitriolated tartar : and yet it repeatedly fur-
niihed a pyrophorus as aftive as when alum itfelf is employed.
From thele and fimilar experiments he infers, that the feveral
kinds of pyrophori are not kindkd by moiilure attradled
by the vitriolic acid, as M. de Suvigny has maintained:
and his conclufion is farther confirmed by lome experiments of
Dr. PrielUey, from which it appears, that they are kindled
in dry, nitrous, and deplJogifticated air.

M. Prouft, cited by Mr. Bewly, defcribes a variety of
new pyrophori, which neither contain vitriolic acid, nor
feem likely to owe their accenfion to the attraction of hu-
midity from the air. Thefe principally confift of a coaly
matter fimpl)' divided by metallic or other earths ; fuch are
the fediment left on the filter in prtparing Goulard's extraft,
various combinations of tartar, or its acid, or the acetous
acid, with metals, calcareous earth, &c.

Mr. Bewly, having evinced the infufficiency of M. de
Suvigny's theory, and difcovered that the pyrophori are not
kindled by moifture, attradled (merely) by the vitriolic acid,
diredled his attention to the nitrous acid, which Dr. Prieft-
ley has (hewn to be a conftituent part of atmofpherical air,
as the probable agent in the produdlion of this phenomenon.
The ftroiig affinity which this acid has with phlogifton, and
the heat, and even flame, which it is known to produce with
certain inflammable matters, manifefted that it was equal to
theeffedl ; and having excluded the vitriolic acid from having
any eflential concern in this operation, he fuggells, either
that the pyrophorus is kindled by moiilure attradled by fome
of the other ingredients which compoft it ; or that it has the
power of decompounding atmofpherical air, by fuddenly
attradling its nitrous acid, and thereby generating a heat fuf-
ficient to kindle the phlogiftic matter contained in it. This
idea appeared plaufible, when he farther confidered that Dt.
Prieftley produced the pureflref|iirable air with this fame acid
combined with other principles ; aid that this as well as
common air is diminifhed, and probably in part decom-
pounded, in a variety of phlogiftic procefles. This inge-
nious writer concludes, upon the whole, from the experiments
he hath made, that the pyrophorus feems to owe its fingu-

lar

P Y R

l.tr property to its being a combination of earth or alkali
with phlogifton ; the vitriolic acid, when prefcnt, only occa-
fionally increafing or diminifhing thecfTcdt, according to cir-
cumftances. In theproccis of calcination, the earth or alkaline
principle is not merely mixed, but aftually, though loofely,
combined with the phlogillic principle of the coal ; fo that
the pyrophorus, confidering it in its moft fimplc Hate, is
only a perfectly dry phlogifticated alkali or earth. On thefe
data, the phenomena may be explained in the two following
methods ; with refpefl particularly to the influence of moif-
ture and heat upon the pyrophorHS. Suppofing either the
alkaline or earthy principles to have a greater affinity to water
than to the phlogillon with which either of them is united,
they may, on being expofed to a moift atmofphere, attraft

t* Y R

and the conftituent parts, according to Hdinjrer and Ber-

zel

lus, are

Alumine

Silex

Lime

Oxyd of iron

Volatile matter
Lofs

53-5
32-88
.88
.88

•75
11.26

The fubftance loft during the procefs is fufpefted to be
fluoric acid. Hauy claffes this mineral with the topaz. See
Toi'Az. B.

PYROPCECILOS, in tbe Nalural Hi/lory of the An.

the humidity, and therefore fet the phlogillic principle at li- cients, the name by which they call the granite of Arabia'

'''■■ " -'—- — ^ -•' '--—■-J'--- commonly known to this day under the name of the Oriental

granite.

Tlie name is derived from the Greek, ^i/^, fre, or fre-co-

loured, and miu-Ko:, f potted ; and the ancients having ufcd the
epithet fiery to yellow, as well as red, fomehave imagined the
granite muft be a yellow ftone ; but it is evident that red is
the colour meant by it here.

PYROSCOPE, an inftrument invented by profefibr Ledie
for meafuring the intenfity of fire. This is merely the differen.
//^/Thermometer (which fee), with one of its balls covered
with filver leaf, while the other is naked. The fire heats
the naked ball, but not the filvered ball. Hence the liquid
m the tube rifes or falls, according to the intenfity of the
fire, and of courfe marks that intenfity.

PYROSCOPIA, formed of ^.p, fire, and ™^s.

berty ; which may, in its turn, attraft and be ignited by,

the fuppofed aerial acid, its ftrong affinity to which is well

knovrn : — or, if this hypothcfis be rejected, the inflammable

matter may be kindled, merely in confequence of the heat

produced by the combination of the alkali, &c. with

moiilure. This reafoning, however, fuppofes the exiftence

of phlogilton, which modern chemifts have generally exploded.
The chemical changes that take place during the formation

and decompofition of pyrophorus, as they are ftated by Aikin,

appear to be the following : i. By being heated below red-

nefs in the open air, the ingredients enter into fufion, and

thus mix accurately with each other ; then the water of

cryftaUization is driven off from the alum, and of the fugar

or flour, little elfe than the charcoal efcapes volatilization.

2. The red heat to which it is expofed in the phial caufes the

fulphuric acid of the alum and charcoal of the fugar to Jider, among the Greeks, a kind of divinat

re-a£t on each other, by which part of the charcoal is driven fame with pyromancy and ignifpicium.

off in the form of carbonic acid, and part of the fulphuric TTcrr.^ox,,

acid efcapes as fulphureous acid. The blue flame that cha-

rafterizes the latter part of thi;; procefs is probably caufed

by the volatilization and combuflion of a portion of fulphur,

more than is requiiite to faturate the potafh of the alum.
Thus the pyrophorus, when prepared, confifls of alumine,
charcoal, and fulphuret of potafh in intimate mixture.
3. When this powder is expofed to the air, a rapid decom-
pofition of the air itfelf, and of the moiilure which it contains,
takes place, the oxygen of each being abforbed by the ful-
phuret, while a fufficient quantity of heat is difengaged, to
bring the charcoal and remainder of the fulphur to a Hate of
aftual inflammation. See on the fubjeft of this article,

Macquer's Chemical Dift. art. Pyrophorus ; and Prieflley's gellion, and might have been arranged as one of the fymp-
Obf. on Air, vol. iii. Appendix, p. 386, &c. vol. iv. toms of dyfpepfia.

Appendix, p. 479, &c. Aikin's Diftionary. The fits of pyrofis ufually come on in the morning and

PYROPHYLACIA, a term ufed by Kircher and fome forenoon, when the flomach is empty. The firfl fymptom

I coti-
being the

^ ^ uaiicy ana igniipicium.

PYROSIS, in Medicine, called in Scotland the -water-
brajh, IS a diforder of the flomach, which is charaifterized
by a fudden and violent attack of pain in that organ, follow,
ed by a copious difcharge of a colourlefs, infipid, "and gene-
rally cold fluid, refembling faliva, from the cefophagus,
mouth, and throat.

The firll defcription of this difeafe was given by Linnjeus,
as a common aff"eaion of the Laplanders, under the appro-
priate appellation of Cardialglafputatoria ; whence Sauvages
gave it the denomination of pyrofis Suecica. (Nofol. Meth.
clafs vii. gen. 18.) Dr. CuUen adopted the generic term
pyrofis, and deems it an idiopathic difeafe. It feems to
occur, however, in conjundlion with other forms of indi-

others, to exprefs thofe magazines of fire which are placed
in the cavities of mountains and other hollows of the earth,
and ferve to fupply the feveral volcanoes in the different
parts of the world. See Volcano.

PYROPHYSALITE, in Mineralogy, is fo called from
w^,Jire, and •lv-:x.>.i:, a bubble, becaufe this mineral emits
bubbles when expofed to the flame of the blowpipe. It is
found at Finbo, near Fahlun, in Sweden, imbedded in a
granitic rock. The colour of pyrophyfalite is white, in-
cHning to green, and occafionally fmall fpots of blue fluor
fpar are feen on its furface. It commonly occurs in oblong
pieces, fome of which approach to an irregular rhomboid.
It differs from felfpar, to which it has the moll refcmblance.

is a pain at the pit of the flomach, with a fenfe of conitric-
tion, as if the itomach were drawn towards the back : the
pain is increafed by raifing the body into an eredt polture,
and therefore the patient bends himfelf forward. This pain
is often extremely levere, with a fenfe of burning ; and after
continuing for fome time, it brings on an eruftation of a
thin watery fluid in confiderable quantity. This fluid has
fometimes an acid tafle ; but moft; commonly it is defcribed
as being abfolutely infipid. It continues to be brouo-ht up
for fome time, and does not immediately give relief to the
pain which preceded it ; but at length it terminates the pain,
and the fit ceafes.

Thefe paroxyfmscome on without any evident caufe, nor

in having but one determinate direftion in which it can be is the origin of the difeafe always to be imputed to any par.

fplit ; its fpecific gravity is alfo greater, and it fufes more
eafily. The fragments fcratch glafs, but are lefs hard than
quartz. The powder of the fineft fragments emit a phof-
phorefcent light when heated. Its fpecific gravity is 3.45,

ticular fort of diet. It feldom,' if ever, attacks thofe peo-
ple who ufe frefli animal food daily ; but appears to be mofl
common among thofe who live almofl entirely upon tea,
milk, potatoes, and farinaceous fubftances. It is much more
M 2 common

P Y R

P Y R

common in women than in men ; fometimes it attacks preg-
nant women, and often thofe vvlio labour under leucorrhoca.
It feldom occurs in any one before the age of puberty, or
in thofe who are confiderably advanced in life : when it has
once taken place, it is very prone to recur occafionally for a
longtime afterwards. It is more common in Scotland than
in this country, and chiefly aftefts the lower clafles of the
people.

While the fame diet is continued, it is not always eafy to
cure the difeafe. The paroxyfm is moll effeftually relieved
by anodynes, efpecially opium ; hyofcyamus, conium, &c.
anfwer a fin".ilar purpofe ; and with Icfs certainty ; otiier [li-
mulants and antifpafmodics, as fulphuric aether, ammonia,
the tinfture of guaiacum, &c. alleviate the lit. Thefe re-
medies, however, do not materially contribute to prevent the
recurrence of the paroxyfms ; and bitters, aromatics, and
the whole of remedies again!! indigcftion, have been often
employed in vain. A combination of aromatic laxatives,
■with ilrong alkalies and narcotics, have appeared to the
writer of this article to be on the whole the moll cfFeftual
remedies. See Cullen, Firft Lines, vol. iv. p. l.

Pyrosis is alfo a word ufed to exprefs an intenfe heat
and rednefs in the face, fuch as that of perfons who travel
in extremely hot weather, and the like.

PYROSTRIA, in Botany, fo called by Commcrfon,
from the pear-fhaped llriated fruit. — JufT. 206. Willd. Sp.
PI. V. I. 614. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 6S. — Clafs and order,
Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rubiaceit, Jull.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, fliort, in four deep,
acute, broad legments, deciduous. Cor. of one petal, fome-
what bell-fhaped ; tube thrice as long as the cilyx, fwelling
gradually upwards ; limb of the fame length, in four acute,
equal, Ipreading fegments ; throat downy. Stam. Fila-
ments four, fhort, inferted into the tube of the corolla, al-
ternate with the fegments of the limb ; anthers oblong,
ereft, pointed, fliorter than the limb. Pijl. Germen tur-
binate, inferior ; ftyle fhort, cylindrical ; iligma capitate.
Peric. Berry fmall, dry, pear-(haped, with eight furrows, and
eight cells, deftitute of any crown. Seeds folitary in each
cell.

EfT. Ch. Calyx four-toothed. Corolla bell-fhaped, four-
cleft, downy in the throat. Berry inferior, obovate, with
eight furrows and eight feeds.

Obf. Juflieu, by an error which feems typographical, at-
tributes five fegments to the corolla, which Willd;now
copies. There are, however, but four, as the analogy of
the other parts, in this cafe, neceflarily requires.

I. P. faUclfoHa. Willow-leaved Streak -berry. W'.lld.
n. 1. (Pyrollria clxoidcs ; Lamarck Illultr. v. i. 289. t. 68.
f. 2, (not f. 4.] — Gathered by Commerfon, in the ifle of
Bourbon ; not, as Willdenow has it, the Mauritius. A
Jhriib, with round, fmooth, greyifh, leafy branches. Leaves
oppofite, on lliort ftalks, rather crowded, two or three
inches long, elliptic- lanceolate, fliarpifh, entire, coriaceous,
fmooth, with one rib, and feveral lateral incurved veins, oc-
cafionally accompanied by an axillary gland-like tubercle,
that feems accidental ; paler beneath. Stlpulas between the
footftalks, and of the fame length, awl-lhaped, ereft, di-
lated at the bafe, deciduous. Floiver-Jlalis axillary, folitary,
fomewhat umbellate, bearing one or more fimple, fingle-
flowercd, partial ftalk<:, with a pair of oblong tapering
iraSeas at the bafe of the latter. Flotuers hardly a quarter
of an inch long, ereS, apparently white. Fruit, accord-
ing to Lamarck, near au inch in length, pear-(haped, umbi-
licated, with eight deep longitudinal furrows. "When cut
trnnfvcrfcly, it flievvs the eight feeds, compreiTed, and ra-
diating from the centre.

PYROTARTAREOUS Acid, or Empyreumatic acid of
tartar, a fpecies of empyreumatic acetous acid, very dif-
ferent from Taiitaheous aW^/; which fee. To procure thif
acid, dilUl any quantity of cream of tartar in a glaf» or
earthen retort, as in the procefs for Pvroml'cols Acid: the
retort being half full of the tartar, on raifing the fire very
flowly, the firil produc" is a limpid, acidulous, fomewhat
bitterifh water, after which, as the heat increafes, a moft
prodigious volume of the inflammable gas is given out, to-
gether with a llrongcr acid, and more empyreumatic liquid,
and at laft a black oil, and fome volatile alkali.

The whole quantity of liquid acid procured from tartar in
this method, is generally not more than about a quarter of the
weight of the tartar, and is not quite fo brown, nor fo highly
empyreumatic as the pyromucous. This acid, and alfo the py-
roligneous and pyromucous acids, are capable of very confi-
derablc purification by eafv methods, fo that they lofe their
empyreuma, their peculiar tafte and fmell, in which confift their
charafteriftic differences, till at lail, when brought into the
moft concentrated ftate by fome of the modes in which vine-
gar is dephlegmated, they exhibit the charafters of acetous
acid fo unequivocally, that no doubt can be entertained of
their identity. Simple rectification, or rediftillation in a
very gentle heat, and flopping the procefs when the liquor at
lafl comes over much coloured, will purify, to a very
great degree, the pyromucous and pyrobgneous acids : the
latter, by this procefs, from being of a dark coffee colour,
affumcs the hue of very pale clear brandy. But on long ex-
pofure to light, it again becomes brown, for it retains its
empyreumatic charafter more than any other. Charcoal,
newly burnt and powdered, contributes very much to the
purification of all thefe acids , they may be either gently
diftilled off it, or even merely filtered through a flratum of
it. But the moft effeftual method of purification is by uniting
thefe acids with lime, or a fixed alkali, evaporating to drynefs,
and then expelling the acid by means of the fulphuric acid, in
the fame manner as the concentrated vinegar is prepared.
The acid vapour that rifes in this procefs has. now loll its em-
pyreuma almoft entirely ; has both the ftrength and the
powerful odour of radical vinegar ; when again united to
potafh, forms acetated potafh, which may be obtained white
by repeated cryftallization, or by charcoal powder, and in
fhort is perfeft acetous acid. Aikin.

PYROTECHNY, derived from the Greek words ctj,
Jire, and ■^x^'^y '"''> '' ^ term applied to the art or fcience
which teaches the management and application of fire in
certain operations. Although this term has been ufed in
a very extcnfive fenfe by fome writers, and applied to the
ufe and ftrufture of fire-arms and artillery employed in the
art of warfare, yet it is commonly confined, as it wiU be in
this work, to thofe articles and inftruments made ufe of for
amufement, and for grand public occafioiis, as the cele-
bration of viclories, the demonftrations of public joy on
account of peace, after long continued w-ar, &c.

Of the origin of artificial fire-works there is nothing
certain recorded. In Europe the invention of them is of
recent date, and is given to the Italians. The ufe of fire-
works in China was very general long before they were
known in European countries : and from an account given
of fome recent exhibitions at Pekin, it fhould feem that
they have attained to a degree of perfeftion not furpaffed
even by the artifts of England, France, or Italy. " The
fire-works, in fome particulars," fays Mr. Barrow in his
Travels in China, " exceeded anv thing of the kind I had
ever feen. In grandeur, magnificence, and variety, they
were, I own, inferior to the Chinefe fire-works we had
feen at Batavia, but infinitely fuperior in point of novelty,

neatne£3.

PYROTECHNY.

aeatnefs, and ingenuity of contrivance. One piece of ma-
chinery I greatly admired ; a cheft. five feet (qiiare was
hoiftcd up by a pulley to the height of fifty or fixty feet
from the ground : the bottom was fo conllrufted as then
fuddenly to fall out, and make way for twenty or thirty
firings of lanterns enclofed in a box to dcfcend from it,
unfolding themfelves from one another by degrees, fo as at
lall to form a colle£tion of full 500, each having a light
of a beautifully coloured flame burning brightly within it.
This devolution and developement of lanterns were feveral
times repeated, and, at every time, exhibited a difference
of colour and figure. On each fide wns a correfpondcnce
of fnialler boxes, which opened in like manner as the others,
and let down an immenfe net-work of fire, with divifioiis
and compartments of various forms and dimenfions, round
and fquare, hexagons, oftagons, Sec. which fhone like the
brighteit. burnifiied copper, and flafhed like prifmatic light-
ning with every impulfe of the wind. The diverfity^of
colours with vv-hich the Chinefe have the fecret of clothing
fire feems one of the chief merits of their pyrotechny.
The whole concluded with a volcano, or general explofion
and difcharge of funs and flars, fquibs, crackers, rockets,
and granadoes, which involved the gardens tor above an
iiour in a cloud of intolerable fmoke."

The apparatus ufed in making fire -works confifts of
folid wooden cylinders, called formers, for rolling the cafes
on ; fimilar cylinders, either of wood or metal, for ramming
dov/B the compofition ; moukls for holding the cafes while
filling ; a machine for contradting the cavity of the cafes ;
another for grinding the matt rials ; and a particular ap-
paratus for boring fome cafes after they are rilled.

ConflruHion of the Cartridges for Rockets. - -A rocket is a
cartridge, or cafe made of ftiff paper, which, being filled
in part vt'ith gunpowder, faltpetre, and charcoal, r.fes of
itfelf into the air when fire is applied to it. There are
feveral kinds and fizes of rockets, but the three following
are the principal : -viz. 1. Small ones, the calibre cf which
is not larger than that of a bullet of a pound weig^'t.
2. Rockets, the calibre of which is equal to the fi/.e of
a ball of from one to three pounds weight. 3. Ljrge
rockets, equal to a ball of from three pounds to a hundred
weight.

To give the cartridges the fame length and thickncf<!,
they are put into a hollow cylinder of metal, or ftiung wood.
This mould is not to be confounded with another piece of
wood, called the former or roller, around which is rolled the
thick paper employed to make the cartridge. The rule for
the fize of the mould and rolic-r is this : if the calibre of
the mould be divided into eight equal parts, the diameter
of the roller mufl. be equal to five of thefe parts ; of courfe
the vacuity between the roller and the interior furface of
the mould is equal to Jths of the calibre of the mould,
which will be exaftly filled by the cartridge.

The fize of the mould is meafured by its calibre ; but
the length of the moulds for different rockets does not
always bear the fame proportion to the calibre, the length
being diminifhed as the cahbre is increafed. In fmall
rockets, the length of the mould ought to be fix times the
diameter of the calibre ; but in the larger fized rockets, It
need not be more than between four and five times the
calibre of the mould.

Large ftiff paper of a peculiar kind is employed in
making cartridges, and hence it has obtained the name of
cartridge-paper. This paper is wrapped round the roller,
and then cemented by means of common patte. When the
cartridge is formed, the roller is drawn almoft out, by
turning it round, until it is diftant from the edge of the
5

cartridge the length of its diameter. A piece of cord i*
then made to pafs twice round the cartridge at the ex-
tremity of the roller ; and into the vacuity left in the car-
tridge another roller is introduced, fo as to leave a fpace
between the two. By means of the cord, the cartridge
mull be pinched till there remains only an aperture capable
of admitting an inftrument called a piercer : then the
cord is removed, and its place is fupplied by a piece of
packthread.

Befides the roller, a rod is employed to load the car-
tridge, which muft be fomcwhat fmaller than the roller, that
it may be eafily introduced into the cartridge. This rod
is pierced lengthwife to a fufficient depth to receive the
piercer, which mull enter into the mould, and unite with it
exaftly at the lower part. The piercer, which decreafes
in fize, is introduced into the cartridge through the part
wliere it has been choaked, and ferves to preferve a cavity
within it.

After the cartridge is placed in the mould, the pre-
pared compofition is to be poured gradually in, and rammed
down with great accuracy. When the cartridge is about
half filled, feparate, with a bodkin, half of the folds of the
paper which remains, and having turned tiiem back on the
compofition, prefs them down, and pitrce three or four
holes in the folded paper, by means of a piercer, which
muft be made to penetrate to the compofition of the rocket.
Thefe holts ferve to form a communication between the
body of the rocket and the vacuity at the extremity of the
carriage, as it is called, or that part which has been left
empty. In fmall rockets this vacuity is filled with granu-
lated powder, and covered over, whicli ferves to let them off:
in thofe that are larger, the pot, containing ilars, fcrpents,
and running rockets, is adapted to it.

It now remains to affix the rocket to its rod, which ig
thus done. When it has been conilrudted, in the way jult
defcribed, it is to be faftened to a rod of light fmooth
wood. Its length and weight mull be proportioned to the
fizc of the rocket ; that is, it ought to be as long as to
re-'ia'u in equdibrium with it, when iufpended on the finger,
or other fulcrum, within an inch, or an inch and a half
cf the neck. Betore it is fired, place it with the neck
downwards, and let it reft on two nails, in a diredlion per-
pendicular to the horizon : and to make it afcend to a
greater height, adapt to its fummit a pointed cap made of
ftiff paper, which will ferve to facilitate its paffage through
the air. To thefe rockets may be added feveral other
things, as a petard, which is a box of tin plate filled with
fine gunpowder, placed on the fummit. The petard is
placed on the compofition, at the end where it has been
filled, and the remaining paper of the cartridge is folded
down over it, to keep it firm. The petard produces its
effeft when the rocket is in the air, and the compofition is
confumed. A reprelentation of a rocket completely fitted
up is given in Plate Pyrotechny, Jig. 2.

Stars, ferpents, &c. may be added to them, which is
done by ndjufting to the head of the rocket an empty pot
or cartridge, larger than the rocket, in order that it may
contain the things intended to render the exhibition the
more beautiiul. The following tables are neceffary to
thofe who would manufadlure rockets for themfelves.
The firft fhcws the fize of the calibre of the mould for
rockets of a pound weight and below ; and the fecdnd
points out the fize required for the calibre of moulds of
from lib. to 5c!bs. It muft be obferved, that a pound
rocket is that which is jutt capable of admitting a leaden
bullet of a pound weight, aed fo of the rell.

TABI.S

PYROTECHNY.

Table f. — Size of the Calibre of Moulds of a Pound
Weight and below, to One Ounce.

WeiE;Iit of

Rnckels in

Ounces

Diameters
in Lines,

i6

M

12

n

8

'5

7
6

Hi
•4-i

5

13

4

I2i

3

Hi

2
I

9c
6i

Here it is evident, that the mould of a rocket of twelve
ounces in weight ought to be feventeen lines in diameter ; one
of five ounces will require a mould of thirteen lines in diameter.
Hence we derive an eafy method of finding the fize when
the weights are given : and if the diameter of the rocket be
given, it will be equally eafy to find the weight of the ball
correfponding to that calibre. Thus, if the diameter be
fifteen lines, it will, by the table, be feen that it cor-
refponds to a ball of eight ounces.

Table II. — Size of the Calibre of Moulds, of from
I to a 50lb. Ball.

Pounds.

Calibfc.

Pounds.

Calibre.

Ponnds.

Calibre.

Hounds.

Calibre.

I

100

14

241

27

300

40

341

2

126

15

247

28

304

41

344

3

144

i6

252

29

307

42

347

4

158

17

257

30

310

43

350

5

171

18

262

31

314

44

353

6

181

19

267

32

317

45

355

7

191

20

271

33

320

46

35«

8

200

21

27s

34

323

47

361

9

208

22

286

3?

326

48

363

10

215

23

284

36

33«

49

366

II

222

! 24

288

37

3.33

50

368

12

228

25

292

3«^

336

13

235

26

296

39

339

By this fecond table, if the weight of the ball be given
the fize of the mould may be found: fuppofe it be 18
pounds, oppofite to it is the number 262. Then we fay by
the rule of proportion (as igi, fee table I. is fuppofed to
be divided into 100 parts), 100 : ig-l :: 262 to the fourth
term fought, viz. 51-09 ; therefore the required calibre is
J2 lines nearly, or four inches and four lines, or 4]^ inches.
But if tlie calibre be given in lines, the weight of the ball
may be found : fuppofe the given calibre be 36 lines, then
as 19I : 100 :: 36 : 184. The neareft number in the table
to this is 181, which (hews that the weight of the ball will
be rather more than 61bs., or, in other words, that a rocket,
the diameter or calibre of which is 36 lines, is a rocket of a
61b. ball.

The compofition of the powder for rockets mufl be
different, according to the different fizes, it being com-
pletely afcertained that what is proper for fmall rockets
would be too ftrong for the larger ones.

For rockets of one or two ounces, the compofition fhould
be one pound of gunpowder, and two ounces of finely ground
foft charcoal.

For rockets of fomewhat larger fize, the compofition may
be ten ounces of gunpowder, three and a halt of faltpetre,
and tliree ounces of charcoal.

If the rockets be of five or fix ounces weight, then to two
pounds five ounces of gunpowder, add eight ounces of falt-
petre, two ounces of fulphur, fix ounces of charcoal, and
two ounces of iron filings.

If the rockets be from ten to twelve ounces, you may
add to feveateen ounces of gunpowder, four ounces of falt-
petre, three and a half of fulphur, and one of charcoal.

For rockets of a pound weight : to one pound of gun-
powder add an ounce of fulphur, and tliree ounces of
charcoal.

For rockets of from four to feven pounds : to thirty-one
pounds of faltpetre, add four pounds and a half of fulphur,
and ten of charcoal : and for thofe that are ftill larger, we
may add to eight pounds of faltpetre, one pound four ounces
of fulphur, and two pounds twelve ounces of charcoal. In
all cafes the ingredients are to be pounded feparately, and
finely flfted before they are ufed. Gunpowder, thus reduced
from the corns in which it is manufactured, is called meal-
powder.

Matches. — The matches to let off rockets are thus made.
Take linen, hemp, or cotton thread, and double it eight or
ten times, if intended for large rockets, or only four or five
times, if to be employed for liars. When the match is thus
made, dip it in pure water, and being foaked, it is to be
fqueezed as dry as poffible. Mix fome gunpowder with a
little water, fo as to reduce it to a kind of pafte, and im-
merfe the match in it, turning and twilling it till it has im-
bibed a fufBcient quantity of gunpowder ; then fprinkle it
over with dry powder, and when it is dry, it is fit for ufe.

In anfwer to the inquiry what caufes rockets to afcend in
the air, we may obferve, that it is nearly the fame as that
which produces a recoil in fire-arms. Thus, when powder
is inflamed in the chamber of a mufket or cannon, it exerts
its power again ft the breech of the piece, and againft the
bullet or wadding. But the refiftance oppofed by the
bullet being much lefs than that oppofed by the mafs of
the barrel or cannon, the bullet is forced out with great
velocity. Tlie caufe of the afcent of a rocket is nearly the
fame. At the moment when the powder begins to inflame,
its expanfion produces a torrent ot elailic fluid, which afts
in every direftion, that is, againfl the air which oppofes its
efcape from the cartridge, and againft the upper part of the
rocket ; but the refiftance of the air is more confiderable
than the weight of the rocket ; therefore the rocket afcends
by the excefs of the one of thefe forces over the other.
This, however, would not be the cafe unlefs the rockets
were pierced to a certain depth.

BriUiant Fire and Chinefe Fire As iron-filings, when

thrown into the fire, enflame and emit a fl:rong light, this
gave rife to the idea of rendering the fire of rockets much
more brilliant, than when gunpowder, or the fubftances of
which it is compofed, are alone employed. But the Chinefe
have long been in pofltffion of a method of rendering this
fire much more brilliant and variegated in its colours. It
confifts in the ufe of a very fimple ingredient, namely, cafl
iron reduced to a pt-wder more or lefs fine : the Chinefe
give it a name that anfwers to iron-fand m our language.
It is prepared from old iron pots pulverized, till the grains
are not larger than radifh feed. Thefe, however, are
pafFed through fieves of different degrees of fiiienefs ; thofe
that pafs through the clofeft fieve, are called fand of the firll

order ;

PYROTECHNY.

order; thore which pafs through the next fievc in fi/.f, fand
of the fccoiid onkr, and fo on. Tiiis la. id, when it in-
flames, emits an rxcecdinj^ly vivid hglit, forming alnnoft in-
rtantaneoiidy himinoiis fl.iwcrs and liars of various ajiparciit
magiiitud'-s. It Ihould be obfervcd that roelcets, into the
compofition of \v!iich iron-filings and iron-fand enter, can-
not be long jireferved, owing to their rcadinefs in attraft-
ing the moillure wiiich the fallpetrc gives out. The lol-
lowing tables exhibit the proportions of th.e diftercnt in-
gredients for rockets of this kind of from 12 to 33 lbs.

For Red Chinefe Fire.

Caliljres.

Saltpetre.

Sulpliur.

Charcoal.

Sand of tile
1ft Older.

Pounds.
12 to 15
81 — 21
24 — 36

Pounds.

I
I

I

Ounces.

3

3
4

Ounces.

4
5

6

oz. (ir.

7 0

7 «

8 0

For White Chinefe Fire.

Calibres.

Salipctre.

Mealed
Gunpowder,

tliarcoal.

Sand of the
2d Order.

Pounds.
12 to 15
18 — 21
24—36

Pounds.
I

I
I

Ounces .
12
II
II

0/. ilr.

7 8

8 0
8 8

oz. dr.
II 0

11 8

12 0

When thefe materials have been accurately weighed, the
faltpetre and charcoal muft be three times fitted through a
hair fieve, in order to their bemg well mixed : the iron-
fand is then to be moiftened with brandy to make the ful-
phur adhere, and then they are to be thoroughly incor-
porated.

The upper part of rockets is generally furnifhed with
fome compofition, which takes fire when it has reached to
its greateit: height, emits a confiderable blaze, or produces
a loud report and whizzing noife. Of this kind are fau-
ciilons, maroons, ftars, Ihowers of fire, &c. To make
room for an artifice of this kind, the rocket is crowned
with what is called a pot, which is larger than the rocket.
(See_/^. 3.) Tlie following is the method of making this
pot, and connefting it with the body of the rocket.

The mould for forming the pot, though of one piece,
muft conliil of two cylindric parts of different diameters.
That on which the pot is rolled up muft be three diameters
of the rocket in length, and its diameter muft be three
fourths that of the rocket ; the length of the other ought to
be equal to two of thefe diameters, and its diameter to
l-ths that of the rocket. Having rolled the thick paper, in-
tended for making the pot, twice round the cylinder, a
portion of it muft be pinched in that part of the cyhnder
which has the Icaft diameter : this part m.uft be pared in
fuch a manner, as to leave only what is neceliary for making
the pot faft to the top of the rocket, and the ligature muft
be covered with paper.

To charge fuch a pot, attached to a rocket. Having
pierced three or four holes in the double paper which covers
the vacuity of the rocket, pour over it a imall quantity of
the compofition with which the rocket is filled, and by
Shaking it, make a part enter thefe holes ; then arrange,
in the pot, the compofition with which it is to be ciiarged,
taking care not to introduce into it a quantity he.ivier than

the body of the rocket. The whole muft be fecured by
means of a few fmall balls of paper, to keep eve ry thing
in its place, and the pot muft be covered with paper ce-
mented to its edges : if a pointed funmiit be added to it, the
rocket is fit for ufe.

Serpents Tk-fc are fmall flying rockets, without rods,

which, inllead of rifing in a perpendicular direftion, mount
obliquely, and defccnd in a zigzag form, without afcending
to a gn-at height. The compolition of thefe is nearly
the fame as that of rockets, and the coiiilrudtion is as fol-
lows. The length, A C, </^. 4.) of the cartridge is about
four inches ; it muft be rolled on a ftick fomewhat larger
than a goofe-quill, and after being choaked at one of its
ends, it is filled beyond the middle, as to B, with the com-
pofition ; then it is to be pinched fo as to leave a fmall
aperture. The remainder, B C, muft be filled with grained
powder, which will occafion a report when it burfts.
Laftly, choak the cartridge entirely towards the extremity
C ; and at the other extremity. A, place a train of moift
powder, to which, if fire be applied, it will be communi-
cated to the compofition in the part A B, and caufe the
whole to rife in the air. The ferpent, as it falls, will make
feveral turns in a zigzag diredtion, till the fire is commu-
nicated to the grained powder in the part B C ; on which
the ferpent will burft with a loud report before it falls to
the ground. The ferpent cartridges are generally made of
playing cards. Thefe are rolled round a rod of iron or
hard wood, and to confine the card a piece of Itrong paper
is cemented over it. Larger ferpents may be made by
cementing two playing cards together, firft moiftened with
water.

Maroons are fmall cubical boxes, filled with a com-
pofition proper for making them burft. To conftruft thefe,
cut a piece of palleboard according to the method taught
in geometry to form the cube (feej%-. 5.) ; join thefe fquares
at the edges, leaving one only to be cemented, and fill the
cavity of the cube with grained powder ; then cement ftrong
paper in various diredlions over the body, and wrap round it
two rows of packthread, dipped in ftrong glue : then make
a hole in one of the corners, and introduce into it a match.
If the maroons are to be luminous, that is, which are
to give out a brilliant light before they burft, they
muft be covered with a pafte, tiie compofition of which
will be noticed below under Stars, and then rolled in meal
powder to fervs as a match or communication.

Sduciffons differ from maroons only in form. The car-
tridges of the latter are round, and muft be only four times
their exterior diameter in length. They are choaked at one
end in the fame manner as a rocket, and a pellet of paper
is driven into the aperture which has been left, in order
to fill it up. They are then charged with corn powder,
above which is placed a ball of paper, gently prefled down
to prevent the powder from being bruifed ; the fecond end
of the faucdfon being now choaked, the edges are to be
pared on both fides, and the M'hole is covered with feveral
turns of packthread, dipped in ilrong glue, and then left
to dry.

Stars are fmall globes which emit a moft brilliant light., fo
that, momentarily, they may be compared to the light of
the ftars in the heavens. Thefe balls are not larger than
a mufliet-ball, and when put into rockets they mult be
wrapped up in tow, prep.ired for the piirpofe. The com-
pofition of thefe ftars is as follows : To a pound of fine
mealed gunpowder, add four pounds of ialtpetre, and two
pounds of fulphur. When theie ingredients are thoroughly
mixed, take a piece as large as a fmall nutmeg, and having

wrapped

PYUOTECHNY.

wrappc-d it in a linen rag, or paper, form it into a ball ; then
tie it (lofely round with packthread, and pierce a hole
through the middle of it, large enough to recerve a piece
of prepared tow, which is to ferve as a match. This, when
lighted, will exhibit a inoft beautiful appearance ; becauie
the fire as it iflues from the two ends of the hole in the
middle will extend to a great diftance, and will make it
feem very much larger than it ailually is.

There are other compoiitions for ilars; viz. with three
ounces of faltpetre, mix one ounce of fulphur, and two
drachms of mealed gunpowder; or with eight ounces ot
mealed powder, mix four ounces of fulphur, and the lame
quantity of faltpetre. When thefe materials have been well
Sfted, and fprinkled over with brandy, in which a Imall
euantity of gum has been diffolved, the Rar is made in the
following manner. Take a rocket mould eight or nine
lines in diameter, and introduce into it a nipple, the piercer
of which is of an uniform lize throughout, and equal m length
to the height of the mould. Put into this mould a car-
tridge, and by means of a pierced rod load it with one
of the preceding compofitions ; when loaded, take it from
the mould, without removing the nipple, the piercer of
which paiies through the compofition, and then cut the
cartridge quite round into pieces of the tlucknefs of three
or four lines. The cartridge being thus cut, draw out
the piercer gently, and the pieces which refemble the men
employed for playing at drafts, pierced through the mid-
dle, will be ftars, which muft be filed on a match thread,
that may be covered with tow. To give more brilliancy to
ftars of this kind, a cartridge thicker than that already
defcribed, and thinner than that of a flying rocket of the
fame fize, may be employed ; but before it is cut in pieces,
five or fix holes mull be pierced in the circumference of
each piece to be cut. When the cartridge is cut, and the
pieces have been filed, cement over the compofition fmall bits
of a card, each having a hole in the middle, fo that thefe holes
may correfpond to the place where the compofition is
pierced.

Etoiles a Pet are made in the fame way nearly as fau-
ciffons already defcribed, only that it will not be necefl'ary
to cover them with packthread : it will be fufficient if they
are pierced at one end, in order that ftars may be fattened
to them, conftrufted according to the firft method, the
compofition of which is dry ; for if the compofition be in
the form of pafte, there will be no need to tie it. In this
cafe, a little more of the paper muft be left hollow at
the end of the fauciffon which has been pierced for the
purpofe of introducing the compofition, and to place in the
vacuity, towards the neck of the faucilTon, fome grained
powder, which will communicate fire to the fauciflbn when
the compofition is confumed.

Shoiuer of Fire. — To form this fort of fire-work, mould
fmall paper cartridges on an iron-rod two lines and a half
in diameter, and make them two inches and a half in
length. They muft not be choaked, it being fufficient to
twift the end of the cartridge, and having put the rod into
it to beat it, in order to make it affume its proper form.
When the cartridges are filled, which is done by immerfing
them in the compofition, fold down the other end, and then
apply a match. This will fill the furrounding air with an
undulating fire. The following compofitions are given as
proper for ftars of this kind.

Chitufe /^iVf.^-Mealed gunpowder one pound, fulphur
two ounces, iron-fand of the firft order five ounces.

Ancient Fire. — Mealed gunpowder one pound, charcoal
two oiucci.

Brilliant Fire. — Mealed gunpowder one pound, iron-filings
four ounces. The firft of thefe compofitions is thought to
be the moft beautiful.

Sparks differ from ftars only in their fize and duration,
for they are made fmallcr than ftars, and are confumed
fooner. They are thus prepared. Having put into an
earthen veflel an ounce of mealed gunpowder, two ouncet
of pulverized faltpetre, one ounce of liquid faltpetre, and
four ounces of camphor reduced to powder, pour over
this mixture fome gum-water, or brandy in which gum has
been diffolved, till tlie compofition becomes of the confid-
ence of tliick foup. Then take fome lint which has been
foaked in brandy, or in viiAgar, or even in a folution of
faltpetre, and being dried and unravelled, throw into the
mixture fuch a quantity of it as is fufficient to abforb it
entirely, taking care to Itir it well. This compofition may
be formed into fmall balls about the fize of a pea, and being
dried in the (hade, and fprinked with mealed powder, they
will readily catch fire.

Sparks may be made by the following method : Take
faw-duft of fir, poplar, &c. and boil it in water in which
faltpetre has been dilTolved. When the water has boiled
fome time, it is to be poured oft', that the faw-duft may re-
main in the vefil-l. When nearly dry, it is to be fpread
out on a table, and fprinkled with fulphur fifted through
a very fine ficve, to which may be added a little mealed
powder.

Golden Rain. — Some dying rockets, which, as they fall,
make fmall undulations in the air like frizzled hair, are
called by the French writers fusees cbevelues, and by ua
bearded rockets ; they finifh with a kind of ftiower of fire,
which is called golden rain, and they are conftrufted in the
following m. nner. Fill the barrels of fome goofe-quills with
the compofition of flymg rockets, and place upon the
mouth of each a httle molft gunpowder, both to keep in
the compofition, and to ferve as a match. If a flying
rocket be then loaded with thefe quills, they will produce
at the end a beautiful Ihower of fire, which is denominated
golden rain.

Conrantins, or Rockets thatjly along a Rope. — A rocket may
be made to run along an extended rope, by affixing to the
rocket an empty cartridge, and introducing into it the rope
which is to carry it along. Place the head of the rocket to-
wards that fide to which you intend it to move ; if it be then
fet fire to, it will run along the rope without ftoppiug till
the matter it contains is entirely exhaufted. If the rocket
is to move in a retrograde direftion, firft fill one hilf of it
with the compofition, and cover it with a fmall round piece
of wood, to ferve as a partition between it, and that put into
the other half ; then make a hole below this partition, fo aa
to correfpond with a fmall canal filled with bruifed powder,
and terminating at the other end of the rocket. By thefe
means the fire, when it ceafes in the firft half of the rocket,
will be communicated through the hole into the fmall canal,
which will convey it to the other end ; and this end being
then kindled, the rocket will move backwards, and return
to the place from whence it fet out.

Two rockets of equal fize, bound together by ftrong
packthread, and fo arranged that the head of the one ftiall
be oppofite to the neck of the other, in order that when ths
fire has confumed the compofition in the one, it may be
communicated to that in the other, and oblige both of them
to move in a retrograde direftion, may likewife be adjufted
to the rope by means of a piece of hollow reed. Rockets
of this kind are generally employed for fetting fire to various
other pieces when large fire-works are exhibited ; and to

render

PYROTECHNY.

render them mftre llrikiiig, they are made in the form of
different animals, fuch as ferpents, dragons, Sec.

To give a rocket a kind of rotatory motion around the
rope along vvhicli it advances, it will be fufficient to tie to
it another rocket, placed in a tranfverfal direftion. But
the aperture of the latter, inllead of being at the bottom,
ought to be in the fide, near one of the ends. If both
rockets be fired at the fame time, the latter will make the
other revolve around the rope, while it advances along il.

Roclets which burn in the Water. — In thefe there mud be a
confiderable variation in the conftruftion of the mould, and
alfo in the materials of which they are compoied. The
mould may be eight or nine inches ii? length, and an inch in
diameter : the former, on which the cartridge is rolled up,
may be nine lines in thicknefs. The compofition fiiould
confiil of three materials mixed together, viz. three ounces
of mealed powder, one pound of faltpetre, and eight ounces
of fulpliur. If the rocket is to appear on the water with a
beautiful tail, the cjmpofition mull confift of eight ounces
of gunpowder, one poiijid of faltpetre, eight ounces of
pounded and finely fifted fulphur, and two ounces of char-
coal. When the compofition has been prepared according
to thefe proportions, and the rocket has been filled in the
manner above defcribed, apply a laucidon to the end of it,
and having covered the rocket with wax, pitch, &c. attach
to it a fmall rod of white willow, about two feet \\\ length,
that the rocket may conveniently float. If it be required
that thefe rockets fiiould plunge down, and again rife up,
a certain quantity of mealed gunpowder, without any mix-
ture, muft be introduced into them, at certain diftances.

A rocket which is fired in the water, and, after burning
there half the time of its duration, mounts into the air with
great velocity, may be thus conftrufted. Take a Jlfnig
rocket, furnilhed with a rod, and by means of a little glue
attach it to a water-rocket, but only at the middle, A, {fg. 6.)
in fuch a manner that the latter (hall have its neck upper-
mod, and the other its neck downward. Adjud to their
extremity, B, a fmall tube, to communicate the fire from the
one to the other, and cover both with a coating of pitch,
wax, &c. that they may not be damaged by the water.
Then attach to the flying rocket, after it has been thus ce-
mented to the aquatic one, a rod, as D, and from F fufpend
a piece of packthread, to fupport a mulket bullet E, made
fad to the rod by means of a needle or piece of iron wire.
When thefe arrangements have been made, fet fire to the
part C after the rocket is in the water ; and when the com-
pofition is confumed to B, the fire will be communicated
through the fmall tube to the other rocket ; the latter will
then rife and leave the other, which will not be able to
follow it, on account of the weight adhering to it.

Globes and Fire-BaUs are made in different forms, vi%.
fpherical, fpheroidal, or cylindrical. The fpherical are
made in the following manner. Condrutt a hollow wooden
globe of any fize at pleafure, and very round both within
and without, fo that its thicknefs, A C or B D, (jig. 7.) may
be about the ninth part of its diameter A B, and having an
aperture, L M or O N, equal to the thicknefs A C or B D,
that is, to the ninth part of the diameter A B. It is through
this aperture that fire is communicated to the gk)be, ivhen
it has been filled with the pi-oper compofition, through the
lower aperture IK. A petard of metal, loaded with good
grained powder, is to be introduced alfo through the lower
aperture, and to be placed horizontally. The aperture I K,
which is nearly equal to the thicknefs, E F or G H, of the
cyhnder E F G H, is to be clofed by means of a wooden
tompion dipped in warm pitch ; and melt over it fuch a
quantity of lead that its weight may caufe the globe to fink

Vol. XXIX.

in water, till nothing remain above it but the part G H ;
which will be the cafe if tlic vreight of the lead, with that
of the globe and the compofition, be equal to the weight
of an equal volume of water. If the globe be then placed
in the water, the lead, by its gravity, will keep the aperture,
I K, diredly dov/nwards, and the cylinder, E. F G H, in a
perpendicular diredtiun, to wiiicii fire mull have been pre-
vioufly applied. The compofition witii wiiich tiic globe
mud be filled, is as follows : to a pound of corned powder,
add thirty-two pounds of faltpetre, eight pounds of fulphur,
one ounce of fcraped ivory, and eigiit pounds of faw-
dud previoufly boiled in a folution of faltpetre, and dried in
the open air.

Globes "jjhich leap or roll on the Ground. - Having con-
drufted a wooden globe A, (Jig. 8.) with a cylinder C, iimilar
to the one jud defcribed, and having loaded it with the
fame compofition, introduce into it fi)iir or even more
petards, loaded witii good corned powder to their orifices,
as is (hewn at A B, which mud be well (lopped with paper
or tow. If a globe, prepared in this manner, be fired by
means of a match at C, it will leap about as it burns, on a
fmooth horizontal plane, according as the petards ai-e fet on
fire. The petards may be affixed to the exterior furface of
the globe, as is feen in the figure, which they will caufe to
roll and leap as they catch fire.

Aerial Globes, called Bombs. — Thefe glubes are called
aerials, becaufe they are thrown into the air from a mortar.
Though they are of wood, and have a fuitable thicknefs,
yet they are liable to biird unlcfs the charge be nicely pro-
portioned to their itrength. The ufual quantity is an ounce
of powder for a globe of four pounds weight ; two ounces
for one of eight, and fo on. As the chamber of tlie mortar
may be too large to contain the exadt quantity of powder
fufficient for the fire-ball, which ought to be placed imme-
diately above the powder, in order that it may be expelled
and fet on fire at the fame time, another mortar may be con-
dructed of wood, or of pade-board with a wooden bottom,
which may be put into tlie large iron mortar, to be loaded
with a quantity of powder proportioned to the weight of
the globe. This fmall mortar mud be of light wood, or of
paper palled together, and rolled up in the form of a cylin-
der, but the bottom muft be of wood. The chamber for
the powder muft be pierced obliquely, fo that the aperture
may correfpond to the aperture of the metal mortar, then
the fire applied to the latter may be communicated to the
powder which is at the bottom of the chamber, immediately
below the globe.

The globe muft be filled with feveral pieces of reed or
cane, or common reed equal in length to the interior height
of the globe, and charged with a (low compofition, made
of three ounces of mealed gunpowder, an ounce of fulphur
moidened with a fmall quantity of petroleum oil, and two
ounces of charcoal ; and ui order that thefe reeds or canes
may catch fire the fooner, and with more facility, they muft
be charged at the lower ends, which reft on the bottom of
the globe, with pulverized gunpowder moidened with pe-
troleum oil or brandy, and then drie-^. The bottom ot the
globe ought to be covered with gunpowder, partly mealed
and partly corned, which, when fet on fire, will communi-
cate the lire to the lower p:ut of the reed. Inftead of reeds,
the globe may be charged with running rockets, or paper
petards, and a quantity of fiery ftars or fparks mixed with
mealed powder placed above thele petards, which mull be
choaked at unequal heights, that they may produce their
efFeftsat different times.

Jets of Fire are a fort of fixed rockets, the effefl of which
is to tlurow up into the air jets of fire fimilar to jets of water.

N They

PYROTECHNY.

"fhey ferve alfo to reprefent cafcades, for if a feries of fuch
rockets be placed horizontally on the fame line, it may be
eafily feen that the fire wliich they emit will refemble a fheet
of water. When arranged in a circular form, like the
radii of a circle, they form what is called a fixed fun. To
form jets of this kind, the cartridge for brilliant fires muft, in
thicknefs, be equal to a fourth part of the diameter, and
for Chinefe fire only a iJxth part. The cartridge is loaded
on a nipple, having a point equal in length to the fame dia-
meter, and in thicknefs to a fourth part of it ; but as it
generally happens that the mouth of the jet becomes larger
than is neceflary for the effeft of the fire, the cartridge muft
be filled equal to a fourth part of the diameter with clay,
which muil be rammed down. This will make the jet afcend
much higher. When the charge is completed with the
proper compofition, the cartridge mull be clofed with a
tompion of wood, above which it muft be choaked. Jets
intended for reprefenting (heets of fire ought not to be
choaked. They muft be placed in a horizontal pofition, or
inclined a little downwards. The following are the prin-
cipal compofitions for jets of fire.

1. For Jets of half an Inch or Itfs in Diameter. — Chinefe
Jire : Saltpetre and mealed powder lib. each ; fulphur S

ounces; charcoal 2 ounces. — White fire : Saltpetre ilb. ;
mealed powder 8 ounces ; fulphur 3 ounces ; charcoal 2
ounces ; iron-fand of the firft order 8 ounces.

2. For Jets of an Inch or lefs in Diameter. — Brilliant fire :
Mealed powder lib., iron-lilings 5 ounces. — White fire :
Saltpetre and mealed powder lib. each ; fulphur 8 ounces ;
charcoal 2 ounces. — Chinefe fire : Saltpetre 16 ounces ; ful-
phur 5 ounces ; charcoal 5 ounces ; iron-fand of the third
order 1 2 ounces.

3. For Jets 0/" 15 or 18 Lines in Diameter. — Chinefe fire ;
Saltpetre 16 L:u:;ces ; fulphur 7 ounces ; charcoal 5 ounces ;
of the feveral different kinds of iron-fand mixed 12 ounces.

Fires of different Colours. — For white fire the gunpowder
muft be mixed with iron or rather fteel-filings : for red fire,
iron-fand of the firft order muft be employed in the lame
way. Camphor mixed with the ufual compofition is faid to
make the flame appear of a pale white colour. Raipings of
ivory give a clear flame of a Clver colour.

Pafle for reprefenting Animals, \^c. in Fire. — Take fulphur
reduced to a very fine powder, and having formed it into
a pafte with ftarch, cover it with the figure of the thing to
be reprefented, having firft coated it with clay to prevent it
from being burnt. After the figure is covered with the
pafte, it muft be fprinkled, while moift, with gunpowder ;
and when the whole is perfectly dry, arrange about it feveral
fmall matches, that the fire may be fpeedily communicated
to it on all fides. In this way all forts of garlands, feftoons,
and other ornaments, may be imitated by fire of different
colours.

Suns,flxed and moveable. — For fixed funs, let a round piece
of wood be cut, into the circumference of which are to be
fcrewed twelve or fifteen pieces in the form of radii, to
which are to be attached jets of fire, of the compofition
defcribed above ; fo that they may appear as radii tending
to the fame centre, the mouth of the jet being towards the
circumference. Apply a match in fuch a manner that the
fire communicated at the centre, may be conveyed at the
fame time to the mouth of each of the jets, by which
means, each throwing out its fire, there will be produced the
appearance of a radiating fun, that is, fuppofing the w'i;el
is placed in a pofition perpendicular to the horizon. The
rockets or jets may be fo arranged ai to crofs each other in
an angular manner, in which cafe, inftcad of a fun, you will
have a ftar, or a crofs. Some of thefe funs are made alfo

with feveral rows of jett, which are called glories. For re-
volving funs, provide a wooden wheel, and attach to the cir.
cumference fire -jets placed in the diredlion of the circum-
ference : they muft not be choaked at the bottom, and ought
to be arranged in fuch a manner, that the mouth of the one
fliall be near the bottom of the other, fo that when the fire
of the one is ended, it may immediately proceed to another.
When the fire is apphed to one of thefe jets, the recoil of
the rocket will make the wheel turn round, unlefs it he too
large and ponderous. For this reafon, when thefe iuns are
of a confiderable fize, that is, when they confift of perhaps
twenty rockets, fire muft be communicated at the fame time to
the firft, the fixth, eleventh, and fixteenth, from which it will
proceed to the fecond, the feventh, the twelfth, the feven-
teenth, and fo on. Thefe four rockets will make the wheel
turn round with great rapidity. If two fimilar funs be
placed one behind the other, and are made to turn in a con-
trary direftion, they will produce a fine effedt of crofs-
fire.

Making, loading, and firing Pols des Brins. — Thefe are
made of palle-board, and muft be rolled pretty tlnck ; ufually
made three or four inches in diameter, and four diameters
long, and pinched with a neck at one end, like common cafes.
A number of thefe are placed on a plank thus : having
fixed on a plank two rows of wooden pegs, cut in the bot-
tom of the plank a groove the whole length under each row
of pegs ; then, through the centre of each peg, bore a
hole down to the groove at bottom, and on every peg fix and
glue a pot, whofe mouth muft fit tight on the peg : through
all the holes run a quick-match, one end of which muft go
into the j;ot, and the other into the groove, which muft
have a match laid in it from end to end, and covered with
paper, fo that, when lighted at one end, it may difcharge
the whole almoft inftantaneoufly : in all the pots put about
one ounce of meal and corn powder ; then in fome put ftars,
and others rains, fnakes, ferpents, crackers, &c. : when they
are all loaded, pafte paper over their mouths. Two or
three hundred of thefe pots being fired together, make a
ver)- pretty (how, by aff^ording fo great a variety of fires.
Fig. 9. is a range of pots des brins, with the leader A, by
which they are fired.

Caduceus Rockets, in rifing, form two fpiral lines, or dou-
ble worm, by reafon of their being placed obliquely, one
oppofite the other ; and their couRterpoife is in their centre,
which caufes them to rife in a vertical direftion. Rockets
for this purpofe muft have their ends choaked clofe, without
either head or bounce, for a weight at top would be a great
obftruftion to their mounting ; though they have been known
fometimes to be bounced, but then they did not rife fo high
as thofe that were not ; nor do any caduceus rockets afcend
fo high as fingle, becaufe of their ferpentine motion, and
hkev.nfe the refiftance of air, which is much greater than two
rockets of the fame fize would meet with, if fired fingly.

By fg. 10. we fee the method of fixing thefe rockets :
the fticks for this purpofe muft have all their fides equal,
which fides fliould be equal to the breadth of a ftick proper
for a (Icy-rocket of the fame weight as thofe we intend to
ufe, and to taper downwards as ufual, long enough to ba-
lance them, one length of a rocket, from the crofs ftick,
which muft be placed from the large ftick, fix diameters of
one of the rockets, and its length feven diameters ; fo that
each rocket, when tied on, may form with the large ftick an
angle of fixty degrees. In tying on the rockets, place their
heads on the oppofite fides of the crofs ftick, and their ends
on the oppofite fides of the long ftick ; then carry a leader
from the mouth of one into that of the other. When thefe
rockets are to be fired, fufpend them between two hooks or

nails.

PYROTECHNY.

nails, then burn the leader through the middle, and both
will take fire at the fame time. Rockets of one pound arc a
good fize for this ufe.

Illuminated fpiral Wheel. — Firfl: have a circular horizontal
wheel, made two feet in diameter, with a hole quite through
the nave ; then take three thin pieces of deal, three feet
long each, and three quarters of an inch broad each : one
end of each of thefe pieces nail to the fell of the wheel, at
an equal diflance from one another, and the oth"r end nail
to a block with a hole in its bottom, which mufl be perpen-
dicular with that in the block of the wheel, but not fo large.
The wheel being l.hus made, take a hoop planed down very
tliin and flat ; then nail one end of it to the fell of the wheel,
and wind it round the three flicks in a fpiral line, from the
wheel to the block at top : on the top of this block fix a
cafe of Chinefe fire ; on the wheel you may place any num-
ber of cafes, which mufl incline downwards, and burn two
at a time. If the wheel fliould confift of ten cafes, you
may let the illuminations and Chinefe fire begin with the fe-
cond cafes. The fpindle for this wheel mull be a little
longer than the cone, and made very fmooth at top, on
which the upper block is to turn, and the whole weight of
tlie wlieel to reft. See Jig. 1 1 .

Fruilont Wheels. — Firll take a nave, made nine inches
long, and three in diameter : near the bottom of this nave
fix eight fpokes, with a hole in the end of each, large enough
to receive a two or four-ounce cafe : each of thefe fpokes
may be fourteen inches long from the block. Near the top
of this block fix eight more of the fame fpokes, exaftly over
the others, but not fo long by two inches. As this wheel is
to run horizontally, all the cafes in the fpokes at top muft
play obliquely upwards, and all of them in the fpokes at
bottom obliquely downwards. This being done, take a
fmall horizontal wheel, made with eight fpokes, each
five inches long from the block ; on the top of this
wheel place a cafe of brilliant lire : all the cafes on this
wheel mufl play in an oblique diredlion downwards, and
burn two at a time, and thole on the large wheel four at a
time ; that is, two of thofe in the top fet of fpokes, and
two of them in the bottom fet of fpokes. The four firfl
cafes on the large wheel, and the two firfl on the fmall, muft
be fired at the fame time, and the brilliant fire at top, at the
beginning of the laft cafes. The cafes of the wheels may
be filled with a grey charge. When thefe wheels are com-
pleted, you mufl have a Itrong iron fpindle, made four feet
fix inches long, and fixed perpendicular on the top of a
ftand : on this put the large wheel, whofe nave muft have a
hole quite through, from the bottom to the top. This
hole muft be large enough to turn eafy round the bottom of
the fpindle, at which place there mufl be a fhoulder, to
keep the wlieel from touching the ftand : at the top of the
fpindle put the fmall wheel, and join it to a large one with a
leader, in order to fire them both together.

IHuwlnated Globes, tvith horizontal Wheels. — The hoops
for tliefe globes may be made of wood, tin, or iron wire,
about two feet in diameter. For a fingle globe take two
hoops, and tie them together, one within the other, at right
angles ; then have a horizontal wheel made, whofe diameter
mufl be a little wider than the globe, and its nave fix inches
long, on the top of which the globe is fixed, fo as to ftand
three or four inches from the wheel : on this wheel you may
put any number of cafes,, filled with what charge you like ;
but let two of them burn at a time : they may be placed
horizontally, or to incline downwards, juft as you choofe.
Now, when the wheel is clothed, fix on the hoops as many
illuminations as will ftand within two inches and a half of each
other : thefe you faften on the hoops with fmall iron binding

wire ; and when they are all on, put on your pipes of com-
munication, which muft be fo m/naged as to light them all
with the fecond or third cafe on the wheel. The fpindle
on which the globe is to run muft go through the block of
the wheel, up to the infide of the top of the globe, where
muft be fixed a bit of brafs or iron, with a hole in it to re-
ceive the pomt of the fpindle, on which the whole weight of
the wheel is to bear, as in_^. 12, which reprefents a globe
on its fpindle. By this method may be made a crown, which
is done by having the hoops bent in the form of a crown.
Sometimes globes and crowns are ordered foasto ftand ftill,
and the wheel only to turn round ; but when you would
have the globe or crown to Hand flill, and the wheel to run
by itfelf, the block of the wheel mufl not be fo long, nor
the fpindle any longer, than to jufl raife the globe a little
above the wlieel, and the wheel-cafes and illumination muft
begin together.

Dodecahedron, fo called becaufe it nearly reprefents a
twelve-fided figure, and is made thus. Firft take a ball,
turned out of fome hard wood, fourteen inches in diameter :
when done, divide its furface into fourteen equal parts, from
which bore lioles an inch and a half in diameter perpen-
dicular to the centre, fo that they may all meet in the mid-
dle : then let thei-e be turned in the infide of each hole a
female fcrew ; and to all the holes, but one, muft be made a
round fpoke, five feetlong, with four inches of the fcrew atone
end, to fit the holes ; then in the fcrew end of all the fpokes
bore a hole, five inches up, which muft be bored flanting, fo
as to come out at one fide, a little above the fcrew ; from
which cut a fmall groove along the fpoke, within fix inches
of the other end, where you make another hole through to
the other fide of the fpoke : in this end fix a fpindle, on
which put a fmall wheel, of three or four fides, each fide fix
or feven inches long : thefe fides muft have grooves cut in
them, large enough to receive a two or four-ounce cafe :
when thefe wheels are clothed, put them on the fpindles,
and at the end of each fpindle put a nut, to keep the wheel
from falling off : the wheels being thus fixed, carry a pipe
from the mouth of the firfl cafe on each wheel, through the
hole in the fide of the fpoke, and from thence along the
groove, and through the other hole, fo as to hang out at
the fcrew end about an inch. The fpokes being all prepared
in this manner, you muft have a poft, on which you intend to
fire the work, with an iron fcrew in the top of it, to fit one
of the holes in the ball : on this fcrew fix the ball ; then in
the top hole of the ball put a little meal powder, and fome
loofe quick-match ; then fcrew in all the fpokes, and in one
fide of the ball bore a hole, in which put a leader, and fecure
it at the end ; and your work will be ready to be fired. By
this leader the powder and match in the centre are fired, which
will light the match at the ends of the fpokes all at once,
whereby all the wheels will be lighted at once. There may
be an addition to this piece, by fixing a fmall globe on each
wheel, or one on the top wheel only. A grey charge will
be proper for the wheel-cafes.

Tetu-tree of briUiant Fire, is reprefented hjjig. 1 3, as it
appears when burning. Firft, let A be an upright piece of
wood, four feet long, two inches broad, and one thick ; at
top of this piece, on the flat fide, fix a hoop, fourteen inches
in diameter ; and round its edge and front place illuminations,
and in the centre a five-pointed ftar ; then at E, which is
one foot and a half from the edge of the hoop, place two
cafes of brilliant fire, one on each fide : thefe cafes fhould
be one foot long each : below thefe fix two more cafes of
the fame fize, and at fuch a diftance, that their mouths may
almoft meet them at top : then, clofe to the ends of thefe
cafes, fix two more of the fame cafes ; they muft ftand pa.
N 2 rallel

PYROTECHNi:.

Vallel to tlicm at E. The calos being thus fixed, clothe them
with leaders, fo that they, with the illuminations and ftw at
lop, may all take fire together.

Illuminated Tew-tree.~Y'\rVi have a tree made of wood,
fuch as is fhewn hy fg. 14. The middle piece, or ftem, on
which the branches are fixed, muft be eight feet fix inches
high : at the bottom of this piece draw a line, at right
angles, two feet fix inches long at each fide ; then from L,
which is one foot fix inches from the bottom, draw a hne
on each fide to C and D ; thefe lines will give the length of
the two firft branches. Then put on the two top branches
parallel to them at bottom : let the length of each of
thefe branches be one foot from the Item : from the ends of
thefe two branches draw a line to C and D ; then fix on five
more branches at an equal diftance from each other, and
their length will be determined by the lines A C and E D.
When the branches are fixed, place illuminating port-fires
on the top of each, as many as you clioofe : liehind the top
of the ftem faften a gerbe, or white fountain, which mull
be fired at the beginning of the illuminations on the tree.

Maon and Seven Stars. — Let^-f . 1 5. be a fmooth circular
board, fix feet diameter ; out of the middle of it cut a cir-
cular piece twelve or fourteen inches diameter, and over the
vacancy put white Perfian filk, on which paint a moon's
face ; then let I, I, I, &c. be liars each four or five inches in
diameter, cut out with five points, and covered with oiled
filk : on the front of the large circular board draw a feven •
pointed liar, as large as the circle will allow ; then on the
lines which form this ftar bore holes, wherein fix pointed
ftars. When this piece is to be fired, it mull be fixed upon
the front of a port, on a fpindle, with a wheel of brilliant
fire behind the face of the moon ; fo that while the wheel
burns, the moon and ftars will appear tranfparent, and when
the wheel has burnt out, they will difappear, and the large
ftar in front, which is formed of ftars, will begin, being
lighted by a pipe of communication from the laft cafe of
the vertical wheel, behind the moon : this pipe muft be
managed in the fame manner as thofe in regulated pieces.

Pin IVhcch Firft roll fome paper pipes, about fourteen

inches long each ; thefe pipes muft not be made thick of
paper, two or three rounds of elephant paper being fuf-
ticient. When your pipes are thoroughly dried, you muft
have made a tin tube, twelve inches long, to fit eafy into
the pipes : at one end of this tube fix a fmall conical cup,
which do.ne is called a funnel ; then bend one end of one of
the pipes, and put the funnel in at the other, as far as it
will reach, and fill the cup with compofition ; then draw
out the funnel by a little at a time, (baking it up and down,
and it will fill the pipe as it comes out. Having filled fome
pipes, and made fome fmall blocks, about an inch in dia-
meter, and half an inch thick ; round one of thefe blocks
wind and pafte a pipe, and to the end of this pipe join an-
other ; which mnit be done by twifting the end of one pipe
to a point, and putting it into the end of the other, with a
little pafte ; in this manner join four or five pipes, winding
them one upon the other, fo as to form a fpiral line. Hav-
ing wound on your pipes, pafte two flips of paper acrofs
them, to hold them together : befides thefe flips of paper
the pipes muft be pafted together.

There is another method of making thefe wheels, called
the French, which is, by winding on the pipe without
pafte, and fticking them together with fealing wax, at every
half-turn ; fo that, when they are fired, the end will fall
loofe every time the fire palles the wax ; by which means the
circle of fire will be confiderably increafed. The formers
for thefe pipes are made from one-half to four-fixteenths of
an inch diameter, and the compofition for them as follows ;

7

meal powder eight ounces, faltpetre two ounces, and ful-
phur one : among thefe ingredients may be mixed a little
lleel-filings, or the duft of caft-iron : this compofition fliould
be very dry, and not made too fine, or it will ftick in the
funnel. Thefe wheels may be fired on a large pin, and held
in the hand with fafety.

Placing Fire-tuorhs to be exhibited, with the Order of
Firing. Nothing adds more to the appearance of fire-works,
than the placing them properly ; though the manner of
placing them chiefly depends on the judgment of the maker.
We fliall give fuch rules here, as have been generallyobferved ;
for example, whether your works are to be fired on a build-
ing, or on ftands. If they are a double fet, place one wheel
of a fort on each fide of the building ; and next to each of
them, towards the centre, place a fixed piece, then wheels,
and fo on, leaving a fufficient diftance between them, for
the fire to play from one without burning the other. Hav-
ing fixed fome of your works thus in front, place the reft
behind them, in the centre of their intervals : the largeft
piece, which is generally a regulated or tranfparant piece,
muft be placed in the centre of the building, and behind it
a fun, which muft always ftand above all the other works :
a little before the building, or ftands, place your large
gerbcs ; and at the back of the works, fix your maroon
batteries, pots des aigrettes, pots des brins, pots des fau-
cillons, air-balloons, and flights of rockets : the rocket-
ftands may be fixed behind, or any where elfe, fo as not to
be in the way of the works.

Single colleftions are fired on ftands, which ftands are
made in the fame manner as theodolite ftands, only the top
part muft be long or fhort occafionally : thefe ftands may
be fixed up very foon without much trouble. Having given
fufficient inftruftions for placing of fire-works, we fttall pro-
ceed with the manner of firing them.

I.

2.

3-

4-
5-
6.

7-
8.

9-
10.
11.
12.

13-

14.

15-
16.

I"-
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

23-
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30-
31-

Order of Firing.
Two fignal "I

rp / > rockets.

i wo honorary I

Four caduceus J

1 T wo J fpS' } ^'^'^'^ iUuminated.
J i_ tranfparent ftars.

A line rocket of five changes.

Four tourbillons.
~) ("horizontal wheels.

I I air-balloons illuminated.

j> Two <| Chinefe fountains.

I I regulating pieces of four mutations each.

J (^pots des aigrettes.

Three large gerbes.

A flight of rockets.

1 ~ f balloon wheels.

J \ cafcades of brilliant fire.

Twelve iky-rockets.

}ry, f illuminated yew-trees.
Two -{ • ' -

(.31

air-balloons of ferpents, and two compound.

Four tourbillons.
7 ™ f Fruiloni wheels.
J \ illuminated globes with horizontal wheels.

One pot des fauciflfons.

Two plural wheels.

Marron battery.

Two chandeliers illuminated.

Range of pots des brins.

Twelve fliy-rockets.

Two yew-trees of fire.

32. Neft

P Y R

P Y R

52. Neft of ferpents.

53. Two double cones illuminated.

34. Regulating piece of ieveii mutations, viz,

1. Vertical wheel illuminated.

2. Golden glory.

3. Ottagon vertical wheel.

4. Porcupine's quills.

5. Crofs fires.

6. Star piece with brilliant rays.

7. Six vertical wheels.

35. Brilliant fun.

36. Large flight of rockets.

When water-works are to be exhibited, divide them into
feveral fets, and fire one fet after every fifth or fixth change
of land and air-works. Obferve this rule in firing a double
fet of works ; always to begin with iky-rockets, then two
moveable pieces, then two fixed pieces, and fo on ; ending
with a large flight of rockets, or a maroon battery : if a
fingle coUeftion, fire a fixed piece after every wheel or two,
and now and then fome air and water-works. Jones's Fire-
works, 8vo. 1776.

PYROTECHNICAL Spunge. See Spunge.

PYROTICS, nufoinxct, formed from ■ujvfyjire, in Medi-
cine, cauftics, or remedies, either aftually or potentially hot ;
and which, accordingly, will burn the fleih, and raife an
efchar.

PYROUET. See Pirouette.

PYROXENE, in Mineralogy. See AuGlTE and Lava.

According to Haliy, the mineral called augite by Werner
is the black or greenifh-black variety of pyroxene found is
volcanic countries and in bafalt. The primitive form of the
cryitals of pyroxene is an oblique rhomboidal prifm.

The greyifh-green tranfparent pyroxene, with the forms
of the cryftals diltinftly marked, from the department of the
Po, is the alalite of Bouvoifin. Journal des Mines, N'^ 115.

The greyifh-green, or whiti(h-grey variety, the primitive
cryitals of which are mdiflinA, from the fame deparment,
were called by Bouvoifin mallite. Both thefe varieties have
been called by fome mineralogifts diopfide.

The greyirti-green and obfcure green perioftahedral va-
riety of pyroxene, is the fahlite of Werner, called alfo ma-
locolithe by Haiiy. The mineral called coccolite, difcovered
by Dandrada at the iron mines of Sudermannland and Nerika,
in Sweden, and Arendahl in Norway, is alfo brought under
the fpecies pyroxene by Haiiy. Tableau Comparatif.

By reducing many varieties of minerals under one fpecies,
Haiiy may be confidered as having rendered an additional fer-
vice to mineralogy, already too much loaded with pedantic or
unmeaning terms ; but the term pyroxene itfelf may be juftly
©bjetled to, as being founded not on anydiilinft character, but
on the hypothetical ailumption that thefe cryftals are foreign
to the igneous produfts in which they are imbedded, an af-
fumption for which there does not appear fufficient proof.
The conftituent parts of pyroxene, its fpecific gravity and
hardnefs, fo nearly agree with thofe of bafaltic hornblende,
that thefe- fubftances ought perhaps to be claded as varieties
of the fame fpecies, without regarding the fmall difference
of their crylialline forms. See Hornblende.

Pyroxene en Roche, or Rr,ch Pyroxene. In the Journal
des Mines, Nov. 1812, a defcription is given of entire
-rocks compofed of pyroxene, difcovered by J. Charpentier
in the Pyrenees. The fubftance is homogeneous, of a tex-
ture commonly granularly lamellar, which in fome pieces
becomes flaty. Its molt common colour is green of various

• ftiadcs, from an olive green to an emerald green, fometimes
cloudy but often clear. From a greenifli-grey it pafies to a

• reddifi) brown and ochre yellow. It is amorphous. The

luftre is fplendent. Its fratturc is lamellar, and has a tvyo*
fold cleavage equally pcrfeit, crolling at an angle of about
92°. In other directions the frafture is cither impcrfdtly
lamellar or csnchoidal. It fcratches glafs, and gives fome
fparks with fleel. It melts with gruat difficulty by the
blowpipe, but with borax it eafily forms a green glafs.
M. Vogel has analyfed tliis mineral, and difcovred chrome
in the green fpecimen. From the detailed defcription of
this rock, it appears nearly allied to fchiilole, fpar, and fer-
pentine. It is frequently intimately combined with talc, in
which ftate it is not eafy to dillinguilh it from ferpentine.
Rock pyroxene 15 found in beds in the primitive limcllone,
tliat forms vaft mountains fuperincumbent on granite, ex-
tending from the valley of VicdefTos, in the department of
Arriege, to St. Beat, in the valley of Garonne. The maffes
of rock pyroxene are of extraordinary fize, extending in
length 5000 toifes. Its thickncfs is difficult to determine,
but is fuppofed to exceed 300 toifes. Charpentier is dif-
pofed to clals rock pyroxene as an intermediate rock be-
tween hornblende and ferpentine, and fubordinate to primi-
tive limeftone. It neither contains foreign beds nor mineral
veins, and is lefs liable to decompofition when pui-e, than
almolt any other rock. When intermixed with talc it de-
compofes rapidly.

PYRRHA, in /Indent Geography, a town of the ifle of
Lefbos, between the promontory Sigrium and the town of
ErefTus, according to Ptolemy. The town took its name
from a llrait between Afia Minor and the ifle of Lefbos,
and gave it to a foreft in the fame ifle. — Alfo, a town of
Macedonia, in Magnefia. Pliny. — Alfo, a town of Afia
Minor, in Lycia. Pliny. — Alfo, a town of Afia Minor,
in Ionia, fituated at the entrance of the northern part of
theLatmic gulf, E.N.E. of the town of Miletus, and S.S.E.
of that of Myus. Strabo places it at 100 lladia from
Heraclea — Alfo, a promontory of Theflaly, upon the coalt
of the Phtiiiothide. Strabo fays, that before this promon-
tory were two ifles ; one called Pyrrha, and the other Deu-
calion.— Alfo, a town of Greece, in the Phocide. Pliny.
— Alfo, a town fituated in the vicinity of the Palus-M^otis ;
fubmerged according to the relation of Phny. — Alfo, a
town of Afia Minor, in Caria.

PYRRHICHA, Uv^'f^x^, in Antiquity, a kind of ex-
ercife on horfeback ; or a feigned combat, for the exercife
of the cavalry.

It was thus called from its inventor Pyrrhicus, or Pyr-
rhus, in Cydonia, who firft taught the Cretans to march
in meafure and cadence to battle, and to obferve the pace
of the Pyrrhic foot. Others derive the name from Pyr-
rhus, fon of Achilles, who inltituted this exercife at the
obfequics of his father. Ariftotle fays, that it w as Achilles
himfelf who invented it.

The Romans alfo called it ludus Trojanus, the Trojan
game ; and Aulus Gellius decurfus. It is doubtlefs this
exercife, that we fee reprefented on medals, by two cava-
liers in front, running with lances, and the word decurjio in
the exergum.

PYRRHICHIUS, n^pf.;^!'..:, in the Greek and Latin
Poetry, a foot confitting of two fyllables, both fhort ; as deus.

Among the ancients this foot is alfo called periambus ; by
others hegemona.

PYRRHICUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of La-
conia, upon the flream of Scyrax, S. of Hypfus. Here
were two temples, one of Diana Aftratia, and another
of the Amazonian Apollo. The ftatues of thefe deities
were of wood, and it is fuppofed they were placed here by
the Amazons themfelves.

PYRRHO. See Pyrrhonians.

PYRRHO-

P Y R

P Y II

PYRRHOCORAX, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Corvus
(which fee), the Alpine crow of Lalliam, and the Choucas
des Alpes of Buflon. — Alfo, the Moiiedula, Coracias of
Aldrovand, &c., Cornifh cliough, red-legged crow of
Pennant and Latham, and Coiivus Graculus, which fee.

PYRRHONIANS, Pvhrhoneans, or Fyrrhoni//s, a
fe£l of ancient piiilofophers, fo called from their founder
Pyrrho, a Greek philofopher, born at Elea, in Pelopon-
Hefus, who in early life ftudied painting, but afpiring to phi-
lofophical purfuits he became a difciple of Anaxarchus, and
accompanied him as far as India. In this journey he fol-
lowed Alexander the Great ; and hence we may know in
what time he flourifhed. In India he converfed with the
Brachmans and Gymnofophifts, imbibing from their doc-
trine whatever might feem favourable to his natural difpo-
fition towards doubting ; a difpofition which was cherifhed
by his mafler, who had formerly been a difciple of a fcep-
tical philofopher, Metrodorus of Chios. As he was in-
volved in frefii uncertainty by every advance he made in the
ftudy of philofophy, he left the fchool of the Dograatifts,
who profelfed to be podefTed of certain knowledge, and
eftabhfhed a new fchool, in which he taught, that every ob-
jeft of human inquiry is involved in uncertainty, fo that it
is impofhble ever to arrive at the knowledge of truth.

The dilUnguifhing charafter of this philofopher was,
that he profefTed to doubt of every thing, maintaining that
men only judge of truth and falfehood from appearances,
which deceive. Oil this principle he kept himfelf in con-
tinual fufpenfion of mind, never determining on any thing ;
to avoid the inconveniencies of error and falle judgments.

He found ni all things (fays Bayle) reafons to affirm and
to deny ; and therefore he fufpended his ali'ent after he had
•well examined the arguments pre and ran, and reduced all his
conclufions to a iion liquet, let the matter be farther enquired
into. Hence it is (fays he) that he fought truth as long
as he lived, but he fo contrived the matter, as never to
grant that he had found it. Though he is not the inven-
tor of that method of philofophizing, yet it goes by his
name. The art of difputing about every thing, without
doing any thing elfe but fufpending one's judgment, is
called Pyrrhonifm, or Scepticifm.

Some have faid, that this philofopher adled upon his
own principles, and carried his fcepticifm to an extreme lo
ridiculous, that his friends were obliged to accoinpany him
wherever he went, that he might not be run over by car-
riages, or fall down precipices. Thefe reports, however, are
inconfiftent with the refpeft that is paid to him by ancient
writers, and with the general hiftory of his life, and are
charged, as calumnies, upon the Dogmatifts, whom he op-
pofed. A great part of his life was fpent in folitude ; and
he always preferved a fettled compofure of countenance,
undifturbed by fear, or joy, or grief. He endured bodily
pain with great fortitude ; and in the midft of dangers he
manifefted no figns of apprehenfion. As a difputant, he
was celebrated for the iubtlety of his arguments, and the
perfpicuity of his language. So highly was Pyrrho efteemed
by his countrymen, that they honoured him with the office
of chief prieft, and from refpeft to him, paffed a decree by
which all philofophers were indulged with an exemption
from pubhc taxes. Of the poets, and particularly of
Homer, he was a great adn»irer ; and frequently repeated
paflages from his poems. He flourifhed about the iioth
olympiad, and died about the 90th year of his age, pro-
bably in the 123d olympiad, B.C. 288. After his death,
the Athenians honoured his memory with a ftatue ; and a
monument, as Laertius informs us, was erefted to him in
his own country. His fcepticifm may in a great raeafure

be afcribed to his early acquaintance with the fyRern of
Democritus. Having learned from this philofopher t&
deny the real cxiftence of all qualities in bodies, except
Jiofc that are effential to primary atoms, and to refer every
thing file to the perceptions of the mind produced by ex-
ternal objefts, tiiat is, to appearance and opinion, he con-
cluded, that all knowledge depended upon the fallacious re-
port of the fenfes, and confequeiitly, that there can be no
fuch thing as certainty. In this notion he was encouraged
by the geuiral fpirit of the Eleatic fchool, in which he was
educated, which was unfavourable to fci^'nce. But his fcep.
ticifni was more coniirmed by the fubtleties of the Dialedtic
fchool, in which he was inftruCted by Bryfon, the fon of
Stilpo. Regarding mental tranquillity as the great end of
all philofophy, and obferving that nothing contributed fo
much to diiturb it, as the diiienfions which agitated the
fchools of the Dogmatills, and alfo inferring from their
endlefs difputes the uncertainty of the quellions which they
debated, he had recourfc to the doctrine of univerfal un-
certainty ; and thus it happened in his cafe, as in that of
many others, that controverly became the parent of fcep-
ticifm.

Pyrrho had feveral difciples, but none who merit parti-
cular notice except Timon, the Phliafian, who lived to the
age of 90 years, and flourifhed in the time of Ptolemy Phi-
ladelphus. The public fucceiTicri of profeffors in the Pyr-
rhonic fchool terminated with Timon, and in Cicero's time
this fchool was cxtinft. The difciples of Timon chofe to fcreen
their fcepticifm under the authority of the Academy ; and
after fome interval, the fchool itfelf was revived by Ptolemjeus,
a Cyrcnian, and continued at Alexandria by CEncfidemus,
a contemporary with Cicero : the latter wrote a treatife
" On the Principles of the Pyrrhonian Philofophy," the
heads of which are preferved by Pliotius. From his time it
wastranfmitted, through a feries of preceptors little known,
to Sextus Empiricus, who has given a fummary of the fcep.
lical doftrine ; for an account of which, fee Sceptics.
As for Pyrrho and his followers, they rather endeavoured
to demolifti every other philofophical flruAure, than to
ereft one of their own... They aflerted nothing ; but pro-
pofed pofitions merely in the way of enunciation, without
attempting to determine on which fide, in any difputed
queftion, the truth lay, or even prefuming to affert, that
one propofition was more probable than another.

Thofe now diftinguiflied by the name of Pyrrhonians, or
Sceptics, are pei-fons who, from the great number of things
that are dark and obfcure, and from the averfion they bear
to popular credulity, maintain, that there is nothing cer-
tain in the world.

The truth is, Pyrrhonifm has fome foundation in nature :
we do not judge of things, from their real eflences, but
from their relations to ourfelves. Moft of our ideas we
receive by means of our fenfes ; but our fenfes are not given
us to judge of the effences, but of the relations of things
to themfelves ; i. e. how they may afFeft us fo as to do us
good or harm.

Thus, e. gr. our eyes do not give us the real magnitudes
of objefts, but their relative ones only.

The Academics differed from the Pyrrhonians, in that
they owned there were fome things more like or more near
akin to truth than others, which the Pyrrhonians peremp-
torily denied. On account of the fimilarity of the opinions
of this feft and thofe of the Platonic fchool in the Middle
and New Academy, it happened, that many of the real
followers of Pyrrho chofe to fcreen themfelves from the
reproach of univerfal fcepticifm, by calling themfelves
Academics (which fee) ; and hence the appellation of Pyr-

rhoniits

P Y R

P Y R

rhonifts fell into difufe, whilft the doftrine of Pyrrho had
many advocates. For the difTerence between them, fee
Sceptics.

Le Clerc obferves, that the Pyrrhonians, in affirming
that there is nothini;- certain, were the moil aduming and
decifive of all pliilofophers ; fince they mull iirft. have ex-
amined all things, to be able to determine precifely that all
things are uncertain.

It may be added, that the very principle of the Pyrrho-
nians dettroys itfelf; for if there be nothing certain, then
muft that dogma itfelf be precarious ; and if no one thing
be more probable, or liker to truth than another, why (hall
the principle of the Pyrrhonians be believed preferably to
the oppofite one ? fince itfelf is come at in the fame way as
our other knowledge. Brucker's Hill, of Pliilof. by En-
field, vol. i.

PYRRHUM, in ylmient Geography, a town of Pan-
ronia, on the route from Pstovio to Sifcia, between Aqua-
viva and Dautona, according to the It in. of Antonine.

PYRRHUS, in Biography, king of Epirus, one of the
mod diftinguifhed warriors of the period in which he
flourifhed, fuppofed to be defcended from Pyrrhus, the fon
of Achilles, was the fon of jEacides, who was expelled
the kingdom by a revolt of his fubjefts. When Pyrrims
was only twelve years of age, he was placed on the throne
©f his anceftors by Glaucias, kmg of Illyria, who had pro-
tefted him in his infancy. He reigned in peace till he
was about feventeen years of age, when, being abfent from
his kingdom. Ilia fubjefts feized his trealures, and conferred
the crown upon his great uncle, Neoptolemus. Pyrrhus
being poflefied of no force to enable him to recover his
authority, repaired to Demetrius Poliorcetes, the fon of
Antigonus, who had married his filler, and under that emi-
nent commander he learned the art of war, in company
with many officers and foldiers of Alexander the Great.
At the battle of Ipfus, in the year B.C. 301, he greatly
diftinguifhed himfelf, and after its lofs by Demetrius, he
fecured for him the Greek cities, with the care of which he
had been entrufted. When a treaty of peace was con-
cluded between Demetrius and Ptolemy Lagus, king of
Egypt, Pyrrhus confented to be one of the hoftages fent
into that country for the performance of the conditions.
In the Egyptian court he excited general admiration by his
amiable and correft behaviour, and his dexterity in martial
«xercifes ; and he obtained from the king his daughter
Antigone in marriage. The next ftep was to reftorc him
to his throne, which was eft'efted by an armament fupplied
by Ptolemy, with the aid of which he defeated Neopto-
lemus. That prince, however, being fupported by his
allies, P)Trhus confented to allot him a fhare of his domi-
.nions ; but fuch a partnerihip was not likely to be durable,
and Neoptolemus, it was laid, attempted to poifon Pyr-
rhus, which gave the latter a pretence to order his death.
He being fettled on the tiirone of Epirus, began to ex-
ecute thoie fchemes of ambition, in which the remainder of
his life was fpent. A civil war raging between the two
fons of Callander, in Macedonia, one of them, Alexander,
applied to Pyrrhus for afiillance. He gladly took occafion
of interfering in the affairs of that kingdom, and being
put in poflefhon of all its maritime towns, proceeded to
conquer the rell for Alexander. A peace was made, by
which Macedonia was divided between the two brothers,
and Pyrrhus feems to have withdrawn his troops to his own
country. Shortly after, Demetrius made himfelf mailer
of the kingdom, and notwithftanding their former friend-
Ihip, hoflilities enfued between him and Pyrrhus, who
harafl'ed him by incurfions into Thell'aly. They mutually

invaded each other's kingdoms ; and in one inftancf, Pyr-
rhus gained lo complete a viftory over the principal general
of his antagouitl, and difplayed fo much courage, that he
ilruck with admiration the Macedonians whom he had de-
feated, who deferted their own king, and chofe Pyrrhus for
their fovereign. This occurred in the year B.C. 287. He
held this crown, however, a fhort time ; for Lyfimachus,
in the following year, entering the country with a power-
ful army, and remonllrating againft the injuitice of confer-
ring the kingdom on a foreigner, in prejudice to him, a
native and commander under Alexander the Great, the
allegiance of the Macedonians feemed to Pyrrhus fo little
to be relied on, that he witiidrew from the conteit, and re-
turned to Epirus. The Romans, engaged in a war with
the Tarentines, looked for afiillance to Pyrrhus. This
prince eagerly liftened to the propofal, and communicated
his determination to his prime-miniiter Cyneaa, who, being
more prudent than his mailer, endeavoured to dilTuade him
from it. The enterprize was, however, refolved on, and
Cyneas was fent with a body of troops to Tarentum,
where he fubverted the Roman influence, which was begin-
ning to prevail, and obtained the command of the citadel
for an Epirot officer. Pyrrhus followed, and having left
his fon Ptolemy regent of Epirus, lauded in Italy, in the
year 280 B.C., bringing with him an army of about 25,000
men, of whom 7000 were Macedonians, the veteran foldiers
of Alexander the Great. He alfo brought a number of
war-elephants, which was the firft: time that thefe animals
were feen, in that charafter, in Italy. He was greatly en-
dangered in his pafTage by a ftorm, which difperfed his
fleet, and deftroyed fome of the fhips that kept company
with him. On his arrival at Tarentum, he began to correft
the licentious manners of the inhabitants, and enure them
to military difcipline. At length he marched out to meet
the Roman conful Valerius Lasvinus, who was waiting for
him on the bank of the Siris, in Lucania. The engage-
ment was extremely obflinate, and Pyrrhus, who exerted
himfelf in a manner worthy of his high reputation, was in
great perfonal danger. Viftory, however, decided in hi»
favour, and he took pofiefiion of the enemy's camp. In
interring the dead he made no diflinftion between his own
men and the foldiers of his antagonift, but bellowed due
encomia upon the bravery of his fallen foes. He followed
up his viftory, and had proceeded fo far as to obtain a dif-
tant view of Rome. Tlie advance of the other conful
obliged him to retire, and he finifhed his campaign by re-
turning to Tarentum. Senfible that he had engaged in
no eafy tafl<, he was delighted to receive an embaffy from
the Romans, which he imagined was to folicit peace, but
it was only to negociate an exchange of prifoners. In
this embally was included the virtuous Fabricius, whom he
in vain attempted to gain to his intereft by large offers.
He then attempted to make a treaty, and fent his miniller,
Cyneas, to Rome for that purpofe, but was unfuccefsful.

In the next campaign, two confuls with their armies
marched againft the king of Epirus ; the battle was ex-
tremely bloody, and the viftory fo indecifive, that both par-
ties claimed it : one of the confuls was killed, and Pyrrhus
was feverely wounded ; and fuch was the lofs of mea, that
to one who congratulated him as having been the conqueror,
he frankly replied, " fuch another viftory will ruin me."
Both the confuls of the next year, one of whom was
Fabricius, were employed to oppofe Pyrrhus, who had re-
ceived frefti reinforcements from Epirus. They advanced to
the Tarentine territory, where, while they were feeking an
opportunity to engage, an offer was made them by the
phyfician of Pyrrhus, to take him off by poifon. Deteft-

ing

P Y R

P Y R

iiig the treachery, they informed the king of his danger,
which fo affected him, that he immediately liberated all his
Roman prifoners without a raniom. He now fent Cyneas
to Rome to renew the attempt at negociation, but was
again nnfuccefsful. During the ilate of perplexity which
a refufal had thrown him into, he was invited by the Syra-
cufans and others to lend his aid againft the Carthaginians,
who had eftablilhed themfelves in Sicily. He accordingly
i'eizcd the pretext for'changing the field of adlion, and em-
barked the whole army for that idand, leaving only a llrong
garrifon in Tarentum. On his arrival he was received with
general acclamations, and all the public force of Syracufe
was put into his hands. He was foon fo completely fuc-
cefsful, that the Carthaginians fent deputies to Pyrrhus to
treat for peace, but he refufed to lillen to any other con-
dition, than that of their entirely evacuating the idand.
In confidence of fuccefs, he caufed a fon to be proclaimed
king of Sicily, and then made preparations to crofs over
into Africa, and carry tlie war into the Carthaginian terri-
tories. Thefe projefts were not agreeable to the Sicilians,
who became alienated froni him, and whom he treated not
as friends, but as a conquered people. After this he
quitted Sicily, and embarked for Italy ; in his voyage he
was encountered at fea by a Carthaginian fleet, which funk
a number of his veflels and difperfed the reft, fo that he
reached a port in Italy with no more than twelve fail. Six
years did he confume in Italy and Sicily, inflifting and fuffer-
ing all the evils of war, and finally exhaufted in force, and with
diminifhed reputation. Hisreftlefs fpirit was not fubdued ;
and for the purpofe of employing and paying his foldiers,
in conjunftion with a body of Gauls, he made an irruption
into iVIaccdonia, where Antigonus Gonatus then reigned.
His fuccefs was beyond his expeftations, for he not only
obtained the pillage of many cities, but defeated Antigonus
in battle, and wrelled from him almoft the whole kingdom.
He now marched with a powerful army into the Pelopon-
nefus, at the requeft of Cleonymus, and appearing before
Sparta, required the inhabitants to "receive his friend as
their king. Upon their determination to refill this mandate,
he attacked the city, but was repulfed with the lofs of
many men : he now retired to Argos, where, through the
treachery of Arilleas, a bloody conflift enfued, during
which, a woman, who faw Pyrrhus juft going to kill her
fon, hurled a tile from the top of the houfe, which brought
the king to the ground. In this ftate a Macedonian
dragged him to a porch, and was going to cut off his head,
when Pyrrhus opened his eyes, and gave him fo fierce a
look, that his trembling hand failed in its office, and it was
not till after repeated ftrokes, that he could execute his
purpofe. Thus in the year 272 B.C. terminated the life
and exploits of this great warrior, whofe career of reitlefs
enterprize death alone could ftop. His military fl<ill was
held in the higheft eftimation by the Romans, who were
fo well able to judge of it by experience. Hannibal con-
fidered Pyrrhus as fecond only to Alexander, as a great
general. He is faid to have been the firft who underllood
the art of encampments, and of properly drawing up an
army, and fome treatifes wliich he wrote on thefe fubjefts
are mentioned by the ancients. He was brave to the bor-
ders of rafhnefs, and fometimes loft the commander in the
foldier. He had unbounded ambition, and a difpofitiou
perpetually to engage in new enterprizes, for which, as we
have feen, he readily abandoned fuch as proved more diffi-
cult than he had expetted. He was fond of glory, but
was poftisned of generofity, which difpofed him to aifts of
kindnefs, and to a grateful acknowledgment of obligations.
All his fons were wai-like, and he encouraged the difpofi-

tion by the declaration, that he would leave the kingdom
of Epirus to him who had the fliarpcft fword.

PvuKllUS Campus, or Pyrrhon Pedium, in Ancient Geo-
graphy, a canton of Africa, in Mauritania Tingitana, in
the country of the Neftiberes, according to Ptolemy.

Pyhkiiu.s Campus, a canton of Alrica, in Interior Libya,
between the country of the Leucaethiopes and that of the
Perorfi, according to Ptolemy.

Pykbhus Mons, a mountain of India, on the fea-coaft,
on this fide of the Ganges, accordnig to the Periplus of
Arrian.

PYRRSTEIN, iR Geography, a town of Auftria ; 10
miles N.W. of Lintz.

PYRSEPHORUS, Ili-fTn^ofo-, in the Athenian feftival,
Hephasftia, the fame with Lampadiphorus.

PYRULARIA, in Botany, fo called, as it feems, be-
caufe the fruit relembles a little pear, Michaux Boreali-
Amer. v. 2. 231 ; has recciv d a new appellation from
Willdenow in his v. 4. 1 1 14, Hamillonia, which Mr. Purfh
adopts, in his Flora, 178. — This genus, referred by Mi-
chaux and Willdenow to Dioecia Pentandria, is placed by
Purfti in Pentandria Monogynia, though he allows it to be
dioecious. It is faid to be allied to Nvssa. See that
article.

Eft. Cli. Calyx fuperior, five-cleft. Corolla none.
Neclary a five-toothed difk. Drupa. Flowers dioecious.

I. Hamlhonia oleifcra of Purfli, Pyrularia pubera of Mi-
chaux, is the only known fpecies, a native ot Ihady woods,
on the mountains of Pennfylvania, in Virginia, near the
fweet fprings, and in Carohna, flowering in May and June.
This is -d JJiritb, from four to fix feet high, very downy,
with alternate, oblong, pointed, entire leaves. Stipulas
none. Flsiucrs very Imall, greenifti-yellow, in terminal
clujlers. Fruit known in North America by the name of
Oil-nut. The root is faid by Michaux to have an unpleafant
fmell.

PYRUS, an ancient Latin name, which botanifts have
adopted, but of which the moft correfl. orthography per-
haps would be Plrus. This will appear as we trace its
etymology, but more trouble than good would now arife
from fuch a correftion. The generality of critics have
given rather a forced derivation of this word, from its
Greek fynonym, airi. , the a being fuppofed cutoff, and
an r introduced ; but De Theis has propofed a much more
probable one, from the Celtic peren, whence the Anglo-
Saxons have taken pere, the Englifh pear, and the French
poire. According to the fame writer, api, the Celtic name
of a fruit of the fame kind, is the origin of the Greek ktio,-,
the German apfel, and our apple. Api is even the particular
name of one fort of apple, in the French language. — Linn.
Gen. 251. Schreb. 339. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 1012.
Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 3. Sm. Fl. Brit. 531. Prodr. Fl.
Grac. Sibth. v. I. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 207. Purfh
339. Jufi. 335. Tourn. t. 404. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 435.
Gaertn. t. 87. (Mains j Jufl. 334. Tourn. t. 406. Cy-
donia; JufT. 335. Tourn. t. 405. Sorbus ; Linn. Gen.
250. Schreb. 338. Juff. 335. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 434.
Crataegus ; Linn. Gen. 250. Schreb. 338. Jufl. 335.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 433.) — Clafs and order, Icofandrta Pen-
tagynia. Nat. Ord. Pomacete, Linn. Rofacex, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, concave,
with five fpreading fegments, permanent. Cor. Petals five,
roundifli, concave, inferted by their claws into the calyx.
Stam. Filaments twenty, awl-fhaped, fhorter than the co-
rolla, inferted into the calyx ; anthers fimple, roundifh.
Pijl. Germen inferior, roundifh ; ityles from two to five,
thread-fhaped, the length of the Itamens ; ftigmas bluntifh.

Peric.

PYRU.S.

Pcric. Apple roiindirti, umliilicated, flefhy, with from two
to five membranous, more or Icfs rigid, cells. Seeds two,
rarely more, in eacli cell, oblong, obtule, pointed at the
bafe, convex on one fide, flat on the other.

EfT. Ch. Calyx five -cleft. Petals five. Apple inferior,
of from two to five cells. Seeds two in each cell.

Our remarks under the article Mespilus apply equally
to the prcfent genus, as to the propriety of referring to it
the whole Linnafan genus of Sorbus, and fomc fpecies of
Cratiigus and MeJ'p'ilus ; difregarding the difference in the
number of their ilyles, which is evidently uncertain and
variable, and diftinguilhing Mefp'ilus by its berry, Pyrus by
its apple. Even this diftmiSion proves, in fome initanccs,
obfcurc enough. We (hall, for convenience, follow Will-
denow in the order of the fpecies, introducing our addi-
tional ones according to their affinities.

1. Y. arluhfolia. Arbutus-leaved Dwarf Apple. Linn.
Suppl. 256. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Purfh n. i. Wan-
gcnh. Amer. %<j. t. 28. f. 64. (Mefpilus arbutifolia ;
Linn. Sp. PI. 685. Crataegus virginiana, foliis arbuti ;
Mill. Ic. t. 109.) — Leaves obovate, pointed, ferrated ;
downy beneath ; their mid-rib glandular above. Flowers
corymbofe. Calyx downy. — Common in low copfes and
fwamps, from Canada to Carolina, flowering ni May and
June. Purfi. Frequent in gardens. A bufhyyZvK^, with-
out thorns, three or four feet high. Leaves two inches
long, neatly ferrated, more or lefs downy. Flowers white,
terminal. Fruit red, the fize of a currant, meally, and not
eatable.

2. P. melanocarpa. Black Bilberry Apple. Willd.
Enum. 525. Purdi n. 2. (P. arbutifolia (i ; Willd. Sp.
PI. n. I. and Ait. n. i. MefpiUu arbutifolia; Schmidt
Arb. 86. Pur/h.) — Leaves obovate-oblong, pointed, fer-
rated ; fmooth beneath ; their mid-rib glandular above.
Flowers corymbofe. Calyx fmooth. — Found in the bogs
of Canada, and on the high mountains of Pennfylvania, Vir-
ginia, and Carolina, flowering in May and June. The

J'riiit is large and black, refembling in tafte the berries of
f^acclnium penfylvankum. Purjlj.

3. Y. Botryapium. Snowy Berry Apple. Linn. Suppl.
255. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Purfli n. 3. Wangenh.
Amer. 90. t. 28. f. 61^. (Mefpilus canadenfis ; Linn. Sp.
PI. 685. Schmidt Arb. t. 84. ) — Leaves oblong-elliptical,
ferrated, minutely pointed, finally fmooth. Flowers race-
mofe. Petals linear-lanceolate. Germen downy. Seg-
ments of the calyx Imooth. — Native of woods and hedges
from Canada to Carolina, bloffoming in April and May.
Purjb. Frequent in our flirubberies. A fmall tree. The
young leagues are covered with denfe woolly deciduous down.
Floivers pure white, in lax terminal clujlers. Fruit black,
faid by Mr. Purfli to have a very agreeable tafle. It is
feldom perfefted with u.-!.

4. P. ovnlis. Oval Berry Apple. Willd. n. 3. Purfh
n. 4.. (Mefpdus Amclanchier ? Walt. Carol. 148. Cra-
tagus fpicata; Lamarck Dift. v. i. 84.) — Leaves roundifh-
elliptical, acute, ferrated, fmooth. Flowers racemofe. Pe-
tals obovate. Germen and fegments of the calyx downy. —
Native of fwamps, from New Jerfey to Carolina, flowering
in April and May. A fmallyJru^ ; the fruit black, eatable.
Purfi. Lamarck, who firit dillinguifhed this fpecies, fays
it is twice or thrice as tall as the following, at leaft in the
French gardens, with rounder leaves and fmaller Jla-jjers,
while the fruit is larger, being as big as a floe. The nar-
row coloured deciduous braSeas moreover, which occur in
both fpecies, are in the prefent longer than each partial

fiuwer-ftalk, which is not the cafe with P. Amelancbier.

5. P. Amelanchier. Alpine Berry Apple. Linn. Suppl.
Vol. XXIX.

256. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 3. (Mefpilus Amelanchier ;
Linn. Sp. PI. 685. Jacq. Aullr. t. 300. Mill. Ic. t. 178.
f. I. Vaccinia alba ; Ger. Em. 1416.) — Leaves roundifll-
elliptical, acute, ferrated ; downy beneath. Flowers race-
mole. Petals lanceolate. Germen fomewhat downy. Seg-
ments of tlie calyx fmooth — Native of rocky mountainous
fituations in Germany, Switzerland, France, and the ifle of
Crete ; common in (hrubberies, ever fince Gerarde's time,
blofloming in May. From three to fix feet high, or more
when cultivated, making an elegant appearance with its
copious drooping chillers of ino\vy Jlotuers , whok^ei/is are
very woolly. Fruit blueifli-black, fweet, the fize of a cur-
rant.

6. P. cretica. Cretan Berry Apple. Willd. n. 5. Prodr.
Fl. Grsc. n. 1 157. ( Chamoscerafus Idoea ; Alpin. Exol.
4.) — Leaves roundilli, emarginate, with a fmall point, fer-
rated ; woolly beneath. Flowers racemofe. Petals lanceo-
late. Germen and fegments of the calyx woolly. — Fourid
on the mountains of Crete. This differs from the laft, of
which it is juflly fufpefted of being a mere variety, in having
rounder leaves, whofe pubefcence underneath is more per-
manent ; as well as in having more woollinefs about the

Jloivers.

7. P. fanguinea. Red Berry Apple. Purfh n. 5. (Mef-
pilus canadenfis ■>, rotundifolia ; Micliaux Borcali-Amer.
V. I. 291.) — " Leaves oval, obtufe at each end, pointed,
finely ferrated ; fomewhat heart-fhaped at the bafe. Cluf-
ters of few flowers. Calyx fmooth. Petals linear, ob-
tufe."— Found in Canada, and on the banks of the Co-
lumbia, flowering in April and May. A fmall tree, with
blood-red branches. Fruit red, eatable. Purfl.K

8. P. communis. Common Pear-tree. Linn. Sp. PI. 686.
Willd. n. 6. Ait. n. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. n. i. Engl. Bot.
t. 1784. — Leaves ovate, ferrated, finally fmooth. Flower-
ftalks corymbofe. Fruit elongated at the bafe. — Native
of various parts of Europe, but even more general as a
cultivated plant, the varieties of whofe fruit are many of
them highly valuable for the table. The truly wild, or
iron, pear is not eatable. It blofl'oms in April or May.
The tree is tall and handfome ; the wood light, fine-grained,
and tolerably hard, making neat furniture. The branches,
at firft creft, fubfequcntly become curved downwards, and
pendulous. The ierratures of the leaves commonly difap-
pear by culture, as do the ftrong thorns found on the wild
tree. When young, the leaves are downy beneath, and
frinsred with white. Floivers white, with pale red anthers ;
their inflorefcence corymbofe, not umbellate as in the apple.
Fruit obovate, more or lefs elongated at the bafe.

9. P. poUveria. Woolly-leaved Pear-tree. Linn. Mant.
2. 244. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 5. (P. pollwilleriana ;
Bauh. Hill. V. I. 59. Munch. Haufv. v. 3. part 2. 333.)
— Leaves ovate, flrongly ferrated; moll downy beneath.
Flower-ilalks corymbofe, fubdivided. — Native of Germany,
according to baron Munchhaufen. John Bauhin firfl met
with it in the garden of baron Pollwill, in Alfatia. It was
fent to Kcw, in 1786, by the late Mr. Grajffer. Tliis dif-
fers from the common Pear-tree in having the leaves downy
ou both fides, but efpecially beneath; tht Jloivers cream-
coloured, much fmaller and more numerous, even forty in
each corymb, their partial flalks being branched and forked.
The fruit is fmall, fometimes but an inch long, and falls
eafily when ripe.

10. P. nivalis. Snow Pear-tree. Jacq. Auflr. v. 2. 4.
t. 107. Liun. Suppl. 253. Willd. n. 8. — Leaves obo-
vate, obtufe, pointed, entire ; hoary beneath. Flower-
flalks corymbofe. Fruit nearly globofe. — Native of moun-
tains in Auflria, about the borders of woods and vineyards,

O flowering

PYRUS.

flowering enrly in May. The haves are wliitifh and filky
beneath ; nearly fmooth above. Flowers large, white,
ftrongly fcentcd, in a fimple downy corymb. Fruit about
two inches iojiiameter, globofe, rather deprefled, purplifh-
green. When gathered in Oftober, as aiiltere as an unripe
medlar ; but after lying a few weeks, it tirll acquires a fwect
fcent, which is but temporary, and at length towards De-
cember, thefe pears become foft, like medlars, and very
good eating.

11. P. Malus. Common Apple, or Crab, tree. Linn.
Sp. PI. 686. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 6. Sm. Fl. Brit,
n. 2. Engl. Bot. t. 179. Fl. Dan. t. iioi. Mill. II-
luftr. t. 44. (Malus fylveftris; Ger. Em. 1461.) — Leaves
elliptic -oblong, pointed, ferratcd, fmooth. Umbels fimple,
feflile. Styles fmooth. — Native of woods and hedges
throughout Europe, and ihll more valuable, for its in-
numerable and ufeful varieties, as a cultivated plant, than
even the Pear, n. 8. The Crab itfelf, or Wild Apple,
though always too auftere to be eaten raw, is fubjecl to
fome varieties that are worthy of notice for kitchen ule.
This fpecies produces its elegant blufh-coloured bloffoms m
May. The branches are more horizontal than thofe of /-".
communis, as well as more twilled and diforderly. The
younger leai<es are downy beneath. Fruit roundifli, con-
cave, or umbilicated, at the bafe.

12. P. dioica. Dioecious Pear-tree. Willd. n. 10.
Phytogr. fafc. I. 8. Moench. Wcidend. 87. t. 8. JVilld.
(Malus non florens, frudlificans tamen ; Bauh. Pin. 433.) —
Leaves oval, pointed, ferrated. Flowers axillary, dioecious.
Petals linear, the length of the calyx. — The native country
of this fingular plant is unknown. Profeffor Willdenovs',
from whom we have dried fpccimens, fufpefts it to be pof-
fibly a variety of the preceding fpecies. T\\i Jloivcrs are
fmall, forming in appearance fhort downy umbels, at the
ends of the branches, but each ieparate ilalk is accompanied
by a leaf. Petals yellowifli-green, not exceeding the calyx.
Styles five, fmooth. We have feen the female plant only.

13. P. fpegabllis. Chinefe Apple-tree. Ait. n. 7.
Willd. n. II. Curt. Mag. t. 267. Schneev. Ic. t. 15. —
Leaves oval-oblong, ferrated, fmooth. Umbels fimple,
feflile, nearly fmooth, without brafteas. Styles woolly at
the bafe. — Native of Clrina, from whence Dr. FothergiU is
faid to have imported it in 1780. The tree proves tolerably
hardy in our gardens, flowering early in May. The leaves
are furnifhed with copious fliallow ferratures, and have
downy footjialis and ribs. The umbels are nearly, if not
quite, fmoolli, and confift of eight or ten large and hand-
fome rofe-coloured Jlowcrs, for which alone this plant is
cultivated, the fruit, which is yellow, an inch in length,
and ufually elongated a little at the bafe, being fparingly
produced, and of no value. We can difcover no braSens,
and if we are not miftaken, the want of them affords the
fureft mark of diftinftion between this fpecies and the two
foUowipg.

14. P. prunlfoUa. Siberian Crab-tree. Willd. n. 12.
Ait. n. 8. (P. Malus /3 ; Ait. ed. i. v. 2. 175. Cra-
txgus cerafi folio, floribus magnis ; Mill. Ic. t. 269.) —
Leaves ovate, pointed, with (hallow ferratures. Umbels
fimple, feffile, downy. Brafteas linear, toothed, deciduous.
Styles woolly at the bafe — Native of Siberia, according to
Miller, who fays the feeds were fent from Dauria to Pe-
terlburgh, and who had it, bearing flov/ers and fruit, at
Chelfea, before the year 1758. This tree is now common
in gardens, the fruit, which refembles a white-heart cherry
in fize and colour, but which is liable, in both refpeCls, to
vary, being efleemed for preferving, as well as for tarts ;
flor is it, when mellowed by froil, unpleafant to eat raw.

The leaves are rather more downy tliiin the lad, but their
ribs arc fmooth. Floiuers copious, with a light fweet fcent,
their colour iruich paler and their fize fmaller than P. Jpec-
tajllls Flower-Jlalks very downy. BraSeat fmooth, mem-
branous, very narrow, above half an inch long.

15. P. baccata. Small-fruited Crab-tree. Linn. Mant.
75, excluding the reference to Miller. Willd. n. 13. Ait.
11. 9. Pall. RofT. v. I. p. I. 23. t. 10. Gileke Ic.
fafc. I. t. 12. (Crata:gus cerafi foliis, floribus magnis;
Amm. Ruth. 195. t. 31.) - Leaves ovato-lanceolate,
pointed, fliarply ferrated, fmooth. Umbels fmooth, fimple,
feffile. Brafteas linear, flightly toothed, deciduous. Styles
naked. Fruit fmaller than the petals.-^ Found in low fitun-
tions, about the banks of rivers, in Siberia, flowering the
end of May. We received fpecimens from the garden of
the late Right Hon. Charles Greville, at Paddington, in
flower April 21, 1803. This differs from the laft, with
which fome botanift.s have confounded it, in having broader,
more acutely ferrated, fmoother /fai)« ; imoothjloiutr-jlalks
and Jlyles ; and a fmall Ted fruit, not bigger than a common
haw. The calyx in both is deciduous, leaving a fcarred
hollow on the top of the fruit.

16. P. cnrunarla. Sweet-fcented Crab-tree. Linn. Sp.
PI. 687. Willd. n. 14. Ait. n. 10. Purlh n. 7. Kalra's
Travels, Englifli edition, v. 2. 166. — Leaves broad-ovate,
fomewhat lobed or angular, ferrated, fmooth. Flower-
ttalks corymbofe. Styles woolly in the lower part. — Na-
tive of woods in North America, from Pennfylvania to
Carolina, flowering in May. It has long been cultivated
in England, for the fake of the beauty and violet-like
fragrance of its b!u(h-coloured bloffoms, as well as for its

fruit, which is as big as a fmall golden pippin, extremely
acid, but excellent for preferving with fugar. The leaves are
dilhnguifhed by their breadth, and by being flightly lobed,
like fome of the lefs deeply cut leaves of the Hawthorn, but
thrice as large.

17. P. angujllfilia. Narrow-leaved Crab-tree. Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. I. v. 2. 176. ed. 2. n. 11. Willd. n. 15.
Purfh n. 8. (P. coronaria ; Wangenh. Amer. 61. t. 21.
f. 47.) — Leaves lanceolate-oblong, (hining, with tooth-hke
notches ; contrafted and entire at the bafe. Flower-italks
corymbofe. Found in the low woods of Carolina, flowering
in May. It refembles the foregoing fpecies, but the fruit
is very fmall. Purfli. This is faid in Hort. Kew. to have
been cultivated in 1750, by Mr. Chriftopher Gray. We
have never examined it, nor have we any account of the

flyles he\ng downy or otherwife.

18. Y.japonica. Japan Apple-tree. Thunb. Japon. 207.
Willd. n. 16. Ait. n. 12. Curt. Mag. t. 692. (Malus
Japonica ; Andr. Repof. t. 462. Buke ; Kaempf. Amoen.
844.) — Leaves elliptic-oblong, fiiarply ferrated, very
fmooth. Stipulas lunate, deeply toothed. Flower-ftalks
fomewhat aggregate. Calyx abrupt. Seeds numerous in
each cell. — Gathered by Thunberg, on mount Fakona in
Japan, where it flowers from February to April. It proves
quite hardy in our gardens, into which fir Jofeph Banks in-
troduced it in 1 796, flowering at the fame feafon, and alfo
frequently again in autumn. When the fpring is fevere,
the beautiful deep fcarlet bloffoms require the fhelter of a
glafs frame. The flem is fomewhat thorny. Leaves deep
green ; the firft that come out are fliort and abrupt. Sti-
pulas on the young branches, half an inch or an inch broad.
Fruit globular, we have not feen it ripe. Seeds very nu-
merous in each cell, one above another, fo that we cannot
but feel fome fcruples as to the genus of this ipecies.

19. P. Cydrmla. Common Quince -tree. Linn. Sp. PL
687. Willd. n. 17. Ait. n. 13. Jacq. Auflr. t. 342.

10 WoodT.

PYRUS.

Woodv. Med. Bot. t. 79. (Mains cotonca ; Gcr. Em.
1452. Matth. Valgr. v. i. 217.) — Leaves ronndifh-ellip-
tical, entire ; downy beneath. Flowers lolitiiry, llalked.
Calyx ferrated, reflexcd. — Native of the rocky banks of the
Danube. Naturalized in the hedges of Germany. Dr.
Sibthorp found it wild in the northern parts of Greece, in
which country it retains the ancient name xv^aivict. This was
among the firft exotic fruits cultivated in England, where
it blofl'oms in May or June, and ripens fruit in autumn.
The tree is rather fpreading than tall. Leaves roundifh,
various in fize ; fmooth and light green above ; white with
foft denfe down beneath. Flotuer-Jlalks and calyx more or
lefs woolly. Petals large, flcrti-coloured. Fi-iiit large,
yellow, very aullere and aftringent, but with a peculiar and
very powerful fragrance. Cookery renders it mild, and to
moil perfons highly grateful. There are three or four an-
gular feeils in each cell, ranged horizontally, not, as in the
laft, vertically. The Quince is fuppofed to be the golden
apple ot the Hefperides, fo famous in ancient fable.

20. P. fcl'iafoTicK Willow-leaved Crab-tree. Linn.
Suppl. 255. WiUd. n. 18. Ait. n. 14. Pallas RofT.
V. I. p. I. 20. t. 9. — Leaves linear-lanceolate, hoary, nearly
entire ; downy beneath. Flowers folitary, ahnoll feflile. —
Native of Siberia, America, and mount Haemus. Sent to
Kew, by Pallas, in 1780. It is a hardy tree, flowering
early in fpring, and known by its hoary, narrow, willow-
like leaves. The Jlotvers are terminal, folitary, and nearly
feflile ; not axillary. Fruit pear-fhaped, an inch long,
brown, not at all eatable till mellowed by froft, like med-
lars ; and oven then not very good.

21. P. Chamcemefpllus. Baftard Quince. Ehrh. Beitr.
fafc. 4. 19. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. n. 1158.
(Mefpilus Cham^mefpilus ; Linn. Sp. PI. 6S5. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. 2. lOIl. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 206. Cra-
taegus Chamimefpilus ; Jacq. Auftr. t. 231. Cotanafter
Gefneri ; Ger. Em. 1606.) — Leaves elHptical, fh a rply fer-
rated, fmooth. Flowers in corymbofe ln'ads. Calyx very
woolly within. Styles two, fmooth. — Native of tlie alps
of Auflria, Savoy, and Switzerland, as well as of mount
Athos, and the Pyrenees, flowering in June. A bulhy

Jlorub ; the leaves two or three inches long and one wide ;
entire at the bafe ; of a deep (hining green ; their under fide
paler, marked with many tranfverfe parallel veins. Flo-wers
fmall, deep rofe-coloured. Calyx very denfely lined with
long white wool. Styles and feeels but two. Fruit corym-
bofe, oval, of an orange fcarlet, the fize of a haw.

22. P. Aria. White Beam-tree, or White Wild Pear-
tree. Ehrh. Beitr. fafc. 4. 20. Arb. 84. Sm. Fl. Brit,
n. 7. Engl. Bot. t. 1858. Willd. n. 19. Ait. n. 15.
(Crataegus Aria; Linn. Sp. PI. 681. Fl. Dan. n. 301.
t. 302. Aria Theophralti ; Ger. Em. 1327.) — Leaves
elliptical, cut, .ind ferrated ; white and downy beneath,
with crowded parallel veins. Corymbs compound, woolly.
Styles two or more. — Native of limeftone rocks, or chalky
hills, in moit parts of Europe ; not rare in the mountainous
countries of England, flowering; in Mav, ripening fruit in
September. A handlome fmall tree, much cultivated in
home plantations. The young branches, like the Jlalhs,
calyx, and backs of the leaves, are very white, with mealy
or cottony down. The leaves vary from an ovate or obo-
vate figure, to a more corrett oval, and are pretty regularly
cut, as well as ferrated, but not finuated or lobed ; their
veins, or fide-ribs, numerous, itraight and parallel ; their
upper fide fmooth. Corymbs fubdivided, many-flowered,
cottony. Petals white, the fize of thofe of the Hawthorn.
Styles two, often three, rarely four. Fruit nearly globular,
fcarlet, dotted, meally and acid ; its cells coriaceous rather

than horny, equal in number to the ftylcs, with two feeds
in each.

23. P. intermedia. Suedifli White Beam-tree. Ehrh.
Beitr. fafc. 4. 20. Arb. 94. Willd. n. 20. Arb. 268.
Ait. n. 16. (Sorbus alpina, foliis finuofis ; Fl. Dan.
n. 302. t. 301. fig. in flower only. S. hybrida ; Hudf.
216.) — Leaves elliptical, lobed, cut and ierrated ; white
and downy beneath, with rather diftant veins. Corymbs
compound, woolly. Styles two or more. — Native of Swe-
den. Found by Mr. Waring, on the walls of calHe Dinas
y Bran, North Wales. Hud/on. Specimens from the ori-
ginal plant prove the fame as thofe of Ehrhart, and differ
from the common P. Aria, only in having the leaves fo far
cut, as to be, rn fome degree, pinnatifid, owing to which
the tranfverfe veins are rather jnore diltant from each other.
We can fcarcely admit it to be more than a variety, as Lin-
n^us made it in Sp. PI. 681. It is his Lapland plant, FL
Lapp. n. 199.

24. P. pinnatifida. Ballard Mountain Afli. Ehrh.
Beitr. fafc. 6. 93. Exficc. 145. Sm. Engl. Bot. t. 2331.
(P. hybrida; Sm. Fl. Brit. n. 6, excluding the fynouyms
of Hudfon and Withering. Sorbus hybrida ; Linn. Sp.
PI. 684. Linn. Fil. fafc. 1. t. 6. WiUd. Sp. PI. v. 2.
IC08. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 204. Fl. Dan. n. 302.
t. 301. fig. in fruit.) Leaves oblong, deeply pinnatifid,
or half pinnate ; downy beneath. Corymbs compound,
woolly. Styles about three. — Native of Sweden. Ga-
thered wild, by the late Mr. J. Mackay, in rocky places
on Cairn na Callich, and other mountains, at the north end
of the ifleof Arran. It is frequent in plantations, flower,
ing in May, and propagated by feed. This was thought
by Linnaeus to be a mule, between Aria, and aucuparia
hereafter mentioned. It nearly accords with the former,
but the leaves are more oblong and acute ; very deeply pin-
natifid, or even pinnate, in their lower part. The Jlotvers
imA fruit almoft agree with thofe of aucuparia. The Jlyles
are ufually three or four.

25. P. aucuparia. Mountain Afli ; Quicken, or Roan
Tree. Ehrh. Beitr. fafc. 6. 94. Gxrtn. v. 2. 45. t. 87.
Sm. Fl. Brit. n. 5. (Sorbus aucuparia; Linn. Sp. PI.
683. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 1008. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3.
204. Fl. Dan. t. 1034. Mill. lUultr. t. 43. Engl. Bot.
t. 337. S. fylveftris ; Ger. Em. 1473. Matth. Valgi'.
V. I. 238.) Leaves pinnate; leaflets equal, ferrated,
fmoothifh. Corymbs compound, fomewhat panicled.
Styles about three.— Native of mountainous places, in the
colder parts of Europe; abundant in Scotland, Derbyfhire,
(Sec. flowering in Mav, and very common in domeftic
plantations. An elegant and very hardy free, of flow-
growth, the wood being hard and tough. Leaves all dif-
tindtly pinnate, of many pair of oppofite, oblong, fmooth,
ferrated leaflets, more or lefs entire towards the bafe, with
an odd one ; the young ones downy beneath. Flowers very
numerous, white, the fize of the three laft, but rather more
panicled. Fruit fcarlet, acid and bitter, yet eatable when
prepared with fugj.r. According to Lightfoot, this tree is
found generally about the Druidical circles in North Britain,
and is ilill believed, by the fuperftitious Highlanders, to be
powerfully efficacious againft witchcraft.

26. P. domeflica. True Service Tree. Ehrh. Beitr.
fafc. 6. 95. Exficc. 155. Sm. Fl. Brit. n. 4. Engl.
Bot. t. 350. ( Sorbus domeftica ; Linn. Sp. PI. 684.
Willd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 1009. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 204.
Jacq. Auftr. t. 447. Matth. Valgr. v. i. 237. Sorbus;
Ger. Em. 1471.) — Leaves pinnate ; leaflets equal, ftrongly
ferrated, downy beneath. Flowers panicled. Styles five. —
Native of the warmer parts of Europe. Dr. Sibthorp

O 2 found

PYRUS.

found it in Greece, as well as on mounts Hxmus aud
Athos, and in woods near Conllantinoplc. Ray Ipeaks of
it as wild in the mountainous parts of Cornwall and Staf-
fordlhire. It is now rarely cultivated, being, though a
handfome tree, yet of flow growtli, and inferior in the value
of its fruit to the Medlar. A lolitary individual of this
fpecies now and then occurs, about ancient nianfions and
very old orchards. It blofloms in May. The haves are
larger, and the Jloivers twice the dimenfions of the lall,
being the fize of hawthorn-blofToms, rather panicled than
corymbofe. Fruit hke a imall pear, reddifli, above an inch
long, with five cells, anfwcrable to the five jlyles ; its cells
with two valves, like thofe of a Common Pear ; and though
only one feed is perfcdted in each cell, Gxrtner obferved
two in an early ftate. This frui/, if tailed before it is mel-
low, occafions a moil intolerable forenefs at the back of the
palate, laiting many hours. When ripe it is foft, brown,
and agi-eeably acid. Tlie name Service is evidently a cor-
ruption of Scrbus.

27. F. lormineilis. Wild Service Pear-tree. Ehrh. Beitr.
fafc. 6. 92. Sm. Fl. Brit. n. 3. Willd. Sp. PI. n. 21.
Ait. n. 17. (Crataegus torminalis ; Linn. Sp. PI. 6S!.
Engl. Bot. t. 298. Fl. Dan. t. 798. Jacq. Auftr. t. 443.
Mill. Illuftr. t. 42. Sorbus torminalis; Ger. Em. 1471.
Matth. Valo-r. v. 1. 239.) — Leaves fimple, fomewliat heart -
Ihaped, ferrated, acute, fmooth, feven-lobed ; the lower
lobes fpreading Native of Germany, Switzerland, Eng-
land, and the Levant, in woods, flowering in April or
May. A moderate-fized tree, with a hard wood, and
fmooth bark. Leaves on long Hslks, without Jlijiulas, un-
equally lobed, pointed ; their ribs fomctimes downy be-
neath. Corymbs downy, much branched. Flowers fmaller
than the lalt. Styles three, four, or hve. Fruit brown,
dotted, twice the fize of a haw, very pleafantly acid and
pulpy, when touched by froft, and often fold in the London
fruit-fhops. By the fpecific name, it fliould fecm to be of
a griping quality. Tragus, in his p. loro, reprefents it as
powerfully expelling worms.

28. P. hybrida. Mule Service Pear-tree. Willd. n. 22.
Moench. Weiflenft. 90. t. 6. Willd. — Leaves elliptical,
ferrated, downy beneath ; fimple or pinnate, the terminal
one largeft. Flowers corymbofe. Calyx hairy. — This is
aflerted by Profeflbr Willdenow, from whom we have fpe-
cimcns, to be a mule produftion, from the firft fpecies, P.
arbutifolia, impregnated by the 25th, aucuparia. It retains
indeed as great a refemblance to both parents as it poffibly
could to what are fo diflirailar to each other. The fimple
leaves are two inches or more in length, obtufe, ftrongly
ferrated ; the lateral leajlets, of the compound ones, half, or
one-third, as large, unequal at the bafe. Stipulas ovale,
toothed, recurved. Floiuers not much unlike the lall, but
their cymes fomewhat fmaller, with hairy, rather than
downy, ftalks. It is curious that the rib of each leaf, on
its upper fide, retains fome portion of the brown glands
characteriftic of P. arbutifolia.

29. P. anthyUidifoUa. Kidney-vetch- leaved Service-tree.
— Leaves pinnate, entire ; filky beneath. Corymbs axil-
lary and terminal, of few flowers. — Gathered in the Sand-
wich iflands, by Mr. Menzies, to whom we are obliged for
fpecimens, under the name of Sorbus, to which, nov/ abo-
lifhed, Linnxan genus there can be no doubt that this tree
belong?, though we have not feen the fruit. The leaves
are all uniformly pinnate, two orlnree inches long, of eight
or nine pair, befides an odd one, of equal, oblong or obo-
vate, obtufe, minutely pointed, entire leaflets, half an inch
at leaft; in length ; fmooth and {hining above ; paler and
niky beneath. Stipulas lanceolate, a little hairy, deciduous.

Flowerflalh axillary and terminal, nearly the length of the
leaves, downy, corymbofe, though each bears but three or
four flowers, which are about the Cze of P. aucuparia.
Bractcas awl-fliaped. Calyx woolly. Styles, as far as we
can fee, three, hairy at the bafe. The leaves of this very
pretty and remarkable fpecies llrikingly convey the idea, at
firll fight, of fonic kind of Aiithyllis, efpecially A. Barba
Jovis.

Pyitu.s, in Gardening, contains plants of tlie fruit-tre»
kind, of which the fpecies cultivated are the common pear-
tree (P. communis) ; the common apple-tree (P. malus) ;
the Chincfe apple-tree (P. fpectabihs) ; the Siberian crab-
tree (P. pruniioha) ; the fweet-fcented crab-tree (P. co-
ronaria) ; and the quince-tree (P. cydonia.)

With reipeft to the firft, it is obferved that " the wild
pear, the mother of all the orchard and garden varieties, is
thorny. The ilipules are fetaceous, white (or reddifli),
deciduous ; the peduncles alternate ; and the calyx clothed
viith a ferruginous wool."

There are numerous varieties ; but thofe of moft import-
ance for cultivation are.

The little muflc, which is often termed the fupreme.
The fruit, when ripe, is of a yellow colour ; the juice fome-
what mufl<y ; and, when gathered before it be too ripe, it
is a good fruit. It becomes ripe about the latter end of
July, but continues good only a very fliort time.

The chio, or httle baftard mufk, which is pretty much
like the other, but fmaller. The fldn, when ripe, has a
few ftreaks of red on the fun fide.

The green chiffel, or Mailings, which is a middle-fized
fruit, that always remains green, and is full of juice when
ripe. It becomes ripe in the beginning of Auguil. •«

The red mufcadelle, which is a krge early pear, of great
beauty ; the fliin is of a beautiful yellow, itriped with red,
and the flefli has a rich flavour. It fometimes produces two
crops in a year ; the firft about the end of July, and the
fecond in September, or thereabouts.

The little mufcat, which is a fmall pear, having the fl<in
very thin, and of a yellowifli colour, when ripe. This fruit
has a rich muflcy flavour, but does not keep long. It be-
comes ripe about the beginning of Augutt.

The lady's thigh, which is here commonly called jar-
gonelle, is of a ruflet-green colour from the fun, but to-
wards it inclining to an iron colour ; the flefli is breaking,
and has a rich muflcy flavour. It becomes ripe about the
middle of Auguil.

The Windfor, which has a fmooth fl<iii, and when ripe
is of a yellowiih-green colour ; the flefli is very foft, and, if
permitted to hang but two or three days after it is ripe,
grows mealy, and is good for nothing. It becomes ripe
about the latter end of Auguft.

The jargonelle, which is commonly called cuifle madame.
According to Mr. Forfyth, it is certainly the true French
jargonelle, and the pear that commonly goes by that name
here is the real cuifle madame, or lady's thigh ; it being
very probable that the names have been changed, in coming
to this country. This pear is fomewhat like the Windfor ;
the fl<in is fmooth, and of a pale green colour. It is a
plentiful bearer ; but the flefli is apt to be mealy, if it ftands
to be ripe, which is about the middle of Auguil. It bears
beft on ftandards.

The orange muflt, which is of a yellow colour, fpotted
with black ; the flefli is mulky, but very apt to be dry. It
ripens about the latter end of Auguft.

The great blanquet, or bagpipe of Aniou, which has a
fmooth fliin of a pale green colour ; the flefli is foft, and

full

PYRUS.

full of juice of a rich flavour. It ripens about the middle
of Augull.

The little blaiiquet, which is much lefs than the former,
of a «ale colour, and the flefh tendci', and full of a rich
mu(l<y juice. It ripens about the latter end ot Augull.

Th< loug-ftalked blanquet has a very fmootli ikin, white,
and a i.'.tle coloured towards the fun, and is full of a rich
fugaiy juice. It becomes ripe at the latter end of Auguft.

The fliinlefs cr early rulFelet, which is of a reddifh colour,
the fliin extremely thin, and the flefli melting and full of a
rich fugary jiiice. It ripens in the latter end of Augult.

Tlie rauilt robine, or queen's pear, (alf« called the amber
pear,) which is fmall, and of a yellow colour when ripe ; it
has a rich miiflcy flavour, and is a great bearer. It ripens
about the latter end of Auguft.

Tlie muflc drone, which has a flcin of a yellow colour
when ripe, and a rich mufky tafle ; but is apt to grow
mealy, if left too long on the tree. It ripens about the be-
ginning of September.

The red orange, which is of a greenifh colour, but the
fide next the fun changes to a purple colour, when ripe ;
the flefh is melting, and the juice fugary, witli a little per-
fume. It ripens in the beginning of Auguft.

The callblette, or green mufcat, is a fmall grcenifli pear,
with fome fpecks in the fliin. It is full of a ricli perfumed
juice, and ripens in the latter end of September.

The great onion, brown admired, or king of fummer,
which is of a brownifli colour next the fun, and becomes
ripe in the beginning of September.

Tlie mufk orange, in which tlie ikin is green, and the flefh
melting. It ripens in the beginning of September.

The avorat, or Auguft mufcat, which has a fmooth flcin

of a whitifli yellow colour ; the juice is richly fugared and

. perfumed, and it is elteemed one of the belt fummer pears

yet known. It is a great bearer, and becomes ripe in the

beginning of September.

The rofe, or thorny rofe, which is fhaped like the great
onion pear, but much larger, of a yellowifh-green colour,
but a little inclining to red next the fun. Tiie flefh is
breaking, and the juice mufky. It becomes ripe m the
beginning of September.

The poire du puchet, which has the flefh foft and tender,
and the juice fugary. It ripens in the beginning of Sep-
tember.

The perfumed pear, which is of a deep red colour,
fpotted with brown ; the flelb melting, but dry, and has a
perfumed flavour. It ripens in the beginning ot Sep-
tember.

The falviati, which is red and yellow next the fun, but
whitifh on the other fide ; the flefh is tender, and the juice
fugary and perfumed. It ripens about the middle of Sep-
tember.

The rofe water, which has the flcin rough, and of a
brown colour, the juice very fweet, tailing like rofe-water.
It ripens in the latter end of September.

The ruffelet, in which the flefli is foft and tender, and
the juice agreeably perfumed. It ripens in the latter end
of September.

The great mouthwater, which has the flefh melting and
full of juice. It ripens about the latter end of September.

The prince's pear, which has a highly-flavoured juice,
\ and is a great bearer, ripenmg about the latter end of Sep-
tember.

The fummer bergamot, which is fonietimes called Ham-
den's bergamot. The flelh is melting, and the juice highly
perfumed. It ripens about the latter end of September.

The autumn bergamot, which is fmaller than the former ;

the flelh is melting, and the juice highly perfumed. It is
a great bearer, and ripens in the beginning itf October.

The fummer bonchretien, which is very full of juice, and
is of a rich perfumed flavour. It ripens about the middle of
September.

The beurre rouge, (the red butter pear, ) which has the
flefh very melting and full of a rich fugary juice. It ripens in
the beginning of Oftober, and, when tirll gatiicred from the
tree, is one of the very belt forts of pears.

The dean's pear, which has the flefli melting and full of
juice, which is very cold. It is a great bearer, and ripens in
the beginning of October.

The Swifs bergamot has a melting flelh, and is full of
juice. It ripens in the beginning of October.

The long green, in which the flefh is melting and full of
juice. It ripens in the latter end of Ortober. It is, by
fome, reckoned the fame with the mouthwater.

The white and grey monfieur John, which are the fame ;
tlie difference ot their colour proceeding from the different
foils and fituations wherein they grow, or the flocks on
which they are grafted. If this pear be rightly managed,
there are not many forts in the fame feafon to be compared
with it. The flefli is breaking, and full of a rich fugared
juice. It ripens in the latter end of Odtober or beginning
of November.

The flowered mufcat, whicli is an excellent pear ; the
flefh is very tender, and of a delicate flavour. It ripens in
November.

The vine pear, which is of a dark red colour ; the flefli
very melting, and full of a clammy juice. It comes into
eatmg in November.

^ The roufleline pear, which is of a deep red colour, with
fpots of grey ; the flefh is very tender and delicate, and the
juice very fweet, with an agreeable perfume. It ripens about
the latter end of Oftober, but does not keep.

The knave's pear, which has the flefh fine and tender, and
the juice very much fugared. It ripens in the latter end of
October,-

The marquis pear is a pear which, when it does not
change yellow in ripening, is feldom good ; but if it does,
the flefh will be tender, delicate, and very full of juice,
which is fugared. It comes into eating in November.

The Crafane pear, which has the flefh extremely tender and
buttery, and full of a rich fugared juice. It is the very befl
pear of the feafon, and comes into eating about the latter
end of December.

The Lanfac, or Dauphine pear, which has the flefh yellow,
tender, and melting ; the juice is fugared, and a little per-
fumed. It is in eating the beginning of December.

The martin fee (the dry martin), which is almoft hke the
ruffelet in fhape and colour ; the flefli is breaking and tine ;
and the juice fugared, with a little perfume. It is in eating
about the beginning of December.

The amadot, which is rather dry, but high-flavoured : it
is in eating about the middle of December.

The little lard pear, which is extremely fine ; the flefh
melting ; the juice much fugared, and has an agreeable mufky
flavour. It is in eating the latter end of December, and is
efteemed one of the befl fruits in that feafon.

The Louifbon (the good Lewis), which has the flefli ex-
trem.ely tender, and full of a very fweet juice. It is in eat-
ing about the middle of December.

Tlie Colmar pear, which is very tender, and the juice
greatly fugared. It is in eating about the beginning of Janu-
ary, and is efteemed an excellent fruit.

The I'efchafferie, which has the flefh melting and buttery ;

the

PYRUS.

the juice is fugary, with a little perfume. It is in eating
about the firft of January. It bears bcfl on ftandards.

The virgouleufe pear, which is efteemcd by fome as one
of the belt fruits of the feafon ; the flefli is melting, and
full of a rich juice. It is in eating about the (irll of January.
In dry and cold feafons it is very apt to crack, which greatly
diminilhes its value.

The ambrette, which is cftcemed a very good pear ; the
flefh is quite meltinij, and full of fweet perfumed juice. It
comes into eating about the beginning of January.

The epinc d'hyver (the winter thorn pear), which has a
very tender buttery pulp, of an agreeable tafte, with a
fweet juice higlily perfumed. It is in eating about the latter
end of December.

The St. Germain pear, which is a fine fruit and keeps
loFig; the lleOi is melting, and very full of juice, which in
a dry feafon, or if planted on a warm dry foil, is very Iweet.
It is in eating from December till February. Mr. Forfyth
remarks, that it is " an excellent bearer, when planted as a
dwarf itandard, and comes in fucceffion after the lame fort
of pears on wall-trees are over."

The St. Aullin, which is pretty full of juice, and which
is often a little (harp ; the flefh is tender "but not buttery.
It is in eating the latter end of December, and continues
good two months or longer. ^

The Spaniih bonchretien, which is a large fine pear ; the
flefh is breaking, and the juice fweet. It is in eating in
January. ,

The wilding of Callay, whicli is alio called the fmall
winter butter pear, is a fmall fruit ; the flefli is melting, and
the juice very rich : it is an excellent bearer on tlandards. It
is in eating in January.

The martin fire, or the lord martin, which is a good
fruit ; the flefh is breaking and full of juice, which is
very fweet and a little perfumed. It is in eating in Ja-
nuary.

Th winter rufl'elet, which has the flefli buttery and melt-
ing, and generally full of a fweet juice. It is in eating in
the latter end of January.

The franc real, or the golden end of win;er, which is only
efl;eemed for baking.

The brown beurrc, which is of a reddilh-brown colour
on the fide next the fun, and yellowifti on the other fide.
The flefli is melting, and full of a rich juice. It ripens in
OAober, and is eileeraed an excellent pear.

The Holland bergamot, amofelle, or lord Cheney's, which
is a very good pear ; the flefli is half buttery and tender, and
the juice is highly flavoured. It keeps from the end of
January till April.

The German mufcat, which is an excellent pear ; it is
buttery and tender, and the juice is highly flavoured. It is
in eating from February till April or May.

The pear of Naples, or Eafter St. Germain, which is
half-breaking ; the juice is fweet, and a little vinous. It
is in eating in March.

The winter bonchretien, which is very large ; the flefh
is tender and breaking, and is very full of a rich fugared
juice. It is in eating from the end of March till June.

The la paftorelle, which is tender and buttery, and the
juice fweet. It is in eating in March.

The St. Martial, or the angelic pear, which has the flefh
tender and buttery, and the juice very fweet. It is in eating
in March.

The wilding of Chaumontelle, which is melting, the
juice very rich, and a little perfumed. It is in eating in
January.

The brown St. Germain, which is a very fine high-flavoured

pear on dwarfs and flandards, and comes in after the wall
St. Germain. It continues in eating from December to the
end of March.

The pear d'Auch, which was introduced by the late duke
of Northtimberland. It much refembles the Colmar, but is
fuller towards the ftalk. It is in eating from Chridmas
to April, and is, without exception, the belt of all the winter
pears.

The fwan's egg, which is a middle-fized pear, in a (hape
like an egg ; it is of a green colour, thinly covered with
brown ; the flefli is melting, and full of a pleafaflt mulky
juice. It comes in eating in November. It is healthy, and
bears well either as a ftandard or in any other way.

The bergamot de pafque, which has alfo the following
names : the terling, the amofeUe, the Paddington, and the
Tarquin. It is a fine haiidfome fruit, green when gathered,
and of a yellowifh or ftraw-colour when ripe. It comes into
eating about the month of April, continues till June, and
makes a very handfomc appearance at table.

The golden beur' c, which is a very fine pear ; it is of a
beautiful fcarlet colour next the fun, and of a gold colour
on the other fide. The flefh is melting, and the juice high-
flavoured. It ripens in October. It fuccecds befl on an
eaft aipc£t, and a loamy foil. It is a plentiful bearer. Mr.
Forfyth obferves, that it " was introduced from Burgundy
by the late marfhal Conway, and was firft railed, in this
country', at his feat of Park Place, near Henley-upon-Thames,
now the feat of lord Malmefbury."

The Williams's feedhng pear, which refembles a fummer
bonchretien, but is more juicy, is a great bearer, and
ripens in September. Mr. Forfyth fays that it " will be a
valuable acquifition to the market -gardeners, as it immediately
fucceeds the Wii.dfor pear."

The citron Ae Carmes, which is a middle-fized pear, of a
yellowifli-green caft, full at the eye ; of a round (hape, but
taperiuir a little towards the ftalk, which is long. It becomes
ripe in July.

And the true golden beurre, which in fhape and fize re-
fembles the brown beurre ; but is of a reddifh-brown colour
next the fun. It is a very fine pear, but does not keep long.
It comes into eating in October.

Mr. Forfyth gives the following feleftion from Anderfon's
and Co's. Catalogue of Edinburgh.

Of the Summer Kinds. — The pear James, which is foon
ripe, and foon rotten, has a little flavour, and is the earliell
pear in Scotland.

The early cariiock, which' is indifferent, of a yellow co-
lour, and bright-red towards the fun ; making a beautiful
ftandard tree.

The lemon, lady's lemon, or lady Lament, which is in-
differently good, but principally valued for coming early,
and being a good bearer in common.

The green pear of Pinkey, which is a fmall green pear,
nearly round, of a fweetifh tafte or flavour.

The forrow cow, a Clydefdale pear, which is a large pear
with a fhort ftalk ; flat towards the eye ; the colour red
and yellow ; the flefh tender, and mufked in its flavour.

The pear fanch, a Clydefdale pear, which is a big-bellied
beautiful pear ; the tree large, a great bearer, and tit for an
orchard ; but the fruit is not very good.

The grey honey, which is a pretty good pear.

The green orange pear, or orange vert, which is a very
good pear.

The brute bone, chaw good, or the pope's pear, which is
only an indifferent fort.

The golden knap, fuppofed Scotch, which is a fmall fum-
mer pear, of tolerablv good quahties.

The

I

PYRUS.

The early achan, an indifferent fruit ; greatly inferior to
the winter pear of that name.

The hanging leaf, wliich is the name in Clydefdalc, is
good and beautiful ; almolt round ; its colour red and yellow ;
a delicious fweetneis is found in its tafte.

The Scots bergamot, wliich is a large good pear, of a
yellow and red colour ; the fleih tender and juicy.

The LongueviUe, which is very good, but a precarious
bearer ; fuppofed French, though not in their catalogues
under that name.

The mulked boncliretien, gratioli, cucumber, or Spinola's
pear, which is a very good pear when grafted on a free Itock ;
its pulp being fomewliat between fhort and tender, with a
great deal of perfumed juice, its colour red on one fide, and
white on the other.

And the faffron pear, which is a pretty large well-lhaped
pear, fit for the orchard or the field.

Of the Autumnal Kinds. — The keather, which is a Clydef-
dalc pear, of middling fize, and oblong (hape, its juice
agreeable.

The French carnock, which is tolerably good.

The elfliin haft, or good-man pear, which is a long pear,
flat towards the eye : its colour green and yellow ; its flefli
hard, dry, and fweet in the talle.

The Drummond, or late Scotch carnock, which is very
good, if eaten before it grows mealy ; its colour a bright
red and yellow.

The vicar, an oblong pear, with the colour yellow, red,
and ttriped ; tender, fweet, and muflced, but dry in eating.

The royal orange bergamot, which differs from the orange
bergamot in being yellower, and fometimes having a faint
red on one fide.

The green pear of Yair, which is fweet, juicy, and melt-
ing ; of a moderate fize ; taking its name from Yair, on
Tweed-fide, where it was firft diTcovered.

The rob hind, which is very indifferent.

The le beftderi, the wilding of the foretl of Ileri, in Bre-
tagne, which is a yellowilh pear, of middle fize, but which
is indifferent.

The unicorn pear, which is of a beautiful red and yellow
colour ; but rather auftere in the tafte or flavour.

Of the Winter Kinds. — The winter achan, which is a Scotch
pear ; among the beft early winter pears, and equal to moft
of thofe of the French kind.

The brier bu(h, which is Scotch; a good pear, and will
' ripen in moft feafons ; it is a fmall pear, of a firm fubllance,
and fweet tafte.

The Brompton park, which is a feedling fent by Jefferys
of that name.

The round winter, which is a Clydefdale pear, a very ex-
cellent winter pear.

The poir portrail, or gate pear, which is proper for
baking.

The la double fleur, or the double-flowering pear, which
is a large flat beautiful pear, with a fmooth (Ivin, and
blufh colour on one fide, and yellow on the other : it is
the bell to preferve, taking a beautitul red colour from
the fire.

And to thefe the following lift is added : —The Ambrofia
pear, the Alliton town, the autumn mufl< bonchrelien, the
bifhop's thumb, t,he bloody pear, proper for baking, the
brocas bergamot, the barland, proper for perry, the befi-
deri, fit for baking, *he beurre du roi, the black pear,, or
Worcefter, fit for baking, the Britannia, the burdelieu, the
Doyenne, or St. Michael, the caftillac, fit for baking, the
■ Eafter St. Germair:, the Ganfel's bergamot, the golden
beurre, the grey beurre, the grey good-wife, the green

fugar, the green bergamot, the Huntingdon pear, the huff-
cap, proper for perry, the king's Catharine, the lammas,
the London fugar, the nuifcat alraain, the mufk blanquet,
the Oldfield, proper for perry, the orange bergamot, the
pear piper, the pyrus poUveria, the red admirable, the
rough cap, proper for perry, the Scotch bergamot, the
leven-angled, the filver-ftriped, the Sj)anilh red warden, beft
for baking, the fquafli, proper for perry, the llriped verte
longue, and the white beurre.

And for fmall gardens, wliere there is room only for a few
trees, the following are recommended as proper for furnifh-
ing a regular iucceffion of fruit.

Summer Kinds. — The mulk pear, the green chiffel, the
jargonelle, the fummer bergamot, and the fummer bon-
chrttien.

Of the Autumn Kinds. — The orange bergamot, the autumn
bergamot, the Ganfel's bergamot, the brown beurre, the
Doyenne, or St. Michael, and tlie fwan's egg.

Of the Winter Kinds. — The Crad'ane, the Chaumontelle, the
St. Germain, the Colmar, the d'Aucli, the I'cfchafferie, the
winter boncliretien, and the bergamot de pafque.

And the fecond fort, in its wild ilate, is called the crab,
or wilding, and is armed with thorns, as well as the wild
pear. Miller mentions two varieties in the fruit of the
crab, one white, the other purple towards the fun ; but
it is commonly yellowiftt-green with a tinge of red. And
alfo a variety with variegated leaves.

There are a great many varieties of the apple, but the
following are given by Mr. Forfyth as the moft deferving of
attention.

The Acklam's ruffet, which is a fmall Yorkfhire apple, of
a ruffet colour toward the fun, and yellow on the other
fide ; it becomes ripe in January, and keeps till March.

The aromatic pippin, which is a very good apple, of a
bright ruffet next the fun ; and the flefli has a fine aromatic
flavour. It ripens in Oitober.

The Baxter's pearmain, which is a real Norfolk apple, of a
handfome fize, and pale-green colour, full of fmall dark
fpots. It IS a fine kitchen fruit, and will keep till April.
It is alfo a good eating apple.

The beauty of Kent, which is a fine large apple, refem-
bling a codhn. It is ftreaked with a fine red towards the
fun, and of a beautiful yellow, with fome ilreaks of red on
the other fide. It is a very good apple, coming into eat-
ing in September, and keeping till the latter end of
April.

The belle grifdeline, which is a new feedling raifed at
Norwich, of much beauty, and never failing to afford crops.
It was firft propagated by Mr. Lindley, who gave it this
name. It is a handfome apple, rcfembhng the burfdoff,
of a yellow colour, with red towards the fun, and an ex-
cellent table apple, keeping till March.

The Bell's pearmain, which is a real Norfolk apple, large
and handfome ; red toward the fun, and yellow on the other
fide. It is a fiae kitchen fruit, and pretty good to eat raw,
keeping till June.

The beft pool, which is a middle-fized apple, of a pale-
green colour, ilreaked with red towards the fun. It is a.
good apple, in eating from January to April.

The black apple, which is a middle-fized fruit, of a dark
mahogany colour next the fun, but fainter on the other fide.
It is of a pleafant fweet tafte, keeping till the middle of
April.

The Bland's fummer pippin, which is a handfome apple,
of a gold colour, and an agreeable flavour. It is a great
bearer, ripe in September, and keeps till Chriftmas.

The Blatche's fine fmall table apple, which is about the

fize

PYRUS.

fize of a fmall golden pippin ; red toward the fun, and green
on the other fide. It has a fugary tafte, and comes into eat-
ing in January.

The boomrey, which is a pretty large handfome apple, of
2 flat fhape, and deep-red colour ; and the flcfli is ihcaked
with red. It is not fit to eat raw, but will do well for
cyder, or for the kitchen. It keeps till April.

The Bovey redltreak, which is a iiandfome apple, of a
flattifli (liape, beautifully flreaked with a bright red next
the eye, which is fmall, and of a yellow colour about the
footltalk. It keeps till the latter end of Oftober.

The broad-eyed pippin, which is a fine lai-gc apple, with
a very large eye ; the colour is a greenifli-yellow, with a
little red toward the fun. It is a good apple, and keeps
till May.

The brandy apple, which is about the fize of a golden
pippin, flat-fliaped, and of a yellowifh rufl'et colour. It is
of a pleafant flavour ; coraes into eating in January, and
keeps till March.

The burfdoff, or queen's apple, which is a beautiful fruit,
red next the fun, and of a fine yellow on the other fide. It
is a very fine apple ; in Mr. Forfyth's opinion, next in per-
feftion to the golden pippin, and about the fame fize. It
is of a good flavour ; ripening in January, and keeping till
March.

The carnation apple, which is a beautiful middle-fized
fruit, finely ftripcd with red. It is ripe in January, and
keeps till May.

The Carbury pippin, which in fize and fliape refembles
the French crab, and is of a deep green colour. It is a
good baking apple, keeping till March.

The caraway rufiet, which is a handfome ruffet-coloured
apple, about the fize of a nonpareil.

The calville, red and white, which are good apples, and
of a vinous talle. Some have a red and fome a white
pulp, the white being reckoned of a moll delicious
tafte. They are in eating in September, and the following
month.

The cat's-head, which is a large oblong apple, of a green-
ifti-yellow colour, with a little brovvnifli-red next the fun ;
fometimes the colour inclines to a rufiet. It is a good
baking apple, and is in eating from Oftober to December.

The cockagee, which is a conical-fhaped middle-fized
apple, red on that fide next the fun, and of a fine yellow
colour on the other. If properly managed, the fruit keeps
till February. It is a famous cyder apple, and alfo bakes
well.

The codlin, which is generally the firft apple that is
brought to market. Its fruit is fo well known that it needs
no defcription. It is in eating from July to December ;
and is good either^ for baking or boiling.

The Cornifli nonpareil, which is rather under the middle
fize, is a little flatted, and of a rufiet colour. It is a very
good apple, and keeps till the middle of March.

The Cornifh pearmain, which is of a middling fize, and
long fiiape ; of a dull-green colour on one fide, and ruflet on
the other. It is a very good apple, and keeps till the latter
end of April.

The Court-of-Wick pippin, which is defcribed by Mr.
Billingfly, in his " Survey of Somerfetfliire," as " the fa-
vourite apple, both as a table and cyder-fruit, taking its
name from the fpot where it was firli produced. It ori-
ginated from the pip or feed of the golden pippin, and
may be confidered as a beautiful variety of that fruit. In
fhape, colour, and flavour, it has not its fuperior : the tree
is large, handfome, and fpreading, and a very luxuriant
bearer. On the whole, it cannot be too ftrongly recom-

mended." It is larger than the golf'en pippin, of a yeljowifli.
green colour, and a little tinged with red next the fun. It
comes into eating in January

The Cockles pippin, which is a Iiandfome oval-fliaped
apple, below the middle fize, of a ruflet colour, mixed with
yellow and red. It keeps till April.

The corpendu, or hanging body, which is a very large
apple, and has a red call on the fide towards the fun ; but is
pale on the other fide. It takes ,its name from always
hanging downwards ; and comes into eating in September.

The Dalmahoy pippin, which is about the fize of a golden
pippin, of a green colour, and a little ftieaked with red
tow.irds the fun. It has a tolerably good flavour, rather
fiiarp ; and is in eating from September to February.

Tlie Dimock's red, which is under the middle fize,
of a fine red colour, intermixed with a little yellow on the
fide from tlie fun. It is ripe in January, and keeps till
March.

The Dredge's feedling, which is a fine large apple,
(Iriped with red next the fun, and of a yellowifh-green on
the other iide. This is an excellent kitchen apple, of a
pleafant tafte, and keeps till the latter end of January.

Tlie Dredge's beauty of Wilts, which is a beautiful
apple, of a good fize, and one of the fineft yet known
in point of general utility. It is of a fine bright yel-
low colour, fpotted with red towards the fun ; and has an
excellent vinous flavour. It is good either for the table or
baking, and keeps till March.

The Dredge's rufiet, which is a fmall apple, of a greenifli-
ruflet colour, and of a pleafant flavour. It is ripe in No-
vember, and keeps till Midfummer.

The Dredge's white lily, which is a fine apple, of an ex-
ceeding high flavour, and keeps till March.

The Dredge's fair maid of Wiftiford, which is a fine mid-
dle-fized apple, of a yellowifli-green colour, with fome
ruffet next the fun, of an excellent flavour. It is a great
bearer, and is in eating from Chriftmas to Eafter, being an
excellent defert apple.

Tlie Dredge's queen Charlotte, which is a beautiful mid-
dle-fized apple, of a gold colour, with red towards the fun.
It is of an excellent flavour, comes into eating about Chrift-
mas, and keeps till February.

The Dredge's fame, whicii is a good fized apple, red to-
wards the fun, and ftreaked like the Ribfton pippin on the
other fide. It is a nioft excellent apple, being in eating
from Eafter to Middfummcr.

The dumpling apple, which is a handfome apple, and
rather above the middle fize, flat fhaped, and of a greenifti-
yellow colour, with fome faint ftreaks of red. It keeps till
March.

The Dutch queening, which is a large apple, femewhat
refcmbhng the cat's-head in fhape. The colour is red next
the fun, and green on the other fide, with fometimes a little
red. The fruit is fit only for the kitchen, and for making
cyder. It is ripe in January, keeping till the end of March.

The Elton's yellow kernel, which is a handfome middle-
fized apple, of a yellow colour. It is a good table apple,
being in eating from January to March.

The Enghfh rennet, which is a handfome apple, beauti-
fully ftreaked with red, but darkcft towards the fun ; of a
tolerable flavour, but apt to grow mealy when kept too
long. It keeps till the middle of May.

The embroidered apple, which is pretty large, and the
ftripes of red very broad, from which circumftance it takes
its name. It is commonly ufcd as a kitchen apple, becoming
ripe in Oftober.

The everlafting ftripcd apple, which is below the middle

1 1 fize,

PYRUS.

Hze, of a conical fhape. The colour is a ftriped green to-
wards tlie footftalk, and red towards the eye.

The famoufe, which is a pretty large apple, of a beau-
tiful dark red, with a little yellow on the fide from the fun.
Its flefh is very white, and full of a rich fugary juice ;
coming into eating about the latter end of Oftober. It
was introduced from Canada by Mr. Barclay of Brompton.

The fenouillet, ou pomme d'anis, the fennel or anife
apple, which is a niiddle-fized fruit, of a grey colour ; the
pulp is tender, and has a fpicy tafle, like anifeed. It be-
comes ripe in September and OSobdr.

The flower of Kent, which is a large handfome apple, of
a yellow colour, and pretty good flavour. It keeps till the
middle of April.

The fox-whelp, which is a fmall apple, ftreaked with
red. It is ripe in January. It is a cyder apple.

The Franklin's golden pippin, which is a handfome
middle-fized apple, of a conical fhape and gold colour,
beautifully marked with dark fpots. The fruit has a fine
aromatic flavour, and deferves the firft place at the table ;
but it is a very fliy bearer. It comes into eating about the
middle of November.

The French crab, which is a large handfome apple, of a
deep green colour, vi'ith a little red next the fun. It will
keep all the year ; is a good baking apple, and, if the fum-
mer be warm, pretty good for eating, and is a great bearer.

The French codlin, which is a pretty large apple, of a
conical fliapc, and green colour, with red towards the fun,
coming uito eating jn January.

The Fearn's pippin, which is of the fliape and fize of a
nonpareil. It is of a beautiful fcarlet next the fun, and of
n golden yellow on the other fide. It makes a fine fliow at
table, and keeps till the latter end of February.

The French Spaniard, which is a large apple, in form of
a hexagonal prifm with the angles a little rounded, and of a
yellowifli-green colour ; it is pretty good, and keeps till the
latter end of April.

The French or white rennet, which is a large fruit, of a
yellowifh-green colour, with fome grey fpots. It has a
fugary juice, and is good either for eating or baking.

The Gargey pippin, which is a handfome conical-fhaped
apple, under the middle fize, of a greenifli-yellow colour,
with a little red towards the fun. This is a pretty good
apple, and keeps till May.

The gilhflcwer, which is a fine handfome apple, red to-
wards the fun, and of a yellowifli-grcen on the other fide,
having a fine flavour, and keeping till the latter end of
March.

The golden rennet, which is a beautiful apple, a little
flatted ; of a fine red colour towards the fun, and yellow on
the other fide. It is a good eating apple, and keeps till
February.

The golden ruffet, which is a fine middle-fized apple, of
a golden ruffet colour, from which it takes its name. It is
a good apple, and keeps long.

The golden pearmain, which is a fine apple, above the
middle fize, of a fine deep red towards the fun, with a little
yellow on the other fide ; when much expofed to the fun it
is fometimes red all over.

The golden Mundi, which is a fine handfome apple, beau-
tifully ilrcaked with red ; of a good flavour, excellent for
baking, and will keep till January. It is a good fauce
apple.

The golden Glocefler, which is a handfome middle-fized
apple, of a flat fhape, and gold colour, with red toward
the fun. It is a good apple, and keeps till March.

The golden knob is a handfome though rather fmall apple,
WoL. XXIX.

of a fine gold colour, fometimes inclining to a ruflet. It

has a pleafant flavour.

The golden pippin is well known ; and the French own
it to be of Englifli origin. It is almofl peculiar to this
country ; for there are few countries abroad where it fuccceds
well. It is yellow as gold ; the juice is very fweet ; the
fl<in (efpecially where expofed to the fun) is often freckled
with dark yellow fpots. It is certainly the mofl ancient, as
well as the mofl excellent, apple that we have. It ripens
in Oftober, and keeps through the winter. It has feveraJ
fub- varieties.

The Godolphin apple, which is a very handfome large
fine fruit, ftreaked with red on the fide next the fun, and of
a yellowifh colour on the other fide. It is in eating from
the latter end of September to December.

Tiie green dragon, which is a fine large apple, of an ex-
cellent flavour, and pale-green colour. It is rather too
large for the table, and is therefore moftly ufed as a kitchen
apple. It keeps till March.

The great or large ruflet, which is a middle-fized fruit, of
a ruflet colour, with a little dark-red toward the fun. A
pretty good apple, and keeps till April.

The Griddleton pippin, which is a large angular-fhaped
apple, of a green colour, with a little blufh towards the
fun. It is a baking appJe, and keeps till March.

The Grumas's pippin, which is about the fize and fhape
of a golden pippin ; of a dingy-green colour next the fun,
and of a dull yellow on the other fide. It is ripe in January,
and keeps till April.

The Hagloe crab, which is a yellow-coloured conical-
fhaped apple, below the middle fize. It is ripe in January ;
but is only fit for making cyder, or forfcaking.

The hall-door, which is a fine large apple, of a flat fhape,
beautifully ftreaked with red toward the fun, and of a
greenifh-yellow on the other fide. It is of a fine flavour,
and is in eating from January till March.

The Hallingbury, which is a large flat-fliaped apple, with
large ridges from the bafe to the crown. It is of a beau-
tiful red toward the fun, and of a yellowifh colour on the
other fide and towards the eye.

The Hampfliire nonfuch, which is a pretty large wcU-
fhaped apple, of a greenifh-yellow colour, ftreaked with
r^d. It keeps till the latter end of November.

The Harvey's ruflet, which is fo called in Cornwall, is a
large ruffet-coloured apple, with a little red toward the
fun. It is a famous kitchen fruit, and tolerably good raw,
with a mufl<y flavour.

The Holland pippin, which is a middle-fized apple of a
flattifh fhape. Its colour is yellow, in fome places in-
clining to green, with, fometimes, a little red toward the
fun. It is a pretty good apple, keeping till the middle of
April.

The hollow-eyed pippin, which is a middle-fized apple,
of a yellow colour, beautifully fpotted with red toward the
fun ; and the eye is pretty deep. It is a good Iharp-
flavoured apple, keeping till the middle of May.

The hollow-eyed rennet of Cornwall, which is a hand-
fome flat-ftiaped apple, under the middle fize, of a greenifh-
yellow colour, fometimes intermixed with ruflet. It is of
an excellent flavour, and keeps till April.

The hedge apple, which is a new fruit, of middle fize
and handfome conical fhape, red toward the fun, and of a
ftraw colour on tiie other fide. It is of a tolerably good
flavour, and keeps till the latter end of April.

The hogfhead apple, which is a fmall red fruit ; the flefh
is red, and the tafte auftere. It is a cyder apple, becomes
ripe in January, apd keeps till March.

P The

PYRUS.

The Hubbard'i, or the rufTct pearmain, which is a real
Norfolk apple ; and, though not haiidfomc, is one of the
beft table apples. It is of a dark rufiet colour, becomes
ripe in .laiuiary, and keeps till April.

The John apple, which is a middle-fized handfome fruit,
of a green colour, with a little red toward the fun ; the
footilalk being very fmall. It is an excellent cyder and
baking apple, from Devonfliire ; it is of an excellent
flavour, and keeps till March.

The Ifle of Wight pippni, which is a handfome middle-
fized apple, of a greenilh-yellow colour.

The juneting, or jenneting, which is a fmall ycUowifh
apple, red on the fide next the fun. It is a pretty fruit for
early variety, and ripens about the latter end of June or
beginning of the following month.

The kernel redllreak, which is of a greenifh-yellow, with
broad Itreaks of a dark-red all over it, and a yellow ground
finely fpeckled with red r.ext the fun.

The ktrnel pearmain, which is a fmall handfome apple,
red toward the fun, and of a yellowilh-green mixed with
red on the other fide. It is of a good flavour, keeping till
the middle of May.

The Kentifli pippin, which is a good fized apple, finely
ftreaked with red. It is of a fine flavour, comes into eating
about Chrittmas, and keeps till February.

The Kentiih nonpareil, which is a handfome flat-fhaped
apple, of a light-rullet colour, inclining to red toward the
fun. It is of a good flavour, and keeps till May.

The king of the pippins, which is a middle-fized apple,
of a fine gold colour, a little Itreaked with red towards the
fun. It IS ripe m January, and keeps till the latter end of
March, when it becomes mealy.

The king apple, which is a middle-fized apple, of a
conical Ihape ; and its colour is that of a beautiful red in-
termixed with a little yellow on one fide. This apple is of
a pleafant fugary talle, and keeps till the latter end of
April.

The Kirke's feedling, which is a beautiful apple of a
fine red colour towards the bafe, and yellow towards the
eye. The footilalk is flender, and the eye large.

The Kirke's fcarlet pearmain, which is a handfome
middle-fized apple, of a beautiful red toward the fun, and
a httle yellow on the other fide ; becoming ripe in January.

The Kirke's fcarlet admirable, which is a good apple for
baking, and of a beautiful fcarlet colour, is in eating about
the month of January.

The Kentifti fill-ba&et, which is a fpecies of codhn, of
a large fize, and generally ufed for baking. It is in eating
from Auguil to Oftober.

The Kirton or crack'd pippin, which is a middle-fized
apple, of a greenifh-yellow colour, with little dark fpots.
The coat is generally rough towards the footilalk. It is a
good apple for the table, coming into eating in September.

The lady's finger, which is an excellent table apple, of a
conical (hape ; red next the fun, and of a yellowifii call on
the other fide, having a fweet pleafant flavour, and keeping
till May.

The large ttyre, which is a handfome cyder apple, of a
yellow colour, with a little red next the fun. It becomes
ripe in November.

The Lilbon pippin, which is a handfome middle-fized
apple, of a flat fliape, a fine red toward the fun, and a
reddifli-yellow on the other fide. The flefh is firm, and has
a fliarp pleafant talle. It comes into eating in November.

The Loan's pearmain, which is a large oval-fliaped apple,
of a dull green colour intermixed with a brownilh-red,
dcepeft next the fun. It is a pretty good table apple, of a

fliarp tafte, ripening in September, and keeping till May,
but is apt to grow mealy.

The London pippin, or five-crowned pippin, which is a
fine large apple, of a green colour, flreaked with red toward
the fun. It refembles the Ribllon pippin, but is larger.
It has a pretty agreeable talle ; and will come into eating
about the latter end of November. It is good for the
kitchen and table ; and a mod abundant bearer. It keeps
till the middle of April.

The le calville d'automne, the autumn calville, which is a
large fruit, of an oblong figure, and of a fine red colour
toward the fun, having a vinous juice, and is much eftecmed
by the French.

The long lafler, which is a middle-fized apple, of an an-
gular (hape, and fine yellow colour, with a beautiful red
next the fun. It is of a.tolerable flavour, and keeps till the
middle of May, but is apt to become mealy.

The lemon pippin, which is a handfome oval-fliaped apple,
of a gold colour. It is of a fine flavour, and will keep till
the beginning of March.

The long feam, which is a large angular-fliaped baking
apple of a pretty good flavour, with light green colour. It
keeps till the latter end of January.

The lord Cheney's green, which is a middle-fized York-
fliire apple, rcfcmbling the Yorkfliire greening. It is of a
dark green colour, with a little of a chocolate colour next
the fun. It is a.baking apple, and keeps till the middle of
May.

The lord Arundel's apple, which is large, of an angular
(hape ; the colour is green, with a little dingy red towards
the fun. It is from France, and good for fauce, keeping
well.

The lord Camden's rennet, which is a good-fized feedling,
of a yellow colour, with a little brownifh-red next the fun.
It is a good flavoured apple, and keeps till March.

The Lucas's pippin, which is a handfome, middle-fized,
cylindrical-lhaped apple, of a beautiful orange colour. It
is a pretty good fruit, and keeps till the latter end of
April.

The maiden's blufli, which is a fmall apple, of a dark
mahogany colour next the fun, but paler on the other fide,
and fometimes of a greenifli call. The taile is auftere,
and of courfe this fruit is not fit for the table ; but does
very well for baking, or for cider. It keeps till the begin- _
ning of March.

The Mansfield tart, which is a large Nottingham apple,
but mod known in Yorkfliire. It is handfome, of a green
colour, having a httle call of brownifti-rcd, with dark fpots
next the fun, being a baking apple, and keeping till Fe-
bruary.

The May gennet, which is rather under the middle fize, of
a greenifli-yellow colour, flightly ftreaked with red next the
fun. It keeps till April.

The major Hemmings's apple, which is a handfome mid-
dle-fized fruit, of a fight green colour, with a little brownifli-
red towards the fun. It is an excellent apple.

The margil, which is an excellent apple, about the
fize of a nonpareil. It is of a red colour, with fome yel-
low on one fide ; continues in ufe from November to the
latter end of March ; and is often fold in the London mar-
kets for a nonpareil.

The Margaret apple, which is a £ne and beautiful fruit,
yellow, ftriped with red, of a delicate tafte, fweet fcent,
and generally eaten off the tree. It is ripe in Auguft.

The Minchall crabb, which is a handfome middle-fized
Lancaftiire apple, of a yellow colour, with fome brown

fpots.

PYRUS.

fpots. It is common in the Manchefler markets, and keeps
till April.

The monftroiis rennet, which is a very large apple, turn-
ing red towards the fun, and of a dark green on the other
fide. It is generally preferved on account of its magni-
tude, as the ncfli is apt to be mealy. It becomes ripe in
Oftober.

The mother rennet, which is rather under the middle fize,
of a greenifli colour, with a little blufh towards the fun.
The eye is large and deep, and the footllalk fmall.

The New-England pippin, which is a large angular-
ftiaped apple, of a green colour, with a little browni(h-rcd
towards the fun. It has a pretty good flavour, and keeps
till March.

The Newton pippin, which, according to Mr. Forfyth, is
an American apple, but laid to be originally from Devon-
fllire. It is a tine large apjii.-, of a greenifh -yellow colour
and red, with dark fpots next tlu- fun. When much expofed,
■'it is of a beautiful red towards the fun, and of a gold co-
lour on the other fide. It has a iine flavour when not kept
till it is too ripe, as then it becomes mealy. It is in eating
from November to January .

The new red mull, ivhicli is a fine large apple, of a pale
red towards the footitalk, and of a greenifh colour towards
the eye. It is a cider apple, and fit for baking.

The new red pippin, which is a beautiful middle-fized ap-
ple, of a darp red colour, with a mixture of yellow on the
fide from the fun. It keeps till March.

The nonfuch, which is a good bearer, and very fit either
for the table or kitchen ; the cooks, however, complain
that it makes but a very fmall proportion of fauce. It is
ripe in September and Odlober.

The nine-fquare, which, according to Forfyth, is a Glou-
cefterdiire apple. It is a large angular-fhaped fruit, of
a fine red towards the fun, and yellow on the other fide,
• with a fmall mixture of red, keeping till April.

The Norfolk colman, which is a middle-fized apple, of a
mahogany colour towards the fun, and a dark green on the
other fide. It keeps till Auguft.

The Norfolk beefin, which is a good-fized apple, rather
flatted, of a deep red colour towards the eye, but paler
towards the footftalk.

The Norfolk paradife, which is a large apple, of a dark
red colour towards the fun, and green on the other fide. It
is a nice baking apple, and of a tolerable flavour for eating.
It keeps till the middle of May.

The Norfolk Itoring, which is a pretty large apple, of a
dark red colour towards the footftalk, and green towards
the eye. It is of a pleafant (harp flavour, being in eating
from the latter end of January to tlie latter end of April.

The northern greening, which is a fine oblong apple, full
at the footftalk, of a pale green colour, with a little red
towards the fun. It is nearly of an equal fize from the
bafe to the crown, and has a fine flavour, being ripe in Ja-
nuary.

The nonpareil, which is a fruit defervedly valued for
the brifknefs of its taile. It is feldom ripe before Chriftmas,
and, if well preferved, will keep till May. It is juilly
efteemed one of the beft apples that have been yet known.

The oak peg, or oaken pin, which is an oval-fhaped mid-
dle-fized fruit, of a green colour llriped with white. It is
very full towards the footftalk, which is fmall, keeping till
June.

The old Englifti pearmain, which is an oval-fliaped apple,
of a middle fize, and fine red colour, with a little yellow
towards the eye. It is of a pleafant fweet flavour ; and is
in eating from January to March.

The old red muft, which is a fine large apple, fomcwhat
refembling the new red mull, both in (liape and colour, with
the addition of dark red fpots towards the footftalk.

The old red pippin, which is a middle-fized apple, red to-
wards the fun, and of a grccnifii colour on the other fide.
It is a good apple, and keeps till March.

The orange pippin, which is about the fize of a large
golden pippin ; of a beautiful gold colour, with a little pale
red towards the fun. It is a handfome apple, of a good
flavour, and makes a fine appearance at table, being in eating
in Oftobcr, and keeps till March, but gets flat in the tafte
when too long kept.

The Orleans pippin, which is a fmall flat-ftnaped apple, of
a dark red colour, refembling the Orleans plum.

The paradife pippin, which is a handfome middle-fized
apple, of a reddilh caft. It comes into eating in Oftober,
but will not keep. It grows mealy when too roe.

The paufon, which is below the middle fize, of a coni-
cal ftiape, and of a greenifti-yellow, or light green colour.
It is ripe in January.

The Pile's ruflet, which is a middle-fized longifti-lhaped
apple, rufi'et about the footftalk, yellow towards the mid-
dle, and of a bi"owni(h-red about the eye. It is a very firm
fruit, of a ftiarp acid flavour, being much efteemed for
baking. It ripens in Oftober, and will keep till April.

The pigeonette, which is rather below the middle fize, of
a conical fliape. It is of a pink colour, pretty dark towards
the fun.

The Pearfon's pippin, which is a nice apple, about the
fize of a large golden pippin, of a yellowifh colour, and
the form a little flat. In Devonfhire, according to Mr.
Forfyth, they put thefe pippins into the oven jull after the
bread is drawn, laying a weight over them to flatten them,
in the fame manner as they do the beefin in Norfolk, and
bring them to table as a fweetmeat. It is a very good defert-
apple, and keeps till March.

The pomme grifc, which is a fine apple, from Canada, of
a flattilh form, and ruffet colour, ftreaked beautifully with
red. It ripens late, and keeps till March. It is an excel-
lent eating apple.

The pomme d'api, which is much valued for its colour,
being of a bright red. The tree is a good bearer, and the fruit
is not fubjeti to be ftiaken with high winds. The fruit
fliould be fuft'ered to hang on the tree till Oftober or Novem-
ber, if the froil do not fet in. It comes into eating in Fe-
bruary and March, and keeps long ; but is more admired for
its beauty than its flavour, or finenefs of tafte.

The pomme violette, the violet apple, which is a pretty
large fruit, of a pale green, ftriped with red towards the
fun. It has a fugary juice, and a flavour of violets, from
which it takes its name. It ripens in Oftober, and continues
in eating till February, or later.

The pomroy, or king's apple, which ripens nearly as foon
as the juneting, and though not fo beautifully covered, is
larger and much better tailed. It has a fub-variety, which
is a winter apple.

The pound pippin, which is a large handfome apple, of a
greenifti colour, and is good for baking. It becomes ripe in
January.

The poor man's profit, which is a dingy coloured oval-
fliaped apple, below the middle fize. It is raifed freely
from cuttings ; and keeps till January.

The queening, which is from Gloucetterfhire, is a large
apple, of irregular ftiape, having large ridges from the bafe
to the crown. It is of a dark red, but deepeft towards the
fun. It is a good cider apple, and bakes well, keeping till
the latter end of November.

P 2 The

PYRUS.

The queening's kernel, which is a fine apple, above the
middle iize, ot a deep red colour. Covered very thick
with fmall whitifh fjjccks. It is a tolerably good apple, and
keeps till the latt.r end of April.

The queen's pippin, which is a fmall handfome apple, of
a ycUowilh-grcen colour, fometimes inclining to red on the
fide next the fun. It is a fine-flavoured apple, very fit for
the table, coming into eating in January, and keeping till
May, but is apt to grow mealy when kept too long. Mr.
Forfyth fays, " the tree never grows to the height of other
apple-trccs."

The quince-apple, which is a middle-fized fruit, of a yel-
low colour, with a little red towards the eye. It is of a
pleafant lliarp flavour, ripe in .January, and keeps till
April.

The Ramborn, which, is a large fruit, of a fine red next
the fun, and llriped with a yellowifti-green. It ripens about
the middle of September.

The red pcarmain, which is fmallerthan the pearmains in
general. It is of a deep red, with a little yellow on one
fide. A pleafant fweet apple, and keeps till the middle of
April.

The red-ftreak, which is a handfome middle-fized apple,
beautifully Ilreaked with red. It is a good cider apple,
becoming ripe in .January.

The red-ftreak feedling, from Longleat, which is from
the Dorfetfhire red-ftreak, is a beautiful apple, of a yellow
colour, ftreaked with red, particularly next the fun. For-
fyth fays, it is fold in the Bath and Briftol markets in the
latter end of September, and beginning of Oftober. It is
a pretty good apple, but does not keep long.

The red bag, which is a beautiful large Herefordlhire
apple, of a longi(h (laape, ftreaked all over with a dark red ;
and is in eating about the middle of Oftober.

The red muft, which refembles the old red muft in fhape ;
but is of a dark red colour towards the fun, and yellow
on the other fide. It is ripe about the middle of No-
vember.

The rennette grife, which is a middle-fized fruit, of a
grey colour next the fun ; it is a very good juicy apple,
of a quick flavour, and ripens about the latter end of
Oftober.

The red fweet, which is a fmall round apple, red towards
the fun, and of a greenifh-yellow on the other fide. It is a
good bearer, according to Forfyth, " and much efteemed
among the country people of Cornwall, for making a kind
of tart or pie, one of their dainties at Chriftmas." It is a
pretty good table apple, and keeps till March.

The Ribfton pippin, which is a fine apple, from Ribfton
Hall, near Knarefborough,in Yorkfliire. It is a little ftreaked
with red towards the fun, and yellow on the other fide, being
one of the beft apples for eating and baking, and continues
in ufe from the end of Oftober tdl April. It bears very
well as a dwarf, and no garden ftiould be without it.

The Robniion's pippin, which is about the fize of a
golden pippin, of a green colour, and partakes of the fla-
vour both of a golden pippin, and a nonpareil. It keeps
till May.

The royal George, which is a fine large apple, of a beau-
tiful yellow on one fide, and green on the other. It is a good
apple, and keeps till June ; but then grows mealy.

Tlie royal nonpareil, which is a handfome apple, of a
flattidi fhape, with a fmall footftalk and fine eye. It is
about the fize of a common nonpareil, of a green colour,
witli red towards the fun. It is ripe in January, and keeps
till the latter end of March.

The royal pearmain, which is a fine large apple, beau-

tifully ftreaked with red. It is ripe in January, and keeps'
till March, being a pretty good apple.

The royal ruliet, or leather-coat ruflet, whicli is a large
f'uit, and one of the beft kitchen apples iha; wc have. It
is alfo a pleafant eating apple, and a great bearer, being io
ufe from Oftober to Aprd. •

The ruflet pippin, wliich is of a rough ruliet colour to-
wards the fun, and of a green colour, fometimes inclining to
yellow, on the other fide. It is a good keeping apple, and
fit either for baking or eating raw. It is ripe about the
beginning of February, and keeps till March.

The fummer pearmain, which is ilriped with red next the
fun ; the flefli is foft, but foon turns mealy ; fo that it is
not much efteemed. It is in eating in Auguft and Sep-
tember.

The filvcr pippin, which is a handfome middle-fized
conical-ftiaped apple, of a fine yellow colour, with a faint
blulh towards the fun. The fleftl is firm and very white,
and of an excellent flavour. It keeps till the middle of
May, or later.

The feek no farther, which is a handfome apple, rather
above the middle fize, of a pale green colour, a little ftreaked
with red. It is of a pleafant though not very high flavour ;
and is in eating from January to May ; but is apt to be
mealy when kept longer tlian the beginning of April.

The Sykehoufe, which is a handfome middle-fized apple,
from Sykehoufe in Yorkfliire, of an orange colour towards
the fun, fometimes inclining to red, and yellow on the other
fide. This is a fine eating apple ; ripe in January, and
keeps till April.

The ftone pippin, which is of a green colour, ftreaked
with red towards the fun. It is of a ftiarp tafte, and is in
eating from January till the middle of May.

The Stoup codhn, which is a large handfome apple, of a
pale-green colour, with a little red towards the fun. It is
a baking apple, of a pleafant tafte, and keeps till May.

The ftriped nonpareil ruflet, which is a handfome apple,
of a greenifli-ruflet colour, with a little brownifli-red towards
the fun. It is about the fize of a large nonpareil, is ripe in
January, and keeps till March.

The fpicc apple, which is a handfome middle-fized an-
gular-fliaped apple, of a yellow colour, and a pleafant
flavour. It is ripe in January, and ieeps tilt March.

The Skerm's kernel, which is a conical-fliaped middle,
fized apple, beautifully ftreaked with red, deepeft towards
the eye, and having a good deal of yellow towards the foot-
ftalk. It is ripe in January, and keeps till March.

The fpice rennet, which is a handfome apple, below the
middle fize, red towards the fun, and yellow on the other
fide.

The Spanifli pearmain, which is a middle-fized oblong
apple of a carnation colour, and dark-red towards the fun.
It is a pretty good apple, and keeps till the beginning of
May.

The Spanifli onion, which is a handfome round apple of
a ruflet colour, with a dull red towards the fun. This
apple, which is rather below the middle fize, is very good
for defert, keeping tiU March.

The Sharp's ruflet, which is below the middle fize, of a
brownifti-red colour towards the fun, and a pale-green on
the other fide. It is fliaped like the fruftum of a cone ;
is of a pretty good flavour ; and keeps till May.

The Spencer's pippin, which is a middle-fized apple, of
a yellowifli colour, with many dark fpots, being a baking
apple, and keeping tiU the middle of May.

The Tankerton, which is a conical-fliaped yellow apple, "
with fometimes a little bluih towards the fun. It is an

excellent

PYRUS.

excellent fauce apple, and bakes well, being of an agreeable
tafte, but too large for the table. It will keep till
February.

The tranfparent apple, which was introduced from St.
Pcterfburg ; but it is more curious than ufeful : a tree or'
two, therefore, will be fuiTicient for a garden. It ripens in
September or Odlober.

The Trevoider rennet, which is a fmall liandfomc ruffet-
coloured apple, of an excellent flavour, and will keep till
May.

The white corpendu, which is a middle-fized long-fliaped
apple, of a yellowilh colour. It is a good eating apple, and
ripens in January.

The ward apple, which is a beautiful flat-fhaped apple,
rather below the middle fize, of a fine red towards the eye,
and of a yellowifh-green towards the footftalk. It is a
fharp flavoured fruit, and keeps till June.

The Wheeler's ruilot, which is of middling fi/.e, the flefli
firm, and of a quick acid flavour ; it is an excellent kitchen
fruit, and keeps long. It ripens in Oftober.

The wine rulfet, which is a middle-/ized conical-fliaped
apple, of a dark ruflet colour, and fharp flavour. It keeps
till the latter end of April.

The Wheeler's extreme, which refembles the pomme grife,
and is about the lize of a nonpareil. It is a flat-fliaped apple,
beautifully clouded with red on a yellowifti-ruflet ground ;
is of an excellent flavour, and keeps till April.

The white muft, wTiich is a middle-fized handfome apple,
of a greenifli-ycllow colour, with a little red towards the
fun ; the flavour is rather tart, but agreeable. It is ripe
in January.

The Whitmore pippin, which is a good-fized handfome
apple, (freaked with red towards the fun, and of a pale-
yellow on the other fide. It has firm flefli, of a tolerably
good flavour, and is in eating from November to the latter
end of April, or later.

The Wiltfliire cat's-head, which is a large handfome apple,
red towards the fun, and green on the other fide. It is a
very fine baking apple, and of a good flavour, being ripe in
January.

The winter pearmain, or Herefordfliire pearmain, which
is of a fine red next the fun, and ftriped with red on the
other fide ; the flefh is juicy, and ftews well. It is fit for
ufe in November, and, if properly managed, will keep till
the latter end of March.

The winter pomroy, which is a pretty large conical-
(haped apple, of a dark-green colour, a little ftreaked with
red towards the fun. The coat is rather tough. It is a
good baking apple, keeping till January.

The winter box apple, which is a middle-fized fruit, of a
light green colour, and keeps till February.

The woodcock, which is a good-fized apple, of a dark
red next the fun, and paler, with a little mixture of yellow,
on the other fide. It is ripe in January, and keeps till
March, being a good cider apple.

The Wright's nonpareil, which is a Salopian apple,
being a great bearer, of a good fize, and a little flatted.
It is a good kitchen apple, and keeps till June. The
tree is fmaller in fize than moft other apple-trees.

The York (hire greening, which is a good-fized flatted
apple, of a dull-red colour, with a little green towards the
eye. It keeps till Augufl;, or often later.

The forts of apples advifed for a fmall garden are the
following : the juneting, the golden pippins, the nonfuch,
the Ribllon pippin, the nonpareils, the queen's apple, the
Sykehoufe, the golden rennet, the aromatic pippin, the grey
Leadington, the fcarlet pearmain, the lemon pippin, the

pomme grifc, the French crab, and dirterent forts of rufTetins
and codliiis, for baking.

But there are other varieties and fub-varieties that may
be equally valuable with many of the above forts.

Of the fixth fort there are the following varieties : the
pear quince, with oblong-ovate leaves, and an oblong fruit
lengthened at the bafe ; the apple quince, with ovate leavcg
and a rounder fruit ; the Portugal quince, with obovate
leaves, and an oblong fruit, which is more juicy and lefs
harfh than the others, and therefore the mod valuable.

The quince is a very beautiful tree when in flower, as
well as when the fruit is ripe in the autumn, and was cul-
tivated in this country at an early period. According to
Mr. Forfytli, the belt fort for planting in the fruit-garden
is the Portugal, being the fitted for baking or dewing. It
is of a fine purple colour when drefled, and is much better
for marmalade than any of the other iorts. The oblong
kind, and the apple quince, are alfo planted in thefe fituations,
and other forts are employed in the (hrubberies for pro-
ducing variety. The above forts are likewife valuable for
mixing with apples in making pies, puddings, &c. as they
add a quicknefs to the flavour when flat.

Melhrjd of Culture in the Pear Kind, — Thefe trees arc
raifed by grafting and budding upon any kinds of pear
docks ; occafionally upon quince docks ; and fometimes
upon white-thorn docks ; but the firlt fort are preferable
for general ufe to have large trees, and the fecond for
moderate growers.

The numerous varieties of thefe trees having been fird acci-
dentally obtained from feed, and as thefe feedlings rarely
producethe fame forts again, the approved kinds are continued
and increafed only by grafting or budding upon docks raifed
from the kernels of the kinds jud mentioned. In order
to redrain the growth of thefe trees, white-thorn docks
have alio been ufed ; but thefe are not fo generally fuccefs-
ful, and are almod in total difufe in the nurferies : of courfe
pear docks are proper for general ufe, for principal large
trees, both for walls, efpaliers, and dandards ; and quince
docks for fmaller growths. For raifing the docks, the
Jeeds or kernels of the different forts fhould be fown in the
latter end of autumn, as November, or December, or early
in the fpring, in beds of light earth, covering them near an
inch deep ; they come up in the fpring : and in autumn,
winter, or fpring following, the drongeil fhould be planted
out in nurfery-rows to remain for grafting and budding,
for which, after havmg from one to two or three years'
growth, they will be of proper fize.

The operations of grafting and budding fhould be per-
formed in the ufual method ; the former in the fpring, and
the latter in fummer. (See Grafting and Budding.)
For this purpofe the grafts and buds fhould be procured
from fuch trees as produce the fined fruit of the refpeftive
forts ; thofe defigned as dwarfs for walls, efpahers, or
ftandard-dwarfs, being grafted or budded near the bottom ;
and in thofe for half or full dandards, the docks may either
be previoufly trained up from three or four to feven or
eight feet high to form a dem, then grafted near the top,
or be grafted low in the dock, Hke the dwarfs, and the firfl
main flioot trained for a dem the above height : the grafted
trees, both dwarfs and dandards, fhoot the fame year, but
the budded ones not till the fpring after ; and when their
heads are two years old from the grafting and budding, they
may, if thought proper, be planted out for good, or remain
longer in the nurfery, as maybe found convenient.

The dwarfs for walls, efpaliers, &c. whether they remain

longer in the nurfery, or be tranfplanted at a year old into

the garden, fhould have the firfl flioots from the graft or

TO bud,

PYllUS.

bud, when a year old, headed down in March to five or fix
eyes, to force out a proper fupply of four, fix, or more
lateral branches near the ground, to furnifh the wall or
efpalier with bearers quite from the bottom, thefe readily
producing others to cover the upper part.

Standards, fuppofing them to be grafted on high ftocks,
may either be headed near the top of the ftock, or permitted
to run up, as the cafe may require, fo that it fhortened it
will force out laterals near the head of the ftem, and form a
more fpreading full head ; and if fuff'ered to run up with the
firll (hoots entire, they form higher and generally more up-
right heads in tiie end. Such ftandards, however, as are
grafted or budded as low in tlie Itock as for dwarfs, mull
have tlif firft ftoot trained upright at full length, fix or feven
feet high for a ftem : if for full ftandards, they may either
be topped at fix feet height, to force out laterals near that
part to form a fpreading head, or fuff'ered to run and branch
in Its own way to form a more ereft and higher head.

The headed trees, both dwarfs and ftandards, on being
cut down in the fpring, foon branch out from all the eyes
immediately below ; when care fliould be taken during the
fummer to trim off' all ffioots from the ftem, fuffering all
the top ftioots to remain entire ; when they will form hand-
fonie beginning young heads by the end of fummer, and in
autumn, winter, or fpring following, may be finally planted
out into the garden, &c.

Wiien from neceffity they are retained longer in the nur-
fery, the whole ffiould have proper pruning to reform irre-
gular growths, and the diiferent trees be trained accordingly,
fuff'ering the whole to branch away at full length, not
fliortening any after the above general heading down, when
a year old, except it fhould feem occafionally necefi'ary,
either to reduce any cafual irregularity, or to procure a
more full fupply of lower branches ; after which no further
general {hortening ffiould be praftifed to thefe fort of trees ;
for, after having obtained a proper fet of regular branches
near the head of the ftem, they readily furniffi more in their
turn to increafe the head on the upper part.

In regard to planting out the trees, they are moftly of
proper growth for this purpofe when from one or two to four
or five years old, from the graft or bud ; but if larger trees
are required, thofe of fix or eight years old may be fafely
tranfplantedi younger trees, liowever, always fucceed well,
even when only two or three years old.

In felefting pear-trees for planting, Mr. Forfyth advifes
the choofing of the oldeft trees that can be found inftead of
the young oges, and fuch as have ftrong ftems ; to have
them carefully taken up, with as much of the roots as
poflible, and carefully planted, after cutting in the roots a
little, fpreading them as horizontally as can be done. Then
to fill up all round the roots with light dry mould ; forcing
it in, about thofe which lie hollow, with a ffiarp-pointed
ftick ; fining the whole up to the top without treading the
mould, till the hole be firft filled with as much water as it
will contain, leaving it a day or two until the ground has
abforbed the water ; then to throw on fome frefti dry mould
and tread it as hard as poflible, filling the hole up again
with mould to within an inch of the top, and giving it a
fecond watering, leaving the mould about three inches
higher than the border, to fettle of itfelf, and to receive
the rain that falls, for at leaft a month. When the mould
has become quite dry, it may be trodden a fecond time ;
then make a large baibn all round the tree, and giving it
another watering, mulching the top over with fome rotten
leaves or dung, continuing to water the trees once a week
in dry weather, and fprinkhng the tops frequently with a
pot, or hand engine, to keep the wood from ffirivelling till

they have taken frefti root ; and where the trees are planted
againft a wall, the ftems Ihould ftand Hoping towards it ; the
lower parts of them being fix inches from liie bottom of the
wall, to give them room to grow, as when planted clofe to
the wall at bottom, the ftems, in growing, will be confined
on the back, grow flat, and be very unfightly. If any
roots are in the way, to hinder it from being planted near
enough to the wall, they mull be cut off ; at the fame time
taking care that the tree does not lean to either fide, but
that, when viewed in front, it appear perfectly upright.
Sometimes ftandards and half-ftandards are feen planted a
foot or two from the wall, which gives them a very dif-
agreeablc appearance ; fix inches is, he thinks, quite fuffi-
cient. Much care fiiould be taken not to wound the ftem
or root of the tree in planting.

When young trees have two ftems, he advifes always to
cut off one of them., leaving the ftouteft and ftraightelt,
planting that fide outwards which has moft buds on it.

It is added, that when the buds begin to break well, the
trees (liould be headed down to three or four eyes, to fill the
wall with fine wood, but never afterward, except the lead-
ing fiioot to fill the wall, leaving the fore -right ftioots to
be pruned, as hereafter diredled. He has had fome trees
that had forty pears on them the fecond year ; while fome
of the fame kind bore only ele'ven pears the fourteenth year
after planting, with the common method of pruning.
When fuch old trees as recommended above cannot be pro-
cured, the ftouteft and cleaneft of the one-year's old grafting
ftiould be provided. Where any of thefe trees become
Hunted after a number of years, they (liould be headed down
as hereafter directed, which will bring them into fre(h vigour
and fruitfulnefs. The proper feafon for planting them out
is any time in open weather from the end of October till
March, but the autumn or early winter are the moft advan-
tageous periods. They fucceed well in any common garden
foil, or good fertile orchard-ground, or field, that is not
very wet, or of a ftiff^ or ftubborn quality, but moderately
light and friable to the depth of one fpade at leaft, and if
more the better. The ground (hould be prepared by proper
trenching one or two fpades deep, as the depth of good foil
will admit, wholly if for a full plantation, or only along
the place for each row of trees, in the place for each tree ;
or only a hole for each tree at proper diftances. The proper
diftance for planting the dwarf forts for walls or on efpaliers,
is for thofe on free ftocks at not lefs than twenty feet, but if
twenty-five, or more, the better, efpecially ff the walls be
rather low, &c. that there may be full fcope to extend
their branches confiderably in a horizontal direftion, as they
will effeftually fill that fpace, or even much more if it be
allowed them ; but they are often planted much nearer to-
gether. It is however of importance to give thefe trees
fufiicient room, and the higher the walls the better, as is
evident by thofe trees growing againft the ends of high
buildings, as they extend themfelves very confiderably
every way. Some plant cherry-trees or other moderate
ftiooting fruit-trees in the intervals for a few years, till the
pears advance in growth and approach one another, when
they (hould be removed. They are to be planted in the
ufual way, with their heads entire. See Planting.

However, for trees that are dwarfed by grafting or budding
upon quince ftocks, from fifteen to eighteen feet may be a
proper diftance for planting, either for walls or efpahers.
In refpeft to the diftance at vvhich pear-trees fliould be
planted againft walls, it is obferved by Mr. Forfyth that
when they are grafted on free ftocks, fuch as colmars, pear
d'auclie, crafant:s, I'efchafferies, virgouleufes, and winter
and fummer bonchretiens, it Ihould at leaft be twelve yards

diftant

PYRUS.

diftanl from each other, fuppofing the wallu to be from
welve to fixteen feet liigh ; but when they are only ten feet,
fifteen yards will be little enough for the purpofe.

And where they are planted on foiith walls, vines, peach.es,
nedlarines, or apricots, inay be planted between them, till
the trees extend fo far as nearly to meet each otRer ; then
they may be removed to any other fituation in the garden
where they are wanted. And where the pears are planted
oh weft walls, the fame fort of trees may be planted between
them as on fouth waUs ; the fruit on a weil afpeft will come
into ufe to fucceed that on the fouth. On an call wall dif-
ferent forts of plums and cherries may be planted between
the pear-trees till they almoft meet, then tranfplanted as
llandards or wall trees.

It is advifed that the borders for pear-trees in a large
garden (hould not be lefs than from ten to twenty feet wide,
with a foot-path about three feet from the wall, covered
over at top with coal-afhes or road-fand, to make a dry
walk for getting at the trees to cut and nail them, to gather
the fruit, &c. And that the depth of the mould for them
fhould never be lefs than three feet, laying the bed mould
at top, to encourage the roots to come as near the furface
as pofllble. If the bottom be clay, it will be very neceffary,
once in every five or fix years, to open the ground round
the roots of the trees, and cut off all the large ones that
are inclining to run into the clay ; as, by this praftice, the
trees will throw out frefli i-oots that will run near the fur-
face, provided the mould is good near the top of the borders.
And it is fuggefted that a crop of early peas, lettuces,
fpinach, or any other fmall crops, may be grown on the
borders, during the winter and fpring ; but no late ci'ops by
any means. If the ground can be Ipared, he would advife
to have no fummer crops, but keep the borders hoed, in
particular after rain ; otlierwife the ground, if a ftrong
loamy or clayey foil, will be apt to crack in dry weather ;
but by frequent ftirring between wet and dry this will in a
great meafure be prevented, and the fun's rays admitted
into the mould, which will greatly heighten the flavour of
the fruit. When you can conveniently fpare the borders in
winter, they thould be ridged up to Iweeten the mould,
which may be very well done it you fow early peas on the
fides of the ridgts ; which is by f.ir the belt way to preferve
the peas from the froft, and to prevent them trom rotting,
which will fometimes happen, if the land be ftrong, before
they begin to vegetate ; or, you may low an early crop of
carrots or fpinach on thefe borders.

With refpeft to the general manageiiirnt in the training
and pruning of thefe trees, if the young wall and efpalier
trees thus planted are only one year old from the graft or
bud, having their firft fhoots of a year old entire, thefe
fhould in the fpring be headed down to five or fix inches, to
force out lower horizontal branches ; but it i iiey have been
previoudy headed, as advifed above, and have thrown out
laterals to form a regular fet of horizontal branches, confift-
ing of fix or more near the bottom, they fhould not now be
fhortened, but trained to the wall or efpalier at full length
horizontally, preferving an equal number on each fide five
or fix inches afunder ; they will readily emit a further fupply
of horizontal fhoot^ to cover the wall, &c. regularly up-
ward, and at the fame time not being ihorteiied, they gra-
dually form themfelves for bearing, as every fhortening of
the branches of thefe trees retards their bearing a year at
leall ; if, however^ there is a want of branches, fome of
the middlemofl may be pruned fhort, and trained to the w;dl
or efpalier. According as the trees fhoot in fummer, a_
further fupply of all the regular Ihoots in every part where
they occur, fhould be trained in at full length, unlefs it

5

fliall fecm neceffary to prune fome ftrong fhoots to obtain a
greater fupply of horizontal branches the fame year, in
order to furnifh the head as foon as pofiible ; at this time,
however, difplace all the fore-right and other irregular
growths of the year, continuing the fupply of regular
(hoots clofe to the wall, as they advance in length during their
fummer's growth. And in the winter pruning, the fupply
of (hoots attained in fummer (hould be well examined, fe-
lefting all thofe that are well placed and properly fituated
for training in, to increafc the number of horizontal branches
on each fide, which (hould be left wholly entire, and at the
fame time retrenching any fuperfluities and ill-placed (lioots
omitted in fummer ; then the whole fupply of regular hori-
zontal branches in every part fhould be trained in flraight
and clofe to the wall or efpalier, equally on both fides of the
tree, cvei-y branch at the full length, at four, five, or fix
inches apart. See Wall, Y.'iPALlEn-Trees, and Pruning.

But there is another method fometimes pradlifed in training
thefe trees for walls and efpaliers, which is, that after their
firft heading down, and having thrown out feveral laterals, to
feleft three of the ftrongefl and moll regularly placed, one
on each fide and one in the middle, nailing the two fide ones
horizontally at full length, and the middle one upright ;
the tree having produced a further fupply of fhoots in the fol-
lowing year, add two or four of them as lide branches, arrang-
ing them on each fide of the flem as the two former, train-
ing the middle fhoot ftill in an upright diredlion ; obferving
that where it does not furnifh horizontals low enough, it may
be fhortened fo as to make it throw out fhoots at any requifite
height, continuing the middle one always upward for a ftem,
and the fide ones for bearers. In either of thefe methods of
training the trees, continue yearly increafing the number of
horizontal fhoots, till the full fpace of walling or efpalier is
regularly covered with bearers at equal diftances, conftantly
contiiiuing them all at full length, as far as the fcope of
walling, &c. will permit ; as they naturally form fruit-fpurs
at every eye, almoli their whole length, and the fame branches
continue in a fruitful ftate a great length of time. When
the trees have once filled the wall or efpalier with branches,
they need but very Httle further fupply for many years, and
that only occafionally, according as any worn-out or decayed
branch occurs, and wants renewing with young wood. See
Pruning.

And in the after-prunings in the fummer, which (hould
be begun in May, or early in June, rub off all the fuper-
fluous and unneceflary fhoots of the year, and all fore -right
and other ill-placed fhoots, retrenching them quite clofe,
being careful to leave the terminating flioot of every hori-
zontal or bearer entire ; and referving here and there a well-
placed fhoot, towards the lower parts in particular, and
where there are any apparent vacancies, to train up between
the mother branches, till winter pruning, when, if not wanted,
they muft be retrenched.

But in the winter pruning, which may be performed any
time from the fall of the leaf until Maixh, the branches
fhould be generally examined, to fee if they are any where
too much crowded, or trained irregularly ; and where any
fuch occur, they fhould be regulated as they may require ;
and where there are any vacancies, fome contiguous fhoots,
referved in the fummer drefliug, fhould be laid in, and all the
other fiioots not wanted mull be cut clean out clofe to the
branches, being careful ftill to preferve the terminating ftioot
of every branch entire, in all parts, as far as the allotted
fpace admits, likewife all the fruit-fpurs in every part, faften-
ing in all the branches regularly at full length. In pruning
old trees at this feafon, where decayed and worn-out branches
occur, they ftiould be cut out, and young wood trained in

ks

PYRUS.

its ftead ; likewife, where any branch, through age or any
other defeft, is bi'come barren, it fliould be retrenched, and
feme eligible lower young branch, or Ihoot, be laid in its
place.

Where any of the choicer forts of thefe trees are become
worn-out and barren, they (liould be renewed with young
bearers, by heading the branches wliolly down near the
bottom in winter or fpring, when they break out in the old
wood, and in the following fummer furnifli a large fupply of
ftrong young (hoots, which (hould b- trained according to
the rules already laid dftwn, when they will foon form a
fort of new tree, and bear good fruit. After each winter
pruning, the trees which are againlt walls and elpaliers re-
quire a general nailing, &c. which ftiould always be done
with great regularity. See Wall-TVci-j, and Espalier-
Trees.

The mode of training dwarf ftandard-trees of this fort
is fhewn in fpeaking of trees of that kind. See DwARF-
Trees.

In refpeft to the culture of the borders where this fort of
wall or efpalier-trees are growing, it is commonly digging
them once more every year, adduig manure occaiionally in
common with the other parts of the garden ; but if fome
good rotten dung be applied every other year, and the ground
well dug or trenched every winter, it greatly promotes the
fize and perfedion of the fruit. In regard to ilandard-trees
of this kind, any of the forts bear plentifully in any open
fituation, though the fruit may not always be fo large and
fine as thofe of wall and efpalier-trees : fummer and autumn
pears, however, ripen in great perfeftion on ftandards, as
alfo mofl of the common winter pears. In planting them,
trees of from two or three to four or five years old, having
tolerable heads, are of a proper age andfize for the purpofe,
and are preferable to older trees for any general plantation.
They Ihould be planted with all their heads entire, except
retrenching any very irregular-placed branch, in the ufual
manner of tree-planting. See Planting.

In their future growth they fhould be fuffered to branch
naturally, fo as to form large branchy heads, fuffering them
all to remain entire. The general culture of this fort of
trees, in refpeft to pruning, is very trifling, and only required
occaiionally, probably only once in feveral years ; fuch as
the retrenching any irregular growing branches, and thinning
fuch branches as are very much crowded, cutting out all the
decayed wood, and eradicating fuckers from the roots and
ftems. See Pruning.

When llandard-trees are fituated in a garden, in which the
ground is neceilarily dug over and trenched annually for the
reception of the under crops, and occafioually enriched with
dung, they generally produce finer fruit than in orchards,
or other places where the ground is not in fimilar culture.

Mr. Forfyth obferves, that the method of pruning pear-
trees is very different from that praftifed for apple-trees in
general, in which the conltant praftice has been to leave
great fpurs as big as a man's arm, (landing out from the
walls, from one foot to eighteen inches and upwards. The
conftant pruning inevitably brings on the canker ; and by
the fpurs llanding out fo far from the wall, the bloffom and fruit
are liable to be much injured by the froft and blighting
winds, and thus the fap will not have a free circulation all
over the tree. The fap will always find its way firft to the
extremities of the (hoots ; and the fpurs will only receive it
in a fmall proportion, as it returns from the ends of the
branches ; and the fruit (landing at fo great a diilance from
the wall is too much expofed to the weather, and, of courfe,
is liable to be hard, fpotted, and kernelly.

The following method he has praftifed where the trees

were all over cankered, and the fruit fmall, and not fit to
be fent to the table. He cut the tops off as Hear as poflible
to where they were grafted, always obferving to cut as clofe
to a joint or bud as polFible. The buds are hardly percep-
tible, but it can always be known where the joints, or forks,
arc, by the branches breaking out of the fides. He adds .
that finding the pear-trees in Kenfington gardens in a very
cankery and unfruitful (late in the years 1784 and 1785,
he took out the old mould from the borders againll the walls,
and put in frefh loam in its (lead ; at the fame time he
pruned and nailed the trees in the common way, and left
them in that (late upwards of eighteen months, to fee what
effeft the frc(h mould would have on them ; but to his great
furprife he found that it had no effeft. After this tn3j he
began to confider what (hould be done in order to recover
thefe old trees. In this attempt he began with cutting down
four old and decayed pear-trees of different kinds, near to the
place where they had been grafted : this operation was per-
formed on the 15th of May, 1786. Finding that they put
forth fine (hoots, he headed down four more on the 20th of
June in the fame year (for by this time the former had l)ioots
of a foot long), which did equally well, and bore fome
fruit in the following year. One of the firft four he headed
down was a St. Germain, which produced nineteen fine large
well-flavoured pears next year, and in the third bore more
fruit than it did in its former (late when it was four times
the fize. He left fevcii trees upon an eail wall, treated ac-
cording to the common method of pruning, which bore the
following number of pears upon each tree. Epine d'hyver
produced eighty-fix pears, and the tree fprcad fifteen yards ;
a crafane produced one hundred pears, and the tree fpread
fourteen yards ; another crafane produced fixteen pears, and
the tree fpread ten yards ; a virgouleufe produced one hundred
and fifty pears, and the tree fpread nine yards ; a colmar
produced one hundred and fifty pears, and the tree fpread
nine yards ; another colmar produced feventy-nine pears,
and the tree fpread ten yards ; a I'efchallerie produced fixty
pears.

But feven trees headed down and pruned according to his
own method, leaving the fore-right fhoots in fummer, bore
as follows, in the fourth year after heading : a Louifbonne
bore four hundred and fixty-three pears, and the tree fpread
nine yards ; another Louifbonne bore three hundred and
ninety-one pears, and fpread eight yards ; a colmar bore two
hundred and thirteen pears, and fpread fix yards ; a brown
beurre bore five hundred and three pears ; another brov.n
beurre bore five hundred and fifty pears ; a crafane bore five
hundred and twenty pears ; a virgouleufe bore five hundred
and eighty pears. And he adds, that the branches of the
four laft trees fpread nearly in the fame proportion as the
firft three. He alfo ftates that a young beurre, the fecond
year after heading, bore two hundred and thirty pears ; and
a St. Germain four hundred. All the above trees flood in
the fame afpeft and the fame wall, and the fruit was numbered
in the fame year. A great many pears which dropped fi-om
the trees are not reckoned. The trees that were pruned ac-
cording to the old praftice covered at leaft one-third more
wall than the other.

From this ftatement it appears that the trees headed
down bore upwards of five times the quantity of fruit that
the others did ; and that it keeps increafing in proportion to
the progrefs of the trees. This is an important ftatement
in the culture and management of old trees of this fort ;
and the following fact with refpeA to ftandards is deferving
of great attention : On the 20th of June he headed feveral
ftandards that were almoft detlroyed by the canker ; fome
of them were fo loaded with fruit the following year, that he

was

I

rYRU.S.

was obliged to prop tht branches, to prevent their being
brok.'ii diiwn by the weight of it. In tiie fourth year after
thcfe ftandards were headed down, one of them bore two
tho'ifand eight hundred and forty pears. There were three
ftandards on the fame border witii the above, two of which
were St. Germain ; the old tree was of the fame kind. One
of thefe trees, twenty years old, had live hundred pears on
it, which was a great crop for its fize : fo that there were
on the old tree, which had been headed down not quite four
years, two thoufand three hundred and forty pears more
than on the tree of twenty years' growth. When the nn.n
numbered the pears, there was near a barrowful of wind-
falls at the bottom of the old tree, wiiich were not included.
Thefe and other Itatements are given in his nfeful treatifc on
the " Culture of Fruit-Trees."

The following is the method he purfues in training trees
that are cut near to the place where tliey are grafted. , In
the month of March, every year, he ftiortens the leading
ihoot to a foot or eighteen inches, according to its Itrength :
this Ihoot will, if the tree be (Irong, grow from five to
feven feet long, in one feafon ; and, if left to nature, would
run up without throwing out fide-fhoota. The reafon for
thus ihortening the leading ihoot is to make it throw out fide-
flioots, and if it be done clofe to a bud, it will fi-equently
cover the cut in one feafon, leaving only a cicatrix. When
the (boots are very ftrong, he cuts the leading ones twice in
one feafon ; by this method he gets two fets of iide-flioots in
one year, which enable him the fooner to cover the wall. The
firft cutting is performed any time during the fpring, and the
fecond about the middle of June. When you prune the
trees, and cut the fore-right (lioots, which (hould be done
in February or March, always cut clofe to an eye or bud,
obferving where you fee the greateft number of leaves at the
lower bud, and cut at them ; for at the footftalk of every
one of thefe will be produced a flower-bud. The fame will
hold good in cutting the fuperfluous flioots on ftandard pears.
He adds, that you will have in fome forts of pears, in a fa-
vourable feafon, from five to nine pears in a ckifter. This
cutting fliould not be later than March, or the beginning of
April, on account ef the leading (hoot beginning to grow :
the next topping, when the leading Ihoot grows quick
enough to admit of it, (hould be about the middle of June ;
and the length of the (hoots (hould be according ta their
itrength, hiiving from three eyes or buds, to fix on a fide. It
is added, that the cankery part beginning to affeft the new-
bark, he cut offall the canker at the bottom, and plaftered the
place with fome cow-dung, mixed with wood-aflies and
powder ot burnt bones, put into as much urine and foap-
fuds as would make it of the confidence of thick paint ;
this he laid on with a painter's brudi. After it had been
apphed about three liours, he patted it gently down, with
liis hand, clofe to the tree. By fo doing, he gets rid of all
the air-bubbles that may be under the compofition, and makes
it adhere to the tree, preventing it from being wafhed offbv
heavy rains. And in the beginning of Augnll he (liortens
the fore-right (lioots to about four inches long ; by this
time the fhoot will have made its full growth for the feafon,
and will produce fine fti-ong eyes for the following year.
Such (lioots as grow near the item of the tree, if any are
wanted to fill up the wall, may be tucked-in as direfted for
peaches. This will prevent them from looking unfightly,
and fave them from the fury of the autumnal and winter
winds. He further advifes, that whenever the trunk is hol-
low, it be followed under ground till you have cut out all
the decayed parts and rotten roots, otherwife you will lofe
the tree. By proceeding according to the foregoing direc-
tions, the roots will be renewed, while the tree is formine a
Vol. XXIX.

fine handforae head. In the mean time the borders fiioHld
be trenched, taking up all the roots, and adding fome frcfh
mould to them, if you can conveniently get it ; if you can-
not, remove all the four mould that is about the roots of the
trees, and put in fome taken from the border, at a diRancc
from the wall ; always remembering to lay the top fpit next
to the roots of the trees ; alfo, to mix fome vegetable mould,
from the melon and cucumber beds, with rotten leaves, as
a manure for the borders. He has headed down many trees
that had not this preparation ; and yet they throve very well,
but did not fend forth fuch fine roots and (liools as thofe
that were fo prepared. He concludes by obferving, that if
the above diredlions be followed, more pcsrs will be procured
ill three or four years than can be done in twenty-five years
by planting young trees, and pruning and managing them in
the common way. It is added, that if it fliould be found, that,
before the pears arrive at half their natural fize, they get
(lunted, after cold blighting winds, and frofty nights, he
would recommend a new operation to be performed when
the weather begins to grow mild, which is to take a (harp,
penknife, and with the point of it make an incifion through
the rind of the pear from the footftalk to the eye, in the
fame way as in fcarifying a bark-bound tree, taking care to
penetrate as little into the flefti of the pear as poUible. At
the fame time beat up fome fre(h cow-dung with wood-a(hes,
and with your fore-finger rub in a little of this compofition
where you made the fcarification ; as the wound heals, the
compofition will be difcharged from the fruit ; this will pre-
vent the pears from cracking and burfting, which renders them
good for nothing. The forts that are moft liable to thi»
diforder are, he obferves, the colmar, virgouleufe, and era-
fane. He only, however, recommends this operation for
wall pears, as it may be thought by fome a troublefome
operation, and it will certainly take up fome time.

Signs of Ripenejs in the Fruit. — The maturity of the pear
is generally known by its changing from a green to a yel-
low, or reddidi colour, &c. and by the frequent falling
from the tree ; and when, with a gentle twift or turn up-
wards, it eafily quits its hold : but thefe figns of ripenefs
are more particularly obfervable in fummer and autumn
pears ; as winter pears, not being maturely ripe when ga-
thered, often require a good pull before they quit the
branches.

The fummer pears ripen in fuccelTion in different forts,
from about the beginning or middle of July till the middle
of September ; many of the earliell ripening all at once, as
it were, and continuing good but a few days, either on the
tree or when gathered, nor will any of the forts keep good
long ; and none of thefe forts (hould hang on the tree till
foft ripe, as in that cafe moil of them would be mealy
and infipid. Thefe forts lliould be gathered as foon as they
are arrived to full growth, and juft begin to colour and dif-
cover maturity, but before they become foft and mellow.
For family ufe, they may be gathered from the tree accord-
ing as they attain perfeftion ; but the general crops of each
fort (hould be always taken down before they ripen fully,
and be laid in any dry room ; none of the kinds will keep
long, fome only a few days, and fcarcely any of them above
a fortnight, though from different varieties ripening at dif-
ferent times, the fuccellion is continued for eight or ten
weeks.

The autumn forts ripen in different varieties, from about
the middle of September till the end of October ; fome of
the forwardeft become eatable on the tree, others requiring
to lie fome time after being gathered before they acquire
perfeftion. The different forts of thefe pears (hould be ga-
thered according as they arrive to maturity : thofe defigned

Q

t*

PVR U.S.

and in the autumn, winter, or fpring following, the largelt
may be planted out in nurfcry-rows, fhortcniug their tap-
roots a little, and placing tlicm in lines two feet and a half
•■funder, to remain for grafting : after having from one to
two or three years' growth, they will be lit for grafting
upon, particularly for dwarfs, or even for full and halt
flandards, if intended to form the ftem from the graft,
which is an eligible method for thefe trees ; but if the ftock
is to form the ftem, they require three or four years'
growtli, to rife to a proper height, feven feet for full,
and four or five for half itandards. The modes of grafting
all the forts is the fame as for other fruit-trees, and (hould
be performed in March, either by whip or cleft -grafting, ac-
cording to the fi;5c of the ftock. See GnAFTiNG.

Having provided proper grafts of the diflerent forts of
apples intended to be raifed, the ilocks defigncd for dwarfs
of all forts muft be grafted within fix inches of the groinid ;
and the ftandards may alfo be grafted low, one (lioot from
the graft being trained up for a ftem, or on tall ftocks, at
five or fix feet in height, but for low and half ftandards,
at from two or three, to four or five feet, and lower for
dwarf ftandards. The grafts of all the forts ftioot the
fame year ; and, by the autumn following, the trees having
formed little heads, confifting of two, three, or four (hoots,
may then be planted out finally where they are to remain, or
be retained a year or two, or longer, in the nurfery, as may
be requifite, training them for the purpofes intended, as
dwarfs, efpaliers, &c. &c., and uprights for ftandards,
heading the dwarfs down in March following, within fin
inches of the graft, to force out more lateral ftioots below
to form a fuller head, proceeding immediately to turn them
near the bottom, fo as to fill the efpalier, &c. equally
with branches, quite from within fix or eight inches of
the ground, regularly upward. In the ftandards, thofe
grafted low mult be trained with one ftioot upright, at
full length, for a ftem, five or fix feet high at leaft, for full
ftandards bt:fore it is topped ; though if grafted on tall
ftocks of height fufficient for a ftem, the ftioots from the
graft may either be headed to five or fix eyes; or, if to
form a more fpreading head, remain entire, and afpire
more in height, and affume a more upright growth : in
all the modes of training, care ftiould be taken to keep
the ftems clear from all lateral ftioots, difplacing all fuch as
foon as they appear, encouraging only a proper fet of
branches at top to form the head. When thefe trees have
tinue tile different varieties of them, which is performed heads from one to two or three years old from the graft,
upon crab, or any kind of apple ftocks, raifed from the they are of a proper age for planting out; though trees
kernels, for dwarfs as well as ftandards : and fometimes of four or five years old will alfo fucceed very well, and
upon codlin and paradife apple ftock;; raifed from cuttings even thofe of fix or eight years' grov.-th may alfo be fafely
and layers, when defigned to have efpaliers and other dwarf planted if required. The nurfery-grounds are moltly fur
trees, or for fmall ftandards, as low as pofiible, to be con-
fined within a moderate fpr.ce : fome forts may alfo be

to keep fome time, may be gathered in dry weather, iuft
when they have attained full growth, as ftiewn by their
frequent dropping, and by their readily quitting the trees
on being handled, and laid in a dry clofe room, or in bafliets,
each fort feparately.

The winter kinds attsin their full growth on the trees
about the end of Oftober or beginning of Novem.ber ; but
the eatable kinds do not acquire maturity for that purpofe
on the tree, or for fome confiderable time after they are
gathered, fome probably in a month, others two or three,
and fome more, and fome forts not till the fpring following.
But the baking kinds may be ufed any time from Oc-
tober or November during their continuance. All winter
pears ftiould be indulged with as full growth on the tree as
the weather will permit, even until tiie end of Oftober,.
or firft week in November, in the later kinds, if the feafon
continues mild : be cautious, however, to get them gathered
before attacked by much froft. And in gathering all the
forts for keeping, dry weather ftiould be chofen, and when
the fruit is alfo quite dry, being careful not to bruife them.
See FltuiT.

Method of Forcing Pears.— Thck forts of trees are
fometimes forced by artificial heat, in fome of the prime
early kinds, to obtain a portion of fruit as early in the lea-
fon as pofiible. This is eft'cfted by means of hot-walls and
forcing-frames; having previoufly fome trees of thechoiceft
early fummer pears, fuch as the jargonelle, or any other
early fort, trained as wall-trees againft a foutli wall, till ad-
vanced to fome tolerable Itate of bearing ; being then in-
clofed with glafs frames, in the manner of forcing-frames
or hot-walls, and having internally either flues for firc-
heat, erefted forward and extending long-ways, or other-
wife a pit arranged in that direftion, in the interval or fpace
between the trees and tlie glafs-work, for a bark or dung
hot-bed ; and by one or other of thefe methods a proper
degree of artificial heat is produced internally to force an
early growth in the trees, and forward them to early flower^
ing and fruiting, managing them in the common way, as
other trees in forcing-frames, fo as to have fome ripe fruit
early in June, or fome time in that month.

Method of Culture in the Apple Kind. — The whole of the
varieties of the apple were firft accidentally obtained by
raifing them from the kernels of 'the fruit; but as thefe
cannot be depended tipon to continue the fame fort of
fruit, grafting is the mode made ufe of to increafe and con-

raifed by layers and cuttings, as tbe coreimon codlin.

Stocls. — The method of raifing the different forts of
ftocks for the purpofe is, in the crab and apple ftocks,
from the kernels of the fruit ; but in the codUii and pa-
radife ftocks by cuttina;s and layers, to continue them with
certainty of the fame kinds and moderate growths. The
crab and apple ftocks may be raifed from the kernels of any
of the forts, procuring them in autumn or winter, either
from the fruit, or from fuch as have been preffed for ver-
juice and cider, clearing them from the .groffeft part of
the pulp ; then fowing them in beds of light earth, mo-
derately thick, over the bed, or in drills, covering them
about an inch deep. They come up in the fpring ; when,
if the feafon prove dry, they ftiould be watered occafion-
ally, to forward and ftrengthen the growth of the plants ;

niftied with all the varieties of thefe trees for fale, either
quite young from the graft, or trained of feveral years'
growth.

Choice of Trees. — In choofing the different kinds of trees
for planting, care ftiould be taken to have a collettion of
the principal varieties, both in efpaliers and Itandards, in
proportion to the extent of the ground, as the trees of
the bell forts are as eafily raifed and cultivated as the in-
different ones, allotting a fmaller portion of the fummer
kinds, as fuch as ripen from Auguft to about the middle of
September, for immediate ufe off the trees, as they will
not keep long ; a larger fupply of the autumn forts, and
moft of all of the winter keeping apples : obferving, in the
fummer kinds, that it is advifable to allot a principal fupply
of the common codlin in fmall ftandards, as being generally
both a great bearer, and the fruit the molt ufeful of the
fummer apples for culinary purpofes, from its young green

growth

PYRUS.

^owtli in June or July, till its full maturity in Aup;u(l and
September, when it heconies alio a gooil eating ajjple : and
as the tree is a moderate grower, it admits of being |)lanted
in fniall ftaudards clofer or more abundant in a fmall extent
of ground than moil of the principal apple kinds.

In choofmg- apple-trees from the nuriery, they (hould,
Mr. Forfyth fays, have ilrong, llraight, and clean Hems.
And he advifcs not to fuffer the dwarf trees to run higher
than twelve feet, as otherwife they become naked at bot-
tom, the fruit is liable to be blown down, and the tops
broken by hip-h winds.

The proper feafon for planting all tiie forts of apples is,
in mild v/cather, fi-om the end of Ottober till March ; but
when planted in autumn, or early in winter, they ctlablifli
thenifelves more firmly before the drought of the follow-
ing fummer. Thev fucceed in any common foil and open
fituatiou, except in low very moilt land, in wHicli they are
apt to canker, and foon go off : in a, pliable mellow loam
they generally anfwer very well. The ground fhnvdd be
properly prepared, by good trenching, wiiere the ranges of
trees are to fland.

In the planting of efpalier apple-trees they fliould be
ranged at no lefs than eighteen or twenty feet dillance ; the
latter cfpecially for trees grafted on crab or apple itocks,
which being free fhooters, the branches readily fill that
fpace. For the trees grafted on codlin and paradife itocks,
fifteen or eighteen feet may be fufficient ; though the latter,
in particular, is fometimes planted only twelve or fifteen
feet afunder, as being a very moderate fhooter : it is, how-
ever, advifable to allow every fort full room, according to
their growth, to have proper Ipace to extend their branches
always at full length. The trees fhould be planted with all
their heads entire, only retrenching any very irregular
growths, that do not range coniitteutly with the intended
form, and pruning any broken roots. Then having opened
a proper hole for each tree, plant them in the ufual man-
ner, being careful to place them with their branches rang-
ijig the way of the elpalier. 7\s foon as the earth of the
holes and of the roots is properly fettled, all the branches
fhould be trained in horizontally to the right and left, an
equal number on each fide at full length, as above.

.The general culture in efpalier trees thus planted and
trained, as the faine branches or bearers continue fruitful
many years, is to continue them as long as they remain of
proper growths, conllantly giving them a fummer and winter
pruning annually, as explained above. In wall-trees alfo,
any of the principal choice varieties of eating apples may be
trained, to forward and improve the growth, beauty, and
flavour of the fruit ; fuch as jennetings, Margaret apple,
golden pippins, golden rennets, pearmains, &c. or any other
approved eating kinds, a tree or two of a fort, againfl a
fouth, fouth-weft, or eafl wall.

Standai-d apples, when planted in the garden, fhould be
arranged thinly, to admit of under crops growing freely,
without being fliaded by their fpreading branches. Full
flandards fliould be chiefly planted for the general crops,
and half and dwarf flandards for variety. The ftandards,
when trained as above, iliould be planted out with all their
heads entire, when in the kitchen garden, at thirty feet dif-
tance in the rows ; and for an orchard, thirty feet, diflance
every way. In planting, for each tree a wide liole fhould
■ be opened, trimming any long flraggling and broken roots,
leaving all the others entire, and planting them with the
ufual care. As foon as planted out, every tree fliould be
well flaked to fupport them firmly upright, and prevent
their being diflurbed in rooting by winds. See Orch.VKD
and Planting.

Smaller growing flandards, fuch as codlinj, or other low
flandards grafted upon codlin (locks, and dwarfs upon thefe
or paradilc flocks, may, if required, be planted only at
fifteen or twenty feet diflance in the rows, and not lefs
than twenty-five feet between the lines of trees ; though, if
there be room to allow a greater dillance both ways, it
will be advantageous, cfpecially in planting in kitchen gar-
dens, in which it would be proper to allow double that
diflance between the rows of trees, of the larger growths
of thefe kinds. The flandards thus planted with their
heads entire, fhould be fufTered to advance with their branches
at full length, and in general take their natural growth, when
they foon form numerous natural fpurs in every part for
bearing.

'In refpeft to pruning thefe ftandards, little is required,
only the occafional retrenching any irregular crof's-placed
bough, or the reducing to order any very long rambler ;
or when the head is become greatly crowded and confufed
to thin out fome of the molt irregular growths, likewife
all Ilrong fhoots growing upright in the middle of the
head, and all dead wood, and fuckers from the ftem and
root.

As to half and dwarf flandards of thefe ti'ees, they may-
be difpcrfcd in different parts of the garden to caufe variety,
managing them as the full flandards. The former on dwarf
paradife flocks, being very moderate fliooters, may be
planted in a httle compafs ; and are fometimes planted in
pots for curiofity, to place on a table, amidfl a defert,
with the fruit growing on them. See DwARr-TVfcj'.

It is obferved by Mr. Forfyth, that in heading down old
decayed apple-trees, for the fake of fymmetry, it will be
neceffary to cut at the forked branch as near as can be to
the upper fide of the fork, cutting them in a floping manner
to carry off the wet, at the fame time rounding the edges.
To begin at the lower branches, cutting juil above the
lower fork ; and proceeding upwards, cutting the refl of
the branches from one to fix joints, or forks, according to
tlieir ftrength, till you have finiflied cutting-in the whole
head. If any of thefe branches fhould have the canker, all
theinfeCled part muit be cut out. When the tree is all
prepai-ed; the compofition fliould be immediately applied,
Ijeginning at the top of the tree, and finiihing with the
powder of wood-afhes and burnt bones as you defcend,
which will fave it from being rubbed off during the opera-
tion ; and the compofition will prevent the fun and air from
injuring the naked inner bark. A tree thus prepared, will
in the courfe of three or four years, produce more and finer
fruit than a maiden tree that has been planted upwards of
twenty years.

Thefe directions, if properly attended to, will be fufhcient,
it is fuppofed, to enable any one to bring old decayed trees
into a healthy bearing flate.

It is believed, that in large orchards and gardens, it may
be necelfary, at iirfl, to head down only every other tree ;
cutting fome of the branches of the refl, which are in a
decayed and cankery flate, and which bear no fruit. This
will be preparing them to throw out new wood, and furnilli
the tree much fooner witli bearing branches. He recom-
mends the performing of the operation as early as pofTible ;
as by fo doing the wood will be the flronger, as in May, or
tire two following months.

And it is added, that when the trees are become hollow,
the fame method fhould be followed as diredled for plums ;
but by no means to cut them down unlefs the tops are quite
decayed ; obferving to cut the loofe rotten wood clean out
of the hollow and other decayed parts, applying the com-
pofition ; at the fame time to open the ground, and cut out

Q2 a"

PYRUS.

all the rotten parts tliat may be found in the lower part of
the (lem, togctlicr witli all the decayed roots, which, it
this be not <lonc, will infallibly injure the frefh wood and
bark, and prevent a cure from being cffefted. He would
recommend heading down all apple-trees that are much
cankered and have lU-fliaped heads ; as by fo doin;^ much
labour will be faved, and the trees will amply pay the pro-
prietor. He advilcs never to fhorten the young branches,
except they are very thin, when it will be necellary to do fo
to fill the trees with young wood : nor prune any of the
young wood : nor prune any of the young (hoots the fecond
year (he means the year after they are cut), as many of the
eyes, almoft to the end of the (hoot, will, if it be ftrong,
become fruit-buds next year ; and fo on every year. It is
contended, that in the month of May in the firll year after
the trees have been fo cut, it will be necefl'ary to go over
them, and rub off with your finger and thumb all the fu-
perfluous young (hoots ; leavmg from three to fix eyes en
each (hoot, according to the fize and ftrength of the branch
cut. Tliefe (hoots will bear from three to fo\n- years ; by
which time they will be pretty much exhaulted by the great
quantity of fruit produced from them : they (hould then be
cm <l;iwn to two eyes to produce new wood. He always
li-j-.f:s three different years' branches on the tree, when the
firlt (hoot is cut off. This is fully fhewn m a plate in his
iifeful work ; and the next flioot will be full of fruit-buds,
if it has not been Ihortened : when it begins to grow weak,
it (hould be .cut o(f ; and the next cutting mult be made
when the former branch is tired of bearing: by proceedmg
thus all over th» tree with care and attention, the advantages
of this method of pruning, above the common mode, will foon
be perceived ; as by it you will be able to keep the trees in
a conftant itate of bearing, which, if left to nature, would
only produce a crop of fruit once in two or three years.
When the (hoot that is done bearing is cut off, the compo-
fition (hould conftantly be applied, rubbing off the (hoots
where they are too numerous.

It is fuppofed, that the beft time to prune apple-trecs is
in the month of April, or in May, after the operation has
been performed on the peaches, ncftarincs, and cherries :
and that foon after this pruning, about the middle of May,
it will be proper to look over the trees, and to pick off any
caterpillars that may be on them. It will then be feen what
(hoots are infefted with the canker, and which might h.ave
efcaped your notice at the time of pruning ; and wherever
you ooferve the leall appearance of infeftioii, which may be
known by the wood appearing of a brownifh colour, the
fhoot muft be cut dou-n till you come to the found white
wood. The fmall (hoots that crofs each other (hould be cut
off, leaving the ilrongelt to till up the tree, and make a fine
handfome head. The fuckers that fpring from the root
fhauld be carefully grubbed up, and the lide-(hoots from the
Hem cut off ; for, if left to grow, they greatly weaken the
tree. The knobs, where old branches have been cut off, fhould
alfo be pared away, leaving the furface of the tree as fmootli
as poifible : after which, the compofition (hould be applied :
the young bark will loon begin to grow, and by degrees
cover the old wounds with a frefli fmooth furface, and thus
prevent the canker from gaining ground on the tree. He
. lias feen fome old wounds of confiderable fize, healed over
in one year: and he adds, in conurmation of the utility of
this pradice, that the trees which he pruned and dreflfed, as
above direfted, in the courfe of the fummer, l 795, are all
perfectly cured, the wounds being filled up with found
wood, and CO- L:d over with new bark : they all continue
in a healthy :,'. and bear fine handfome fruit. And he
lias advifed feveral nurferymen to follow the pradice, head-

ing down their apple-rrees after the feafon of drawing for
fale is over. Meilrs. Gray and Wear have headed a great
many of fuch trees as were formerly thrown into the faggot-
pde, and have been amply recompenfeji for their trouble.
Trees thus headed down, provided the (lems be (Irong, will,
he thinks, in the firll and fecond year, produce as much
fruit as will refund the purchafe-money ; befides, a great
deal of time will be faved, which would be loll by planting
younger trees : as, where you can procure trees of the
above defcription that have been headed dov. n three or more
years, they will be all covered with fruit buds ; and, if care-
fully taken up and planted in the autumn, if the feafon
proves favourable, tliey will have a tolerable crop of fruit
the firll year. Such trees mull not be headed down like
maiden trees, but only thinned off where the branches run
acrofs and rub againll one another, which (hould never be
fuffered in thefe cafes. He fays, he would never recom-
mend training apple-trees as efpaUers ; as by doing fo the
air i? kept from the quarters of the garden ; and by con-
llant pruning and cutting off all the lide-flioots which you
cannot tie to the efpaliers, you prevent them from bearing,
and, moreover, bring on the canker. And when the dwarf
trees have handfome heads, more and much finer fruit will
be gotten from one of them than from fix efpaliers ; at the
fame time, a free air is admitted to the crops in the quarters,
and the conltant expence of the (lakes and labour, in laying
the trees to the efpaliers is faved. Efpaliers may, he ob-
ferves, be converted into dwarf flandards by fhortening tlie
branches at different lengths, fo a'; that tliey may be able to
fupport themfelves without the ftakes ; but not to (horteu
them all regularly ; and if cut with judgment, as near to a
leading (hoot, or an eye, as polfible, they will in the courfe
of two years form fine heads, and in the third year bear fix
times the fruit as they did in their former ftate, and of a
finer flavour. The fame method of pruning as already laid
down for ilandard apple-trees is alfo apphcabie to efpaliers.

It is remarked, that the borders- wher- you make your
crofTmgs in gardens (hould be fix or eight feet broad at leait,
to let the trees fprcad on each fide, at the dillauce of twelve
feet from tree to tree, and they (liould be well trenched, two
feet and a half deep at leaft. If tliere (hould be gravel, or
four clay, it mull be taken out, and good mould put in its
place ; leaving the ground as rough as poflible for the frolt
and rain to mellow it. Wiien you level the ground it (hould
be done after rain ; you may then fow fome fmall crops in
the border ; fuch as lettuce or Tpinach, or cabbage for tranf-
planting ; but let not any of the braffica tribe come to full
growth. Leaving cabbage and broccoli on borders, near
fruit-trees, draws the ground very much, fills the borders
with infetls, and alfo prevents the fun and air from penetrat-
ing into the ground. And when the fun can have free ac-
cefs to the border, it adds much to the flavour of the fruit.
If you can fpare the ground on the crofs-borders in winter,
it will be of great fervice to the trees to ridge it up as loofe
as you can, and let it lie in that ftate all winter, to mellow
and fweeten.

Where the foil is ilrong, he would recommend planting
of apple-trees that are grafted on paradife Hocks; *^ut if
the foil be light, free (locks will do mucu better : and when
the ground is (Irong clay or brick-earth, it (hould be mixed
with old lime-rubbi(h or coal-a(hes, (Ireet-dung, or fa.rd :
but what he ufes for the borders againll the walls, and
which he prefers to every other manure, is a vegetable
mould produced from leaves of trees. Of this a good coat
(hould be given on^-e in two or three years, which will be
fufffcient, he thinks, for the borders where tr.e wall-trees
ftand, and much better than dung, which he by no means

appro veB

P Y R

P Y T

approves of for Utes, uiilefs it be perfeftly rotten and mixed
up with nnoiild.

In r -fpeii to grafting old apple-treea, he fays, it fre-
quently happens, that through fome midalic or other, after
wai ing ten or twelve years for a tree to come into a bearing
ftate, it is found that the fruit is neither fit for the table nor
kitchen ; in fuch caf s they (hould always be graft'-d the
following fpring, obferving tp graft on the finell and
healthiell fhoots, and as near as poffible to the old graft,
and where the crofi-flioots break, out ; as by fo doing you
will have fome fruit the iccond year ; and in the thud, if
properly managed, you will have as much as on a maiden
tree of fifteen years Handing ; th? canker, if any, mult be
carefully i)ared off the branch, and the fcion mult be taken
from a found healthv tree. Whenever an incifion is made
for buddnig or grafting, from that moment the canker
begins. He would, therefore, recommend to thole em-
ployed in budding or grafting, as foon as the incifion is
made, and the bud or graft inferted, to rub in with the
finger, or a brufh, fome of the compofition before the bafs
is tied on : then to cover the bafs all over with the compo-
fition as thick as it can be laid on with a bruih, working it
well in. If this operation be performed in a proper manner,
and in a moift feafon, it will anfwer every purpofe without
applying any grafting clay : as he has frequently done it,
and found it iucceed perfectly to his wilhes. The matting
which is wrapped round the bud fliould not be flackened too
foon ; for in that cafe you will find the incifion opened, which
> very often occafions the death of the bud. If, fays he, nur-
ferymen and gardeners would give this method a fair trial, and
ufe the fame compofition as he ufes for curing defefts in
trees, inftead of loam and horfe-dung (which binds fo hard
as to prevent the rain and moiiture from penetrating to the
graft to fnoiilen the wood and bark), they would find that
the grafts would fucceed much better. The compofition,
for this purpofe, (hould be rather fofter than grafting clay
generally is ; and inftead of applying fo large a mafs as is
generally done of clay, it need not, in molt cafes, be more
than two or three inches in circumference, to effeft the
purpofe.

Apples come to full growth in different forts fucceflively,
from July until the end of Oftober : the fummer kinds con-
tinue but a Ihort time, but the autumn ai.d winter apples
keep from two or three to fix or eight months and longer,
in different varieties. The iigns of perfeftion or full
growth of the different forts of apples, are by their aflum-
ing a lively colour, emitting a fragrant odour, frequently
falling from the tree, and by quitting their hold eafily on
being handled.

Gathering. — In the gathering of all the forts of apples for
keeping, dry weather fhould always be chofen, and when
the trees and fruit are alfo perfedtly dry : obferve likewife,
in gathering apples for the table, and all kinds of apples de-
figned for keeping any confiderable time, that they be pulled
one and one by hand. See Fruit.

The other fpecies may be increafed by grafting and bud-
ding them upon the common crab-itock : they (hould have
fheltered lituations, as they are rather tender while young.
TSefe trees afford ornament aud variety in the clumps and
flnubbery parts of pleafuve-grounds.

Method of Culture in the Quince Kind. — Thefe trees may be
raifed from the kernels of th<_ fruit fown in autumn ; but
there is no depending on having the fame fort of good fruit
from feedlings, nor will they foon become bearers. But the
feveral varieties may be continued the fame by cuttings and
.layers ; alfo by fuckers from fuch trees as grow upoi. their
own roots, and likewife be uicreafed by grafting and budding

Upon their own pear-flocks, raifed froitl the kernels in the
fame manner as for apples.

The raifing by cuttings, layers, and fuckers, is performed
in autumn, winter, or fpring, choofing young wood for the
cuttings and layers, which (nould be planted and laid in the
common method, when they will be rooted by the following
autumn, then planted out into nurfery rows two feet afuii-
der ; plant the fuckers alfo at the fame dillance, and then
train the whole for the purpofes intended : if for llandards,
run them up with a item to any defired height, from three
to five or fix feet, then encourage them to branch out at
top, to form a head ; and thofe dcfigned as dwarfs mull be
headed near the ground, and trained accordingly for efpa-
liers, or dwarf llandards, as directed under thofe articles :
the grafting or budding is effefted on quince or pear-docks,
and trained as above. When they have formed tolerable
heads, they (hould be planted out finally.

Mr. Forfyth advifes that the layers or cuttings fhould be
planted in a (hady place, in rows at about a foot dillant
from each other, and about three inches from plant to
plant in the rows ; mulching them with rotten leaves, or
rotten dung, which will keep the ground about them moift ;
and watering them frequently in hot weather. About Mi-
chaelmas thofe that are well rooted may be planted out, and
thofe that are not fhould remain another year. They may
alfo be propagated by budding or grafting ; and thefe trees
will bear fooner, and be more fruitful than thofe raifed by
any other method.

He obferves, that the quince-tree may be pruned much
in the fame way as an apple-tree, taking care to cut out all
the old difeafed and dead wood, and the crofs branches in
the middle of the tree, which are apt to injure each other by
friftion. In general you will find old trees much hurt by
injudicious pruning : in that cafe they fhould be headed down,
cutting out all the cankery parts, and alfo all the difeafed
and dead wood where the tree is hollow, or where large
branches have been cut or broken off, applying the compo-
fition as for apple-trees : and as quince-trees are very apt to
have rough bark, and to be bark-bound, in thefe cafes it
will be neceffary to fhave off the rough bark with a draw-
knife, and to fcarify them when bark-bound, brufliing them
over with the compofition. It is alfo advifedto plant quince-
trees at a proper diftance from apples and pears, as bees and
the wind may mix the farina, and occafion the apples or
pears to degenerate.

Standard quinces, defigned as fruit-trees, may be ftationed
in the garden or orchard, and fome by the fides of any water,
pond, watery-ditch, &c. as they dehght in moilhire, fufler-
ing the whole to take their own natural growth : ai d as
efpaliers, they may be arranged in aifemblage with other
moderate growing trees, fuch as apples and pears on
paradife and quince-ftocks, cherries, &c. being trained as
direfted for apples and pears in efpaliers. They may alfo
be planted in (hrubberies, either.as fuU or low ftandards, and
permitted to take their own way of growth. See Or-
chard.

PYSTERA, in jincient Geography, an ifland fituated on
the coaft of Afia Minor, over-againlt Smyrna. Pliny.

PYTHAGORAS, in 5/o^ra/>/)v. See PYTHAGOREANS.

Poderity has been very liberal to this philofopher, in be-
ftowing upon him all fuch inventions as others had neglected
to claim, particularly in mufic ; for there is fcarcely any
part of it, as a fcience, with which he has not b;en invcftcd
by his generous followers in biography.

Muiical ratios have been affigued to him, with the method
of determining the gravity or acutenefs of lound^ by ths(
greater or lefs degree of velocity in the vibrations ot ilrings ;

the

PY'rHAGORAS.

the ad

.,. addition of an eighth to the lyre (Phny, hb. n. cap. 2. ;
the harmony of th. fphercs (Plato) ; and the Greek mal.-
cal notation (ISotthius). His right, indeed, to fomeof thcle
difcoveries has bc-rn difputed by fcveral authors, who have
given them to others with as little reafon, perhaps, as they
liad been before bellowed upon him.

But there is one difcovcry, relative to mufic, that has, at
all times, been unanimoufly alhgned to him, which, how-
ever, appears to us extremely doubtful, not only whether it
was made by him, but whether, in the manner it is rejated, it
was ever made by any one. t i-v i

We are told by Nicomachus, Gaudentius, .Tamblichus,
Macrobius, and all their commentators, « that Pythagoras,
one day meditating on the want of fome rule to guidq the
ear, analogous to what had been ufed to help the other
fenfes, chanced to pafs bv a blackfmitli's fhop, and obfervmg
that the hammers, which were four in number, founded
very harmomoufly, he had them weighed, and found them
to be in the proportion of 6, 8, 9, and 12. Upon this he
fufpended four ftrings, of equal length and thickncfs, &c.
fallened weights, in the above-mentioned proportions, tocacli
of them reipeaively, and found that they gave the fame
founds that the hammers had done ; -viz. the fourth, iittli,
and oftave to the gi-aveft tone ; which laft interval did not
make part of the mufical fyftem before ; for the Greeks had
gone no farther than the heptachord, or fevcn ftrings, tiU
that time." Principles and Power of Harmony, p. 8.

This is the fubftance of the account, as it has been lately
abridc^ed by Mr. Stillingfleet, who points out many incredi-
ble cTrcumftances with refpedt to the ftory in general, and
denies that the weights 6, 8, 9, 12, would give the inter-
vals pretended ; but feems not to have fecn the leaft difhculty
in the fact, relative to liferent hammers proJuchig d'ljerent
founds upon the fame anvil. The frontifpioce to M. Mar-
purg's Hiltory of Mufic, reprefents the Samian fagc 111 the
aft of 'weighing the hammers.

But though both hammers and anvil have been fwallowed
by ancients and moderns, and have paffed through them
from one to another, with an ollrich-Uke digeftion, upon
examination and experiment it appears, that hammers of dif
ferent fize and weight will no more produce different tones upon
the fame mivi/, than bows or clappers of diiferent lizes, will
from the fame firing or bell.

Indeed, both the hammers and anvils of antiquity muft
have been of a conftruftion very different from thofe of our
deirenerate days, if they produced any tones that were ftridly
mufical. Of the millions of well-organized mortals, who
have paffed by blackfmiths' lliops, fince the time of Py-
thagoras, we believe no one was ever detained by a fingle
note, much lefs by an harmonious concord, from_ thofe Vul-
canian inftruments. A different kind of noife, indeed, will
be produced by hammers of different weights and fizes ; but
it feems not to be in the power of the moff fubtle ear to dif-
cover the leait imaginable difference with refpect to gi-avity
or acutencfs. But though different noifes may be produced
'from different bodies, in proportion to their fize and fohdity,
and every room, chair, and table, in a houfe, has a particu-
lar tone, yet thefe noifes can never be afcertained Uke mufical
tones, which depend upon reiterated and regular vibrations
of the aliquot parts of a ftring, or other elaftic body ;
and in wind inftruments, upon the undulations of the air
conveyed into a tube> Noife may, indeed, he forced from a
mufical ftring, or inftrument, by violence ; but noife pro-
ceeding from bodies non-elaftic, or immulical, can never be
foftened into found. M. Rouffeau (Ditt. de Muf. art. Bruit)
has ingenioully imagined that noife is of the fame nature as
found, with this difference, that to produce found, the one

tone, with its confonant harmonics only, fhould be heft-d :
fuch as the 8tli, I2lii, i^th, and 17th; whereas noife is
produced by a jarring multitude of different tones, or even
by one tone, when its vibrations are fo violent as to render
audible a confiderable number of diffonant tones, of which
the vibrations ftldom or never coincide ; fuch as the 7th, gtli,
nth, &c.

The long belief of this ftory proves that pliilofopliers
themfelves have fometimes taken facts upon truft, without
verifying them by experiment. And as the tone of the
hammers was afterted without proof, fo was the effeft of
their different weights faftened to ftrings : this Galileo
difcovered. The numbers 6, 8, y, 12, applied to dif-
ferent lengths of ftringf, would, indeed, givetlie intervals
mentioned. But it is proved, that to produce thofe inter-
vals by the ten/ion of different weights, the weights mult be
the fqu ares of thofe numbers ; that is, 36, 64, 81, 144. It
is allonifliing how the blunder had been echoed from author
to author, without experiment, till the time of Galileo.
And Bontempi, in trying the power of weights upon ftrings
in the Pythagoric proportions of 6, 8, 9, 12, found, that
inftead of giving the 4tli, 5th, and 8th of the graveft tone,
they produced only the minor 3d, major 3d, and tritonus ;
fo that tlie whole account falls to the ground. But though
modern incredulity and experiment have robbed Pythagoras
of the glory of' difcovering mufical ratios by accident, he has
been allowed the fuperior merit of arriving at them by medi-
tation and defign. At leaft the invention of the harmonical
canon, or monochord, has been afcribed to him both by ancient
and modern writers. (See Monochord.) See Ariftid.
Quint, p. 116. Prin. and Power of Harm. Hift. des
Mathem. par. Montucla. Euler, Teutamen novae Theor.
Muf. and all the writers upon harmonics and tempera-
ment.

We {hall enter no deeper into this fubjeft here, than is ab-
folutely neceflary to explain the nature of tjie difcovery at-
tributed to Pythagoras, to which mufic is indebted for the
honourable appellation of fcicnce.

Pythagoras fuppofed the air to be the •vehicle of found, and
the agitation of that element occafioned by a fimilar agita-
tion in the parts of the founding body, to be the caufe of it.
The vibrations of a ftring, or any other fonorous body,
being communicated to the air, affefted the auditory nerves
w ith the fenfation of found ; and this found, accordino- to
him, was acute or grave, in proportion as the vibrations
were quick or flow. It was alfo known, by experiment,
that of two ftrings equal in every thing but length, the
ftiorter made the quickeft vibrations, and gave the acuter
found ; in other words, that the number of vibrations made
in the fame time by two ftrings of different lengths, were in-
verfely as thofe lengths ; that is, the greater the length, the
fmaller the number of vibrations in any given time. By tliefe
difcovcries it was that found, conCdered in the vibrations that
caufe it, and the diraenfions of the vibrating or fonorous body,
was reduced to quantity, and as fuch, became fubjeft to cal-
culation, and expreflible by numbers. Thus, for inftance, the
two founds that form an oclave are expreffed by the numbers
I and 2 ; which reprefent either the number of vibrations in
a given time, or the length of the ftrings ; and mean nothing
more myfterious than that the acuter found vibrates twice,
while the graver vibrates once ; or, that the ftring pro-
ducing the Jower found is twice the length of that which
gives the upper. If we confider the vibrations, the higher
found is as 2, the lower as i ; the reverfe, if we coiitider
only the lengths. In the fame maiTncr, and in the fame
fenfe, the 5th is expreffed by the ratio of 2 to 3, and the
4th by that of 3 to 4.

Such

PY Til AC OR AS.

Such was the ancient philofophy of founds, of wliich
Pytliagoras is recorded as tlie lirlt teacher, lint iiow much
(it tiiis tlieory was founded on experiment and demonllration,
and liow much of it upon hypothefis ; how much of it was
known, and how much taken for granted, cannot certainly
be determined. The ilory juft now difcuded is too much
emharradcd with abfurdities and impolTibilities to guide us to
any probable conjefture, as to tlie method by wiiich Pytha-
. goras ailually arrived at his conclufions.

The difcovcry, as far as it relates to the length of llrings,
waseafdy made, becaufe it depended upon an obvious expe-
riment. It was, likevvife, cafily perceived, that a fltort
Itring vibrated with more velocity than a long one ; but be-
tween the certainty of this general fa6t, and the certainty
that the vibrations were in a ratio exaftly the inverfe of the
lengths, there is a confiderablc gulph. (See Smith's Har-
monics, feft i. art. 7, and note f. ) We have no account
of the bridge upon which Pythagoras got fafely over. Ex-
periment, here, is out of the queftion ; for the flowed vi-
brations that produce mufical found, arc far too quick to be
counted or diitinguiflied. The inference, however, was na-
tural, though it does not appear that the ancients were able
• to fupport it by ilridl and fcientiiic proof. .

Indeed it was fo late as the beginning of the prefeut cen-
tury, (17 14. See Phil. Tranf. and Methodus incremen-
tormn direfta et inverfa, by Dr. Brook Taylor,) before this
ancient theory of found was fully confirmed, and the laws
of vibrations, and the whole doctrine of mufical ilrings,
eltabliflied upon the folid bafis of mathematical dernonftra-
tion.

The fecond mufical improvement attributed to Pythago-
ras, was the addition of an eighth ftring to the lyre, which,
before his time, had only feven, and was thence called a
heptachord. It is fuppofed by feveral ancient writers, that
the fcale of this inltrument, which was that of Terpander,
confiited of two conjoint tetrachords, EFGABbCD;
and that Pythagoras, by adding an eighth found, at the top,
and altering the tuning of the fifth, formed this fcale :
EFGA, BCDe, or a fimilar fcale, confiding of two
disjunft tetrachords.

How this fcale was generated by the triple progreffion,
or ferics ,of perfect Jths, the abbe Roufiier has lately very
well difcuffed, in his " Memoire fur la Mufique des An-
ciens." We fliall endeavour to explain what is meant by
the triple progrefiion in mufic, which is the bafis of this in-
genious hypothefis ; referring the reader to the Memoire
itfelf for his proofs, as inferting them here woidd require too
much lime and fpace for a work of this nature.

Let any found be repreientnd by unity, or the number i ;
and as the 3d part of a firing has been found to produce the
I2tli, or oftave of the 5th above the whole ftring, 11 feries
of 5ths.may be reprefented by a triple geometric progreffion
of numbers, continually multiplied by 3, as i .3 9 27 81
243 729 ; and thefe terms may be equally fuppofed to re-
prefent I2ths, or ^ths, either afcending or defcending. For
whether we divide by 3, or multiply by 3, the terms will be
in the proportion of a 1 2th, or odiave to the 5th, either way.
The abbe Rouffier, imagining that the ancients fung their
fcale-backv\-nrds, as we iliould call it, by defcending, an-
nexes to his numbers -the founds following :

Term I II III IV V VI VII
139 27 Si 243 729
B E A D G C F .
out of which feries of Jths, by arranging the founds in dia-
tonic order, may be formed the heptachord, or 7th,
B C D E F G A ; and to thefe, adding the duple of the
highefi. found, in the proportion of 2 to i, the abbe fup-

pofcs that Pythagoras acquired the odtave, or proflambano-"
menos. This is throwing a mite into the charity-box of poor
Pythagoras, without, however, telling us in what reign the
obolum was coined ; for we have met with no ancient author
who bellows the invention of proflambanomenos upon this
philofopher. The abbe does not let him or his followers ilop
here, but fuppoies an Sth term, 2187, added to tlie pro-
gredion given above, by which a B D was obtained, wliich
turniflied tiie minor femitone below B tj. Tlie fyftein of
Pythagoras, according to the abbe, was bounded by this
Sth term, and the principle upon which it was built being
lofl, the Greeks penetrated no farther into the regions of
modulation, where tliey might have enriched their mufic, but
contented themfelves, in after-times, with tranfpofition-j of
this feries of found.

The abbe Rouflicr imagines, however, that though Py-
thagoras went no farther than the eighth term in triple pro-
grellion, yet tlie Egyptians, in very high antiquity, extended
the feries to twelve terms, which would give every poffible
mode and genus perfeft. A curious circumllance is obferved
by the fame •author, p. 28, ^ -|7, with refpedl to the mufi-
cal fylleni of the Chinefe, which well deferves mention here.
" In collecting," fays he, " what has already been advanced
concerning the original formation of the Cliinefe fyftem, it
appears to begin precifely where the Greek left off, that is,
at the Vlllth term of the triple progreffion, which is purfucd
as far as the Xllth term, by which feries, arranged dia-
touically, the Chinefe acquire their fcale, e [3, D b> B [3,
A b, G bj £ b, in defcending: or, as Rameau exprefleS
the fame intervals, in fliarps, afcending, G*, A*, C*, D*,
E«, g;X." — It is obfervable that both thefe fcales, which
are wholly without femitones, are Scottifli, and correfpond
with the natural fcale of the old fimple enharmonic, given
p. 34. M. Jamard, a late French writer on mufic, pulhing
calculation (Hll further than either the Egyptians or Chinefe,
has,obtained, by purfuing the harmonic feries, i, 2, 3, 4, &c.
&c. not only the enharmonic diefis, but even the mmute in-
tervals in the warbling of birds ; it is wonderful he did not
apply his ratios to human fpeech.

After mufical ratios were difcovered and reduced to
numbers, they were made by Pythagoras and his followers,
the type of order and juft proportion in all things : hence
virtue, friendfliip, good government, celeftial motion, the
human foul, and God himlelf, were harmony.

This difcovery gave birth to various fpecies of mufic, far
more ftrange and inconceivable than chromatic and enhar-
monic : fuch as divine mufic, mundane mufic, elementary
mufic, and many other divifions and fubdivifions, upon
which Zarlino, Kircher, and almoll all the old writers,
never fail to expatiate with wonderful complacence. It is',
perhaps, equally to the credit and advantage of mufic and
philofophy, that they have long defcended from thefe
heights, and taken their proper and feparate llations upon
ectrth : that we no longer admit of mufic tliat cannot be
heard, or of philofophy that cannot be underjiood.

Ariilides Quintilianus afl'ures us, that mufic comprehends
arithmetic, geometry, phyfics, and metaphyfics, and teaclics
everything, hom folfuing the fcale, to the nature and con-
ftruftion of the foul of man and the foul of the univerfe.
To confirm this, he quotes, as a divine faying, a moft curious
account of the end and li.Jinefs of mufic, from one mailer
Panacmus, which informs us that the province of mufic is
not only to arrange mufical founds, and to regulate the voice,
but to unite and harmonize every thing in nature. This
writer, p. 102, in folving the aueilion, whence it is that the
foul is fo eafily afFedted by inllrumcntal mufic, acquaints us,
in the Pythagorean way, how the foul, frilking about, and
12 playing

P Y T

P Y T

playing all kiiuls of tricks in the purer regions of fpace, ap-
proaches by ilegrocs to our grofs atmofpherc ; gets a tailc
for matter and (olidity, and at length acquires a warm and
comfortable b'dy to cover her nakednefs. Here (he picks
up nerves and Arteries ; there membranes ; here Ipirit or
breath ; and ail in a molt extraordinary manner ; efpecially
the arteries and nerves : for what Ihould they be made ot,
but the circles and lines of the fpheres, in which the foul gets
entangled in hi r palTage, like a fly in a fpider's web. Thus,
continues he, the body becomes fimilar in its texture to in-
ftruments of the wind and ilringed kind. The nerves and
arteries are firings, and at the fame time they are pipes filled
with wind. " What wonder, then," fays Ariltides Quin-
tilianus, " if the foul, being thus intimately connetled with a
body fimilar in conftrudtion to thofe inilruments, Ihould
fympathize with their motions."

Mafter Thomas Mace, author of a moft deleftable book,
called " Mulick's Monument," would have been an excellent
Pythagorean ; for he maintains that the myftery of the Tri-
nity is perfpicuoufly made plain by the conneftion of the
three harmonical concords, i, 3, 5 ; that mufic and divini-
ty are nearly allied ; and that the contemplation of concord
and difcord, of the nature of the oftave and unifon, will fo
ftrengthen a man's faith, " that he (hall never after degenerate
into thsX grofs ftib-beajiical fin of atheifm." P. 268.

Pythagoras is faid, by the writers of his life, to have re-
garded mufic as foniething celellial and divine, and lo have
had fuch an opinion of its power over the human afFeftions,
that, according to the Egyptian fyftem, he ordered his difci-
ples to be waked every morning, and lulled to fleep every
night, by fweet founds. He likewife confidered it as greatly
conducive to health, and made ufe of it in diforders of the
body, as well as in thofe of the mind. His biogi-aphers
and fecretaries even pretend to tell us what kind of mufic
he applied upon thefe occafions. Grave and folemn, we
may be certain ; and vocal, fay they, was preferred to in-
ftrumental, and the lyre to the flute, not only for its de-
cency and gravity, but becaufe infl;ruftion could be conveyed
to the mind, by means of articulation in finging, at the
fame time as the ear was delighted by fweet founds. This
was faid to have been the opinion of Minerva. In very high
antiq;iity mankind gave human wifdom to their gods, and
afterwards took it from them, to befl:ow it on mortals.

In perufing the lift of illuftrious men, who have fprung
from the fchool of Pythagoras, it appears that the love and
cultivation of mufic was fo much a part of their difcipline,
that almoft every one of them left a treatife behind him upon
the fubjeft.

Pythagoras's Table. See Table.

PYTHAGOREA, in Botany, received that appellation
from Loureiro, in memory of the famous Pythagoras, who
is faid to have written a book on the quahties of plants. —
Loureir. Cochinch. 243. Clafs and order, Odandria Tetra-
gynia. Nat. Ord

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, bell-lhaped, of feven
or eight linear, hairy, coloured leaves. Cor. fuperior, bell-
fhaped, of feven or eight lanceolate, concave, hairy petals,
the length of the calyx. Stam. Filaments eight, awKhaped,
longer than the corolla ; anthers roundifh, two-lobed.
Pi^. Germen between the calyx and corolla, nearly ovate,
hairy ; ftyles four, awl-fliaped, reflexed, fhorter than the
ftamens ; lligmas acute. Peric. Capfule ovate, of four
cells. Seeds numerous, roundifli.

Efl". Ch. Calyxof feven or eight leaves, inferior. Corolla
of feven or eight petals, fuperior, Capfule of four cells,
with many feeds.

I. V, cochincbinenjit, — Native of Cochinchina, where it is

called Xuong ca tin nlio la. A fmall tree, with numerous
brandies. Leaves nearly feiTile, ovato-lancealate, ferrated,
fmooth ; their longitudinal ribs red at the cxtrtinity. Cluf-
.crs axillary, long, nearly fimple, with fliort partial ftalks.
Flowers white.

Such is Loureiro's account, but we have no knowledge of
the plant he defcribes, nor can we offer any conjci^ure re-
Ipefting its natural affinity. We have no faith in the ex-
iltence of a germen luperior to the calyx and inferior to the
corolla, the only inttance of the kind winch Linnaeus ever
imagined, in Sannuiforba, proving not well founded.

PYTHAGOREAN, or PyTUAGOuic Syflem, among
the ylncients, was the fame with the Copernican fyilem
among the moderns. See System.

It was thus called, as having \)een maintained and culti-
vated by Pythagoras, and his followers ; not that it was in-
vented by him, for it was much older.

PYTHAGOREANS, a feft of ancient philofophers,
who adhered to thedodlrine of Pythagoras.

Pythagoras, the founder of this feft, was of Samos, the
fen of a lapidary, and a pupil of Pherecydes, and flouriflicd
(faysBayle) about five hundred years before Chriit, in the 1
time of Tarquin, the laft king of Rome, and not in Numa's ;
time, as many authors have fuppofed. See Cicero Tufcul.
Queft. lib. iv. cap. I. _

The time of his birth, however, has been much difputed.
Dr. Bentley, in his " Diflertation on the Epiitles of Phala-
ris," relying chiefly on the authority of Eratofthenes, refers
the birth of Pythagoras to the 4th year of the 43d olym-
piad, B.C. 608. Lloyd, in his " Didertation concerning the
Chronology of Pythagoras," afcribcs his birth to the 3d year
of the 48th olympiad, B.C. 586. Dodwell places it in
the 4th year of the 52d olympiad, B.C. 569, refling in
this date chiefly on the authority of Porphyr)' and Jamblt-
chus. Upon the whole, the opinion of Lloyd feems to be
the molt probable, which is, that he was born about the year
B.C. 586, and that he died about the 3d year of the 68th
olympiad, B.C. 506 ; fo that it feems pretty certain, that
he was not born earlier than the 4th year of the 43d olym-
piad, B.C. 605, nor later than the 4th year of the 52d,
B.C. 569. If we admit only the credible particulars of his
childhood and early education, and pay no attention to the
tales of Jamblichus and others, who even aflerted that he
was the fon of God, we fhall find that he was firfl inftrudled
in his own country by Crefphilus, and afterwards by Phe-
recydes, intheifland of Scyrus, and that after having paid
his lall tribute of refpeCl to his preceptor, he returned to
Samos, and purfued his ftudies under the diredlion of his
firil mafter. Jambhchus, and other later biographers, men.
tion his journey into Ionia, and his interviews with Thales
and Anaximander, but of this journey we have no authentic
record, nor is any effeil of it difcernible in his doftrine, which
is eflentially diflFerent from that of the Ionic fchool. His
firft journey from the Grecian iflands was probably into
Egypt, which was celebrated in his time for that kind of
wifdom which beli fuited his genius and temper. In his
way thither, Jambhchus aderts that he vifited Phoenicia, and
converfed with the prophets and philofophers that were the
fuccell'ors of Mociius the Phyfiologift ; which Mochus,
Selden, and fome others, will have to be Mofes.

Nor is it thought at all improbable that Pythagoras might
wifli to acquaint himfelf with the Phoenician philofophy, of
which he muft, without doubt, have received a general re-
port from his father, and from other merchants who
traded to this coaft. But that he derived his knowledge of
numbers from the Phoenicians is not at all probable, becaufe
their acquaintance with numbers extended no further than

5 t»

PYTHAGOREANS.

to tlit> praftical fcience of arithmetic. It has been faid, in-
deed, tliat Pythagoras travelled, not only into Egypt and
Chaldsea, but even into the Indies, to inform his under-
ilanding with regard to all branches of fcirtice and prevalent
cuftoms ; and that after returning to his own country, being
unable to bear the tyranny ot Polycrates, he retired into the
eailern part of Italy, then called Magna Gr-.ecia, and efta-
blilhed his feft, denominated from thiscircumilance the " Ita-
lic Seft," or "Italic fchool." Whatever opinion is enter-
tained of this journey to the Eaft, to which Le Clerc gives
no credit, we mull altogether rejeft other ftories of his
vifiting the temple on mount Carmel, and remaining there
for feveral days, without food, palling among the inhabit-
ants for a good dxmon, and obtaining from them religious
honours ; and of his proceeding into India, and there
paffing through feveral ceremonies of the Mofaic law.

Pythagoras, whilll he was iu Egypt, was introduced by
the recommendation of Polycrates, tyrant of Samps, to
Amafis, king ot Egypt, a diftinguiflied patron of literary
men, and thus obtained acccfs to the colleges of the priefts.
Having found it difficult to gain this privilege, he performed
many fevere and troublefome preliminary ceremonies, and
even fubmitted to circumcifion, a prefcribed condition of his
admiffion. He palled twenty-two years in Egypt, availing
himfelf of all pollible means of information with regard to
the recondite doftrines of the Egyptian priefts, as well as
their aftronomy and geometry, and Egyptian learning in its
molt unlimited extent.

Many writers of reputation, both Pagan and Chrillian,
who flourifhed after the commencement of the Chrillian era,
relate, that after Pythagoras had left Egypt, he viiited the
Perfian and Chaldcean Magi, and proceeeded fo far as to have
intercourfe with the Indian Gymnofophifts. Jamblichus
allerts, that he was taken captive by the vidlorious army
of Cambyfes, and carried to Babylon, where he acquainted
himfelf with the learning and philofophy of the Eaft; and
that after the expiration of twelve years, when he was in the
6oth year of his age, he returned to Samog. The circum-
Itance of his having viiited the Perfian magi is alfo mentioned
by Cicero, Eufebius, Laftantius, and Valerius Maximus,
though they take no notice of his captivity. In this jour-
ney to the Eaft, as fome have maintained, he attended upon
the inilrudlions of the celebrated Perfian fage, Zoroafter ;
and otiiers, who have placed the life of Zoroafter in an
earlier period than that of Pythagoras, have allertcd, that
he converted with certain Jewifh prophets, who were at that
time in Babylon, in a ftate of captivity, and thus became
acquainted with the Jewifh laws and cuftoms. However, fe-
veral objeftions, particularly of a chronological kind, have
been alleged againft the narrative of Pythagoras's journey
to the Eaft. Chronologifls unanimoufly agree, that Cam-
byfes invaded Egypt in the fifth year of his reign, or the
third year of the 63d olympiad. According to Jamblichus,
Pythagoras, after ftaying twelve years in Babylon, and
vifiting feveral other countries, went into Italy in the
62d olympiad. The fame date is afiixed to this journey
by Diodorus and Clemens Alexandrinus ; whilil others place
it about fourteen years earher. Hence it appears, that if
Pythagoras left the Eaft before the 62(1 olympiad, after re-
maining there twelve years, he could not have been car-
ried thither by Cambyfes in the 63d olympiad. Moreover,
the whole narration of Pythagoras's journey into the Eaft is
Contradicl;ed by the exprefs authority of Antiphon (quoted
by Porphyry), who fays that Pythagoras, after his refidence
in Egypt, returned into Ionia, and opened a fchocil in his
own country ; and that, at the age of forty years, finding
himfelf haralTed by the tyranny of Polycrates, he withdrew

Vol. XXIX.

into Italy ; and according to tliis account, we have no in-
terval for the fuppofed eaftcrn expedition. The reality of
this expedition is teftified either by certain Alexandrian Pla-
tonilts, who were defirous of exalting, as much as pofliblc,
the wifdom of thofe ancient philofophirs, whom they confi-
dercd as the oracles of wifdom, or by certain Jewitli and
Chriftian writers, who were difpofed to credit every tale
which tended to give probabili' y to the opinion that the Py-
thagorean dodrine was derived from the Oriental philofo-
phers, and ultimately from the Hebrew fcriptures. In ci-
ther cafe the authenticity of the relation is hable to juft fufpi-
cion ; nor is there any probable argument to prove, that
Pythagoras received inftruftion from any prophet of the
Hebrew nation, during his fuppofed refidence at Babylon.
Brucker concurs with thofe writers who are difpofed to re-
jetl this ftory of Pythagoras's eailern journey as a mere fic-
tion, and who concludes that, having never pail'ed froni^
Egypt to the Eaft, he returned thence immediately to
Samos. The ftory of his having vifited the northern Druids
is fo deflitute of probability and of evidence, as to merit no
regard.

After his return from Egypt to his native ifland, he
wifhcd to communicate the benefit of his twenty years'
refearclies and ftudics to his fellow-citizens, and with this
view he attempted to inftitute a fchool for their inflrudlion
in the elements of fcience ; propofing to adopt the Egyptian
mode of teaching, and to communicate his doArines under
a fymbolical form : but the Samians were either too flupid
or too indolent to profit by his inftruftions. Although he
was obliged to relinquiih his defign, he did not altogether
abandon it. In order to engage the attention of his coun-
trymen by fome other means, he repaired to Delos ; and
after prefenting an offering of cakes to Apollo, he there
received, or pretended to receive, moral dogmas from the
prieftefs, which he afterwards delivered to his difciples under
the character of divine precepts. With the fame views he
alfo vifited the ifland of Crete, fo celebrated in mythological
hiftory ; where he was conducted by the Corybantes, or
priefts of Cybele, into the cave of mount Ida, in which
Jupiter is faid to have been buried. Here he converfed with
Epimenides, an eminent pretender to prophetic powers, and
was by him initiated into the moft facred myfteries of Greece.
About the fame time he vifited Sparta and Ehs, and was
prefent during the celebration of the Olympic games, where
he is faid to have exhibited a golden thigh to Abaris, in order
to convince him that he was Apollo. Befides other places
which he vifited during his flay in Greece, he repaired to
PhUus, where he firft affumed the appellation of philofopher,
(See PuiLOSOPHEn.) Having thus added to the ftores of
learning which he had previoufly accumulated, and acquired
a kind of authority which was calculated to command
refpetl, he returned to Samos, and made a fecond attempt,
more fuccefsful than his firft, for ellablifliing a fchool of
philofophy. In a femicircular kind of building, which the
Samians had ufed as a place of refort for public bufinefs,
he delivered with an affumed authority of a facred nature,
popular precepts of morality ; and he alfo provided for
himfelf a fecret cave, into which he retired with his intimate
friends and profetled difciples, and here he gave his foU
lowers daily inflruftions, accompanied with a conCderable
parade of myftery, in the more abftrufe parts of philofophy.
His fame, and the multitude of his followers, increafed.
What he failed to accomplifh by the mere force of learning
and ability, he effefted by concealing his doftrines under
the veil ot myflerious fymbols, and iffuing forth his pre-
cepts as refponfes from a divine oracle. About the begin-
ning of the 59th olympiad, Pythagoras, defirous of efcaping

R the

PYTHAGOREANS.

the tyrannical government exercifed in his native ifland by
Syloibn, the brotlicr of Polycrates, left Samoa, and, as
we have already hinted, palled over into Italy, and attempted
to edablifh his fchool among the colonies of Magna Gr;ecia.
It is probable that, in order to obtain credit with the
populace, he about this time pretended to poflefs a power
of performing miracles, and praftifed many arts of im-
pollure. The firft place at which he arrived in Italy was
Crotona, a city in the bay of Tarentum, the inhabitants of
which were very corrupt in their manners. But fuch were his
reputation and influence, that he was treated with great refpeft,
and people of all clalTes afiembled to hear Iiis difcourfes ;
infomuch that the manners of the citizens were foon totally
changed from great luxury and licentioufncfs to llritt
fobrieiy and frugality. It is faid that 600 (fomc fay 2000),
perfons were prevailed upon to fubmit to the ftrift dif-
cipline which he required, and to throw their effefts into a
common Hock for the benefit of the whole fraternity. The
influence of his philofophy extended from Crotona to
many other cities of Magna Grsecia, and obtained for
Pythagoras from his followers a degree of refpedt little
fhort of adoration. If he had contented himfelf with de-
livering doftrines of philofophy and precepts of practical
w^fdom, he might probably have continued his labours,
without moleftation, to the end of his life. But he mani-
feft:ed a ftrong propenfity towards political innovations ;
and he employed his influence in urging the people to the
ftrenuous aflertion of their rights, againll the encroachments
of their tyrannical governors. This courfe of conduft raifed
againft him a very powerful oppofition, which he was
unable to refill and contend againll, and which obliged him
to retire to Metapontum. Here he found himfelf llill fur-
rounded with enemies, and was under a ncceffity of feeking
an afylum in the temple of the Mufes, where, not being
fupplied by his friends with fufficient food, he perilhed with
hunger. The time of his death is uncertain ; but accord-
ing to the Chronicon of Eufebius, he died in the third year
of the 68th olympiad, B. C. 506, after having lived, ac-
cerding to the mofl probable ftatement of his birth, to the
age of 80 years. After his death his followers paid a fuper-
ftitious refpeft to his memory. They erefted llatues in
honour of him, converted his houfe at Crotona into a
temple of Ceres, the ftreet in which it flood was called tlie
Mufeum, and appealed to him as a divinity, fwearing by
his name. '

It appears, from the hiftory of this philofopher, that
with all his talents and learning, he owed much of his
celebrity and authority to impofture. His whole manner
of life confirms this opinion. Clothed in a long white robe,
with a flowing beard, and, as fome fay, with a golden crown
on his head, he preferved among the people, and in the
prefence of his difciples, a commanding gravity and majefty
of afpeft. He recurred to mufic for promoting the tran-
quillity of his mind, frequently finging, for this purpofe,
hymns of Thales, Hefiod, and Homer. He had fuch an
entire command over himfelf, that he was never feen to ex-
prefs, in his countenance, grief, joy, or anger. He refrained
from animal food, and confined himfelf to a frugal vege-
table diet, excluding from his fimple bill of fare, for
myftical reafons, pulfe or beans. By this artificial demeanour,
Pythagoras appeared among the vulgar as a being of an
order fuperior to the common condition of humanity, and
perfuaded them that he had received his dodlrinc from
heaven. Pythagoras married Theano of Crotona, or, as
fome fay, of Crete, by whom he had two fons, Telauges
and Mnefarchus, who, after his death, took the charge of
his fchool. Whether this philofopher left behind him any

writings has been a fubjedt of difpute. Many works have
been enuirierated under his name by Laertiut., Jamblichus,
and Pliny ; but it is the declared opinion of Plutarch,
Jofephus, I^ucian, and others, that there were no genuine
works of Pythagoras extant ; and it appears highly pro-
bable, from the pains which he took to confine his doftrine
to liis own fchool during his life, that he never committed
his pliilofophical fyltem to writing, and that the pieces to
which his name was affixed at an early period, were written
by fome of his followers, upon the principles imbibed in
his fchool. The famous golden verfes attributed to Pytha-
goras, and illuftrated with a commentary by Hierocles,
were not written by our philofopher, but arc to be afcribed
to Epicharmus, or Em])edocles. They may, iiowever, be
confidered as a brief fummary of his popular dodtrines.

His " Method of inflruction," formed upon the Egyptian
model, was " exoteric," and " efoteric," that is, pubhc and
private. Thofe auditors, who attended his public leftures,
did not properly belong to his fchool ; but followed their
ufual mode of living. His feledt difciples, called his com-
panions and friends, were fuch as fiibmitted to a peculiar
plan of difcipline, and were admitted, by a long courfe of
inftrudlion, into all the myfterics of his efoteric dodlrine.

Previoufly to the admiflion of any perfon into this fra-
ternity, Pythagoras examined his features and external ap-
pearance ; inquired how he had been accultomed to behave
towards his parents and friends ; marked his manner of
laughing, conterfing, and keeping filence ; and obferved
what paffions he was mofl inclined to indulge ; with what
kind of company he chofe to aflbciate ; how he parted his
leifure moments ; and what incidents appeared to excite in
him the ftrongell emotions of joy or forrow. Nor after
this examination was any one admitted into his fociety, till
he was fully perfuaded of the docility of his difpofition,
the gentlenefs of his manners his power of retaining in
filence what he was t-aught, and, in fine, his capacity of
becoming a true philofopher. After the firft probationary
admiffion, the fortitude and felf-ccmmand of the candidate
were put to the trial by a long courfe of fevere abftinence
and rigorous exercife. The courfe of abftinence and felf-
denial comprehei.ded food and drink, and clothing, all which
were of the moft plain and fimple kind : and the exercifes
prefcribed were fuch as could not be performed without pain
and fatigue. To teach them humility and induftn-, he
cxpofed them, for three years, to a continued courfe of
contradiftion, ridicule, and contempt, among their fellows.
In order to reftrain the powerful paflion of avarice, he
required his difciples to fubmit to voluntary povsrty ; he
deprived them of all command over their own property,- by
cafting the pofleffions of each individual into a common
ftock, to be diftributed by proper ofiicers, as occafion re-
quired. After this fequeftration of their goods, they lived
together on the footing of perfetl equality, and fat down
together daily at a common table. If any one afterwards
repented of the conneftion, he was at hberty to depart, and
might reclaim, from the genera! fund, his whole contribution.
That his difciples might acquire a habit of entire docility,
Pythagoras enjoined upon them, from their firft admiflion,
a long term of filence, called f;^Efii/5ir,. This initiatory
filence, which probably confifted in refraining from fpeech,
not only during the hours of inftruftion, but through the
vi'hole term of initiation, continued from two to five years,
according to the propenfity difcovered by the pupil towards
conceit and loquacity. With regard to hinifelf, this was a
judicious expedient, as it checked impertinent curiofity, and
prevented every inconvenience of contradiftion. Accord-
ingly his difciples filenced all doubts and refuted all ob-
1 1 jeftions,

X I M. 1.*. ^A. K^ \_/ Xl/ iji A*, i^ k3«

jcftions, by appealing to liis authority. A'jIo,- s?^, /yj/f
^;'x;V, decided every difpute. Moreover, during the years
of initiation, the difciples were prohibited from feeing their
malter, or hearing his leftures, except from behind a curtain,
or receiving inllrndlion from fome inferior preceptor.

To the members of the efoteric fehool (who were called
ywOTioi ofiAslai, genuine difciples) belonged the peculiar pri-
vilege of receiving a full explanation ot the whole doftrine
of Pythagoras, which was delivered to others in brief pre-
cepts and dogmas, under the concealment of fymbols.
Difciples of this clafs were permitted to take minutes of
their matter's leftures, in writing, as well as to propofe
queitions, and offer remarks, upon every fubjeft of difcourfe.
Thefe were particularly dilUnguifhed by the appellation of
the " Pythagoreans ;" they were alfo called " Mathema-
ticians," from the lludies upon vrhich they entered imme-
diately after their initiation. After having made a fuffi-
cient progrefs in geometrical fcience, they proceeded to the
ftudy of nature, the inveftigation of primary principles, and
the knowledge of God. Thofe who purfued thefe fublime
fpeculations were called " Theorills," and thofe who de-
voted themfelves more particularly to theology, were ftylcd
(7E(Sarixoi, religious. Others, according to their abilities and
inclinations, were engaged in the lludy of morals, economics,
and policy ; and were afterwards employed in managing the
atfairs of the fraternity, or fent into the cities of Greece, to
iallruCt them in the principles of government, or adilt them
in the inilitution of laws.

The brethren of the Pythagorean college at Crotona,
called v.ijwf3.ov, coeiiol'iuin, about 6oo in number, lived toge-
ther as in one family, with their wives and children ; and
the whole bufinefs of the fociety was conduced with the
moil pcrfeft regularity. Every day commenced with deli-
beration upon the manner in which it fhould be fpent ; and
concluded with a retrofpedt of the events that had occurred,
and of the bufinefs that had been tranfafted. They rofe
before the fun, that they might pay him homage ; after
which they repeated feleft verfes from Homer and other
poets, and made ufeof mufic, both vocal and inftrumental,
to enliven their fpirits and fit them for the bufinefs of the
day. They then employed feveral hours in the ftudy of
fcience. Thefe were fucceeded by an interval of leifure,
which was commonly fpent in a folitary walk for the pur-
pofe of contemplation. The next portion of the day was
allotted to convcrfation. The hour immediately before
dinner was filled up with various kinds of athletic exer-
cifes. Their dinner confifted chiefly of bread, honey, and
water ; for after they were perfeftly initiated, they wholly
denied themfelves the ule of wine. The remainder of the
day was devoted to civil and doineftic affairs, converfation,
bathing, and religious ceremonies.

The " exoteric" difciples of Pythagoras were taught,
after the Egyptian manner, by images and fymbols, ob-
fcure and almolt unintelligible to thofe who were not initiated
into the myfteries of the fehool ; and thofe who were ad-
mitted to this privilege were under the flri£left obligation of
fdence with regard to the recondite doftrines of their mafter.
The wifdom of Pythagoras, that it might not pafs into the
ears of the vulgar, was committed chiefly to memory ; and
when they found it neceifary to make ufe ot writing, they
took care not to fuffer their minutes to pafs beyond the limits
of the fehool.

Clemens obferves, that the two orders above defcribed

correfponded very exaftly to thofe among the Hebrews ;

/ for in the fchools of the prophets there were two clafles,

viz. the fons of the prophets, who were the fcholars ; and

the doiSors or mailers, who were alfo called perfedi ; and
among the Levites, the novices or tyros, who had their
quinquennial exercifes, by way of preparation. Laftly,
<-ven among the proielytes there were two orders ; exoterici,
or profelytes of the gate ; and tnlrinfeci or pcrfcdi, profe-
lytes of the covenant. He adds, it is highly probable, that
Pythagoras himfelf had been a profelyte of the gate, if not
of the covenant.

Gale endeavours to prove, that Pythagoras borrowed
his philofophy from that of the Jev/s ; to this end pro-
ducing the authorities of many of the lathers, and ancient
authors ; and even pointing out the tracks and footfteps of
Mofcs in feveral parts of Pythagoras's dodtrine.

After the diilolution of the affembly of Pythagori^'s
difciples by tlie faftion of Cylo, a man of wealth and oif-
tinftion at Crotona, it was thought neceffary by Lyfis and
Archippus, in order to preferve the Pythagorean doftrine
from oblivion, to reduce it to a fyllematic fummary ; at the
fame time, however, ftrongly enjoining their children to
preferve thefe memoirs fecret, and to tranfmit them in con-
fidence to their pollerity. From this time books began to
multiply amon'4 the followers of Pythagoras, till at length,
in the time of Plato, Philolaus expofed the Pythagorean
records to fale, and Archytas of Tarentum gave Plato a
copy of his commentaries upon the aphorifms and precepts
of his mailer. Of the imperfeft records of the Pythagorean
philofophy left by Lyfis, Archytas, and others, nothing
has efcaped the wreck of time, except perhaps fundry frag-
ments collefted by the dihgenceof Stobsus, concerning the
authenticity of which there are fome grounds for fufpicion ;
and which, if admitted as genuine, will only exhibit an ira-
perfeft view of the moral and political doctrine of Pytha-
goras under the difguife of fynibolical and enigmatical lan-
guage. The ftrift injunftion of fecrecy, which was given
by oath to the initiated Pythagoreans, has effeftually pre-
vented any original records of their dodlrine concerning
Nature and God from palfmg down to pollerity. On this
head we are to rely entirely for information, and indeed
concerning the whole doftrine of Pythagoras, upon Plato
and his followers. Plato himfelf, while he enriched his
fyilem with llores from the magazine of Pythagoras, ac-
commodated the Pytliagorean dodlrines, as he alfo did thofe
of his mailer Socrates, to his own fyilem, and thus gave an
imperfect, and, we may fuppofe, in many particulars, a
falfe reprefentation of the dodrines of the Samian philo-
fopher. It was farther corrupted by the followers of Plato,
even in the old academy, and afterwards in the Alexandrian
fehool. To which we may add, that the doftrine of Pytha-
goras itfelf, probably in its original ftate, and certainly in
every form under which it has been tranfmitted to us, was
obfervcd, not only by fymbolical, but by mathematical lan-
guage, which is rather adapted to perplex than to illuftrate
metaphyfical conceptions. In this fault Pythagoras was
afterwards imitated by Plato, Adftotle, and others.

We extraft from Brucker the following faint delineation
of the Pythagorean philofophy : The end of philofophy is
to free the mind from thofe incumbrances, which hinder its
progrefs towards perfeftion, and to raife it to the con-
templation of immutable truth, and the knowledge of divine
and fpiritual objeds. This efteft muil be produced by eafy
Iteps, left: the mind, hitherto converfant only with fenfible
things, (hould revolt at the change. The firft; ftep towards
wifdom is the ftudy of mathematics, a fcience which con-
templates objetls that lie in the middle way between cor-
poreal and incorporeal beings, and as it were on the confines
of both, and which moft advantageoufly inures the mind to
R 2 contemplation.

PYTHAGOREANS.

contemplation. The wliole courfe of mathematical fcicnce
may be dividcil into four parts : two refpefting numbers,
and two re fpcd'ting magnitude. Number may be confidcred
either abllradtedly in itfelf, or as applied to fome oljjttt.
The former fcicnce is arithmetic ; of the latter kind is mufic.
Magnitude may be confidered as at reft, or as in motion ;
the fcicnce which treats of the former is geometry, that
wliich treats of the latter is ailronomy.

Arithm.etic ii. the Boblell fcience ; numbers the firft ob-
jeft of ftudy, and a perfeft acquaintance with numbers the
higheft good. Numbers are either fcicntific or intelligible.

Sci-'ntific number is the produftion of tiie powers in-
volved in unity, or the progreflion of multitude from the
monad or unity, and its return to the fame. Unily and one
are to be diftinguidied from each other ; the former being
an abftraft conception, the latter belonging to things ca-
pable of being numbered. Number it not infinite, but is
the fource of that infinite divifibility into equal parts, which
is the property of all bodies.

Intelligible numbers are thofe which fubfiikd in the di-
vine mind before all things, from which everything hatli
received its form, and which always remain immutably the
fame. It is the model, or archetype, after which the world,
in all its parts, is framed. Numbers are the caufe of eficiice
to beings : tk-: Kjivf/t-; kitix; uvai tk; aVtaf.

The monad, or unity, is that quantity, which, being de-
prived of all number, remains fixed : whence called monad,
from TK iJ.mu It IS the fountain of all number. The duad
is imperfeft and pafTive, and the caufe of increafe and divi-
fion. The triad, compofed of the monad and duad, par-
takes of tlie nature of both. The tetrad, tetraftys, or
quaternion number, is the moll perfeft. The decad, which
is the fum of the four former, comprehends all arithmetical
and mufical proportions.

According to fome writers, the monad denotes the attive
principle in nature, or God ; the duad, the paflive prin-
ciple, or matter ; the triad, the world formed by the union
of the two former ; and the tetratlys, the perfedion of na-
ture. Some have underitood by this myfterious number,
thai four elements; others, the four faculties of the human
mind ; others, the four cardinal virtues ; and others have
been fo abfurd as to fuppofe that Pythagoras made ufe of
this number to exprefs the name of God, in reference to the
word n"in'> by which that name is expreffed in the Hebrew
language. But every attempt to unfold this myftery has
hitherto been uniucceisful.

The molt probable explanation of the Pythagoric doc-
trine of numbers is, that they were ufed as fyrabolical or
emblematical reprelcntatiom; of the firft principles and forms
of nature, and particularly of thofe eternal and immutable
elfences, to which Plato afterwards gave the appellation of
ideas. Not being able, or not chufing, to explain in fimple
language the abftraft notions of principles and forms, Py-
thagoras feems to have made ufe of numbers, as geometri-
cians make ufe of diagrams, to aiTift the conceptions of
fcholars. More particularly, conceiving fome analogy be-
tween numbers and the intelligent forms which fubfift in the
divine mind, he made the former a fymbol of the latter.
As numbers proceed from unity, or the monad, as a fimple
root, whence they branch out into various combinations,
and affnme new properties in their progrefs, fo he con-
ceived the different forms of nature to recede, at different
diftances, from their common fource, the pure and fimple
effence of deity, and at every degree of diftance to afiume
certain properties in fome meafure analogous to thofe of
number ; and hence he concluded, that the origin of things,

their emanation from the firft being, and their fubfequeiit
progreflion through various orders, if not capable of a per-
fedtly cleir explanation, might, however, be illuftrated by
'Symbols and refemblances borrowed from numbers.

Next to numbers, mufic had the chief place in tiie pre-
paratory exercifes of the Pythagorean fchool, by means of
which the mind was to be raifed above the dominion of the
pafiions, and inured to contemplation. Pythagoras con-
fidered mufic, not only as an art to be judged of by the ear,
but as a fcience to be reduced to mathematical principles
ar.d proportions. We have introduced, under the article
PvTHA(X)RAs, the manner in which he is faid to have dif-
govered the mufical chords, but fhall here fubjoin a more
minute account. As Pythagoras was one day refledting upon
the fubjeft, happening to pafs by a fmith's forge, where fe-
veral men were fucceflively ftriking with tiieir hammers a
piece of heated iron upon an anvil, he remarked, that all the
founds produced by their llrokes were harmonious except
one. The founds, which he obferved to be chords, were
the oftave, the fifth, and the third ; but that found which
he perceived to lie between the third and the fifth he found
to be difcordant. Going into the work-fiiop, he obferved,
that the diverfity of founds arofe, not from the form of the
hammers, nor from the force with which they were ftruck,
nor from the pofition of the iron, but merely from the dif-
ference of weight in the hammers. Taking, therefore, the
exaft weight of the feveral hammers, he went home, and
fufpended four itrings of the fame fubilance, length, and
thicknefs, and twifted in the fame degree, and hung a
weight at tl e lower end of each, refpedlively equal to the
weight of the hammers : upon ftriking the ftrings, he found,
that the mufical chords of the ftrings correfp<inded with
thofe of the hammers. Hence it is faid, that he proceeded
to form a mufical fcale, and to conftruft Itringed inftru-
ments. His fcale was, after his death, engraved in brafs,
and preferved in the temple of Juno at Samos.

Pythagoras conceived that the celeftial Spheres in which
the planets move, ftriking upon the sether through which
they pafs, muft produce a found ( and that this found miift
vary, according to the diverfity of their magnitude, velo-
city, and relative diftance. Taking it for granted, that
every thing refpetling the heavenly bodies is adjufted with
perfeft regularity, he further imagined, that all the circum-
ftanccs ncceffary to render the founds produced by their
motion harmonious, were fixed in fuch exact proportions,
that the moit perfect harmony is produced by their revolu-
tions. This fanciful dodtrine refpecting the mufic of the
fpheres gave rife to the names which Pythagoras applied to
mufical tones. The laft note in the mufical odtave he called
hypatc, becaufe he fuppofed the fphere of Saturn, the higheft;
planet, to give the deepeft tone ; and the higheft note he
called mate, from the fphere of the moon, which being the
loweft, or nearefl the earth, he imagined, produced the
fhrilleft found. In like manner of the reft. It was faid of
Pythagoras by his followers, who hefitated at no afiertion,
however improbable, which might feem to exalt their maf-
ter's fame, that he was the only mortal fo far favoured by
the gods as to be permitted to hear the celeftial mufic of the
fpheres. Pythagoras applied mufic to the cure of difeafes
both bodily and mental. It was, as we have feen, the cuf-
tom of his fchool, to compofe their minds for reft in the
evening, and to prepare themfelves for adtion in the morn-
ing, by fuitable airs, which they performed upon the lute,
or other ftringed initruments. The mufic was, however,
always accompanied with verfe, fo that it may be doubted,
whether the effedl was to be afcribed more to the mufician

PYTHAGOREANS.

or to the poet. It is faid of Clinius, a Pythagorean, that
whenever he perceived himfelf inclined to anger, fpleen, or
other reftlefs paflions, he took up his lute, and that it never
failed to rcftore the tranquillity of his mind. Of Pytlia-
goras himfelf it is related, that he checked a young man,
who, in the midll of his revels, was meditating fome aft of
Bacchanalian madnefs, by ordcrnig the mufician, who had
inflamed liis paflions by Phrygian airs, to change the mufic
on a ludden into the (low and folemn Doric mood. If the
llories which ar» related by the ancients concerning the
wonderful effefts of their mufic are to be credited, we mud
acknowledge wc are ftrangers to the method by which thefe
effefts were produced.

Befides arithmetic and mufic, Pythagoras cultivated geo-
metry, which he had learned in Egypt ; but he greatly im-
proved it, by inveiligating many new theorems, and by
digelling its principles, in an order more perfeftly fyfte-
niatical than had before been done. Several Grecians,
about the time of Pythagoras, applied themfelves to matiie-
matical learning, particularly Thales in Ionia. But Py-
thagoras feems to have done more than any other philo-
fopher of this period towards reducing geometry to a regular
fcience. His definition of a point is, a monad or unity
with pofition. He taught that a geoinetrical point cor-
refponds to unity in arithmetic, a line to two, a fuper-
ficies to three, a folid to four. Of the geometrical theo-
rems afcribed to Pythagoras, the following are the prin-
cipal : that the interior angles of every triangle are together
equal to two right angles ; that the only polygons which
will fill up the whole fpace about a given point, are the
equilateral triangle, the iquare, and the hexagon ; the firft
to be taken fix times, the fecond four times, and the third
three times ; and that, in reftangular triangles, the fquare
of the fide which fubtends the right angle is equal to the
two fquares of the fides which contain the right angle.
Upon the invention of this latter propofition ( Euclid, 1. i.
prop. 47.), Plutarch fays, that Pythagoras offered an ox,
others, an hecatomb, to the gods. But this ftory is thought
by Cicero inconfiftent with the inttitutions of Pythagoras,
which, as he fuppofes, did not admit of animal facrifices.
Pythagoras inferred the flature of Hercules from the length
of the O'lympic courfe, which meafured fix hundred of his
feet. Obferving how much fhorter a courfe fix hundred
times the length of the foot of an ordinary-fized man was
than the Olympic courfe, he inferred, by the law of pi'o-
portion, the length of Hercules's foot ; whence the ufual
proportion of the length of the foot to the height of a man
enabled him to determine the problem. Pythagoras alfo
applied geometrical ideas as fymbolical expreffions of bodies,
and of natural principles ; but nothing certain, or intel-
ligible, is preferved on this head.

On altronomy, the doftrine of Pythagoras, or, however,
of the ancient Pythagoreans, was as follows :

The term heaven either denotes the fphere of the fixed
ftars, or the whole fpace between the fixed flars and the
moon, or the whole world, including both the celellial
fphcres and the earth. There are ten celeftial fpheres, nine

but is one of thofe planets which make their revolution
about the fphere of fire. The revolution of Saturn is com-
pleted in thirty years, that of .lupiter in twenty, that of
Mars in two, that of the Sun, and of Mercury and Venus,
in one year. The dillance of tlic feveral celeftial fpheres
from the earth correfpond to the proportion of notes in the
mufical fcale. The moon and other planetary globes are
habitable. The earth is a globe, which admits of anti-
podes.

From feveral of thefe particulars refpefting the aftro-
nomical doftrine of Pythagoras, it has been inferred, that
he was pofielled of the true idea of the folar fyftem, which
wai revived by Copernicus, and has fince been fully cfta-
bliflied by Newton.

From this preparatory (ludy the difciples of the Pytha-
gorean fcliool were condufted to the knowledge of natural,
theological, and moral fcience. Concerning wifdom, in
general, Pythagoras taught, that it is the fcience which is
converfaiit with thofe objefts, which are in their nature im-
mutable, eternal, and incorruptible, and therefore alone can
properly be faid to exift. The man who applies himfelf to
this kind of lludy is a philofopher. The end of philofophy
is, that the human mind may, by fuch contemplation, be
afiTimilated to the divine, and at length be qualified to join
the affembly of the gods. In the purfuit of wifdom, the
utmoft care muft be taken to raife the mind above the do-
minion of the paflions, and the influence of fenfible objefts,
and to difengage it from all corporeal imprelfions, that it
may be inured to converfe with itfelf, and to contemplate
things fpiritual arfd divine. For this purpofe the afliftance
of God, and of good daemons, muft be invoked by prayer.
Philofophy, as it is converfant with fpeculative truth, or with
tlie rules of human conduft, is either theoretical or praftical.
Praftical philofophy is only to be ftudied fo far as may be
nccellary for the purpofes of life ; theoretical philofophy is
the perfeftion of wifdom. Contemplative vs-ifdom cannot
be completely attained, without a total abftraftion from the
ordinary affairs of life, and a perfeft tranquillity and free-
dom of mind. Hence the neceffity of inftituting a fociety,
feparated from the world, for the purpofe of contemplation
and ftudy.

Aftive or moral philofophy, which prefcribes rules and
precepts for the conduft of life, according to Ariftotle, was
firft taught by Pythagoras, and after his death by Socrates.
Among the moral maxims and precepts afcribed to Pytha-
goras are the following :

Virtue is divided into two branches, private and public.
Private virtue refpefts education, filence, abftinence from
animal food, fortitude, fobriety, and prudence. The
powers of the mind are reafon and pafiion ; and when the
latter is preferved in fubjeftion to the former, virtue is pre-
valent. Young perfons fhould be inured to fubjeftion, that
they may always find it eafy to fubmit to the authority of
reafon. Let them be condufted into the beft courfe of life,
and habit will foon render it the moft pleafrnt. Silence is
better than idle words. A wife man will prepare himfelf for
every thing which is not in his own power. Do v\hat you

iA which aVe vifible to us ; namely, that of the fixed ftars, judge to be right, whatever the vulgar may think of you ;
thofe of the feven planets, and that of the earth ; the tenth if you delpife their praife, dcfpife alfo their cenfure. It is

is the antichthon, or an invifible fphere oppofite to the
earth, which is necellary to complete the harmony of nature,
as the decad is the completion of numerical harmony. And
this antichthon may be the caufe of the greater number of
the eclipfes of the fun than of the moon. Fire holds the
middle place in the univerfe ; or, in the midft cf the four
elements is placed the fiery globe of unity ; the earth is not
without motioD, nor fituated in the centre of the fpheres,

7

inconfiftent with fortitude to relinquifh the ilation appointed
by the Supreme Lord, before we obtain his permiftion.
Sobriety is the ftrength of the foul, for it preferves its rea-
fon unclouded by pafiion. No man ought to be cilcemed
free, who has not the perfeft command of himfelf. Drun-
kennels is a temporary phrenfy. That which is good and
becoming is rather to be purfued, than that which is plea-
faiit. Tlic defire of fuperfluity is foolifti, becaufe it knows

no

PYTHAGOREANS.

no limits. All aniraal pleafures (liould rather be poftponed,
than enjoyed before their time ; and fhoiild only be enjoyed
according to nature, and with fobriety. Much forethoiiglit
and difcretion is necelTary in the produftion and education
of children. Wifdom and virtue are our bcft defence ;
every other guard is weak and unliable. It requires much
wifdom to give right names to things.

Concerning public virtue, the dodlrine of Pythagoras, as
it is tranbnitted to the prclent time, refpcfts converfation,
friendlhip, religious wordiip, reverence to the dead, and
legiflation. Upon thefe heads he is faid to have taught
thus :

Converfation (liould be adapted to the charaflers and
condition of tlic perfons with whom we convcrfe : that dif-
courfe and behaviour, which might be proper among young
perfon's, may be exceedingly improper between the young
and aged. Propriety and feafonablenefs are the firii things
to be regarded in converfation. In all fociety, a due re-
gard muft be had to fubordination. Refpeft is due to a
worthy llransjer, fometime.; in preference even to country,
men or relations. It is better that thofe who converfe with
you fhould refpeft you, than that they (hould fear you ;
for refpeft produces admiration, but fear produces hatred.
It is an evident proof of a good education, to be able to
endure the want of it in others. Between friends, the ut-
moft care fliould be taken to avoid contention, which can
only be done by fhunning as' much as poflible all occafions
of ftrife, fupprefling refcntment, and exercifing mutual fi;r-
bearance. Reproof and correflion are ufeful and becoming
from the elder to the younger ; efpecially when they are
accompanied, on the part of the reprover, with evident
tokens of affeftion.

Mutual confidence is never for a moment to be inter-
rupted between friends, whether in jell or earncft ; for no-
thing can heal the wounds which are made by deceit. A
friend muft never be forfakeo in adverfity, nor for any in-
firmity in human nature, excepting only invincible obftinacy
and depravity. Before we abandon a friend, we fhould en-
deavour, by aAions as well as words, to reclaim him. True
friendfhip is a kind of union which is immortal.

The defign and object of all moral precepts is to lead
men to the imitation of God. Since the Deity direfts all
things, every good thing is to be fought for from him
alone ; and nothing is to be done which is contrary to his
pleafure. Whilft we are performing divine rites, piety
fhould dwell in the mind. The gods are to be worfhipped
not under fuch images as reprcfent the forms of men, but
by fuch fymbols as are fuitable to their nature, by fimple
hiftrations and offerings, and with purity of heart. Gods
and heroes are to be worfhipped with different degrees of
homage, according to their nature. Oaths are in no cafe
to be violated.

The bodies of the dead are not to be burned. Next to
gods and doemons, the higheft reverence is due to parents
and Icgillators ; and the laws and cuftoms of our country
are to be religioufly obferved. — Thus much concerning the
aftive or moral philofophy of Pythagoras.

Theoretical philofophy, which treats of nature and its
origin, was the higheft objeft of ftudy of the Pythagorean
fchool, and included all thofe profound myfteries, which
thofe, who have been ambitious to report what Pythagoras
faid behind the curtain, have endeavoured to unfold. Upon
this fubjeft, nothing can be advanced with certainty, efpe-
cially refpcfting theology, the doftrine of which, Pytha-
goras, after the manner of the Egyptian priefts, was pe-
culiarly careful to hide under the veil of fymbols, probably
thtough fear of diflurbing the popular fnpcrilitions. The

ancients have not, iiowever, left us without fome grounds
of conjcfture.

With refpeft to God, Pythagoras appears to have
taught, that he is the Univerfal Mind, diffufed through all
things, the fource of all animal life, the proper and intrinfic
caufe of all motion, in fubftance fimilar to light, in nature
like truth, the firft principle of the univcrfe, incapable of
pain, invifible, incorruptible^ and only to be comprehended
by the mind.

Cicero (Nat. Deor. 1. i. c. 12.) afferts, that Pythagoras
conceived God to be a foul pervading all nature, of whicli
every human foul is a portion : and this doctrine was per-
feftly confbnant to the opinions received in the countries
which Pythagoras vifited, and where he learned theology.
.Juftin Martyr (Orat. ad Gentes) cxprefsly ranks Pytha-
goras among the theiftical philofophers. " If any one," fay»
he, " wiflies to be informed more accurately concerning the
doftrine of Pythagoi-as with refpeft to one God, let him
hear his opinion, for he fays, God is one : he is not, as
fome conjcfture, exterior to the world, but, in himfelf en-
tire, pervades the univerfal fphere, fuperintcnds all pro-
duftions, is the fupport of all nature, eternal, the fource of
all power, the firfl fimple principle of all things, the origin
of ccleftial light, the father of all, the mind and animating
principle of the univerfe, the firft mover of all the fpheres."
From a variety of pafTages that might be cited, we may
reafonably infer, that Pythagoras conceived the Deity to
be the informing foul of the world, animating it in a man-
ner limilar to that in which the human foul animates the body.

Subordinate to the Deity, it was taught in the Italic
fchool, that there are three orders of intelligence, gods,
dsjmons, heroes, who are diftlnguifhed by their refpeftive
degrees of excellence and dignity, and by the nature of the
homage which is due to them ; gods being to be preferred
in honour to demi-gods or dxmoKs, and dsemons to heroes
or men. Thefe three orders, in the Pythagorean fyftem,
were emanations, at different degrees of proximity, from
the fnpreme intelligence, the particles of fubtle ether af-
fuming a groffer clothing the farther they receded from the
fountain. The third order, or heroes, were fuppofed to be
inverted with a fubtle material clothing. Hierocles defines
a hero to be a rational mind united with a luminous body.
If to thefe three fpecies we add a fourth, the human mind,
we have the whole fcale of divine emanation, as it was con-
ceived by this feft of philofophers. All thefe they imagined
to proceed from God, as the firft fource of intelhgence,
and to have received from him a pure, fimple, immutable
nature. God, being himfelf one, and the origin of all di-
verfity, they reprefented him under the notion of monad,
and fubordinate intelligences, as numbers derived and in-
cluded in unity. Thus the numbers or derived intelligences
of Pythagoras agree with the ideas of Plato, except, per-
haps, that the latter were of a nature perfectly fpiritual,
but the former were clothed with a fubtle etherial body.

The region of the air was fuppofed by the Pythagoreans
to be full of fpirits, dcemons, or heroes, who caufe fick-
nefs or health to man or beaft, and communicate, at their
pleafure, by means of dreams, and other inftruments of di-
vination, the knowledge of future events. That Pytha-
goras himfelf held this opinion cannot be doubted, if it be
true, as his biographers relate, that he profefTed to cure
difeafes by incantations. It is probable that he derived it
from the Egyptians, among whom it was believed that
many difeafes were caufed by demoniacal poffeffions.

The material world, according to Pythagoras, was pro-
duced by the energy of the divine intelligence. It is an .
animated fphere, beyond which is a perfedl vacuum. It

contains

P Y T

P Y T

contains fpheres, whicli revolve witli mufical harmony.
The atmofpherc of the earth is a grofs, immutable, and
morbid mafs ; but the air, or ether, which ("urrouiids it is
pure, healthful, ferene, perpetually moving, the region of
all divine and immortal natures. The fun, moon, and ftars,
are inhabited by portioiis of the divinity, or gods. The
fun is a fpherical body. Its cclipfes are caufed by the
paffing of the moon between it and the earth ; thofe of the
moon by the intervention of the antlcbll)on, before explained.
The moon is inhabited by daemons. Comets are ftars,
which are not always feen, but rife at Itated periods.

Concerning man, the Pythagoreans taught, that, con-
fifting of an elementary nature, and a divine or rational
principle, he is a microcofm, or compendium of the uni-
verfe ; that his foul is a felf-moving principle, compofcd of
two parts, the ititlonal, which is a portion of the foul of the
world, feated in the brain, and the irrational, which in-
cludes the paffions, and is feated in the heart ; that man
participates in both thefe with the brutes, which, from the
temperament of their body, and their want of the power of
fpeech, are incapable of a(iting rationally ; that the fenfitive
foul, hvjj-t,-, perilhes, but the rational mind, C^v.; is im-
mortal, becaufe the fource whence it is derived is immortal ;
that after the rational mind is freed from the chains of the
body, it affumes an ethereal vehicle, and pades into the
regions of the dead, where it remains till it is fent back to
this world, to be the inhabitant of fome other body, brutal
or human ; and that after fuffering fucceffive purgations,
when it is fufficiently purified, it is received among the
gods, and returns to the eternal fource from which it firft
proceeded.

The doftrine of the Pythagoreans, refpefting the nature
of brute animals, and i-nTiiJi-if\jxi<r\;, the trnnfm'tgvation of
fouls, were the foundation of their abftinence from animal
food, and of the exclufion of animal facnfices from their
religious ceremonies. The latter doftrine is thus beauti-
fully reprefented by Ovid, who introduces Pythagoras as
faying :

" Morte carent animx : femperque priore relifta
Sede, novis domibus habitant, vivuntque receptie.
Omnia mutantur ; nihil interit ; errat et ilHnc,
Hue venit, hinc illuc, et quoflibet occupet artus
Spiritus, eque ferio humana in corpora tranfit,
Inque *"eras nofter : nee tempore dcperit uUo,
Utque novis fragilis fignatur cera figuris.
Nee manet ut fuerat, nee formas fervat eafdem,
Sed tam/n ipfa eadem eft, animam fic femper eandem,
Effe, fed in varias doceo migrare figuras."

" What then is death, but ancient matter drell
In fome new figure, and a varied veft :
Thus all things are but alter'd, nothing dies ;
And here and there th" unbodied fpirit flies,
By time, or force, or ficknefs difpoflefs'd.
And lodges where it lights, in man or beail: ;
Or hunts without, till ready limbs it find.
And actuates thofe according to their kind ;
From tenement to tenement is toft.
The foul is ftill the fame, the figure only loft :
And as the foften'd wax new feals receives.
This face alluir.es, and that impreflion leaves ;
Now call'd by one, now by another name.
The form is only chang'd, the wax is flill the fame ;
So death, thus call'd, can but the form deface, T
Th' immortal foul flies out in empty fpace, >

To feek her fortune in fome other place." J

Dhyden

This doArine Pythagoras probably learned m Egypt,
where it was commonly taught. Nor is there any fufficient
i-eafon for underftanding it, as fome have done, fym-
bolically.

Among the f)TTibols of Pythagoras, recited by Jam-
blichus and others, are the following : Adore the found of
the whifpering wind. Stir not the fire with a fword.
Turn afide from an edged tool. Pafs not over a balance.
Setting out on a journey, turn not back, for the furies will
return with you. Breed nothing that hath crooked talons.
Receive not a fwallow into your lioufe. Look not in a
mirror by the liglit of a candle. At a facrificc, pare not
your nails. Eat not the heart, or brain. Tafte not that
which hath fallen from the table. Break not bread. Sleep
not at noon. When it thunders, touch the earth. Pluck
not a crown. Roaft not that which has been boiled. Sail
not on the ground. Plant not a palm. Breed a cock, but
do not facrifice it, for it is facred to the fun and moon.
Plant mallows in thy garden, but eat them not. Abftaii.
from beans.

The precept prohibiting the ufe of beans, is one of the
myfteries which the ancient Pythagoreans never difclofcd,
and which modern ingenuity has in vain attempted to dif-
cover. Its meaning was probably rather dietetic, than
phyfical, or moral. But enough of thefe enigmatical
trifles. Pythagorean precepts of more value are fuch as
thefe : Difcourfe not of Pythagorean dottrines without
light. Above all things govern your tongue. Engrave
not the image of God in a ring. Quit not your ftation
without the command of your general. Remember that
the paths of virtue and of vice refemble the letter Y. To
this fymbol Perfius refers, when he fays,

" Et tibi qua Samios diduxit litera ramos,
Surgentem dextro monftravit limite coUem."

" There has the Samian Y's inftruftive make
Pointed the road thy doubtful foot (hould take ;
There warn'd thy raw and yet unpraftis'd youth,
To tread the rifing right-hand path of truth."

Brucker's Hift. Philof. by Enfield, vol. i. b. 2. c. 12.

After the death of Pythagoras, the care and education
of his children, and the charge of his fchool, devolved upon
Ariftasus of Crotonia, who, having taught the doftrine of
Pythagoras 39 years, was fucceeded by Mnefarchus, the
fon of Pythagoras. Pythagorean fchools were afterwards
condutled in Heraclia by Clinias and Philolaus ; at Meta-
pontum by Theorides and Eurytus ; and at Tarentum by
Archytas, who is faid to have been the eighth in fucceflioa
from Pythagoras. The firft perfon who divulged the Pytha-
gorean doftrine was Philolaus ; fee his article.

PYTHAGORIC Abacilv. See Abacus and Table.

Pythagoric Se8, or Italic School. See Pythago-
reans.

Pytiiagoric TetraHys. See Tetractys.

Pytiiagoric Theorem, or Propofttlon, is the 47th of the
firft book of Euclid. See Triangle and Hvi'othe-

NUSE.

PYTHEAS, in Biography, an ancient mathematician,
aftronomer, and geographer, was a native of the Greek
colony of Marfeilles, in Gaul, and flouriflied m the time of
Ariftotle and Alexander the Great. He contributed to
the improvement ®f fcience by accounts which he wrote of
his travels and voyages, and other works. To him is at-
tributed a book, entitled yr,; ^.^lijc., or the circuit of the
earth ; and in the abridgement of Artcmidorus the Ephefian,
he is placed in the number of thofe v.ho have written a

" Periplu?

P Y T

P Y T

" Pcriplus.of the World;" and he is fiippofed to have
written a treatifc " De Oceano :" none of tliefe pieces
have reached modern times, thoujrh fome of them were ex-
tant in the fourth century. From fragments collected out
of Strabo, it appears that Pytheas introduced into them,
as the teftimony of others, a number of marvellous and in-
credible circumllances, wliich drew on him the cenfure of
that author and Polybius. The latl named author main-
tained it to be utterly impofTible for a private perfon, who
was even in want, to have travelled fo far as he pretended
to have done by fea and land. He, however, probably
vifited all the countries of Europe that are fitualed upon
the ocean, difcovered the ifland of Thule, or Iceland, and
penetrated a confiderable diilance into the Baltic. This
fad has been proved by GaiTendi, who fliews, that Pytheas
was well acquainted with the northern countries, and accu-
rately marked the dillinftion of chmates, by the diiTerence
which he obferved in the length of the days and nights in
different latitudes. He alfo attempts to prove that Eratof-
thenes and Hipparchus improved their geographical works
by availing themfelves of the labours of Pytheas, without
due acknowledgments of their obligations. There is no
doubt that Pytheas was a ilcilful obferver of the heavens,
for he taught that there is no itar in the precife fituation of
the pole, and he rendered himfelf famous among aftro-
nomers, by being the firil calculator of the meridian alti-
tude of the fun at the fummer folftice at Marfeilles. This
fatt he afcertained by erefting a gnomon of a given height,
and finding the proportion between that height and the
length of the meridian fliadow. The refult was found to
correfpond exaftly with that of an obfervation made by
Gaffendi, at the fame place, in the year 1636. To obviate
fuch objections as that advanced by Polybius agaiaft the
reality of Pytheas' voyages, it has been faid, that he pro-
bably was furnilhed with the means of profecuting them at
the public expence. For as the republic of Marfeilles was
then powerful at fea, largely engaged in commercial purfuits,
and fent Euthymenes to make fuch difcoveries in the
fouthern parts of the world, as might lead to the extenfion
of its trade, it feems very probable, that Pytheas was dif-
patched on the public account into the northern regions for
the fame purpofes.

PYTHEUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Mace-
donia, in the country of the Pelafgioites. Ptolemy places
it between Azorium and Gonnus.

PYTHIA, or Pythian, in Antiquity, the prieltefs of
Apollo, by whom he delivered oracles. See Delphos.

She was thus called from the god himfelf, who was en-
titled Apollo Pythhis, from his flaying the ferpent Python ;
or, as others will have it, axo in T^vfJuj-ioci, becaufe Apollo,
the fun, is the caufe of rottennefs ; or becauie the carcafe
of Python was left there to putrefy ; or, according to
others, from -otuvOxvo/^iki, / enquire, becaufe people went
to hear and confult his oracles.

This prieftefs was to be a pure virgin. She fat on the
covercle, or lid, of a brazen vellel, mounted on a tripod ;
before fhe afccnded which, after falling three days, file ufed
to wafh her whole body, and efpecially her hair, in Caftalio,
a fountain at the foot of Parnaffus, where the poets, men
infpired by the fame deity, ufed to wafli, and drink ; and
thence, after ihaking the laurel-tree that grew by it, and
fometimes eating the leaves, which were fuppofed to con-
duce to infpiration, and were fucceeded by a violent enthu-
fiafm, flie delivered her oracles, or rather explained thofe
of the god ; i. e. (he rehearfed a few ambiguous and ob-
fcure verfes, which were taken for oracles. The oracle
being pronounced, fhe was taken down from the tripod and

conduftcd back to her cell, where {he continued for feveral
days, to recover herfelf from the violent agitation and con-
fiift. Lucan informs us, that fpeedy death was frequenll)
tue confequence of her enthuliafm. See Oracle.

Diodorus Siculus (lib. xvi.) informs us, that thefe
priellelles were at firfl virgins, but that after one of them
was deflowered by Echecrates, a Theflalian, choice was
made of women above fifty years of age ; that fo they
might either be fecurcd from the attempts of luft, or if
they (hould at any time be forced to the violation of their
chaftity, having pafled the time of cliild-bearing, they
might remain undifcovered, and not bring the oracles or
religion into contempt ; neverthelefs they wore the habit
of virgins, thereby to fignify their purity and virginal mo-
deity.

'An the Pythia; did not feem to have had the fame talent
at poetry, or to have memory enough to retain their leflon.

Plutarch and Strabo make mention of poets, who wej •
kept in pay, as interpreters of Jupiter, &c.

PvTHiA, or Pythian Games, were folemn games in-
flituted in honour of Apollo, and in memory of his kiUing
the ferpent Python with his arrows.

The Pythia were celebrated in Macedonia, in a place
called Pythium. They were next in fame after the Olympic
games, but were more ancient than they ; for it is pre-
tended they were inilituted immediately after the defeat
of the ferpent. The Pythia were alfo celebrated at Delphi;
and they were thefe that were the moll renowned. Their
firll founder, and the precife time of their inltitution, are
not known.

The Pythian games, according to Paufanias," were firft
inftituted by Jafon or Diomedes, king of Etolia, and re-
ftored by Eurylochus of ThefTaly, in the third year of the
4Sth olympiad, or the year of the world 3364, and 584
years before the birth of Chrift ; from which time the
Greeks reckoned fometimes by Pythiades, as they had been
accuitomed to do by Olympiads. They were at firlt cele-
brated every eight years, but afterwards every four years,
in the third year of each olympiad ; fo that the pythiade,
which was a term of four years, ferved as an epocha for
the inhabitants of Delphi. At firll they confilled of poetical
and mufical contefls, but in procefs of time they confiftcd
of the other exercifcs of the pancratium, which were per-
formed in the Olympic games. The vidtors were crowned
with branches of laurel ; though, at the firfl inflitution,
the crown was of beech-leaves. The Romans are faid to
have adopted thefe games in the year U.C. 642, and to
have given them the name of Apollinares ludi.

A part of Pindar's poems was compofed in praife of the
viftors in the Pythian games. See Games.

The critics are divided on the fubjeft of the ferpent Py-
thon. The poets fay, that Juno made ufe of it to per-
fecute Latona, and prevent her bringing into the world
Apollo and Diana, whom fhe had conceived of Jupiter ;
and that it was for this reafon that Apollo afterwards
killed it.

Strabo fays, it was no other than a famous villain, one
Draco, tlitit Apollo freed the world from. Dickinfon, in
his " Delphi Phoenicizantes," maintains the Python of the
Greeks to be the Typhon of the Phoenicians ; and the
Typhon of the Phoenicians to be the Og of Scripture ;
and Apollo, who flew it, he will have to be Jofhua. See
Typhon.

PYTHON, in Ancient Geography, a name anciently
given to the city of Delphi.

PYTHOPOLIS, a town of Afia Minor, in Bithynia,
on the river Soloonte, according to Plutarch, founded by

Thefeus.

P Y X

Thefeus. — Alfo, a town of ^fia Minor, in C;iria ; after-
wards called NifTa. — Alfo, a town of Aiiatic Myfia.

PYULCON, from touov, pus, and Uko, to draw, an old
furgical initniment anciently employed for drawing the
matter out of fniufes.

PYURIA, in Mcdictne, from itwn, pus, and «fo», urine,
a term uled by Sauvages and others to denote all purulent
and mucous difcharges from the bladder. See Catakkhus
Vefuit.

PYXIDANTHERA, in Botany, from x^|.,-, a box,
and avQf.p, an anther, becaufe, according to Michaux, each
cell of the anthers opens by a fort of lid ; fee Diatensia,
to which genus the plant in queftion is referred by Mr.
Purdl, in his J^l. Amer. Sept. v. i. 148, under the name
of D. cuncifolia, after Mr. Salilbury.

PYXIS NaI/'TICA, in Navigation, the feaman's compafs.

The word •ra-ufi literally fignities a box.

Pyxis, among Anatomtjh, is alfo ufed for the cavity of
the hip-bone. See Acetabulum.

P Z 1

Pyxis, a fmall metal cafe for containing the confecrated
fpecies in the Catholic churcli. Anciently it was made in
the form of a dove and fufpended over tlie altar.

PYXUS, in Ancient Geography, a fmall river of Italy,
in Lucania ; which took its rife northward towards Sontia,
and running fouthward difcharged itfclf into a gulf of the
fame name, E. of Pyxus, or Pyxuntum.

Pyxus, or Pyxuntum, PoU-CaJlro, a town of Italy, be-
longing to Lucania, fituated at the bottom of a fmall gulf,
E. of a fmall river of the fiime name. It was founded by
Mirathus, prince of Zanele and Rhegiuni, in the year 471
B.C. It became a Roman colony in the year 194 before
the fame era.

Pyxus Promontorium, a fmall cape of Italy, E. of a
peninfula of Laconia, which had on the W. the promon-
tory Palinurum. This promontory is found at the en-
trance of a fmall gulf of the fame name.

PZINENIN, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Boleflau ; 12 miles E. of Jung-Buntzel.

Q.

QA confonant, borrowed from the Latin or French,
^ for which the Saxons generally ufed cp, cm ; and
the fixtcenth letter of the alphabet.

The name of this letter is cue, from queue, Fr. tail ; its
form being that of an O with a tail.

The Q has this peculiar to it, that it is always followed
by an U, and is therefore reckoned among the mutes.

The Q IS formed from the Hebrew, p, hopli ; which mod
other languages have borrowed ; though feme of them have
reje&ed it again, particularly the Greeks, who now only re-
tain it as a numeral charafter, called .-lor-a sTij-r.^uov.

In effeft, there is that refemblance between the O and
the C, in fome languages, and the K in others, that many-
grammarians, in imitation of the Greeks, banifli the Q as a
fuperfluous letter. Papias even afSrms, that all the Latin
words now wrote w-ith a Q, were written among the ancient
Romans with a C ; but we want better authorities for this.
'For, though that may hold in many cafes, infomuch that
fome write indifferently ^U!/*-, ov cur ; cum, or quum ; guo-
tidie, or cotidie, &c. yet it does not thence follow, that they
ever wrote cis, ce, cid, for guis, qua, quid. AVhat infcrip-
tions authoriiie fuch a reading ?

Far from this, the ancients fometimes fubflituted Q for C ;
and wrote quojus, quoi ; for cujus, cui, &c.

Varro, however, and fome other grammarians, as we are
told by Cenforinus, &c. would never ufe the Q. The truth
>s, its ufe or difufe feems to have been fo little fettled, and
agreed on, that the poets ufed the Q or C indifferently, as
belt fuited their meafures ; it being a rule, that the Q joined
the two following vowels into one fyllablc ; and that the
C imported them to be divided.

Hence it is, that Lucretius ufes cuiret for three fyllables,
in lieu of quiret ; acua, for aqua ; and that Plautus ufes re-
licuum, for reliquum ; as in quod dedi, datum non velkm relicuum
Vol. XXIX.

non ; where the cuum mull be two fyllables, otherwifc the
trochiac verfe will be lame of a foot.

In the French, the found of the Q and K are fo near
akin, that fome of their niceft authors think the former
might be fpared. Ramus adds, that, till the cftablifhment of
royal profeffors in the univerfity of Paris, under Francis I.
they always ufed Q in the Latin the fame as in the French;
pronouncing tis, kalis, kantus. Sec. for quis, qualis, quantus.
See K.

Some very learned men make Q a double letter, as well
as K and X. According to them, Q is evidently a C and TJ
joined together. It is not enough that the found is the fame,
but they fee the traces of the C U in the figure of the Q ;
the V being only laid obliquely, fo as to come within the
cavity of the C ; as C <.

To confirm this, tiiey fay the ancients wrote qi, qn, qid.
Though Jof. Scaliger, Littleton, &c. think this is no proof
of the point ; for in Gruter's infcriptions we find not only
the Q, but alfo the C, put for Q U ; as Cintus, Quintus ;
Jicis hn- Jiquis, &c. Yet nobody ever imagined the C a
double letter.

Q, among the Ancients, was a numeral letter, fignifying
500 ; as in the verfe, '

" Q velut A cum D quingentos vult numerare."

A da(h over it, as Q, denoted it to fignify five hundred
thoufand.

Q is alfo ufed as an abbreviature in feveralarts. §•/>/. in
phyficians' bills, ftands for quantum placet, or quantum vis, as
much as you pleafe of a thing ; q.f. for quantum fuficit, or
as much as is neceliary.

Q, in the proper names of the Romans, fignifies Quintus,
or Quintius. Upon the French coins this letter denotes chat
they were ilruck at Perpignan.

S Q feems

QUA

Q feems the initial of no word in Mufic, except in
old madrigals, where it frequently is placed at the top of
the page for quinta pars, ths fifth part, in a polyphonic
corapoution.

Q. D. is frequently ufcd, among Grammaruins, &c. for
quaji diaum, as if it were faid, &c. or as who fliould fay.

Q. E. D. among AJathematicians, fignifies quod crat demon-
llrainhim, which was to be demonftrated.

Q. E. F. quod erat faciendum, which was to be done.

QU"AB, in Ichlhyology, the name of a Ruilian filh, whicli
fome report to be at firll a tadpole, then a frog, and at lafl
a fi(h. Dr. Mounfcy, who made many enquiries concerning
thefe pretended changes, apprehends that they are all fabu-
lous. He had an opportunity of feeing the fifll itfelf, and
found that they fpawned like other fifhes, and grew in fi/.e,
without any appearances to juftify the report. He adds,
that they delight in very clear water, in rivers with fandy
or Itony bottoms, and are never found in [landing lakes, or in
rivers palling through marfliy or mody grounds, where frogs
choofe moft to be. Phil. Tranf. vol. xlv. p. 175.

QUABES, in Geography, a people of Africa, in the in-
terior country between Rio Sellos and Sierra Leona, inha-
biting the fouthern banks of the river Seftos. They had
been formerly conquered by Flanfire, king of Folgia ; but
having thrown off their fubjeftion, they have fince remained
a free people, though under the proteftion of the emperor
of Monou, or Manou ; which empire is called by Englifh
geographers, and alio by M. d'Anville, Mendi Manow.

QUACHA, or Quagga, in Zoology. See Equus.

QUACHILTO, in Ornithology, the name of a very beau-
tiful Brafdian bird, of the moor-hen kind, called alfo yaca-
cintli, zni\ porphyria Ajnericanus. It is the FuLiCA Purpurea,
(which fee) ; and is of a fine blackifli purple colour, varie-
gated with white ; its beak is white while young, but be-
comes red as it gi-ows older, and has a naked fpace at its
bafis, refembling, in fome fort, the coot ; its legs are of a
yellowifh-areen ; it lives about the waters and feeds on fifh,
yet is a very well-tafted bird. It 'imitates the crowing of a
common cock, and makes its mufic early in the morning.
Marggrave's Hiil. Brafil.

QUACHY, in Zoology, a name given to the Coati, or
ViVERRA A^^/^7 ; which fee.

QUACK, in Medicine. See Empiric.

QUACKENBRUCK, in Geography, a town of Weft-
phalia, in the bifhopric of Ofnabruck, fituated on the river
Hafe, which runs through it in feven ftreams, that unite in
two below the town ; 20 miles N. of Ofnabruck. N. lat.
52° 42'. E. long. 8° 3'.

QUADIANS, QuADl, in Ancient Geography, a people
of Germany, whofe territories extended from the Danube to
Moravia, and the northern part of Auftria. They are com-
preherrded by fome writers under the ancient name of Suevi,
part of whom forced their way into Spain, and formed a
kingdom there. Their country is at prefent known by the
name of Moravia ; for it extended from the mountains of
Bohemia to the river Marus, no\v the March, and confe-
quently coraprifed that province. Ptolemy mentions the
following cities in the country of the Quadtans ; vi-z.. Ebu-
rodunum, Eburum, Medoflanium, and Celemantia, now, ac-
cording to Cluverius, Brin, Olmutz, Znaim, and Kalmiiiz.
Tlie Quadians were a warlike people, had kings of their,
own, and agreed in culloms, manners, and religion, with the
other German nations. They, without doubt, joined their
countrymen againlt Lollius, Germanicus, Caiu=!, and Galba,
who attempted to reduce Germany, and to fubdue the le-
veral nations whicli inhabited that extenfive country. The
emperor Doinitian marched againft them, but was defeated

QUA

by the Marcomans, and put to flight. The Quadians f'ub-
mitted to the emperor Titus Antoninus, and it appears
by his coins, fuppofcd to have been ftruck about the year
139, that they acknowledged, as fovereign, a king appointed
by that prince. They joined the Marcomans, in the fa-
mous war made by that people on the empire under the reign
of Marcus Aurelius ; but being reduced to great diftrefs
they fent a/nbaffadors to fue for peace, and with them
they reftored all the Roman deferters, and about 13,000
prifoners, whom they had taken during the war. They
thus obtained peace, upon condition, that they Ihould not
traffic, for the future, within the Roman dominions, nor
fettle within fix miles of the Danube; but, difliking thefe
conditions, they again joined the Marcomans, and renewed
the war. In the profecution of this conteft, which was
long and fanguinary, they were totally defeated ; their
king Ariogefes was taken prifoner ; but the emperor fpared
his life, confining him to the city of Alexandria, the metro-
polis of Egypt. The Quadians, however, feem to have
continued in arms till the reign of Commodus, who granted
them peace upon the following terms: that they fhould
keep at the diftance of fivi miles from the Danube ; —
that they fiiould furrender their arms, and fupply the Ro-
mans with a certam number of troops when required ; —
that they (hould aflemble but once a month in one place,
and in the prefence of a Roman centurion ; — and that they
fhould not make war upon the neighbouring nations with-
out the conient of the people of Rome, i In the year 214,
the king of the Quadians was Gaiobomar, who was ai-
faffinated by order of Caracalla. In the 4th year of the
reign of the pmperor Valerian, the Quadians joined the
Sarmatians, and invading Illyricum, ravaged that province ;
■ but they were defeated by Probus, then tribune of a legion,
and afterwards emperor. In the year 260, the yth of the
emperor Gallienus, they made a fudden irruption into Pan-
nonia, but they were expelled, without tl-.eir booty, by
RegiUianus. Upon the death of Probus, who had kept
the barbarians in awe, A.D. 283, the Quadians, in con-
junftion with the Sarmatians, broke into Illyricum and
Tlirace, and having ravaged thofe provinces, and advancing
towards Italy, they were met by Carus, the fucceflbr of
Probus, on 'the borders of Illyricum, and totally defeated ;
16,000 being killed on the fpot, and 20,000 being taken
prifoners. In the 19th year of the emperor Conftantius, the
Quadians made an irruption into Pannonia and Mosfia ; and
having pillaged both provinces, returned home with an im-
menfe booty. They returned again in two years, and laid
wafte Valeria. Conftantius was provoked by thefe inva-
fions, and leaving Milan, advanced to the confines of the
Quadians, and conferred with their chiefs, who excufed
pa'.t hoftilities, and promifed, for the future, to live in peace
and jw.ity with the emperor. They foon, however, forgot
their promife ; and in the following year joined the Sarma-
tians, and laid wafte a great part of Pannonia and Moefia :
but at the approach of Conftantius, they repafled the
Danube, and returned home. The emperor determinmg
to punifti them for their treachery, palled the Danube
on a bridge of boats, and began to deftroy their country.
The Quadians, unable to refift, fued for peace, and obtained
it, upon delivering up hoftages, and fetting at liberty all
the prifoners they had taken. In the, year 374, their
king Gabinius being treacheroufly murdered by Marcel-
lianus, duke of Valeria, they croiled the Danube in the
utmoft rage, and falling upon the reapers, in harveft time,
killed the greateft number of them, laid wafte the country,
and took many captives. They afterwards followed Equi-
tius, general of the troops in Illyricum, who had been
1 1 acceffory

QUA

acceffory to the murder of their king, into Valeria, and
committed dreadful dcvallations in the countries through
which they pafl'ed. In their way they met with two legions,
the Pannonian and Mcerian,whohad been fcnt to oppofe them,
ari taking advantage of a contelt which fubfilled among
them about precedency, they cut them both in j)ieces. In
this irruption the Quadians had been joined by the Sar-
matians ; but the latter were defeated with great (laughter
by Theodofius. then duke of Mcefia, and afterwards em-
peror. Agait.lt the Quadians Valentinian I. marched in
perfon ; and having made great preparations for his pro-
pofcd expedition mto their country, he took the field ;
pafled the Danube at Acinium, now Gran, or Buda, in
L.ower Hungary, entered the enemy's country, and de-
Rroyed it with fire and fword. At length, the Quadians
fued for peace ; but whilft the emperor was fpeaking to the
mefienger with great warmth, and threatening to extirpate
their wiiole nation, he fell to the ground in a fit, and foon
afterwards expired. Upon his death a treaty was con-
cluded with the Quadians. Their reftlefs fpirit and difpo-
fition for war manifefted themfelves again m the year 379,
when they invaded IllyTicum ; but they were driven out,
with fome lofs, by the emperor Gratian. In 407 they
entered Gaul with the other barbarians, over-ran its pro-
vinces, and committed dreadful ravages. From this time
no farther mention is made of the Quadians ; fo that they
were either fubdued, or utterly extirpated by the Goths,
who had fettled in Pannonia and lUyricum. Anc. Un. Hid.
Vol. xvii.

QUADRA, in Building, any fquare border, or frame,
encompafiiiig a baflb-relievo, pannel, painting, or other
work.

The word is alfo ufed, eVroneoufly, for a frame or bor-
der, of any other form ; as round, oval, or the like.

Quadra and Vancouver's IJland, in Geography, a name
9;iven to the idand of Nootka, in comphment to fignor
Quadra, the Spanifn commander at Nootka Sound, and
captain Vancouver, who expefted to obtain pofTeflion of the
fettlement in the year 1792. See Nootka, and Nootka
Sound.

QUADRAGESIMA, a term fometimes ufed for the
time of Lent, becaule confiding of forty days.

Hence tome monks are faid to lead a quadragefimal life ;
or to live on quadragefimal food all the year.

Quadragesima Sunday is the firft Sunday in Lent ; fo
called becaufe it is about the fortieth day before Eailer.

On the fame account, the three preceding Sundays are
called Quinquagefima, Sexagefima, and Septuagefima.

QUADRAGESIMALS, Quadragesimalia, denote
Mid-lent contributions, or oflFerings.

- It was an ancient cuftom for people to vifit their mother-
church on Mid-lent Sunday, and to make their offerings at
the high altar ; and the like was done in Whitfun-week.
■ But as thefe latter oblations, &c. were fometimes commuted
for by a payment of pentecoilals, or Whitfun-farthings ; fo
were the former alio changed into a cuttomary payment,
quadragefimals, denarii quadragefimales ; and fometimes
Letare, Jerufalem, from a hymn fo called, fung on that
day, beginning " Jerufalem, mater omnium," &c.
. QUADRANGLE, in Geometry, a~ quadrangular, or
quadrilateral figure ; or a figure which has four fides, or
four angles.

To the clafs of quadrangles, or quadrangular figures,
belong the fquare, parallelogram, trapezium, rhombus, and
rhomboidcs.

A fquare, &c. is a regular quadrangle ; a trapezium, an
jrregfular one.

QUA

Quadrangular figures are not proper for fortification ; the
flanks, and flanked angles, being too fmall.

QUADRANGULARIS Pi.sci.s, the Square-fjh, in
Ichthyology, the name of a li(h, which, in its mofl ul'ual fize,
is about fifteen inches long, four inches high in the middle,
and three inches and a half over ; the forehead is fquare, a
little hollow, and, by the eminence of the eye-brows, two
inches and a half over ; the nofe blunt, and not very flcep,
with two holes in the place of noftrils, and the mouth very
fmall ; the back is a little convex toward the tail, and on the
fides a little obtufely angled ; as is alfo the belly, which is
plain and flat, and a little rifing toward the tail ; it has five
fins, two near the gills, two near the tail, and the tail-fin,
which is confiderably long. Part of the head and tail are
covered with a foft fkin, tlie red of the body with a kind
of crud, adorned all over with little round knots, reduced
for the mod part into hexagonal figures, and fubdivided
into equilateral triangles. Grew, Muf. Reg. Sac. p. no.

QUADRANS, in Jintiquity, the fourth part of the as,
or pound. See As.

QuADRANs, in our Cujloms, is the fourth part' of a pennyj
or a farthing.

QUADRANT, Quadrans, in Geometry, an arc of a
circle, containing 90 degrees, or one-fourth of the entire
periphery.

Sometimes, alfo, the fpace, or area, included between
this arc and two radii, drawn from the centre to each ex-
tremity thereof, is called a quadrant, or, more properly, a
quadrantal fpace ; as being a quarter of the entire circle.

Quadrant alfo denotes a mathematical indrument, of
great ufe in navigation and altronomy, for the taking of al-
titudes, angles, &c.

The quadrant is varioufly contrived, and furnifhed ivith
different apparatus, according to the feveral ufes for which
it is intended ; but they have all this in common, that they
confiil of a quadrant, or quarter of a circle, whofe limb is
divided into 90 degrees ; and that they have a plummet fuf-
pended from the centre ; and are furniflied with pinnulse or
fights, through which to look.

Quadrant, the Common, or Surveying, (reprefented
Plate Wl. Sur'veying, Jig. 13.) is made of brafs, wood, or
other matter, ufually twelve or fifteen inches radius. Its
circular limb is divided into 90°, and each of thofe fubdi-
vided into as many equal parts as the fpace will allow, either
diagonally or otherwife. On one edge, or femi -diameter,
are fixed two immoveable fights ; and in the angle, or centre,
is hung a thread, with a plummet. To the centre is like-
wife, fonietimes, fixed a label, or moveable index, bearing
two other fights, like the index of a telefcope. And, in
lieu of the immoveable fights, there is fometimes fitted a
telefcope ; though this more peculiarly belongs to the adro-
nomical quadrant.

On the under fide, or face, of the indrument, are fitted
a ball and focket ; by means of which it may be put in any
pofition, for ufe.

Befides the effentials of the quadrant, there is frequently
added on the face, pear the centre, a kind of compartiment,
called the quadrat, or geometrical fquare ; as in the figure :
this, in fome meafure, making a diliindf inif rument of itfelf.
See its defcription and ufe under the article Quadrat.

The quadrant is to be ufed in different fituations, ac-
cording to the dimenfions to be taken. To obferve heights
and depths, its plane is difpolcd at right angles to the ho-
rizon ; but to take horizontal didances, the plane is difpofed
parallel to it.

Heights and didances, again, may be taken two ways ;
S 2 viz.

QUA

viz. by means of ^he fixed fights and plummet, and by the
label.

Quadrant, U/e of the Surveying. To tale the height or
depth of an objell "with the fxeil fighls, and phmmet. — Place
the quadraiil vertically, and the eye under the figlit next
the arc of the quadrant : thus diredl I he inllrumcnt to the
object, e. gr. the top of a towf r, till the vifual rays of it
ftrike through the fights upon the eye.

This done, the portion of the arc intercepted between
the thread and the femidiameter, on which the fights are
faftened, flievvs th? complement of the objed^'s height above
the horizon, or its dillance from the zenith ; and the other
portion of the arc intercepted between the ' hread and the
other femidiameter, fliews the height itfelf of the objetl
above the horizon.

The fame arc likewife gives the quantity (if the anijle
made by the vifual ray, and a horizontal line, parallel to
the bafe of the tower.

Note, to obferve depths, the eye mull be placed over
that fight next the centreof the quadrant.

From the height or depth of the oLjetl in degrees thus
found, which fuppofe 35*^ 35' ; and the dillance of the foot
of the objeft from the place of obfervation carefully mea-
fured, which fuppofe 47 feet ; its height or depth in feet,
yards, &c. is eafily determined by the moft common cafe in
trigonometry.

For we have here, in a triangle, one fide given, vi%. the
line meafured, and we have all the angles ; for that of the
tower is always fuppofed a right angle : the other two,
therefore, are equal to another right angle ; but the angle
obferved is 35° 35', therefore the other is 54° 25'.

The cafe, then, will be reduced to this : as the fine of
54° 25' is to 47 feet, fo is the fine of 35° 35' to a fourth
term, wz. 33i feet ; to which add the height of the ob-
ferver's eye, fuppofe 5 feet ; and the funi, 38^ feet, is the
height of the tower required.

Quadrant, the farther ufe of the, in taking of altitudes
of objects, both accejfdile and inaceejpble, fee under the article
Altitude.

Quadrant, Ufe of the, in taking heights and difianees by
the index and fights — To take, e. gr. a height, as that of
a tower whofe bafe is acceffible ; place the plane of the in-
llrumcnt at right angles to the plane of the horizon, and one
of its edges par.illel to it, by means of the plummet,
which, in that cafe, will hang down along the other. In
this fituation turn the index, till, through the fight, you
fee the top of the tower ; and the arc of the limb of the
quadrant between that fide thereof parallel to the horizon
and the index will be the height of the tower in degrees ;
whence, and from the dillance meafured as before, its height
in feet, &c. may be found by calculation, as in the former
cafe : or, without calculation, by drawing from the data,
on paper, a triangle fimilar to the great one, whofe bafe is
the diftawee ; and its perpendicular, meafured on the fcale,
is the height of the tower.

Quadrant, Ufe of the, in meafuring horizontal dijlances, —
Though the quadrant be a lefs proper iiiftrumeiit for this
purpole than a theodolite, femicircle, or the like, becaufe
angles greater than quadrants cannot be taken by it, yet
neceffity fometimes obliges perfons to have recourfe to it.

The manner of its application is the fame with that
of the femicircle ; all the difference between the two inftru-
ments confiding in this, that the one is an arc of 180°, and
can therefore take an angle of any quantity ; and the other
is only an arc of 90'^, and is therefore confined to angles
of that quantity. See, therefore. Semicircle.

Quadrant, in /JJironomy, is an inllrument by which

QUA

the altitude of a heavenly body is meafured, and is compefej
of one-quarter, or one-eighth of a circle, accordingly as the
meafurenient is made by means of diredt vifioii, or by the
refledted image of the object to be viewed. When a fuf-
pended circle was made ufe of with revolving fights, called
an adrolabe, the accuracy of an obfervation could never be
depended on, partly becaufe the radius was fmall, and
partly becaufe tiic inllrument vibrated when fufpended by
the hand, and was otherwifc inconvenient to ufe, as well as
liable to have its equipoife didurbed by the various pofitions
of the index and fights : therefore, fuch a portion of the
circle was ado])ted as was competent to ineafure the greateil
poiT.He altitude, and an increafe of radius was thereby ob-
tained, which promifed to contribute to accuracy, without
affefting the portability ot the inllrument. But though
the conilruflion was varied by difierent ingenious men, the
quadrant was but little, if at all, conducive to the improve-
ment of nautical or of aftronomical fcience, till the appli-
cation of telefcopic fights, and an improved mode of gra-
duating the limb, togetlier with the addition of a vernier
fcale, gave it powers on which the mariner and aftronomer
could confide. Quadrants have been conltrufted of different
materials, fuch as wood, ivory, brafs, &c. and of various
dimenfions, agreeably to the ufes for which they were in-
tended, in order to accommodate purchafers of every de-
nomination ; but as it is not our province to notice every
plaything that has ufurped the appellation of quadrant, we
will confine our account to fuch inilruments chiefly as have
been of aftual fervice in navigation and aftronomy. We
have, however, already anticipated the hiflory, we might
here have introduced, of the various improvements fuccef-
fively made in quadrants, at the beginning of our article
Circle; and under the article Graduation we have
given, at confiderable length, the different methods of di-
viding and fubdividing allronomical inftruments in general ;
to vvhicli articles we beg to refer our readers, who wifh for
information on thofe points, and which may be read in con-
junftion with our prefent article.

Our arrangement of quadrants will be moft fyftematic, if
we divide them into two clalfes, -oix. thofe which meafure
altitudes by direct vifion, and thofe which determine mea-
furements in all dircClions, vertically, horizontally, and
obliquely, by means of refleftion. The former clafs have
been found ufeful in aftronomy chiefly, and the latter in
navigation, where the motion of a fhip interferes with the
fteadinefs of any fixed pofition of an inilrunient.

The firft quadrant, in its rude Hate, was probably a
quarter of the allrolabe enlarged, with fixed fights placed
in, or parallel to, the vertical line pafiing through zero ;
and a fine thread, or wire, ftretched by a plummet, indi-
cated the altitude on the divided limb, according to the re-
prefentation in Jig. 4. of Plate I. of AJlronomical Injiruments.
This conftruftion might be uled iii obfervations of the fun,
without injuring the eye of the obferver, by allowing the
folar ray to pafs through the tiril fight-vane, or hole, lo as
to fall on the fecond, at fome dillance from the former,
while the thread relied nearly in contact with the elevated
limb ; but the want of minute, and at the fame time accu-
rate fubdivifions, and the fenfible thicknefs of the thread,
were impediments to accuracy that did not admit of remedy,
until another mode of reading the altitudes was devifed, and
until a method was contrived of rendering the light of the
fun tolerable lo the eye of an obferver. The former of
thefe defiderata was accoraplilhed firil by diagonal fcales,
with a fiducial edge of an index, and afterwards by that
admirable contrivance, fometimes called a Nonius, but more
properly denominated a Veruier, from the name of its in-
ventor ;

QUADRANT.

ventor ; the latter was cffefted by femi-opaqiic glafs, intro-
duced at firft without, but afterwards, with butter cflcdt,
with telefcopic fights; at tlie fame time, eiilai iniig- the
vifual angles fiibtended by the fun, and yet dimn/ilhinjr the
intenfity of his light by a partial tranfmidioii through the
fmoakcd or coloured glais.

Da-vis's Qiim/rant, or Bnch-Stajf. — In the year 1 590,
captain John Davis, a native of Sandridge, near Dartmouth,
prcvioufly to his failing into the South leas under the com-
mand of Mr. Cavendilh, contrived that inllrument, which
is reprefented in Jig. 2. of Plate I. of /IJlronomicnl Injlru-
ments, and which has been called the Engli/h quadrant, or
bach-Jlaff. This inftrument difpenfed with the ufe of the
plumb-lnic, and confequently was better adapted to nautical
purpofes than the old quadrant, or than the fore-lhitt, that
preceded it ; but wanted the telefcojiic fights, which have
given lubfequent inftruments the advantage over it. It was,
however, probably the firft quadrant in which the horizon
was ufed as one of the objefts in a back obfervation, and
from whicli the refledting inllruments afterwards borrowed
an ufeful principle, where altitudes are concerned ; though
it was in the ufe of the fore-Jlaff, (defcribed under our ar-
ticle CiniLK,) that the horizon was firlt made one of |he
extreme limits of an altitude, taken by a forward obfervation.
Captain Davis found that pear-tree anfwercd very well as
the material on which his inllrument was conltrufted, and
an ingenious arrangement of two divided arcs and three
vanes conltituted his plan, according to the following de-
fcription. The vane at A was called the horizon-vane ;
the one feen at B the fhade-vane, becaufe its (hadow fell on
the horizon-vane during the inftant of completing an ob-
fervation ; and the third, at C, was denominated the fight-
vane, by reafon of its being the vane to which the eye was
applied in taking an obfervation. The arc of fmaller radius,
D E, contained 60'^ and the other, F G, of larger radius,
contained only 30°, in continuation of the former, making
together the whole quadrant. The arc D E was divided
into whole degrees only, on account of the fmallnefs of its
radius ; but the arc F G had its degrees fubdivided'by con-
centric and diagonal lines, as feen in the figure. The man-
ner of afcertaining the altitude of a heavenly body, by the
joint ufe of thefe two arcs, is not obvious at firit light of
the inftrument, but may be thus explained. When the al-
titude of the fun is taken, the horizon-vane is fitted to the
extreme end or centre A of the quadrant, and the fhade-
vane B is put to within about 10^ or 15° of the fuppofed
co-altitude, but to a lefs quantity than the co-altitude,
while the fight-vane remains for adjuftment on the arc F G.
Things being in this ftate, the back of the obferver is
turned to the fun, and the quadrant is fo elevated, that the
ftiadow of the upper edge of the fiiade-vane B falls upon
the upper edge of the flit in the horizon-vane A, when
viewed through the fmall hole in the fight-vane. If now,
in this fituation, the horizon is feen through the laid flit,
the obfervation is exatt ; but if not, the fight-vane is moved
backwards or forwards on the arc F G, accordingly as the
flty or fea is feen, till the horizon appears m its place, while
the fhadnw of the fhade-vane refts on the required fituation
in the flit of the horizon-vane, and then the cibfervation is
finifhed ; and the fum of the two readings on the refpeflive
arcs, B and C, as read by the fiducial edges of the vanes,
is the co-altitude or zenith diftance of that limb of the fun,
upper or lower, which was obferved from the correfponding
limb of the fhadow. If a lens, of a focal length equal to
the radius of the fmaller arc, were ufed, the focal luminous
point occafioned thereby would be a better objedt to meafure
the plr.c^ of, than a fhadow with an edge not fufiicicntly
9

defined. This inftrument, it fhould fecnr, was not capable
of taking the altitude of a liar or jilanct, nor of the moon,
unlefs hn- difc was large enough at the time to projeft a
fhadow.

Elton's Ouailrant. — An index bearing a fpirit-level, with
a vernier f.ale near the fight-vane, was added to the quad-
rant of Davis fome time afterwards, by one Elton, the ufe
of whicii was to take altitudes luithout an horizon ; but the
fimilarity of the two inftruments renders a more particular
defcription of this addition fuperfluous. An infpeftion of
Jig. 8. Plate I. will fufJiciently explain the difference.

Gunter's Quadrant. — Among the numerous and ufeful
contrivances of the ingenious profefior of aflronomy in
Grefham college, was a portable quadrant, which now
claims our attention, and which was contrived in, or a little
before, the year i6l8. The obje£t of the inventor was not
to conftruct an inftrument capable of mcafuring altitudes
more accurately than that of captain Davis, which we liave
juft defcribed, but to make a quadrant fo comprehenfive in
its ufes, that, like the logarithmic fcale, which he divided,
it might fhew by infpeftion rcfults, which had previoufly
required long" and tedious calculations ; and in this point of
view it is ftill to be confidcred. Befides the quadrantal arc
for meafuring altitudes, this inftrument has various curves
ftereographically projefted on it, fuch as the equator, the
tropics, the ecliptic, and the horizon, on a fuppofition
that the eye is fituated in one of the poles, all which are
reprefented '\Vifg. 3. of Plate XXIII. of AJlronomical Injlru-
merits. The projeftion, according to Bion, is thus effefted;
when the quadrantal arc B C has been graduated, from
its centre A, with a convenient radius AT, defcribe the
arc T D to reprefent one of the tropics ; and let the line
A T be taken as the tangent of 56° 46', or half the fun's
greateft declination (fuppofed here to be 23° 32'), added to
the radius or tangent of 45° ; then to find the point E in
this line for the equinoftial, there will be this proportion,
as the tangent of 56"^ 46' : 1000 :: radius : 655 ; and there-
fore, if ^-V^,V parts of the line AT be taken, it will be the
proper radius of the arc EF, or equinoftial.

To find the centre of the occult arc E D, which repre-
fents the ecliptic, let the meridional line AD be fo divided
by the point G, that if AF be taken as radius, AG may
be the tangent of 23^32', the fun's greateft declination ;

in which cafe A G will be

of the line A F, and the

occult arc E D defcribed from the point G will be one-
fourth of the ecliptic, which may be divided into figns and
degrees thus : as radius is to the tangent of any degree's
diftance from the nearell equinoftial point, fo is the co-fine
of the fun's greateft declination, to the tangent of that
degree's right afcenfion ; for example, fuppofing the right
afcenfion of the firft point, of y to be 27'' 54', draw
a line from A, the centre of the quadrantal arc, to this
degree and minute on the faid arc, and "Viote where it
intcrfefts the occult arc of the ecliptic, and this point will
be the beginning of the fign t( ; a"d in like manner any
other part may be inferted.

The line ET, or fine of declination, may be divided
thus ; taking AE for the radius of the equinoftial, or tan-
gent of 45°, let the tangents of 46°, 47°, 48°, &c. up to
68^ 30', be fucceflively taken and laid down on the line
E T, and the points of excefs above the tangental point of
45° will be the dividing lines of the fcale for I", 2°, 3*^, &c.
up to 23° 32', or greateft declination.

When the fcale of declination is finidied, the quadrantal
arc may be taken as the meafure of right afcenfions, and
then the place of a ftar or any other heavenly body r^ay
be inferted on the plane of the quadrant thus ; let a line be

drawn

QUADRANT.

tlrawii from A to the degree and minute of right afc-iifion,
counted from B towards C, and the point in this line,
where an occult arc, drawn tlirough the declinahon from
the centre A, interfefts it, will he the place of the heavenly-
body in quefUon.

Tlie two parallel arcs contained between the tropic TD
and the quadrantal arc B C, arc the fcales of days and
months, which are divided by the aid of a table of meridian
altitudes of the fun for each day, calculated for the parti-
cular latitude, for which the quadrant is conftruited. It
is hardly neced'ary to obferve, on the conilruftion of fuah
table, that if the latitude and declination be both north, or
both fouth, the declination mud be added to the co-latitude
far the greateft altitude ; but if of contrary denominations,
fubtrafted. The degrees and minutes contained in fuch
table are transferred into the Icale of months by a line ex-
tending acrofs it from the centre A to the quadrantal arc,
as before.

The centre of the horizon will be in the meridional line
AC, and if a point H be taken fuch, for the co-latitude
38° 28' for inftance, that AH may be the correiponding
tangent to radius A F, then ^v,,'V of that radius will be its
diftance from A, and the occult arc defcribed from H, with
the extent HE, beginning at E in the equinodfial, and end-
ing at the tropic TD, will be the required horizon. This
horizontal arc may be divided thus ; as radius is to the fine
of tlie latitude, fo is the tangent of any number of degrees
in the horizon, to the tangent of a correfponding aix in
the quadrant ; and from a table thus conftrufted any point
in the horizon may be put in by interfeClion of a line drawn
from A to the tabular number as read on the quadrantal
arc, as in the former cafes.

A third table of the fun's altitude for inferting the hour
lines maybe calculated thus; when the fun is in the equator,
as radius is to the co-fine of the latitude, fo is the co-fine
of any hour from the meridian, to the fine of the fun's
altitude at that hour ; but when the fun has declination,
fay, as the co-fine of the hour from the meridian is to
radius, fo is the tangent of the latitude, to the tan-
gent of a fourth arc ; then if the latitude and decli-
nation have like denominations, and the hour fall between
noon and fix o'clock, fubtraft the declination from
the faid fourth arc, and the remainder will be a fifth
arc ; but if the_^latitude and declination have unlike deno-
minations, or the hour be between fix and midnight, add
the declination to the fourth arc, and the fum will be a
fifth arc, which muft be thus ufed ; as the fine of the fourth
arc, is to the fine of the latitude, fo is the co-fine of the
fifth arc, to the fine of the altitude fought. The determi-
nation of fuch table by this fundamental method is however
operofe, and Margett's horary tables, which give the fuc-
ceflive altitudes in any given latitude, would greatly fliorten
t'he labour, by giving the refults by infpeftion, which may
at the fame time be inferted by transfers from the quad-
rantal arc, fimilar to thofe we have already defcribed.
When the horary points are put in for each fucceflive hour,
when the fun is in the equator, at each tropic, and at a few
intermediate places, the horary lines may be drawn through
the faid points, which will give the liour for any given day,
when the inllrument is ufed as hereafter defcribed.

A fourth table, for putting in the azimuth lines, will re-
quire the fun's altitude to be calculated for each degree of
azimuth, when the fun is at the equator, at each tropic,
and at other intermediate places, which may be done thus:
when the fun is in the equator, as radius is to the
co-fine of the azimuth from the meridian, fo is the tange.it
of the latitude, to the tangent of the fun's altitude at the

azimuth in the equator : but out of the equator the rule ia,
as the fine of the latitude, is to the fine of the declination,
fo is the co-fine of the fun's altitude at the equator at a
given <\zimuth, to the fine of a fourth arc. When the
latitude and declination have the fame name, in all azimuths
from the piime vertical to the meridian, add tliis fourth arc
to the arc of altitude at the equator ; but when the azimuth
is above (j3°, fubt'^aft the altitude at the equator from this
fourth arc ; alfo when tlie latitude and declination have un-
like names, fubtraft the faid fourth arc from the arc of alti-
tude at the equator, for the altitude at the propoled azimuth.
The points correfponding to the tabular numbers, thus
afcertained, mufl be inferted by interfeftion of lines drawn
from A, as before, to the quadrantal arc BC, and lines
uniting thofe points will be the lines of azimuth for each
hour in every day of the year. But to complete the in-
(Iruments, two fights or vanes muft be fixed on the meri-
dional line AC, and a fmall plumb-line, with an adjultable
bead, muft be lufpended from the point A of the quadrant.

In addition to the lines already defcribed, Gunter's quad-
rant has iometimes a fquare under the angular point A,
called a quadrat, as fccn in the figure, two fides of which
are divided into ten equal parts each, and thefe again fubdi-
vidcd into others, the ule of which is to meafure angular
diftances ; and fometimes the large fquare is fubdivided into
a number of fmaller ones, for the purpofe of performing
arithmetical proportions by infpeftion. See Bion on the
Conftruftion and principal Ufes of Mathematical Inftru-
ments.

It would be tedious to enumerate all the ufes of this quad-
rant, and to exemplify all the problems that it is capable
of performing, or rather of illuftrating (for great accuracy
cannot b;e expected in the indication of fo fmall an inftru-
ment) ; but we will fpecify a few of the moft ufeful, which
may be varied by reverfing the procefles, and by altering the
data, to a great extent.

Problem I. — Tojind the Sun's Right Afcenfion.

Stretch the thread from the point A over the fun's
place, as- marked in the graduated ecliptic, and the degree
cut by it in the quadrantal arc will give the, correfponding
right afcenfion.

Peob. II. — Tojind the Sun's DecUnal'ion.

Stretch the thread as before, and Aide the bead till it
refts on the fun's place for the given day, and then turn it
to the fcale of declination, where the correfponding degree
will be feen under- the bead.

Pkob. III. — Tojind the Sun's Meridian ylUUude on any Day.

Extend the thread over the day of the month given, in
its proper fcale, till it reaches the quadrantal arc, and the
fun's greateft altitude for that day will be indicated thereby.

Prob. IV. — Tojind the Hour oj the Day.

Extend the thread over the day of the month, and, hold-
ing it there, Aide the bead till it lies on the line of twelve
o'clock ; then elevate the quadrant fo that the folar ray may
pafs through the upper fight-hole exaiSly upon the fecond,
and allow the plummet to reft, and then the bead will indi-
cate the hour, before or after noon, as the cafe may be. In
a fimilar manner the fun's altitude may be meafured by the
thread fallirig on the quadrantal arc, when tlie folar ray
paffes as above defcribed.

Pkob. V. — Tojind the Sun's Atnpiilude.

Let the bead be reftified for the given time, and be

brought

QUADRANT.

brought afterwards to the horizon, while tlie thread remains
(Iretched, and it will indicate the riling or felting amplitude,
as the cafe may be.

PaOB. VI To Jind th: Afcenfwnal Difference.

Reftify the bead as in the lad problem, and bring it to
the horizon, in which fituation the thread, extended to the
qiiadrantal arc, will (liew the afcenfional difference in de-
grees, which converted into time will (hew how much tlie
fun rifes before fix in fummer, and after (ix in winter, and
confequently will give the exaft length of the given day.

Prob, VIT. — To find the Sun's Azimut!i.

Retlify the bead for the given time, and obferve the fun's
altitude as explained in prob. 4. Then extend the thread to
the complement of that altitude, and the bead will indicate
the azimuth correfponding, and -vice verfd.

Prob'. VIII. — To find the Hour of the Night by a Star.

Put the bead on the thread to the diflance that will indi-
cate the ilar's declination, and look through the fight for
the liar till the plummet rells on the plane of the quadrant,
and in that fituation the bead will fliew, in the hour lines,
the ftar's dillance in time from the meridian of tlie place ; in
the next place fubtraft the fun's right afccnfion in time from
that of the flar, as given in fome catalogue, and to the re-
mainder add the obferved diftance from twelve o'clock in
fidereal time, and the fum will be the hour nearly, or the
approximate diftance of the fun from noon, which may be
corredled by applying the fun's variation of right afcenfion
fmce the preceding noon, which in every fix hours will be
about a minute.

Sutton's quadrant, and CoUins's feftor on a quadrant,
are very fimilar, both in conftruftion and ufe, to the quadrant
we have here defcribed, and the dial on a card, by Fergufon,
is nearly related to it, particularly as it has been lately im-
proved by the Rev. W. Pcarfon.

Of AJironomical Quadrants. — The quadrants which we
.have hitnerto defcribed may be confidered as by no means
perfeft, but as approximating only to an inftrument, tliat is
really ufeful in an obfervatory for determining the exaft
place of a heavenly body ; hence the quadrant which we pro-
pofe next to defcnbe, has obtained the name of ajiroiwmical,
from its fuperior pretenfions to accuracy in the meafurcment
of altitudes taken above the horizon, and therefore merits
our more particular attention.

An aftronomical quadrant may be either portable or
fixed ; in the former cafe it is ufually mounted on a tripod,
with adjufting fcrews in the feet, and has a horizontal
motion as well as a vertical one, in order that it may take
altitudes in any azimuth, or be made to follow the body ob-
ferved in its apparent path ; but in the latter cafe it is fixed
againit a fteady wall, with its plane in, or very nearly in the
meridian, and is therefore denominated a mural quadrant.

The firft aitronomical quadrant, of which we have any
account left us, is that which Ptolemy ufed ; it was the
fourth part of a circle placed faff againfl a flone pier, or
quadrangular log of wood, with zero of the arc in the ho-
rizontal line, and a pin of wood projetting from the central
point threw a fhadow on the limb when the fun fhone,
which fliadow was ufed by way of index : but it is obvious
that much accuracy was not to be expedled from fuch an
inftrument, however well conftruftcd or divided. We miglit
mention here the quadrants of Tycho Brahe and Hevelius,
but the former has been noticed under our article Circle,
and the latter was dcflroyed in the conflagration of the
owner's houfc in Dantzic. In more recent times, aftrono-

mical quadrants have been made on accurate principles, and
with great care, ofpecially by Graham, Siffon, Bird, Ramf-
den, Gary, and Troughton, feveral of whofe inftruments
we will now defcribe, as far as any difference in their con-
ftrudlion renders diftinft accounts neceffary. We will pro-
ceed, as we have done on former occafions, chiefly in the
order of time, which, generally fpeaking, will be found to
be alfo in the order of fucceffive improvements.

Mural Qiiadrant by Graham. — Before we proceed to
defcribe the mural (juadrant, contrived and made by
Graham, and fixed at the weft fide of the ftoue pillar in the
middle room at the Royal Obfervatory at Greenwich, at the
expence of king George I., and for the ufe of that eminent
aftronomer Dr. Halley, it may be proper to mention that
Flamfteed, and his afliftant vSharp, had previoufly ufed an
arc of a circle fixed againft a ftone pier in the meridian,
which they had thcmfelves conftru6ted, and which was
removed at Flamfteed's deatli. We muft, therefore, con-
fider their inftrument as having been the prototype of
Graham's mural quadrant, or arc, as it has been alfo called
fometimes. In fig. 4. of Plate XXIII. of Aflronomical In-
Jlrumenls^ is given a reprefentation of the mural quadrant of
Graham's conftrutlion, which will equally reprefent that
of Bird, conftrutted after the fame model, and which is the
fame that both Dr. Smith, and Stone, the editor of Bion's
work, have given in their refpeftive accounts.

The body of this quadrant is compofed chiefly of bars
of iron united together, as fecn in the figure ; fome, to form
the plane of the quadrant, placed flat-ways ; and others, to
give ifrength and ftability, fixed edge -ways. Thefe bars are
all of the fame dimenfions, namely 2.9 inches wide, and
0.175 thick, and are united together by right-angled fliort
bent bars in various places, both at the interfeftions made
by the fides of the fmall fquares, and at other fituations,
fo that while great firmnefs is obtained, great weight is
avoided. The quadrantal arc is compofed of two bars,
one of iron, united to the iron frame, and the other of brafs,
on which the divifions are made, as defcribed under our
article Graduation' ; this brafs bar is pinned faft to tlie
iron one, and being more llender than the iron, accommodates
itfelf thereto, and, as time has proved, does not alter the
ftiape of tlje arc, as we have lately been afl"ured by Mr.
Troughton. The breadth of the limb is 2.2 inches, the
brafs limb being more remote than the anterior edge of the
■ iron arc by 1.2 inch, and the furface was planed, oi- rather
fcraped, by a tool fixed to a radial bar, that revolved on a
vertical axis of motion, placed in the centre of the arc, and
refting with its fuperior end in a fixed beam above the plane
of the quadrant, when this plane was lying in a horizontal
pofition, it being imprafticable to put fo large a body in
any ordinary lathe. The original divifions of Graham were
inferted on two feparate arcs, one graduated into 90° and
its fubdivifions, and the other divided into 96 parts and its
fubdivifions, as we have before explained in the article juil
referred to ; but the divifions, being laid down by -rough
dividing, are not now made ufe of, but a quadrantal arc of
'96, with its fubdivifions, put in by Bird in 1753 between
the two arcs of Graham, is that which all obfervations taken
by Graham's quadrant are now referred to, and the read-
ings ai-e transformed into degrees, minutes, and feconds, by
an appropriate table. The readings were at firft obtained
by a double vernier-piece carried by the telefcope, that
revolves round the centre of the arc, one fide of which
vernier-piece read with the arc 90°, and the other with the
arc of 96 parts, or grand divifions ; the degree was fub-
divided into 12 parts, or 5* fpaces, and 10 parts on its
vernier equalled li out of the faid 12 parts, fo that

QUADRANT.

,JjV of a degree, or 5'i, was tlie length of one of tlie
vernier divilions, and ,'t of this, or 30", was ihc fmallefl
quantity indicated by this vernier ; bnt on the arc of 96
grand divifions there was, as in Bird's arc, 16 equal parts,
or fubdivifions, in every grand divifion, and the vernier
for this arc had 17 divifions on it, occupying the fpacc
of 16 fubdivifions in the arc, fo that the length of this

— of ~ — = Co'.S? nearly, and one divifion
16 96

vernier vi'as

of it

17

:= 3'-52 nearly.

Hence in the. firll vernier its number 1 1 is one hfs than its
equivalent arc contains on the limb of 90° ; but in the fecond,
the number 17 is one more than its equivalent arc contains in
the arc of 96 parts, on which account the reading of one ver-
nier is in the direction from right to left, but that of the
other, on the contrary, from left to riglit ; one meets, and
the other overtakes the dividing llrok.es of the divided limb ;
and for the fame reafon, in the common Hadley's quadrant, or
rather oftant, fometimes 19 fubdivifions, and fometimes 21
on the limb, aft againft 20 in the vernier, but then the
readings are not in the fame dtredion. The telefcope is
clamped to the arc in any fituation by the mechanifm for
(low motion in the ufual way, which probably was firll
adopted in one of the large quadrants, and its counterpoife
beyond the centre of the arc, gives it the advantage of re-
maining in any pofition. It has crofs hairs in the focus of
the eye-glafs. When the lines of the vernier are none
of them coincident with any one on the limb of either
quadi-antal arc, the portions lefs than what the verniers
profefs to indicate were ejlimated by the eye, by examining
the fituation of other pairs of dividing lines, to the right
and left of thofe neareit to a coincidence ; and to a want
of a micrometrical nut to the fcrew of flow motion may be
attributed the remark, that has been made, that the readings
thus taken, even with fo large radii as 96.85 and 95.8
inches, were not to be depended upon to 10". That the
motion of the telefcope might be quite eafy, and that the
centre of the quadrant might be relieved of its weight, the
following contrivance was introduced ; a b reprefents an
iron axis laid acrofs the top of the wall, having two brafs
plates fixed perpendicularly to its ends, with notches cut
in them for this axis to turn in, which axis points to the
centre of the quadrant at right angles to its plane : to that
end of it next to the quadrant, at a, an iron arm, c d, is fixed,
having two brafs plates, ce, d f, almoft perpendicular to it ;
to thefe are rivetted two flcnder flips of deal, whofe
remote ends meet at g, near the eye-piece of the tele-
fcope, and arc held together by a brafs cap. Through

- a fmall plate fixed to one fide of a collar, embracing this
lower end of the telefcope, there pades a fcrew-pin at g,
parallel to the telefcope ; which pin, being fcrewed into
the cap at the end of the faid flips of deal, holds up the
telefcope againft the centre-work, while the flips are braced
by other crofs flips of the fame light wood. The counter-

- poife i is fupported by the rod h i at b, the retiring end of
the axis ab ; and a pair of brafs rollers h I, afting againft
the limb of the inftrument, give freedom to the motion of
the telefcope thus counterpoifed, and complete the con-
ftruftion. The quadrant being thus put together, fome
ftrong but Imall plates of brafs are made fall to its pofteriof
face, and bent fo as to fall into as many hold-fails in the
wall, into which they are refpetlively fcrewed ; but the
weight of the whole is fupported chiefly by two pins or
bolts inferted into the holes A and B, made in pieces of
metal attached to fuch angular points of the iron bars, as

bell fupport the centre of gravity of the whole : the pin
A is made faft into the wall, but allows a motion round it,
and the pin B fixes the quadrant after its extreme radii are
adjufted, one horizontal, and the other vertical : this pofition
was given by means of a phimb-line of fine filver-wirc, that
at firfl was fo fufpended as to bifeft both the centre of the
quadrantal arc and the point 90' on the limb, but which
was transferred afterwards to an adjuftable point of fuf-
penfion out of the centre, v.ith a correfponding dot made
on the arc of excefs of the limb. The plane of the quad-
rant was made vertical, as compared with the plumb-line,
by the fcrew? of the hold-fafts ; and the tclclcope was
adjufted parallel to this plane by comparifon with a tranfit
telefcope viewing togeth-r both high and low ftarj in fuc-
ceflion ; but the line of coUimation of the telefcope could
not be fixed properly, as it regarded the true horizontal line
of the quadrant pafling through its zero, without the aid of
Graham's feclor. This fedlor was, therefore, f« adjufted
to a ftar near the zenith, that it m^■afured the fame zenith-
diftance, with its plane turned to the eaft, as it did when
turned to the weft, and had its error afcertained in this
way, and afterwards an altitude, taken with the quadrant,
was made to correfpond witli fuch correfted altitude of a
ftar taken with the reftifud feftor in reverfed pofitions,
which property the mural qnadrant does not poliefs. The
method of performing this adjuftment for coUimation will
be underftood from our dncdions hereafter given, when
treating oi Ramfdcn^ s portable aflronomical Quadrant.

Bird's Mura! Quadrant.— After the deicription we have
given of Graham's mural quadrant, we fliall have no occa-
fion to dwell long on the ftrufture of Bird's, which was
made of brafs entirely, after a fimilar model, but divided in
both its arcs, of 90°, and of 96 grand parts, with mere
fl<ill than Graham proved himfelf mafter of in this part of
his labours. Smith and Stone defcribe Graham's quadrant
as fixed to the eaft fide of the pier at Greenwich, and look-
ing to the fouth, which was the fituation for taking meridian
altitudes of the greattft number of ftars ; but fince the year
1753, it has been placed on the weft fide, looking towards
the north, and Bird's then took its original place.

This quadrant, wiiich was procured in the time of Dr.
Bradley, was firft placed on the weft fide of the pier, in
1750 ; and the obfervations of hirafelf and of Dr. Mafkelyne,
taken by it fince it was placed on the eaft fide, have contri-
buted largely to complete the beft catalogues of the heavenly
bodies, which otherwife muft have been very defective.
While, however, Mr. Pond, the prefent aftronomer royal,
was engaged in making his well-known table of declinations,
with one of Troughton's circles, at Weilbury, he found
reafon to fufpeft the accuracy of the total arc of this
quadrant, from a comparifon of his own determinations with
thofe previoufly made with Bird's quadrant ; and a fubfe-
quent examination of the arc by Troughton juftified hi.
fufpicion. With an apparatus exprefsly contrived for the
occafion, this celebrated mathematical inftrument-maker
meafured the total length of the quadrantal arc, and found
it too fmall by 7", exclufive of another fimilar error of 2'',
occafioned by the wear of the axis of motion ; though, on
a rigid trial of the intermediate divifions, he did not deteft
more than one fecond of eiTor, or rather of inequality, among
the neighbouring divifions in any part of the arc. This trial
was made in the prefence of the prefent aftronomer royal, in
the" year 1807 ; and the refult, while it ferves to correft
paft obfervations, by the addition of l" to every fucceflive
10° of altitude, would have tended to correft all future ob-
fervations by a like addition, liad not the large tranfit-circle,
lately made and fixed in the fame obfervatory by Troughten,

fuperfeded

QUADRANT.

fuperfcded the ufe of both the quadrants by its fuperior
accuracy. The quadrantal arc of Graham's quadrant has
not lately undergone a fimilar trial ; but Troughton thinks
it probable that the iron inltrument has prcfcrved its figure
better than the brafs one, and that confequently the addi-
tion of the brafs arc on the face of the iron one lias had no
undue influence in altering either its temporary or permanent
dimenfions. At firft, tiie telcfcope of Bird's quadrant was
not braced ; but after a trial, it was found to bend a little
by a counterpoife of 80 pounds, and was afterwards braced
by frame-work furrounding it, that prevented its yielding.
A trial was made by Dr. Bradley of the total arc, in Ja-
nuary 1753, after it had remained three years on the weft
fide of the pillar ; and thougli its weight is eight hundred
pounds, the error was found to be not more than two
fcconds. He did the fame again in July, in the year 1759,
when it had remained fix years and a half in its new fitua-
tion, on the eall fide of the pillar, and found the arc ex-
aftly 90°. Thefe examinations, having been made in the
extremes of cold and heat, fhew that change of temperature
did not aflFeft the total arc ; and that, therefore, the 7"
diminution of the arc, detected by Troughton, is occa-
fioned by a change of figure in the fpace of 48 years. The
difference of the readings of the two arcs has never yet
amounted to 4", wliich is a (huiding proof of the accuracy
and fliill of Bird as a divider. Near the eye-piece of the
telefcope is a good micrometer, that not only gives flow

very neatly ; and the reading, as was the cafe with Bird's
quadrant at firtl, is performed partly by a vernier, and
partly by a micromcter-fcrew. We have feledted this in-
ilrument, as a fpecimen of Siffou's conftruftion, principally
on account of a power that it podefTes, wliich is very im-
portant, but which probably was not contemplated, and
confequently not intended by the maker himfclf : the cx-
tenfion of the divided limb, to feveral degrees beyond the
north pole, affords the means of ufingthis inllrument in the
manner tliat Troughton's large mural circle is now ufed, at
Greenwich Obfervatory, by the prefent aflronomer royal ;
namely, to meafure the polar dillanccs of the liars dlrettly
from the true polar point, without any reference to the lati-
tude of the obfervatory, which method is one of the greateft
modern improvements in making aftrononiical obfervations.
It is much to be defired that this mural arc fhould be di-
vided again by Troughton, or fomc other fuperior divider,
and that it have microfcopic micrometers applied to it,
which may be placed by adjuftment over any optional part
of the divifions, and at any affumed dillance from each
other ; for though it would not then, as it does not now,
poflefs the valuable property of oppofite readings, and of a
motion in altitude to reverfe the oppofite arcs, by rcafon of
its being lefs than a femicircle, yet being compaftly made,
and of large radius, it is capable of receiving divifions fu-
perior to thofe on the quadrants which we have juft de-
fcribed ; and as tlie fituation and flrufture of the obfjrva-

motion in taking obfervations, but meafures the number of tory are excellent, the appointment of a regular obferver

feconds that the reading lines of the vernier is fliort of coin-
cidence in any obfervation : and formerly the quantity in-
dicated by the vernier had thefe feconds added, to obtain
the whole meafure ; but, by Smeatoii's advice, the "vernier
is now difrcgarded, and the addendum, obtained by feveral
turns of the micrometer-fcrew alone, is ufed to complete
the fimple reading of the divifions and fubdivifions, or 5'
fpaces ; in other words, the fcrew, and not the vernier,
fubdivides the lad 5' fpace in the obferved arc, and gives
what is due to the- obfervation. The adjullments of this
inftrumcnt, which was made of eight feet radius, on pur-
pofe to take the place of Graham's, are made m all refpefts
as they are made in its predeceffor ; and tlie fector, which
ferves for adjufting Graham's line of collimation by liars
near the zenith, is ufed for the fame purpole in Bird's
quadrant. If Any of our read(?rs widi to fee the original
plan of all the fcparate parts of Bird's quadrant, and to
read his defcription of them, we beg leave to refer them to
his quarto pamphlet, entitled " The Method of conftrufting
Mural Quadrants," publifhed by order of the commiffioners
of the Board of Longitude, in the year 1768. In this
pamplilet, however, it is not mentioned that the vernier
of the arc of 90° fubdivides the fpace of 5' into ten parts
of 30" each, by having ten divifions thereon, reading with
eleven fubdivifions of the limb ; but we know that this was
the original reading of the vernier,

Jeremiah S'ljfon^s Mural Arc. — Perhaps it would have
been more confonant to the order of time, if we had fpoken
of the younger Siifon, who was Bird's contemporary, and
at one time his employer, next after Graham ; but the hif-
tories of the two mural quadrants at Greenwich being con-
neftcd, demanded that thefe inftruments fliould follow each
other in immediate fucceflion. In the year 1768, Jeremiah
Siffon, the fon of Jonathan, made the large mural arc at
the king's private obfervatory in Richmond gardens, which
extends 45-, or more, beyond a quadrant, and confequently
reaches beyond the north pole ; which circumftance gives
it the advantage of being put in the meridian, by an ob-
fervation of the pole-ftar. The divifions of this arc are into
degrees and its fubdivifions, but the ftrokes are not cut

Vol. XXIX.

to co-operate with the altronomer royal would be highly
conducive to the interefts of .iftronomy. We hope that this
hint may be taken up in a quarter where the power exifts
of realifing our wilhes in this refpeft. Allrononiica.1 clocks,
and various other auxiliary inlruments, are already in the
obfervatory ; fo that the principal expence of inllrumeats,
as well as of an appropriate and elegant building, is already
incurred.

Portable AJlronomical Qiiadrant by Ramfden. — It fre-
quently happens that fuperior artifts vary the conftruftion of
their inftruments to fuit the views of the purchafer, or the
fcale on which they are to be conftrufted. We will feleft
out of the quadrants made by the late ingenious Mr. Ramf-
den, that which he made for Dr. Shepherd for the ob-
fervatory of Chrift-college, Cambridge, and which pro-
feflbr Vince has defcribed at confiderable length in his
" Treatife on Praftical Allronomy." The figure exhibit-
ing this quadrant is the 5th of Plate YSKlYi. oi AJlrono-
mical Injlrumiuts, which requires but little explanation.
The tripod on which the quadrant is mounted has fcrews of
adjuftment to fet the ftem, on which the horizontal motion is
performed, perpendicular, which is proved to be fo in all
direftions when the plumb-line bifefts both the fuperior and
inferior dots during the whole revolution round a horizontal
circle. The vifible ftem is a brafs tube, and through it
afcends a folid ftecl vertical axis, which fitting clofely at the
fuperior and inferior ends, has not the leaft ftiake, and pre-
ferves the pofition once given it fo long as the feet fcrews
are unmoleftcd. The telefcope is of the achromatic con-
ftruftion, and has the ufual apparatus for flow motion, the
fcrew of which is made a micrometer to fubdivide the fmall
refiduum of the angle that the vernier alone will not indi-
cate, when the coincidence is not perfeft. The telefcope
lies on a bar that carries the counterpoife, and in which is
the centre of its motion. It has a fyftem of wires in the
focus of the eye-glafs, which are adjuftable by fcretvs, both
upwards and fideways, as well as in a circular direction, fo
tliat the adjuftments for collimation, and for zero in the alti-
tude circle, may be effefted thereby. The point of fuf-
penfion of the plumb-line is alfo adjuftable by a proper fcrew

T apparatus. '

QUADRANT.

apparatus. At tiie top ot the vertical tube, or ftem, is a
fmall horizontal circle with a clamping apparatus for flow
horizontal motioTi, by means of wiiich the whole quadrant,
with its attached tclefcopc, turns gradually rotind in azi-
muth. Wlien obfervations are made in or near the zenith,
the plumb-line falls in the way of the telefcope, and is obliged
to be removed, on which account the large quadrant made
by Ramfdcn for the duke of Marlborough, and now placed
at Blenheim, has the plumb-lme fufpcndcd at the poilerior
face of the inflrument. This inconvenience is, however,
remedied by the addition of a fpirit-level fufpended from
an adjuitable horizontal brafs rod, under the uppermolt
radial bar of the quadrant, and this level not only fupplies
the place of the plumb-line when taken off, but at all times
ferves as a check on its adjullment, and, when furnifhed with
a graduated fcale, may very well be made its fubltitute.
The conftruftion of Ramfden's portable quadrant was pro-
bably borrowed from Bird's, as well as his method of
dividing the larger inflruments that exceeded the reach of
his dividing engine ; but the inftrument before us has no other
horizontal or azimuth circle, except what is ufed plain, for
the purpofe of giving flow motion. Neither is there a
fecond horizontal telefcope fixed permanently in that fituation
by which the telefcope of obfervation may have its coUima-
tion determined, and the zero of its vernier adjuftcd.

The vernier of this quadrant reads with two fets of divi-
fions, hke that of the mural quadrant by Bird, but the
radius being fmall, the fubdivifions are made into four parts

each ; the inner arc is divided into 90'', and the fubdivifions
into 15' each, but the outer one into 96 parts, or grand
divifions, and thefe again each into four parts, or fub-
divifions ; and thofe two arcs operate as a check on each
other. The micrometer lub-dividcs the 15' into 3" ; but it
is necelTary to convert the reading of the arc of 96 grand
divifions into a correfponding quantity, exprefled in degrees,
minutes, and feconds, which may be done by dire£t pro-
portion, or, which is more feafible, by a table that we have
fubjoined, calculated for this purpofe. The readings of the
arc of 96 are put down with titles Jivijions, fiib-JiviJions, and
vernier, where 16 (and fomctimes 32 1 on the vernier are
equal to one fub-divifion, andybar fub-divifions to one divifion ;
for example, fuppofe the reading to be thus, 21 div. 2 fubv
1 1 ver. we fhall have from the tabic

Divifions
Sub-divifions

Vernier

21

2

=

0 1 II
19 41 15.

28 7.5

9 40.1

Total

20 19 2.6

When, however, the coincidence of the vernier is not
perfeft, the quantity brought up by the micrometer-fcrew
mull be added as a fratlional portion of 52. "8, which is the
value of one ftep of the vernier, when 16 is the number of
fteps, but if 32 are inferted, then 26".4 would be the value
of one ftep forwards from zero.

A Table for the Reduftion of the Grand Divifions, Sub-divifions, and Vernier, of the Arc of 96, into Degrees,

Minutes, and Seconds.

Grand Divifions.

Sub-dtvifion3.

Vernier.

0 1 II

0 ( //

0 / ((

1 II

1 II

I

0 56 15

33

30 56 15

65

60 56 15

I

14 3-7

I

0 26.4

2

I 52 30

34

31 52 30

66

61 52 30

2

28 7.5

2

. 0 52-8

I

3

2 48 45

35

32 48 45

67

62 48 45

3

42 1 1.2

3

I 19. 1

4

3 45 0

36

33 45 0

68

63 45 0

4

I 45-5

2

5

4 41 '5

37

34 41 15

69

64 41 15

5

2 II. 8

6

5 37 30

38

35 37 30

70

65 37 30

6

2 38.2

3

7

6 33 45

39

36 33 45

71

66 33 45

7

3 4-6

8

7 30 0

40

37 30 0

72

67 30 0

8

3 30.9

4

9

8 26 15

41

38 26 15

73

68 26 15

9

3 57-3

10

9 22 30

42

39 22 30

74

69 22 30

10

4 23-7

5

II

10 18 45

43

40 18 45

75

70 18 45

II

4 50.0

12

1115 0

44

41 15 0

76

71 15 0

12

5 16.4

6

13

12 II 15

45

42 II 15

77

72 II 15

13

5 42.8

H

13 7 30

46

43 7 30

78

73 7 30

14

6 9.1

7

15

•4 3 45

47

44 3 45

79

74 3 45

15

6 35-5

16

1500

48

45 0 0

80

75 0 0

16

7 '-9

8

17

15 56 15

49

45 56 15

81

75 5^ 15

17

7 28.2

18

16 52 30

50

46 52 30

82

76 52 30

18

7 54-6

9

>9

17 48 45

51

47 48 45

83

77 48 45

19

8 21.0

20

18 45 0

52

48 45 0

84

78 45 0

20

8 47-3

10

21

19 41 15

53

49 4' 15

85

79 41 15

21

9 13-7

22

20 37 30

54

50 37 30

86

80 37 30

22

9 40.1

II

23

21 33 45

55

51 3S 45

87

81 33 45

23

10 6.4

24

22 30 0

56

52 30 0

88

82 30 0

24

10 32.8

12

25

23 26 15

57

53 26 15

89

83 26 15

25

10 59.2

26

24 22 30

58

54 22 30

90

84 22 30

26

II 25.5

13

27

25 18 45

59

55 18 45

91

85 18 45

27

II 51.9

28

26 15 0

60

56 15 0

92

86 15 0

28

12 18.3

14

29

27 II 15

61

57 II 15

93

87 II 15

29

12 44.6

30

28 7 30

62

58 7 30

94

88 7 30

30

13 ii-o

15

31

29 3 45

63

59 3 45

95

89 3 45

31

13 37-4

32

30 0 0

64

60 0 o

96

90 0 0

32

14 3-7

16

Adjiijlmenls. —

QUADRANT.

Adjujlmenfs. — I. To adjujl the axis of the pedejlal vertical. —
This itdjutlment may be pcrtormtd cither by the plumb-line
or by the level, botii which methods we will explain in fuc-
ceilioii. We have already faid that when the wire of the
plumb-line will continue to bifeijt both the upper and lower
dot, while the inflrument is turned quite round in azimuth,
its axis is vertical in all directions, but this could not be
effedlcd unlels the plumb-line palling through tlie two dots
were alfo parallel to the axis; this adjuftment, therefore, is
made partly by the fcrews at the feet of the tripod, and
partly by the fcrew that moves the piece bearing the upper
dot in a lateral direftion. In the firft place then turn the
quadrant in azimuth till its plane, or, which is the fame
thing, the telcfcope lies parallel to a line joining any two of
the three feet, and turn one of thefe two fcrews till the wire
bifedls the lower dot, and with the proper fcrew brir.£; the
upper dot to the fame wire ; then reverfe the telefcope by
turning i8o°in azimuth, and if both dots are again bifetled,
the axis is vertical in the diretlion that the telefcope has
pointed ; in the next place turn the telefcope the fpace of a
quadrant till it points in the fame direftion as the third foot
of the tripod, and make the wire bifeft the lower dot by the
fcrew of this foot, and it will be f'^und to bifeft the upper
.dot alfo, if the iirll adjuftment of the dot was properly
made, but if not, repeat the operation till both dots are
bifefted in all the reverfed fituations of the telefcope, and
then the axis will be vertical in every direftion.

In making this adjuftment by the level alone, the procefs
muft be thus ; firft, the level mull be made parallel to the
rod on which it hangs, and fecondly, this rod muft be put
perfectly horizontal, and the level will then be horizontal alfo,
with the bubble in the middle. In order to make the level
parallel to the rod, place it parallel to a line joining two of the
feet fcrews, and bring the bubble to the middle by one of
the feet fcrews in queftion ; then take off and reverfe the
pofitiGnx)f the level, and if the bubble is found in the middle
now, the parallelifm is perfett, if not, one half of the error
muft be reftified by the fame foot-fcrew, and the other half
by the adjufting icrews at the end of the rod, by releafing
one and fcrewing up the other. A repetition or tvv'o of this
procefs will make the bubble ftand in the middle in both of
the reverfed fituations. In the next place, with the level thus
parallel to the rod of fufpenfion, turn the quadrant round its
axis an entire femicircle as nearly as can be eftimated, and
if the bubble will now reft in the middle, the rod is level, and
being at right angles with the axis of the quadrant's motion,
proves that this axis is vertical in every direftion ; but if the
bubble is found to run to one end of the tube, bring it one
halfway back by the rod's adjufting fcrevvs, releafing one
and fixing the other, as the cafe may be, and the other half
by the proper foot-fcrew. A repetition of this procefs will
foon fettle the bubble in the middle during a whole revolution
in azimuth, and then the adjuitment of the axis is perfeft, as
well as of the rod and level.

2. The fecond adjuftment is that by which the line of
coUimation of the telefcope is made parallel to the horizonta,l
line that pafl'es from the centre of the quadrant to zero on
the limb, or quadrantal arc, at the fame time that zero
on the vernier coincides with zero on the limb. This im-
portant adjuftment may be made in feveral ways, fome of
which are tedious and otherwife obje6lionablc ; but we wiU
confine ourfelves to two which apply, one' to the vertical,
and the other to the horizontal line of the quadrant, which
two methods, when duly effected, will not only check each
other, but deteft the error of the total arc, if there is any,
at the fame time ; which is an acquifition of the utmoft im-
portance. Firft then, to adjuft by the vertical line, let the

axis of the quadrant be firft made truly perpendicular in all
direftions by tlie adjuftmeiil we have already defcribed, and
fix on a ftar within a few degrees of the zenith, when exadtly
on the meridian, and mcafurc its altitude by the crofs-wire
in the field of view in the ufual way, and note down the
rcfult ; do the fame on a fucceffive night foon after, if pof-
fible on an evening of fimilar temperature, with the quad-
rant turned half round in azimuth, and note again the refult ;
if thefe readings prove to be at equal diltanccs from the
point 90°, one on the quadrantal arc, and the other on the
arc of excefs beyond 90'', the horizontal wire is truly placed
in the eye-piece, but if not, half of the difference of the
readings muft be corrected by the proper fcrew for raifing
or lowering the faid wire. This may be done by directing
the telefcope to a diftant mark till the crofs-wire bifects it,
then by moving the fcrew of flow motion of the vernier the
half quantity required, and by bringing back (up or down)
the crofs-wire thus dilplaced to its original mark again. This
operation repeated will place the crofs-wire in fuch fituatioH,
that zero on the vernier will be in its proper place with re-
fpeft to the point 90° ; or the half difference thus afcertained
may remain, without altering the crofs-wire, as an error of
adjuflment to be conllantly applied with the fign -)- or — ,
as the cafe may be, in all fubfequent obfervations. Again,
to adjuft by the horizontal line palling through zero of the
quadrantal arc, it will be necefiary to have a fecond telefcope
turning on pivots in adjuftable Ys attached to the back of
the quadrant, on the fame level with the faid horizontal line
of the quadrant. This telefcope may be called the adjufling
telefcope, and may be alfo ufed to 'watch a diftant mark,
before and after an altitude is taken, in order to deteft any
deviation in the pofitioii of the vertical axis, that may hap-
pen during the operation of meafuring. Let the adjufting
telefcope bifeft a fine diftant mark with its crofs-wire, and
turn the tube of the telefcope round one halfway on its
pivots, as it lies in a horizontal pofition, and if the wire now
bifefts the fame mark it is truly fixed, if not, look out for
a new mark a little higher or lower, as the cafe may be, and
make it cut that in the reverfed pofitions of the crofs-wire,
by means of the proper fcrew for this purpofe ; now this
adjufting telefcope will be adjufted for coUimation : in the
next place, put zero on the vernier to zero on the limb, and
direft the telefcope of obfervation to the fame diftant mark,
by which the adjufting telefcope had its wire adjufted, and
let tliis mark be bifefted by both telefcopes, the level and
plumb-line at the fame time fhewing that the vertical axis is
perpendicular ; now turn the quadrant half round in azimuth,
and reverfe the adjufting telefcope fo as to view the fame
diftant mark again, and if it is foiind to bifeft it as before,
the horizontal line of the quadrant is right, and alfo the
quadrantal arc without error, fuppofing the telefcope of
obfervation to have its adjuftment for coUimation as fixed by
the point 90°, above defcribed ; but if this adjuftment of
the point zero on the limb be Jirfl made, half the apparent
error muft be reftified by the icrew at the eye-piece, by
means of reverfed pofitions and new marks ; and then after-
wards the adjuftment by a Ihu- near the zenith will deteft the
error of the whole arc. If, however, no error in the total
arc exifts, then the adjuftment for colhmation may be made
either from the horizontal or from the vertical meafurement,
as may be moft convenient ; one of which is more praftica-
ble by day, and the other by night. When this delicate
and very effential adjuftment is finally fettled, the objeft-
glafs of the telefcope fhould not be diiturbed, and therefore
it would be advifeable to have its interior furface weU cleaned
previoufly.

It was taken for granted that the crofs-wire was perfeftly
T 2 horizontal

QUADRANT.

horizontal during the time the preceding adjuftment was
made, or, which is the fame thing, that the parallel vertical
wires were perpendicular to the horizon. This is proved in a
fimple manner thus ; diredt tiic tclefcope to a fine fmall dif-
tant mark, and make the adjullmciit forvifion, if neceflary ;
then if one of the vertical wires will continue to hifedt the
faid mark through the whole field of view while the tele-
fcope is elevated or depreiTed, the wires are right, but if not,
they muil be made fo by the proper fcrews for that purpofe,
near the focus of the oye-glafs. This preparation ought to
precede the lail adjuftment, and when once made, feldom re-
quires altering, except in cafe of accidental injury.

It has alfo been aifumed in the preceding adjulimcnt, that
the maker of the inftrument placed the plane of the quad-
rant parallel to the axis of its motion, and alfo the line of
coUiniation of the telefcope parallel to the faid plane. Tiie
former may be known to be true thus; if, ulien the plumb-
line is adjulled, at its centre of fufpi-nrioii, juil to efcape
touching the limb, (which fltould always be the cafe,) the
quadrant's motion in a/.imuth will not alter it in this refpetl,
the plane it truly fixed ; but if not, the fcrews, tiiat fix the
q\iadrant to its axis, muft be reforted to for the alteration,
which is belt done by the maker. When there is no plumb-
line, a fmall fpirit-level, fixed at right angles to the plane
of the quadrant, will anfwer the fame purpofe ; for the red-
ing of the bubble during the quadrant's revolution in azi-
muth, will be a proof that the plane to which it is at right
angles is vertical. With refpeft to the parallel pofition of
the telefcope, as this is guided by the vernier Aiding on the
limb, it is the bufincfs of the maker to adjuft it properly,
which he will beft do by a comparifon with a good tranfit
initrument of the paflages of a high and of a low ftar in
each of the two inftruments ; but a fmall deviation of the
telefcope with refpeft to parallelifm, though to be avoided
if prafticable, will not fenfibly affeft; the meafurement of
altitudes, which is the fole bufinefs of this initrument. If,
however, this deviation is confiderable, the eye-end of the
telefcope mull be fet nearer to or farther from the limb, as
the cafe may be, by the maker himfelf. We have been the
more minute in defcribing thefe adjultments, not only be-
caufe they are indifpenfably neceffary in making good obfer-
vations, but becaufe they will apply, one or other of them,
by means of the plumb-line, or of the fpirit-level, to all
Other aftronomical quadrants that have a motion in azimuth.

We have before us the drawing of a large and beautiful
quadrant made by Mr. Cary, for Leopold, the late grand
duke of Tufcany, with two telefcopes and a graduated azi-
muth circle, but the dcfcription we have given of Ramfden's
inftrument will equally apply to his, except as to the di-
menfioas.

Portable AJlrononncal Quadrant by Troughton. — Though
we have defcribcd Ramfden's portable aftronomical quadrant
with much minutenefs, and have detailed the moft ufeful
methods of making Rich adjuftments as will apply to the
other portable quadrants that have a motion in azimuth, yet
we fhould do violence to our own feehngs, as well as to the
ingenuity- of an exifting artift of the firil- eminence, if we
withheld from the public eye the great improvements that he
has made in this inftrument fince the death of Ramfden.
Fig- 6. of the fame plate that contains Ramfden's inftru-
ment, is a reduced perfpeftive view of the improved aftro-
nomical quadrant of Troughton, which was made by him
and fent to Bilboa in Spain, about the time that aftronomical
circles began to be conftrufted. It has been afferted, under
our article Circle, that this inftrument, as conftrufted by
Troughton, ( and we may now add, by Thomas Jones, who
has learnt his mode of dividing,) is greatly fuperior to any

quadrant that can be made, on account of properties whicli
the circle exclufivcly pofrcfTes ; but fo far as a quadrant's
accuracy can be depended on, Troughton's improved con-
ftruftion is to be preferred to all others. And, indeed,
when we confider that fimplicity, fteadinefs of performance,
and permanence of the adjuftments once made in this inftru-
ment, are properties which it pecuharly poffefles, along with
comparr.tive cheapnefs, it is probable that there will always
be purchafers, when fuch an inftrument is on fale, provided
the improver will confeut to make luch inftrument with
limited powers, when he can have rapid fale for thofe whicU
he now couftrudls, with all the advantages that the circle
affords.

The radius of this quadrant is three feet, and the body is
made double, that is, of two quadrantal frames united into
one, by fmall pillars holding their planes parallel, and enfur-
ing the two properties, not often united in other men's in-
ftruments, of lightnefs and ftrength at the fame time. The
tripod, on which the quadrant is fupported, is a frame of
mahogany, braced in different direftions, fo as to refift any
ordinary prefl'ure, when the quadrant is put in motion, or
the telefcope ufed. The three feet-fcrews are furniftied with
each a Hooke's joint and long handle, fo that the obferver
may make an adjuftment with any of thefe -fcrews without
ftooping, and confequently without withdrawing his atten-
tion from the plumb-line apparatus, or fpirit-level, that in-
dicate the quantity of adjuftment that may be neceffary from
any individual fcrew. About the middle of this pedeftal,
or frame-work of the tripod, is a three-armed horizontal
bracing piece, on which the item of the quadrant refts ; and
this ftem is kept vertical by a focket of brafs made faft to
the centre of the table, that furmounts the pedeftal, in
which focket the vertical axis turns both fteadily and freely,
while it refts on the three-armed bracing piece below. The
azimuth or horizontal circle is centered on this axis, but fo
as to admit of a motion round it of about two degrees, for
the purpofe of putting the zero of the quadrant right when
the telefcope is in the plane of the meridian. This fmall
motion is produced by the tangent fcrew feen in front, and
the other tangent fcrew regulates the flow motion of the
telefcope and vernier, by taking hold of the folid vernier
plate, that reads at oppofite points, and that may be
clamped, when in ufe, to the azimuth circle, which is alfo
a folid circular plate of brafs, fubdivided into lo' fpaces,
and reading by the verniers alone to lo".

The vernier or index-plate is of confiderable depth, and
hollow, terminating with a chamfered edge below, and con-
tains in it a triangular frame not feen, foldered to it, and
oppofed, for the fake of ftrength, by another fimilar frame
feen above its plane. From the frame within the hoUovr
index-plate arife three fmall pillars, which fupport the upper
triangular frame at the three corners, and palling through
it receive fo many milled nuts on their tapped ends, by
which means the whole are compaftly united. Thefe milled
nuts are ufeful for adjufting the plane of the quadrant paral-
lel to the vertical axis of the quadrant's motion in azimuth ;
and it is here where the quadrant is to be feparated from the
ftand for clofe package. Upon the upper triangular frame
is foldered faft a fhort but ftrong conical tube, that fupports
the long column that terminates with a fupplementary cone.
From nearly the lower extremity of this long column a
couple of braces afcend about twenty inches to the upper
part of the body of the quadrant, and, by being made faft to
it, complete the fteadinefs of the ftrufture in an admirable
manner. The telefcope, which is about forty-two inches
long, and achromatic, as well as furnilhed with an adjuft-
able fyftem of Spider's threads, tapers from the objeft-glafs

down-

QUADRANT.

downwards, to prevent any inclination to bending by its
weight, and has an axis of motion of four inches and a half
long, that paHes through the thick pillar, that connefts the
two quadrantal portions of the double frame at the exaft
centre of motion, and of the divided arc. The counter-
poife is applied at the redundant end of the tclefcope, and
the vernier borne by its end, near the eye-piece, divides
the 5' fpaces of the vertical arc into 5", while a micromctri-
cal microfcope, attached to the metal of the telefcope, lub-
divides this lalt quantity miofingle ftronds. A nicely ground
fpirit-level hangs on the horizontal bar, with its proper ad-
jullment apparatus, which alone will afccrtain the poiition
of the quadrant to nfecond ; but, as if this were not fuf-
ficient, a plumb-line is made to defcend, free from dull, or
agitation by the wind, from an adjuitable point of fufpcn-
fion through the hollow column, where there is little or no
diilurbance from amotion in azimuth, and enfures the pofi-
tion ilill more certainly. The water vellel in which the
plummet is immerfed, to prevent vibration, is contained in
the hollow fhort cone before defcribed, as containing a tri-
angular frame within it, and the iituation of the wire is
examined in two direftions, at right angles to each other, by
microfcopes looking acrofs the bore of the column, at a con-
venient height for the obferver to fee without a change of
pofition of his body, when he has been juft obferving at the
telefcope. The mark ufcd for each wire to bifeft is a lumi-
nous difc, known by the name of Ram/din's ghoji, from its
being oidy the image of a luminous point without fubftance,
occalioned by a contrafted aperture of a tube, fixed at the
remote fide of the column into which light enters, and by
which it is direfted without parallax. Befides thefe appen-
dages, there is a fecondary or adjuiling telefcope, fuch as
the elder SifTon made for his fpirit-level, and fuch as we
have already defcribed, as furnilbing the means of adjufting
the horizontal line of a quadrant that moves in azimuth, and
of afcertaining the error of the whole quadrantal arc, by
comparifon with the adjuflment by a ftar near the zenith.
(See Portable AJlronom'ical Qiiadrant by Ramfden, before de-
fcribed ) Lattly, the radial bars that bear the quadrantal arc,
taper downwards from the centre, thereby giving ilrength to
the part moft liable to alter its figure by weight, as it is fup-
pofed Bird's mural quadrant has done in a fmall degree for
want of fuch precaution. This quadrant has an arc of ex-
cefs at each end, and is capable of all the adjuftments we
have above defcribed in an exquifite degree.

Of Nautical Quadrants, meafur'ing by ReJleB'wn.

Sir Jfaac Netuton's refleEling Quadrant. — A manufcript ac-
count of a quadrant, meafunng altitudes and diftances by
refleftion, of the hand-writing of fir Ifaac Newton, was
found among the papers of Dr. Halley after his death, which
quadrant, according to Stone, was aftually made in the year
1672, when Dr. Halley was preparing to go to the South
feas, to make an addition to his catalogue of fixed ftars ;
but the manufcript account was not produced, or even men-
tioned, when Hadley's inllrument was fliewn to the Royal
fociety, nor was made known till the year 1742. (See
Phil. Tranf. N° 465. ) Hence fome doubt has been enter-
tained whether fir Ifaac Newton or Hadley was the firll in-
ventor of the reflecting quadrant. The moft probable in-
ference is, that each invented his own, feeing that though
the principle is the fame in bothconflruftions, yet the mode
of applying it is different, as wdl be feen from a comparifon
of the figures, and from our defcription of each in fuccef-
fion. Sir Ifaac Newton's quadrant was preferved for feveral
years at the houfe of Mr. Heath, who was a mathematical
inftrument maker in the Strand, London, and it is probably

12

in exiflence at this time. Dr. Hooke is alio faid, by Dr.
Pratt, to have invented a quadrant that was, or might be,
ufed at fea with one refleftion only ; and, indeed, he is ailerted
to have been the firft man who propofed the ufc of a mirror
in a nautical inftrument. See Cikcle.

Sir Ifaac Newton's quadrant, reprefented by Jig. 7. of
Plate I. of /IJlronomical Injlruments, confifts of an entire
fcdtoral plate of brafs, P (j R S, to the plane of which the
telefcope A 13 is fixed and lies parallel, and an index, which
is moveable about an axis of motion at A. The limb
D Q was accurately divided into half degrees, and, as is
faid, half minutes, on a fcale of four feet radius, and was fub-
divided by a diagonal fcale into -,^th of a minute. The
principle on which this femi-divilion is founded is this ; vi-z.
, " If a fixed ray of light be rcfledted at a plane refledlor,
and if the refledlor be made to revolve about an axis perpen-
dicular to the plane palling through the incident and refletled
rays, which may be called the plane of refleftion, the an-
gular velocity of the reflefted ray will be double to the angular
velocity of the rcfleftor." See Vince's Praftical Aitro-
nomy, p. 7, &c.

Hence one fmall mirror, G, is made faft to the plane of the
feftoral plate, and perpendicular thereto, but inclined in an
angle of 45° to the axis, or length of the telefcope, and in
fuch a way, as to cover one half of the aperture, while an-
other fimilar mirror is borne by the index, in fuch a pofition,
that when the index is at zero, both the mirrors are not only
perpendicular to the plane of the quadrant, or rather oftant,
but are parallel to each other. Now, according to the
principle that we have jull mentioned, when the index is
moved forward, a ray of light from any fixed luminous body,
when caught by the index mirror, will be reflefted on the
fixed mirror, and an eye direfted through the fixed telefcope
tow.irds the faid body, will fee it divide into two bodies the
inftant that the index begins to move ; that is, the body
itfelf will be feen Jlationary through one half of the tele-
fcope's aperture, and its image will be feen in the other half
in motion, and this motion has double the velocity that the
index has, which bears the revolving refleftor ; and on this
account it is, that the divifions for half degrees and half mi-
nutes, are read as whole degrees and whole minutes, as well
as the -rVth read as ,1th by the diagonal fcale. From this
fliort explanation of the piinciple and ftrufture of fir Ifaac
Newton's reflefting quadrant, it is eafy to perceive that the
conilruftion is derived immediately from the principle in
the fimplefl, though in praftice not the beil manner ; for
the inftrument itfelf illuftrates the principle in the moft ob-
vious way ; but, from its magnitude and mode of being ufed,
it is very inconvenient to be fupported without a ftand, which
on board a fliip is inadmilTible.

Perhaps it might be on this account that Dr. Halley did
not pay more attention to it than he appears to have done,
according to the information that we at this diftance of time
poflefs. However, it is evident, that the inftrument before
us is capable of meafuring either vertical, horizontal, or
oblique angles, in the way it profefTes.

Calebs Quadrant by Jingle RtfleSion. — Fig. 2. of Plate
XXIII. of yljlronomical Injlruments, is the figure of an in-
ftrument, which, like Dr. Hooka's contrivance, meafured
altitudes by fingle refleftion, as we conceive, the drawing
having fallen into our hands without the defcription. An
arc compofed of an entire quadrant, and au index with a
fingle mirror fixed to it at its centre of m.otion, conftitute
its leading features, while a fight-vane, at the remote end
of the prolonged index, inftead of a telefcope, has a plane
hole, through v.-hich the fun is viewed after refleftion from
the ir.dex-glafs, his rays having firft palfed through a coloured

glafs.

QUADRANT.

glafs. This conftruflioii, witli the addition of fir Ifaac
Newton's fecoiid mirror, would coniUtute an union of two
inftruments, that would greatly refcmble the combination
adopted by Mr. Hadley, which follows next in our lid of
quadrants ; but which may not have been copied from Inch
union ; for Cole has got tlie vernier fcale, which is preferable
to the diagonal one adopted by Hadley, and therefore pro-
bably he followed Hadley, though the quadrant before us
has not recommended itfeif to general ufe, as being an, im-
provement.

Hadley' s Qimdranl. — As we cannot help confidering Had-
Icy's qiiadrani, or more properly oclatit, as a near relative at
lead to his friend lir Ifaac Newton's, we will defcribe it
next in order, while the principle of its conflruftion is frefh
• in the reader's memory. The circuinltance of Mr. Had-
ley's being preiident of the Royal Society was favourable to
the early notice of his inftrument ; and the Intcreft that the
Britifli nation took, and muft ever take, from its infular
fituation, in nautical Improvements, coiilriijuted to Its early
adoption, at a time when fuch an inltrument was greatly
wanted.

Mr. Hadley, wc learn, tried various modifications in the
conltruAlon, but that which has been approved from long
ufage is the one we (hall felcci for. defcription. Fig. I. in
Plate XXIII. of AJlronmnical Injlrumeiits, is the reprefenta-
tion of Hadlcy's oftant, as it is now condrufted with a ver-
nier, which it liad not at firft, and which is preferable to the
diagmal divifions at firft applied by Hadley, as well as by
fi/ Ifaac Newton. For the fake of lightnefs, united with
ftrength, the frame of the inftrument, when made of any
of the hard woods, is put together ufually as is repre-
fented in the figure, but when made all in brafs, and
particularly when the limb is extended to 120 half degrees,
reading as 120°, in which cafe it is called s. /extant, the bed
modern makers make it double ; that is, have two feparate
light frames, united by fhort pillars, danding at right an-
gles to their planes, which thus become parallel. This
condruftlon, we believe, was introduced by Mr. Troughton,
and allows a more iteady motion to all the moveable and
adjudable parts, by lengthening their axesof. motion, which
penetrate acrofs both parts of the double frame, and by that
contrivance have longer bearing?. But we are now pro-
pofing to defcribe a quadrant of Hadley'sown condru&lon.
A B C is a frame of fome hard wood, fuch as ebony, which
may be of any convenient radius, from eighteen inches down-
wards to three, or lefs, if required for thg pocket, and A D Is
the index bearing the vernier at D, together with the ufual
clamping apparatus for flow motion. In making the contact
in any obfervation. This apparatus, together with the powers
of the vernier, and mode ot ufing It, have been explained under
oar article Circle, (fee alfo VermiiR,) and the.eiore may be
referred to by the reader unacquainted with their ufes. Whea
the radius is very fmall, the vernier fubdivides half degrees,
and has thirty divifions on It, but has twenty or fifteen, ac-
cordingly as the degree of the hmb is fubdlvlded Into thirds
ox fourths of a degree. The peculiar excellence of tills in-
ftrument, either in the form of an octant or fextant, is, that
all forts of angles can be meafured with It on board a flilp,
even while the lliip is tofled by the waves ; and alio, that it
requires no other auxiliary means, than the natural horizon,
which at fea Is always, or moftly prefent, when a heavenly
body can be feen., Tiie plumb-line and fpirit-level are
equally ' ipenfed with : to which may be added, that, if
any accidental injai'y be received, a circuniftance not impro-
bable in the hands of fallors, the adjudments are fo finiple,
that, generally fpeaklng, the derangements may be eafily
reftified. In the belt Inllruments, a fraall telefcope is

fcrewed into the fight-vane, which not only prevents parallax,
by limiting the line of fight between two parallel wires, but
afiidsthe fight greatly in obtaining exadt contafts. There
is ufually an arc of excefs at each end of the limb, one of
which is ufeful in adjufting the index-error by the iun or
moon, and the other is ferviceable when angular dlilances are
meafured beyond a quadrantal arc ; indeed it would be well
if the arc were always extended to meafure 120"^, or more,
for then a fextant would be competent to meafure all forts
of angles that the mariner can require, to find his latitude,
time, and longitude.

When the odlant has not the tangent fcrew of flow mo-
tion for adjudmeiit in making the contaft, the index is
nicely moved by hand, and then fixed .by a fcrew behind it
for this purpoie, and in either cafe the examination and
noting down of the altitude, or horizontal angle taken,
may be read at any time, for hours afterwards, which is
another important advantage that this iudrument poffeflcs
in common with the fextant ; for where more obfervcrs than
two are not prefent; one obierver may thus manage to take
both an altitude and a dldance in a lunar obfervation with
two feparate Indruments in quick fucccflion, while another
obierver is taking the altitude of the fecond objeft ; or
with the help of Margett's horary tables, the fecond alti-
tude may be had by infpeftion, when the hour, latitude,
and declination of the body are known, in which cafe one
obfer-uer can take a lunar obfervation with tolerable accuracy.
The limb of the inftrument is bed of metal, fuch as brafs,
filver, or platlna, when made and divided in the bed way
by a fuperior dividing engine, fuch as Troughton's ; but in
ordinary indruments a piece of ivory is frequently let into
the wood, and fometimes the divifions are made even on
the wood Itfelf, which is liable to be affe£led by moidure.
The index is mod frequently entirely of brafs, and wider
as it afcends to the centre of motion, to prevent lateral
bending, wliich would dedroy the accuracy of the readings.
When an obfervation is made by the larger fort, the right
hand ftiould be applied to the lower extremity of the index
to give it fteady motion, while the left holds tiie lower
end of the remote radial bar ; and the plane of the inftru-
ment muft be kept in the line that joins the two objefts, of
which the horizon is one, when an altitude is taken, and
then the inftrument is held vertical. In bringing down the
image of an objeft to the horizon by a_/orfobferv,-,tion, the
body of the obferver muft gradually incline towards the
horizon, and a little vibrating motion will aflift in deter-
mining the exaft plane of contaft ; but in taking a hori-
zontal angle, the obferver will handle the inftrument as beft
fuits his convenience. The mirror at A is placed over the
centre of motion of the index, in a direftion pointing to
zero on the vernier, and perpendicular to the flat face of
the index : this index-glafs, being completely filvered, re-
fleijts the light it receives dire£fly at right angles on the
glafs E, when the zero of the vernier is at the zero of the
limb ; but as the limb proceeds forwards, this angle alters,
and, as we have fald, is duuhle of the meafure of the real
angle to be meafured and indicated. This glafs E is alfo
fixed perpendicular, and has icrews of adjuftment for per-
pendicularity above Its focket of brafs, and a tall-piece
with a fixiug-fcrew behind the frame, for fixing the paral-
lelifm ; the want of which is called the, index-error : one
half only of this glafs, which is called the fore-horizon glafs,
is filvered, and the other half remains unfilvered, in order
that both the dlreft rays tranfmltted through the unfilvered
part, and the refledled rays coming from the filvered part,
may meet at the eye, on which account the middle of this
glafs, where the line of feparation erodes, is the part to be

viewed

QUADRANT.

viewed in making a contaft, otherwife both the image of
one objeft, and the fubftancc of the otlier, could not be
feen at the fame inllant. F is the fight-vane, witli two
holes, ufually an upper and a lower, inferted mto the firll
radial bar of the frame, fo that the holes are at the fame
dillance from the plane of the inftrumcnt as the line of fepa-
ration is in the half-filvered glafs E, to prevent parallax of
the refledled rays, and in the bell inllruments this vane,
with its telelcope, has an adjuilable motion to and from
the plane, in order that more or lefs liglit may fall on either
of the bodies obferved, which is not only ufeful, but nec.-i-
fary, in taking a lunar diftance ; for by this adjuilment the
image of one body may be made as luminous as the real
body of the other, by increafing the light of one, while it
decreafes that of the other ; that is, by making more of
the filvered, or of the unfilvered part of glafs E, fall be-
fore the objeft-glafs of the fmall tclefcope, when this ad-
juilment is neceifary. It may be neced'ary to obferve here,
that every filvered glafs of fenfible thicknefs has two re-
fledlions, one on the anterior, and the other, which is the
principal one, on the pofterior or filvered face, and in many
cafes errors may be occafioned by thcfe double refleftions ;
to remedy which. Dr. Mafl<elyne propofed, that the filvered
portion of the pollerior face fliould be ground rough
and painted black, taking care that the grinding be fo
performed, that the line of feparation between the polifhed
and unpolifhed parts be parallel to the plane of the oftant.
In the back horizon-glafs, which is that feen with its light-
vane at G, with adjuftments fimilar to thofe of xW fore
horizon-glafs at E, the whole pollerior face is filvered, ex-
cept a flit, that divides it in a line parallel to the ))lane of
the frame, through which flit the body is oblerved in a
back obfervation. But when the fun is the body obferved,
his light is generally too intenfe for the eye to bear, par-
ticularly when the fmall telefcope is ufed ; to render the
rays tolerable to the eye, a coloured glafs, or glafles, mufl
be interpofed, and a blank tube mftead of a telefcope be
ufed, by which means the fun may be viewed without doing
injury to the eye ; and ufually a fyftem of coloured glafles
are Aided into a fquare hole, as at H, and a ioint in each
allows them, or any one of them, to be brought forwards
into the fituation where the direft rays muft pals to the eye.
The fame remedy is alfo fometimes applied at the eye-pi-ce
of the blank tube, when the fun alone is obferved. The
plane of the back horizon-glafs is placed not only parallel
to the plane of the frame, but at right angles to the plane
of the fore horizon-glafs, in order that the fame readings
may apply in both kinds of obfervation, and this ob-
jeft was effefted by the maker bv the fimple reftangular
pofition of the two horizon glafles to each other, and by
reverfing the pofition of the body in making a back
obfervation ; for as the inclination of the index-glafs to the
fore horizon-glafs gives double the angle direftly meafured ;
fo twice the complement of this inclination to the back horizon-
glafs gives the fame quantity, and on the fame part of the
graduated \\v.\h, when meafured in a reverfed pofition.

Adjujiments. — The adjuftments of every inilrument are of
the utmoft importance to the accuracy of obfervations taken
thereby, but they are particularly fo in the inilrument be-
fore us, becaufe a fmall deviation from parallehfm in the
fore horizon-glafs, or from perpendicularity in the back
horizon-glafs, as compared with the index-glafs, fwith the
vernier at zero of thehmb,) will double the error occafioned
by it ill the quiefcent iUuation, as foon as motion is given
to the index-glafs. i. The firll adjuftmeut is, to fet the
index-glafs perpendicular to the plane of the inflrumcnt : this
k done by firll Aiding the index to about 40° or 45° of the

10

limb, while the oftant is held with its plane nearly parallel
to the horizon, then a glance into the index-glafs will fliew,
wliether the (harp edge of t)ie limb feen by reflcftion, isanexaci
and llraight continuation of the fame edge of the.limb feen
by direft vifion, and if this is not the cafe, it muft be made
fo by the fcrews that adjull the bed of the mirror ; and in
all cafes where two fcrews are to be ufed, one mull be re-
leafed as much as the other is fcrewed inwards. Dr.
Mackay propofes to place two fmall pieces of metal as ad-
jufting tools, with each a horizontal line drawn on it, at
equal heights from the plane of the limb, at fome dillance
from each other, fo that the horizontal line of one may be
a continuation of the horizontal line of the otlier, when
one is viewed by refleftion, and the other by direft vifion,
but the fliarp edge of the inner part of the limb will anfwer
all ordmary purpofes. 2. The fecond adjuftment is, to fet
the fore hor'tccon-glafs perpendicular to the plane of the infirument :
this is done by firll fixing the zero of the vernier at zero on
the limb, and while the plane of the frame is held parallel
to the horizon, by applying the eye to the lower hole of its
fight-vane j then if the horizon, or any dillaut horizontal
line, appear to be a ftraight line, the glafs is placed perpen-
dicular already; but if the parts leen by refleftion and by
direft vifion do not conililute a ftraight line, they mull be
made to do fo by the fcrews at the bed of the glafs, one or
other of which muft be fcrewed in, as the frafture of the
line demands ; that is, if the line feen by refleftion appear
above that feen by direfl vifion, that fcrew muft be urged
inivards which, is on the further glafs, and vice verfd, until
the fraftured line be ftraight. 3. The third adjuilment is,
to reBify for the index-error of the fore horizon-glafs, or to
place it parallel to the index-glafs, when the zero of the
vernier is placed at zero on the limb. To do this properly,
a bright diftant objeft muft be chofen, fuch as the fun, moon,
or ftar, and while the zeros coincide, look through the
vane, or telefcope, and obferve if the body and its image
coincide ; that is, if the image is invifible : in this cafe, the
fore horizon-glafs is parallel to the index-glafs, or is truly
adjufted ; but if not, releafe the tail-piece or lever behind
this horizon-glafs, and with the thumb-piece give it a fmall
motion, till the body and its image coincide, in which fitua-
tion it mull be fixed by the fixing nut before releafed.
Sometimes the aft of fcr^wing will difplace in fome degree
the tail-piece, and thereby again occalion a fenfible index-
error. When this cannot be completely avoided, the error
muft be afcertained and allowed for with its fign + or —
in ever)' fubfequent obfervation, while it remains unaltered.
This error may be afcertained by meafuring the diameter of
the fun, firll forwards on the limb, and then backwards on
the arc of excefs, and one half of the difference of the mea-
fures will be the index-error + or — , as the cafe may be.
4. The fourth adjuftment is, to fet the back hori^^on-glafs
perpendicular to the plane of the infirument : this adjuftmeut is
fimilar to the fecond, and niay be performed by the direc-
tions there given, fuppofing them to be for the back horizon-
glafs and its vane, inftead of the fore horizon-glafs. 5. The
fifth and lait adjuftment is, to fet the back horizon-glafs per-
pendicular to the plane of the index-glafs produced, the zero of
the vernier being placed at zero on the limb: this adjuilment at
fea is performed thus ; let the vernier be put as much to the
right of zero, as is equal to twice the dip of the horizon,
in the fituation where the obferver ftands, then hold the
quadrant in a vertical pofition, and apply the eye to the
back-horizon vane : now, if the horizon feen by refleftion
happen to coincide with that feen by direft vifion, the glafs
IS already i-ight ; but if not, tiie lever or tail-piece beliind
the frame at this place mull be releafed by the proper fixing

fcrew.

QUADRANT.

fcrew, and turned (lowly by the thimib-fcrew or nut, till
this coincidence is jierfedt, and then the lever mull be made
fail again ; tiie rcliedlcd horizon will be inverted when
viewed in the manner here defcribed. Wlien the inflrument
is ufed in a back obfervation on the land, which is not likely
to happen often, the adjuflmcnt will require iome artilicial
aid: by Dollond's method, an index is applied to the back
hori/.on-glafs, by whicii it may be put parallel to the fore
hori/.on-glafs, by the third adjnftment a;)plied thereto, and
then, by a graduated arc of 90°, inferted on purpofe, the
index of the back horizon-glals is fet perpendicular to its
former fituation, and confequently is made perpendicular
to the plane of the fore horizon-glafs. By Mr. Blair's
method, the under edge of the index-glafs is ground and
poliflied, fo as to be at right angles to the plane of the
glafs, and hence the back hori/.on-glafs is adjuiled, by
making the direft and reflefted horizons agree, while the
vernier Itan'ds at zero on the limb, exa&ly as is done in the
third adjuftment. But we are to fuppofe the inftrument
not furnifhed with either of the above named auxiliary
means ; when this is the cafe, a long level fpace mull be
chofen in fome common or park, where three Itaves can be
put up in the fame ftraight line exaftly, and at an interval
from each other of not lefs than 500 yards, but if 600 or
700 the better ; then, the vernier being truly placed at
zero, let the plane of the odlant be held horizontally witli
its back horizon-glafs exailly on the top of the middle
ftaff, and let one of the rods be viewed direftly through
the back fight-vane, then if the other rod, feen by reflec-
tion, coincide with it, the pofition of the back horizon-
glafs is true, but if not, it mull be made fo, by f'e tail-
piece behind, as before direfted ; if in fixing the tail-piece
a derangement Ihould take place, which cannot be exactly
done away by a fecond or third trial, then the index-error
for the back obfervation mull be afcertained.

This error may be obtained by reverled obfervations by
two methods ; thus, let the coincidence of the two extreme
ftaves be made from the middle llaflF as juft directed, by
amotion of the vernier, inllead of the tail-piece of the back
horizon-glafs, and read the quantity moved forwards or
backwards ; then turn the downward face of the frame up-
wards, and repeat the operation, and read again ; now, if
thefe two readings are found to be one on the limb, and the
other on the arc of excefs, half of their difference will be
the error fought, -f or — ; but if they both are read or.
the fame fide of zero, half their fum, -f or — , will be the
error ; when they are both read on the limb, or if the greater
quantity be read on the limb, when the lefs is on the arc of
excefs, the fign will be — , and -vice verfd. By the fecond
method, inllead of reverfing the plane of the inftrument,
let the obferver reverfe his pofition, making the right-hand
ftaff to be the left-hand one, and "vice "verfd, and then let
him repeat his firfl obfervation, with the fame face of his
inftrument up that he had in that, and the fame refult will
follow, that was obtained by reverfing the plane of the in-
ftrument. Thefe two modes of obtaining the error in
queftion, by reverfed obfervations, may be made to check
each other, and will then give an average of the two refuks,
for the error to be applied to each fubfequcnt obfervation,
taken with the back horizon-glafs in its latt determined
pofition.

Examination of the Inftrument. — Thefe feveral adjullments
being finiflied, the obferver might proceed to make his
obfervations, provided he could rely on the fl<ill and credit
of the maker of his inftrument ; but if not, he would adl
prudently to examine the materials of which it is compofed,
before he relies on its performance, and alfo to put to fome

tell the accuracy of the divifions on the vernier and limb,
as well as the care that has been taken in felefting glafles of
uniform thicknefs, and of good polifh. The exadlnefs of
the total arc may be afcertained from comparifau with
meafurements taken with a circle, or iome well-known fupe-
rior inftrument ; or by careful trigonometrical meafurcment
on fome level and extenfive ground, where the fides of the
triangle can be accurately meafured, for which purpofe
Troughton's new chain of five-feet links is admirably cal-
culated : but the intermediate divifions may be examined by
the vernier itfelf, by ftepping the arc with it ; and if all
parts of the arc are found alike divided, when examined by
the coincidence of the extreme ftrokes of the vernier, tJie
intermediate ftrokes of the vernier itfelf may laftly be ex-
amined by the ftrokes on the limb taken in various places.
Ur. Mackay recommends a table of correftions to be made,
in cafe of errors being detedled in the dividing, but we
fliould rather recommend new divifions from a good engine,
the inferting of which can now be performed at a trifling
expence. Whe;i the planes of the mirrors are examined,
try if a candle reflefted appears in two images ; if it does,
the two faces of the glals are not parallel, and confequently
the glafs is not fit for its purpofe.

To try whether the fnrfaces of the mirrors be perfect
planes, bring two dillindl dillaiit objefts into good contadt,
and let them be fjen at the upper edge of the filvcred part ;
then move the inllrumcnt in its own plane, and move the
image and body along the line of ieparation or edge ef the
filvered part, and it the coincidence is not difturbid the
plane is perfuct, but not othcrwife. Alfo, when an obferva-
tion is taken of the fun, and the vernier has been fixed by
the fixing fcrew, read the altitude, as the dark glafs, or
glafies, may have been ufed ; then remove them from tlie
focket that holds thf^m, and r>;verfe their planes, by putting
their remote faces nearell ; and if, after this change, the
fame altitude is given, tlie planes are parallel, otherwife half
the difference mull be applied, in all fuch cafes, as an error of
the coloured glajfes. This examination is beft made exaftly
at noon, when the fun's altitude is not fenfibly changed dur-
ing the examination ; unlefs a good chronometer or regula-
tor, duly regulated, and put to exaft time, be at hand ;
for then the fucceifive examinations may take place at equal
diftances from noon. Or the fame thing may be done by
means of a luminous objeft placed at a diflance, and fo ele-
vated, that an artificial horizon may give its double altitude
before and after the coloured glafies are reverfed in pofition.
The befl artificial horizons are either a veffel of pure mer-
cury, with a roof of good glafs framed over it to prevent agi-
tation by the wind ; or otherwife a piece of black glafs, well
polifhed, and placed on fcrews of adjuftment, with a good
fpirit -level in a glafs tube, fo ground, that it will reverfe in
pofition, and will place the glafs in a perfeft level in the
two requifite direiflions, at right angles to each other.

It may be proper to examine further if the two holes in
the fight-vane are fo made that the fun or other luminous
body dazzles the eye more in looking through one, than in
looking through the other, the intention beijig that one fhall
take in more of the filvered part, and the other more of the
unfilvered part of the glafs, fo as to accommodate the quan-
tity of diretl lightto the ftrength of the eye.

lllujlration of the Ufe. — When Hadley's odlant, or fextant,
is ufed for altitudes at fea, the fun, moon, or ftar, as the
cafe may be, muft be viewed in the way that the eye can beft
bear, with or without the dark glaffes, telefcope, &c. as
occafion may require, and as experience will didlate ; and in
a fore obfervation the body .obierved muft have its image
brought gradually down, fo as to be in exadi contad with

the

QUA

the horizon : if the fun or moon be obferved, either tlic
upper or lower limb mull be fubftitiited for the centre, and
the obfervatidii muil be afterwards reduced to the centre, by
applying the femi-diameter, -|- or — , from the proper column
for the given day, as given in the Nautical Almanac, or Ephe-
meris ; in doing this, the face of the obferver mull be turned
towards the objeft whofe altitude is to be meafured, and
while the index is gradually moved forward along tlie limb,
the image will defcend till it approaches the horizon : in
this fituation, care muft be taken that the contact of the
image be made with the vifible horizon at the line of fepa-
ration, between the filvercd and unfilvered parts of the fore
horizon-glals, that both objefts may be vilible together ;
■•and alfo tliat the index may not be pufhed too far, fo as to
require a retrograde motion in finifliing the contadl : there-
fore fix the clamping piece, if there is a tangent fcrew, and
complete the contadl by a flow motion, and the altitude will
remain unaltered till the vernier has been examined by a
magnifying glafs, which ought always to be at hand, to alTift
the eye in examining the coincidence of fome one line of the
vernier with fome line of the limb ; or, when there is not an
exaft coincidence, in cftimating the quantity that is beyond
coincidence, as compared with the contiguous quantity that
is fliort of it. To fucceed well in perfedling a fore obferva-
tion taken at the horizon, the obierver mull learn to give a
vibratory flow motion of his body to the right and left, his
heel being the centre of motion, that the image obferved may
be made to move backwards and forwards ni the arc of a
circle, of which the horizon is a tangent, in order that the
altitude may not be taken at one fide of the tangental point,
and confequently be too great. Care inuft alfo be taken
that the faint fecondary image refieiled from the pofterior
face be not miftaken for the primary image, reflected from
the proper, or anterior face of the mirror. When the alti-
tude is marked down, as read on the limb and vernier, the
corredlions mull be applied, for either the fun or moon, for
parallax, refraftion, dip of the horizon, and femi-diameter,
before the true altitude of the centre is obtained : but for a
ftar no parallax is wanted, nor yet allowance for femi-
diameter ; thcfe apparently diminutive bodies being fituated
at fucli an immenfe diftance from the earth, as to fubtend no
fenfibW angle, nor to have any perceptible parallax in
altitude.

It 13 from meridian altitudes thus taken, that, by the ap-
plication of a heavenly body's declination, + or — , as the
body may be below or above the equator, the co-latitude,
and confequently the latitude, is readily determined ; and alfo,
the latitude being known, from an altitude taken towards
the eall or well, that the time is determined at one obfer-
vation, but more accurately by a feries of equal altitudes
taken at oppofite fides of the meridian ; the reduftion, how-
ever, for the fun's change of declination during the interval,
muil, in this cafe, be taken from tables of correftion for
equal altitudes, fuch as are contained in the pamphlet of the
late Mr. Wales.

In making the bacL obfervation, the coloured glafs, or
glafles, mull be feledled, as before, to fuit the eye, and the .
plane of the inftrument held vertically, as in the fore obfer-
vation, but the face of the obferver muft view the point of
the horizon oppofite the fun, or that pointed to by his own
Ihadow ; firll, let the eye be directed through the vane of
the back horizon-glafs to the tranfparent (lit that divides the
mirror, and let it view the horizon, then move the index till
the image of the fun is jull feen on the filvered part of the
glafs ; a vibratory motion now given to the oftant from the
eve, as the centre of motion, will make the fun's image move
;it a curve of which the convex part appears uppermoil ; in

Vol. XXIX.

Q IJ A

tills fituation, let the flow motion by the tangent fcrew, if
any, bring this image till one of its limbs coincides with the
horizon feen tlirougii the tranfparent flit, and the obferved
altitude will be determined as beiore. Whenever the horizon
is clear both before and behind the obferver, he may reverfe
his inllrumcnt and alfo his body hailily, when the fun is on
the meridian, and make the fore and back oblcrvations check
each other, which will alfo, from time to time, prove the
refpe(ftive politions of the two mirrors, and lead to a deteftion
of the error of the back liorizon-glafs, when that of the
former is known, which it may always be from a double
mcafure, one back and one forwards, of the fun's diameter.
If the difference of the altitudes of the fame body taken
both ways be equal to the known index-error of the fore
horixon-glafs, it will be known that the back horizon-glafs
has no error ; but if the faid quantities are not the fame, their
difference, -(- or — , will be the index -ei;ror of the back
horizon-glafs ; hence the back horizon-glafs may be adjufted
from a knowledge of the error of adjullment of the fore
horizon-glafs, which method, we believe, was never before
fuggeftcd.

yuABRANT, Hadley's, Theory of. It is a firft principle
in optics, that the angle of incidence, whatever be the in-
clination of the incident ray, is equal to the angle of reflec-
tion, /. e. if the angle of incidence D B A be 30', the angle
of refleftion D BC will be alfo 30^. It is alfo plain, that
if while the radiant A {Plate II. Navigation, Jigs. I and 2.)
remains in the fame place, the mirror E F, by revolving
round B, moves into the pofition fe, then the alteration in
the angle between the incident and refledled ray will be
double to the angle fliewing the change of pofition in the
mirror. Suppofe the mirror changes 10° from the radiant,
then the perpendicular BD goes 10° farther from the
radiant A into the pofition B(/; and the incident angle
^BA is 40°, and the rcflefted angle </Bc is 40^; fo the
angle A B C is altered from 60° to 80^ ; a difference of 20°
for 10° change of pofition in the mirror. Suppofe again
the mirror to change, in pofition, 10" towards the radiant
A, then the perpendicular is changed into B </, 10° nearer
to the radiant ; and the angle D B A of 30'"' becomes rfB A
of 20'' = dUc; fo that the angle A B i: is 40°, whereas
ABC was 60° ; that is, by altering the pofition of the
mirror 10", the angle ABC was altered 20"^. It may be
otherwife demonllratcd, that with a Hadley's quadrant, the
angle of elevation under which an object is feen, is equal to
twice the arc which the index has paffed over. The in-
ftrument or angle A C B (fig. 3.) is 45° ; ab'iiz reflefting
glafs fixed parallel to C B ; CD is the index with a re-
fledling glafs at G, fo fixed as to be parajlel to a b, when
C D coincides with C B ; S the fun ; S G a folar ray re-
flefted from G to F, and from F to E, the place of the
eye ; and H F E the horizontal line at the time of the ob-
fervation. Then will the angle of elevation I G S be equal
to twice the angle BCD; for the angle of refleftion D G F
= the angle of incidence S G C = C G L. And the angle
of refleftion i F E = the angle of incideuce a F G = F L E
iab being parallel to LE) = F E L. But TGC =
HPC = PCE-fPEC (the external angle being equal
to the two internal and oppofite) = PCE + FLE =
PCE fGCL + CGL. Or, I G C = I G-S + S G C
= PCE (or GCL) GCL + CGL =. 2BCD +
CGL. Confequently I G S = 2 B C D. See Robert-
fon's Navigation, book ix. p. 295, &c. p. 390, &c.

Mr. Mitchell has recommended Hadley's quadrant for
furveying, and efpecially the furveying of harbours, and alfo
for piloting fliips into harbours. Phil. Tranf. vol. Iv.
art. 10. p. 70.

U Mr.

Q U A

QUA

Mr. Wales, in captain Cook's Voyage, applied it to
mcafuring the quantity etlipfed in an eclipl'c of the fun ; in
which operation it anfwers the purpofe oi a micrometer, to
a great degree of certainty. See an account of the im-
provements fuggefted in the conftruftion of thefe inftru-
nicnts, and aUo of the various ufes to which they may be
applied, in Magellan'* Defcription des OAants & Sextants
Anglois, &c. 4to.

Other quadrants have been contrived fince, by Ionic in-
genious artirts, all of which have their merit ; but the par-
ticulars of their coullrutlion are too many for this place ;
and perhaps, on the whole, nothing preferable to Mr.
Hadley's invention has yet been found.

Quadrant, HorodMcal, is a pretty commodious inllru-
ment ; thus called from its ufc in telling the hour of the
day.

Its conllruftion is fo funplc and eafy, and its application
fo ready, that we (hall defcribe both, for the ufe of fome
who may want other conveniences.

Quadrant, Conjlnitllon and Ufe of the HorodWical.
From the centre of the quadrant, C, [Plale XIX. /IJlru-
nomy. Jig. 8.) whofe limb A B is divided into 90% defcribe
feven concentric circles at intervals, at plcafurc ; and to thefe
add the figns of the zodiac in the order they are reprefented
in the fcheme.

2. Applying a ruler to the centre C, and the limb A B,
mark upon the feveral parallels the degrees correfponding to
the altitude of the fun when therein, for the given hours ;
conneft the points belonging to the fame hour with a curve
line, to which add the number of the hour. To the radius
C A fit a couple of fights, and to the centre of the quadrant
C, tie a thread with a plummet ; and, upon a thread, a
bead to Aide.

If, now, the bead be brought to the parallel in which
the fun is, and the quadrant be direftcd to the fun till a
vifual ray pafs through the fights, the bead will fhew the
hour.

For the plummet, in this fituation, cuts all the parallels
in the degrees correfp<niding to the fun's altitude. Since,
then, the bead is in the parallel which the fun then defcribes,
2nd thi-ough the degrees of altitude to which the fun is ele-
vated every hour there pafs hour-lines, the bead mutl fhew
the prefent hour. Some perfons, who are not very nice,
reprefent the hour-lines by arcs of circles, or even by
ftraight lines ; and that without any fenfible error.

QuAUDANT, Sintcal, is an inftrument of ufe in naviga-
tion. It is reprefented Plate II. Navigation, Jig. 4, and
confills of feveral concentric quadrantal arcs, divided into
ei^rht equal parts by radii, with parallel right lines crofling
each other at right angles.

Now any of the arcs, e. gr. B C, may be accounted a
quadrant, of any of the great circles of the fphere, chiefly
of the horizon and meridian : if, then, B C be taken for a
quadrant, e. gr. of the horizon, either of the fides, e. gr.
A B, may reprefent the meridian ; and the other, A C, will
reprefent a parallel, or line of eaft and weft ; and all the
other lines parallel to A B will aifo be meridians ; and all
thofe parallel to A C will be eaft and weft parallels, or eaft
and weft lines.

Again, the eight fpaces into which the arcs are divided .
by the radii, reprefent the eight points of the compafs in a
quarter of the horizon ; each containing 11" 15'.

The arc B C is likewife divided into 90", and each degree
is fubdividtd into 12', diagonal wife.

To the centre is fixed a thread, as A L ; which being
laid over any degree of tke quadrant, ferves to divide the
horizon.

If the finical quadrant be taken for a fourth part of the
meridian, one fide thereof, A B, may be taken for the
common radius of the meridian and the equator ; and then
the other, A C, will be half the axis of the world. The
degrees of the circumference, B C, will reprefent degreen
of latitude, and the parallels to the fide A B, aftumed from
every point of latitude to the axis A C, will be radii of the
parallels of latitude, as likewife tlie fine-complements of
thofe latitudes.

Suppofe, then, it be required to find the degrees of
longitude contained in 83 of the lefler leagues, in the pa-
rallel of 48°. Lay the thread over 48° of latitude, on the
circumference, and count thence the 83 leagues, 011 A B,
beginning at A ; thefe will terminate at H, allowing every
fmall interval four leagues, and the interval between the
broad lines tv.'cuty leagues. Then tracing out the parallel
li G, from the point H to the thread; the part A G of
the thread (liews that 125 greater, or equinoctial leagues,
make 6'' 15', allowing twenty leagues to a degree, and three
minutes for one league ; and therefore that 83 lefler leagues
A H, which make the difference of longitude of the courfe,
and are equal to the radius of the parallel G I, make 6° 15'
of the faid parallel.

If the (hip fail on an oblique courfe, fuch courfe, beGdes
the north and fouth greater leagues, gives lefTcr leagnaes
eafterly and wefterly ; to be reduced to degrees of longitude
of the equator. But thefe leagues being made neither on
the parallel of departure, nor on that of arrival, but in all
the intermediate ones, we muft find a mean proportional
parallel between them.

To find this, we have on the inftrument a fcale of crofs
latitudes. Suppofe, then, it were required to find a mean
parallel between the parallels of 40' and 60''. With your
compaftes take the middle between the 40th and 60th de-
gree on the fcale : this middle point will terminate againft
the 51ft degree, which is the mean parallel required.

Quadrant, U/e of tie Slnkal. There are formed tri-
angles upon this inftrument fimilar to thofe made by a fhip's
way, v^nth the meridians and parallels ; the fides of which
triangles are meafured by the equal intervals between the
concentric quadrants, and the lines N. and S.E. and W.

The lines and arcs are diftinguifhed, every fifth, by a
broader line ; fo that if each interval be taken for one
league, there w'U be five between one broad line and another ;
and if every interval be taken for four leagues, then there
will be twenty leagues, which make a fea degree, from one
broad line to the other.

Now, fuppofe a fhip to have failed 150 leagues nortli-
eaft, one fourth north ; which is the third point, and makes
an angle of 33° 45' with the north part of the meridian.
Here are given two things ; -viz. the courfe, and the dif-
tance failed ; by which a triangle may be found on the in-
ftrument, fimilar to that made by the fliip's courfe, and her
longitude and latitude ; and hence Tjcaj the unknown parts
of the triangle be found.

Thus, fuppofing the centre A to reprefent the place of
departure ; count, by means of the concentric arcs, along
the point the fhip failed on, as AD, 150 leagues from A
to D ; then is the point D the place the fliip is arrived at,
which note. This done, let D E be parallel to the fide
A C ; and then there will be formed a right-angled triangle
A E D, fimilar to that of the fhip's courfe, difference of
longitude, and latitude: the fide AE gives 125 leagues
for the difference of latitude northwards ; which makes 6°
15', reckoning twenty leagues to a degree, &c. and the
fide D E gives S3 leffer leagues anfwering to the parallels ;

which

QUA

which being i-rdiiccd, as ftiewn above, gives the difFccence
of longitude. And thus is the whole triangle found.

QuADUANT, in Gunnery, called alfo the gunntr's fquare,
is an initruinent ferving to elevate or point cannons, mor-
tars, &c. according to the places they are to be levelled or
direfted to.

It confifts of two branches, made of brafs or wood ; one
about a foot long, eight hnes broad, and one line in thick-
nefs ; the other four inches long, and of the fame thicknefs
and breadth as the former. Between thefe branches is a
quadrant divided into ninety degrees, beginning from the
fliorter brancli, and furnilhed with a thread and plummet.
See its figure reprcfented in Plate I. Gunnery, fg. 5.

The ufe of this initrnment is eafy ; nothing more being
required but to place the longcll branch in the mouth of the
cannon or mortar, and elevate or lower it, till the thread
cuts the degree neceii'ary to hit a propofed objeft. See
Pointing o/" a Gun.

Sometimes, alfo, on one of the furfaccs of the long
branch, is noted the diviiion of diameters, and weights of
iron bullets ; as alfo the bores of pieces. See Cahber.

Quadrant of Altitude, is an appendage of the artificial
globe, confiding of a lamina or flip of brafs, the length of
a quadrant of one of the great circles of the globe ; .ind di-
vided into ninety degrees.

At the end, where the divifions terminate, there is a nut
rivetted on, and furnilhed with a fcrevv, by means of which
the inftrument is fitted on to the meridian ; and is moveable
round upon the rivet, to all points of the horizon. See its
figure in Plate XIX. AJlronomy, Jig. 9.

Its ufe is to ferve as a fcale m meafuring of altitudes,
ampUtudes, azimuths, &c. See the manner of its appHca-
tion under the Ufe of the Globe.

QUADRANTAL, in Antiquity, a vefiel in ufe among
the Romans for the meafuring of liquids.

It was at firft called amphora ; and afterward quatlra?ital,
from its form, which was iquare every way, like a die.

Its capacity was eighty librx, or pounds of water, which
piade forty-eight fextaries, two urnne, or eight congii.
QuADRANTAL Space, in Geometry. See Quaduant.
QuADRANTAL Triangle, is a fpherical triangle, one of
whofe fides at lealt is a quadrant of a circle, and one of its
angles a right angle.

QUADRANTATA Terr^e, in our Ancient L&iv
Books, is ufed for a quarter of an adre, now called a rood;
which fee.

QUADRAS Isles, in Geography, ifl.wds fituated on the
N.W. coalt of North America, between Pintard's found and
the ftraits of Fuca ; among which Hes NooTKA'syi«H</,
which fee. They were fo called by Capt. Ingraham, after
the name of a Spanifh commander of two fchooners, who
palled through this channel in the year 1792.

QUADRAT, QuADRATUM, called alfo geometrical
fquare, and line of Jliadoius, is an additional member on the
face of the common Gunter's and Sutton's quadrants ; of
fome ufe in taking altitudes, &c.

The quadrat more diftinftly exhibited in Plate VI. Sur-
veying, fg. 1 3. has each of its lldcs divided into a hundred
equal parts, commencing from the extremes ; fo that the
number 100 falls on the angle, reprefenting tangents to the
arc of the limb.

The divifions are diftinguilhed by little lines from 5 to 5,
and by numbers from 10 to 10 ; and the divifions being
occafionally produced acrofs, form a kind of lattice, con-
fiftingof 10,000 little fquares.

The proportion here is, as radius is to the tangent of the
angle of altitude at the place of obfervation {i.e. to the

QUA

parts of the quadrat cut by the thread), fo is the didance
between the llation and the foot of the objefl, to its height
above the eye. See Altitude.

Ufe of the Quadrat, Geometrical Square, or Line of Shado-JJS.
I. The quadrant being vertically placed, and the fights
diredled to the top ot the tower, or other object, whofe
height is required ; if the thread cut the fide of the quadrat
marked right Jhado<ws, the dillance from the bafe of the tower
to the point of ftation is lefs than the tower's height. If
the thread falls on the diagonal of the fquare, the diflancc is
jull equal to the height. If it fall on that fide m.arked
verfdjliadoivs, the dillance exceeds the height.

Hence, meafuring the dillance, the height is found by
the rule of three ; inafmuch as there are three terms given.
Indeed, their difpofition is not always the fame ; for when
the thread cuts the fide of right fliadows, the firft term in
the rule of three ought to be that part of the fide cut by the
thread ; the fecond, the fide of the fquare ; and the third,
the diftance meafured. If the thread cut the other fide, the
firft term is the whole fide of the fquare ; the fecor.d, the
parts of the fide cut by the thread ; and the third, the dif-
tance.

For an inftance of each. Suppofe, e. gr. in looking at
the top of a lleeple, the thread cut the fide of right (hadowg
in the point 40, and that the diftance mealures 20 poles, the
cafe then will ftand thus : as 40 is to 100, fo is 20 to a fourth
term, which we find to be 50 ; the height of the fteeple in
poles. Again, fuppofing the thread_ to fall on the other
fide, in tlie point 60, and the dillance to meafure 35 poles ;
the terms are to be difpofed thus : as 100 is to 60, fo is 35
to a fourth term, I'iz. 2i,the height required. See Alti-
tude.

Ufe of the Quadrat without Calculation. — The preceding
cafes may be formed without calculation, where the divifions
of the fquare are produced both ways, fo as to form the
area into little fquares.

Thns, fuppofe, i. The thread to fall on 40 in the fide of
right fhadows, and the diftance be meafured 20 poles ; feek
among the little fquares for that perpendicular to the fide
which is 20 parts from the thread ; this perpendicular will
cut the fide of the fqu.are next the centre, in the point 50,
wiiich is the height required in poles.

2. If the thread cuts the fide of verfed fliadows in the
point 60, and the diftance be 35 poles ; count 35 parts on
the fide of the quadrat from the centre ; count alfo the divi-
fions of the perpendicular from the point 35 to the thread,
which will be 2 1 , the height of the tower in poles.

Note, In all cafes the height of the centre of the in-
ftrument is to be added. See Altitude, and Shadow.

Quadrat, in Aflrology, called alfo Quartile, an afpecl
of the heavenly bodies, in which they are dillant from each
other a quadrant, or ninety degrees. See Aspect.

Quadrat, m Printing, is a fort of fpacc ; that is, a piece
of metal, call like the letters, to be ufed occafionally in
compofing, in order to form the intervals between words, at
the end of hnes, &c. See Printing.

There are quadrats of divers fizes, as m quadrats, n
quadrats, &c. which are refpedlively of the dimenlions of
fuch letters.

QUADRATA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Higher
Pannonia, placed on the banks of the Save by Antonine's
Itinerary.

Qual^iata, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the
province of Bari ; five miles N.W. of Ruvo.

Quadrata is the Itahan term in canto fcrnio for Gre-
gorian or fquare black notes.

U 2 Quadrata

Q II A

Q U A

OuADRATA Legio, among the Romans. See Square
Legion.

QUADRATIC Equation, in yllgelra, is an equation
of which t.he hi;^heft power of the unknown quantity riles
only to the iL-cond degree. If this power enters alone, it is
called 2.ftmple quadratic ; and when the fecond power and
fimple quantity both occur, it is termed an adfcBed quadratic
equation, thus :

x' + a X = b, is an adfe3ed quadratic, and

x' zzL b, or ax' = b, ^Jtmple quadratic equation.

Some authors clafs all fuch equations as contain two dif-
ferent powers of the unknown quantity, the one being the
double of the other, under the general term quadratics, fuoli
as X* + a .v" — b, x"" + ^.r"" = b, &c. each of which is
called a quadratic equation, becaufe tlieir folution depends
upon precifely the fame principles as the former.

Every quadratic may be reduced to the form x' -\- a x =: I;
in which it is, however, to be underilood, that a and b may
be either pofitive or negative ; and the general folution of it
is exprefled by the formula

--T±^'(J + 0

If we gire to a and b all the variety of figns they admit
of, quadratic equations may be divided into four dillinft
clafles, ■viz,

x" 4- a X z=: — b

x' — a X ^=. — b

x' ^ ax — -\- b

X- — a X = + b ;

I.
2.

3-
4-

and their feveral roots will be exhibited by the following
formulx, viz.

2. .V =

+

+

+ V

± V

See Equations.

From thefe forms it is obvious that every quadratic equa-
tion has two roots arifing out of the ambiguous fign +,
prefixed to the fecond member of the root. It is alfo ob-
vious, that if in the ift and 2d form, b be greater than -

4'
the two roots in both forms are imaginary, or impoflible ;

but if b be lefs than — , then they are in each form both

real, being in the lit both negative, and in the 2d both
pofitive ; becaufe the quantity exhibited under the radical
form is, in both equations, lefs than that without the radical ;
and confequently both the fum and difference will have the

fame fign as - .

° 2

In the 3d and 4th forms, the roots are neceffarily both
real, but one pofitive and the other negative ; the 3d form
having its greateft root negative, and 4th its greateft root
jktfitive ; as is obvious by infpe6lion.

It is, however, not neceffary to confider quadratic equa-
tions under thefe four forms, as the folution of them all may
be reduced to one general rule, as exhibited in the preceding
part of this article, and which may be given in words as
follows. Having reduced the proposed equation to any one

9

of tiie above forms, the roots of it will be equal to iialf th/?
co-efficient of the fecond term, with its fign changed ; plu;
and minus the fquare root of the fquare of that half co-
efficient prefixed to b, with its proper fign, whether plus or
minus. Tiie principles on which the preceding formulae
are obtained, are thefe, viz. (x + ~a)' -^ x' + a x -f 3a';
therefore, if an equation be propofed under the form
x' + a X :^ + b, by adding ^ a' to both fides, we ilill
prelerve the equality, and render the firft fide a complete
fquare, that is, we have

x' ± ax + ^a' — :J« + b ;
and, by extraction,

" ±1" = ± V ii"' ± i) '
confequently

x=z + -^± ^{^a' + b),

which form includes all the preceding formuls. We ftiali
not here give the folution of any examples, as the reader will
find fufficient exercifes under the article Equation ; but it
may not be amifs to Ihew other methods of obtaining the
roots of quadratic equations, viz. by fines and tangents, con-
tinued fractions, &c.

T'je Solution of Quadratic Equations by tjieans of a Table <yf
Sines, Tangents, iSfc. — Here, referring to our preceding four
forms, the folution of them may be exhibited as follows ;

Form I. X' -\- a X ^^ ~ b.

Put - ^/ A
a

fin. 2 ; then

= {=:

- r

— ^ b X tan.
/by. cot.

I:}

fl - cof. a)1
(I + cof. 2)1

or.

1-. ka (i + cof. 2).
Form 2. .v' — a X z= — b.

^/ i =: fin. z ; then

+ a/* X

Put-
a

tan. i
-f V ^ X cot i

= {

f^}

- cof. 2) \
+ cof. 2} j

Form 3. x' + a X = b.
2
Put - ^/ A = tan. 2

then

^ _ ( + \/ ^ X tan. 1=7

*- I- ,/A X cot. |2i

_ f -I- -i a ( fee. 2 — I ) 7

•^- I- l^(fec. 2 + I);

Form 4. x'
„ 2
Put - V

(fee.
i3 X = b.
= tan. 2 ; then

-{'-'.

b X cot. ■§27
b X tan. 1=5

_ f -)- ia (fee. 2 4-1)7

The above formulse refult immediately from the co:>-
ilruftion of quadratic equations. Thus, in the two finl
forms, let A E, {Plate XIII. fg. 6. Anahfis,) reprefent a,
and C D -= 'A, then A D and D B will be the required
roots from the known conltruAion of equations. See Con-
struction.

Now here it ie obvious that the fin. % reprefents the fin. of

CED,

C E D, and iherefore angle D C B, whicli is := i a"g-'=
C E D, — i angle a. Confequcntly D B = C D x tan. iz,
and A D — C D X cot. i z, bccaufe the angle C A D =
the angle BCD; which agree with the leading formulae
above given. As to the two Litter formulae for the two
firll cafes, they are obvious without any explanation.

In the 3d and 4th cafes, let A B reprefent a, and D C =
,/ b, then A D and D B will reprefent the two roots ; join
B C, and draw D E parallel to B C, fo fliall C E = B D,
and the angle C D E = i the angle B O C. Now here the
tan. -z will reprefent the tan. of B O C, and i 2 = C D E ;
but C E = B D is obviouily equal to D C *x tan. C D E
=: ^/ A X tan. i ■! ; and in tlie fame manner A D 1= ^/ b
X cot. 5 2. Tlie two latter formula; require no illullration.

The fame refults might have been obtained, though not
perhaps quite fo obvioufly, from the preceding analytical
folution.

There are but few cafes in which it is advifable to employ
the methods above defcribed to tlie folution of quadratics,
and therefore one example will be confidered a fufficient il-
luftration.

Exam. — Given .-c'' + — .•<:=: — , to find the two roots

,44 12716

of the equation by fines and tangents.

88 1695

7 12716
log. 1695 3.2291697

log. 12716 4.104350J

QUADRATIC EQUATION.

Subflituting again for x aj above, we obtain

Here tan. z

log. 88
CO. log. 7

2)— 1.1248192

— 1.5624096

1.9444827
9.1549020

log. tan. z

10.6617943

whence z

= 77° 42' 32", and i z = 38° 51' 16"

log. tan. -^ z 9.9061 1 15

1695

log- a/ .

° 12716

deduft radius
log. .V

— 1.3624096

9.4685211
10.0000000

- 1.46852 II

or X = -2941 176 the pofitive root ; and if cot. ^ z be taken
inftead of tan. i z, the other value of a: will be found =;
— .4532085. See Bonnycallle's Algebra, vol. i. p. 141.

For the folution of quadratic equations by the method
of continued fra8iom, we muft ri fer the reader to the
*• Eifai fur la Th^orie des Nombrcs," by Le Gendre.

The root of a quadratic equation may be exhibited under
the form of a continued furd, as follows :

Let x' — a .V = ^, or .x'- = a s; 4- i ; then

« = v^i + <j a:
Or, by fubftituting for x, under the radical, its whole
value \' b -(- ax.

we hav

= \/ i + « v/ a + a .V

b -\- OK

and by continuing thus our fuccefTive fubftitutioiis for x, m
have

x=\/ i + a \/ b + a ^/h + a y/* + &c.

which is an analytical expreflion for the pofitive value of « in
the propofcd equation.

It is obvious, however, that fuch an expreflion as this is of
little or no ufe for folving quadratic equations ; but we have
by means of the latter, 3 very ready means of finding the
ultimate value of fuch a continued furd. Suppofe, for ex-
ample, the value of the following continued furd were re-
quired, Vl-Z..

V 12 4- y/i2 + y/ 12 4- W'':

&c.

A flume

2 4- &c.

By fquaring both fides

.•c^ =: 1 2 4- V 1 2 + \'

Or, fince the latter part
V 12 4-

12 + \ /12 4- &c.

V

-v/

12 4- &C. = X

\/I2

this becomes

A." = 1 2 4- X, or .v' — X— 12;

whence .v = -i + \^ 1 25 = 4, which is the value of the in-
finite furd propofed.

Again, let there be propofed the following infinite furd,

•viz.

V s + 4 Vs 4- 4 s/s + &c.

Affume the infinite fum = *, then by fquaring

,/;

/.

= 5 4- 4 \^ 5 4- 4 \./ 5 + 4 \/ 5 4- &c., or
X- = 5 4- 4 X, or .V- — 4 x = 5 ;

v/'

whence x = 2 ± \'4 4. 5 = 5, the value fought. For
other examples of this kind, fee Surds.

QUADRATING of a Piece, among Gunners, is the
feeing that a piece of ordnance be duly placed, and poifed
in its carriages ; and that its wheels be of an equal height,
&c.

QUADRATO, in Mufc. See Quadro.

QUADRATO-CUBUS, Quadrato-quadrato-cu-
Bl's, and QiiADRATO-cuBO-cuBUS, are names ufed by
Diophantus, Vieta Oughtred, and others, for the fifth,
fevoiith, and eighth powers of numbers. See Power.

QUADRATO-gUADRATUM, or Biquadratum,
the fourth power of numbers ; or the produft of the cube
multiplied by the root.

QUADRATRIX, in Geometiy, a mechanical line, by
msans of which we would find right lines equal to the cir-
cumference

QUA

cumference of circles, or other curves, and of the fcvcral
parts of it.

Or, more accurately, the quadratrix of a curve is a
tranfcendental curve defcrihed on the fame axis, the femi-
ordiiiates of which being jriveii, the quadrature of the cor-
refpondent parts in the other curve is likewife given. See
CUKVE.

Thus, e.gr. the curve AND {Plate XIII. Jnalyjis,
Jig. 7.) may be called the quadratrix of the parabola A M C,
fincc it is demonllrated, that A P M A is = P N , or
APMA = APx PN, orAPMA=PNxa, a
cor.ft.ant quantity, &c.

The mofl. eminent of thefe quadratrices are, that of Di-
noftrates, and that of Mr. Tlchirnhaufen, for the cirqle ;
that of Mr. Perks for the hyperbola.

QuADKATlllX of Dmojlrales, is a curve A M m m [fig. 8.)
by which the quadrature of the circle is effcfted, though not
geometrically, but mechanically ; it is thus called from its
inventor Dinoltrates.

Its genefis is thus : divide the quadrantal arc A N B into
any number of equil parts, in N, n, &c. by a continual bi-
feAion ; divide the radius A C into the fame number of
parts in the points P,/>, &c. Draw radii C N, C «, &c.
Laftly, on the points P, /I, &c. credl perpendiculars P M,
i m, &c. The curve formed by connedting thefe lines is the
quadratrix of Dinoilrates.

This curve may be defcribed by continual motion ; if we
fuppofe the radius C N by its extreme N to defcribe uni-
formly the arc A B, and at the fame time a ruler P M, always
parallel to itfelf, to move uniformly along A C, in fuch a
manner that when the ruler P M arrives at C, the radius C N
may coincide with C B ; and thus the continual interfeftion
of C N with the ruler P M will defcribe the quadratrix
AMD.

Here, from the conftruaion, ANB:AN::AC:AP;
and therefore, if A NB = a, A C = *, A N = .v, AP =_)r ;
ay = i X. See Quadrature.

Quadratrix Tfchirnhauftaim, is a tranfcendental curve
A M m ;« B (Jig. 9.) by which the quadrature of the circle
is likewife etfefted ; invented by Mr. Tfchirnhaufen, in imi-
tation of that of Dinoftrates.

Its genefis is thus conceived ; divide the quadrant A N B,
and its radius A C, into equal parts, as in the former ; and
from the points P, p, &c. draw the right lines P M, p m,
&c. parallel to C B ; and from the points N, n, &c. the
right lines N M, ;; m, &c. parallel to A C. The points A,
M m, being connefted, the quadratrix is formed ; in which
ANB:AN::AC:AP. And therefore, if A B = .z,
and A C = i^, A N = x, and AP — y; ay — iz. See-
Quadrature.

This curve may be alfo defcribed by continued motion, if
two rulers, N M and P M, perpendicular to each other, be
made to move uniformly and parallel to themfelves, the one
along the quadrant of the circle A C, and the other along
the radius.

QUADRATUM-CUBI, Quadrato-quadrato-qua-
dratum, and QuadratUiM SurilnfoUdi, &c. are names ufed
by the Arabs for the fixth, eighth, and tenth powers of
numbers. See Power.

Quadratum Os, in Comparative Anatomy, os carre oi the
French ; a fmall bone in the head of birds, to which the
lower mandible is articulated. See Birds, in Comparati-ve
Anatomy, in the divifion relating to the bones.

QUADRATURE, in Geometry, fignifies literally the
finding of a fquare equal in area to any given figure, w'hich
was the method the ancients made ufe of when they had
in view the determination of the furface of any fpace ; but

QUA

the term quadrature has now a more indefinite fignificntion ;
implying, in general, the determination of the area of a figure,
without any reference to the geometrical exhibition of it, in
u fquare or other rectilinear form.

AH rcftilinear figures being immediately reduced to, or de-
pendent upon, the area of triangles, tlieir quadratures
have been known from the highell antiquity ; but the quad-
ratures of curvilineal fpaces are, with very few exceptions, of
modern date, two only having been known till near the be-
ginning of the eiglitcenth century.

Tile fir (I curvilinear fpace whofe quadrature was accu-
rately determined, waa the lune of Hippocrates, of which an
account will be fousd under the article LuNK. Archimedes
next found the area of the common parabola ; which he ob-
tained in a very ingenious manner, by inlcribing an ifofceles
triangle in the parabola, then two ifofceles triangles on the
equal fides of the former, four others on thefe, and fo on,
which he found to have a certain relation, decreafing in the
proportion I, 5, tV> &c. the infinite fum of which feries
would therefore exprefs the area of the parabola, or the
area of all the triangles of which he thus conceived it to be
compofed ; and which fum he found to be i J^ or 4 of the
circumferibing redtangle. After this time, a period of near
two thoufaud years elapfed, without producing the quadra-
ture of a fingle curvilinear figure, although the fubjeft feems to
have engaged the attention of the moll eminent mathemati-
cians during that long interval, particularly the quadrature of
the circle. This figure, being the moil fimple in appearance
and conSruiJtion of any contained under a curve line, was
well calculated to excite the curiofity of mathematicians.
Archimedes doubtlefs attempted the folution of this problem ;
but failing in producing the exaft quadrature, he contented
himfelf with giving an approximation, (hewing by the infcrip-
tion and circumfcription of a polygon of ninety-fix fides,
that the diameter being i, the circumference was greater
than 3J4, but lefs than 3f; ; and as it was knov^n, even
before the time of Archimedes, that the area of a circle is
equal to that of a right-angled triangle, whofe altitude is
equal to the radius, and bafe equal to the circumference of
the circle, it follows, that the area would be greater than
I j-j, but lei's than : ^4.

It would be ufelefs to attempt in this place to enumerate
the various abiurd quadratures which have been, from time to
time, publilhed by minor geometers, with all that conceit
and confidence which feldom fail to accompany inferiority.
Some attributed their fuccefs to divine inlpiration ; others to
their own fuperior talents : fome offered large fums of money
to thofe who (hould difcover any error in their inveltigation,
while others expelled great rewards from their government,
as a recompence for their difcovery, foolilhly attaching great
importance to a problem, which, if it could be accurately
folved, would ferve no other purpofe but to gratify the cu-
riofity of mathematicians. Many of thefe attempts, how-
ever, have been rendered fomevvhat amTifing by an excefs of
abfurdity. This is particularly the cafe with regard to the
work of Jaime Falcon, a Spaniard of the order of Notre
Dame, of Montefa, publifhed at Anvers in 1587. This
treatife opens with a dialogue in vcrfe between himfelf and
the circle, which thanks him very affetliunately for having
fquared him ; but the good and model! knight attributes all
the honour of the difcovery to the holy patron of his order.
SeeMontucla's " Hilloire des Recherches fur la Quidrature
du Circle ;" or his " Hiftoire des Mathematiques," vol. iv.
p. 619.

Referring tliofe readers who have the curiofity to examine
the reveries above-mentioned to the two preceding works,
we propofe to give here an abftradl from the fame, of what

has

QUADRATURE.

lias been done on this fubje<3;, by way of approximation.
Wc have already obfcrvcd that Archimedes was the firft. who
gave an approximation of tlie ratio of the diameter to tlie
circumference of a circle, placing it between the limits I to
34", and I to 3)4; and it is faid that Apollonius and Philo
found more accurate approximations, wliich, however, iiave
not been tranfmitted to us.

Towards the year 1585, Melius, combatting the falfe
quadrature of Simon Duch^ne, gave the ratio of 113 to
355, which is very exaft, being only T-ij-o-o-tnnru i" cxcefs.
Victa found a ftill nearer approximation, carrying it to ten
decimals, whereas the former is true only to fix places. He
alfo gave a kind of ferics, the infinite fum of which was equal
to the entire circle.

Adrianus Romanus carried tho approximation to feventeen
figures, and Ludolph van Ceulen to thirty-fix ; which he
publiflied in his work "DeCirculoet Adfcriptis ;" and of
which SnelliuspublinicdaLatintranflation in 1619. He after-
wards verified Van Ceulen's approximation by fome theorems
of his own invention, which greatly facilitated the compu-
tation, and whicli he publiflied in 1 621, under the title of
•' Willebrordi Snellii Cyclometricus de Circuli Dimenfione,
&c."

Defcartes found a geometrical conftruftion from which it
was eafy to draw an exprcflion in the form of a feries ; and
Hnygens afterwards difcovered fome curious theorems con-
nefted with this fubjeft, but did not advance the approxima-
tion, though he made fome ufeful rules for approximating
towards the length of the circular arc.

One of the moil curious difcoveries connefted with this
fubjeft, which had yet been publiflied, was that given by
Wallis in his " Arithmetica Infinitorum," in 1655: where
he fhews that the ratio of a circle to the fquare of its dia-
meter, is truly exprefled by the infinite fraftion

3'. 5^ f. 9'. ii\ &c.

2. 4-. 6'. 8'. io\ 12'. &c.

'If we limit ourfelves, as we muft do to, a finite number of
terms, we mall have a ratio alternately too great and too fmall,
according as we take an even or an odd number of terms ;

thus, - is too great ; ^-^ too fmall : ' too great ; and

2 ° 2.4 2.4.4

too fmall, and fo on 1 but each of thefe is a nearer

3-3-5-5
2.4.4.6

approximation than the preceding ones. But in order to
approach ftill nearer in both cafes, the author propofed to
multiply the whole producl by the fquare root of a binomial,
ysiz. unity, plus unity divided by the lalt figure, with which
the feries terminated either m the numerator or denominator ;
in which cafe, the produtt will be a much nearer approxima-
tion ; it will be too great if we ufe the lait figure of the
numerator, and too fmall if the laft; of the denominator.
Thus we fliall have for the ratio fought, alternately in excefs
and defeft.

lows. The circle ilfelf being 1, the fquare of its diameter
isexpreffed by the infinite continued fraftion.

I

I +

2

+ 3^
2 +

5'

2 +

t

/

2

+

9^

2 -(- &c.
is obvious.

See

In excefs.
3-3-5-5

2.4.4.6

3-3J^5-7i7
2.4.4.6.6.8
&c.

v/(l X

r)

In defeft,

3-3-5-5

2.4.4.5

3-3-5-5-7-7
2.4.4.6.6.8
&c.

y (i X ^)
^(i X

.)

Prior to the above feries of Dr. Wallis, however, fome
thing of an equivalent expreffion, though given under a dif-
ferent form, was difcovered by lord Brounker, which is as fol-

7

of wliicli the law of the denominators
Circle.

Such was the progrcfs which mathematicians had made
towards the folution of this interefting problem prior to the
invention of fluxions, which, by reducing the quadrature of
all curves to one general principle, again revived the hopes of
fuccefs with regard to the circle, notwithftanding fome pre-
tended demonilrations of its impolTibility ; and its quadra-
ture was accordingly again attempted with the greateft
eagernefs. The quadrature of a fpace, and the redlification
of a curve, were now reduced to that of finding the fluent of
a given fluxion but ftill the problem was found to be inca-
pable of a general folution in infinite terms. The fluxion of
a given fluent was found to be always aflignable, but the
converfe propofition, vix. of finding the fluent of a given
fluxion, could only be effedled in particular cafes ; and amongft
the exceptions, to the great regret and difappointment of
geometricians, was included the cafe of the circle with regard
to every form of fluxion under which it could be obtained.
Some exceedingly near approximations have, however, fince
been made towards the true ratio of the diameter to the
circumference of the circle, but thefe belonging rather to
the article Rectification than to Quadrature, we fliall
enter again upon the fubjeifl under the former term, and
fliall occupy the remainder of the prefent article on the
quadrature of curves m general.

On the Quadrature of Curves by Fluxions. In order to ex-
hibit more diftindlly and at large the ufe of fluxions, ac-
cording to the modern method of notation, in finding the
areas of curves, we fliall premife the two following cafes.

Cafe I. — Let A R C ( Plate XIII. Analyfis,fg. 10. ) be a
curve of any kind, whofe ordinates R ^, C B, are perpendi-
cular to an axis A B. Imagine a right line ^ R ^, perpen-
dicular to A B, to move parallel to itfelf from A towards
B ; and let its velocity, or the fluxion of the abfciffe A b,
in any propofed fituation of that line, be denoted by b d%
then will the retlangle b n exprefs the fluxion of the gene-
rated area A ^ R, which (if A ^ = .v, and ^ R = j>) will be
=:= jy .V : whence, by fubftituting for y or x (according to
the equation of the curve,) and taking the fluent, the area
itfelf will become known.

Cafe 2. — Let ARM {fg. II.) be any curve whofe ordi-
nates C R, C R, are all referred to a point or centre ; and
conceive a right line C R H to revolve about the given cen-
tre C, and a point R to move along the faid line, fo as to
defcribe the curve live ARM. If this point were to move
from Q, without changing its direftion or velocity, it would
proceed along the tangent Q S (inftead of the curve), and
defcribe areas Q J- C, Q S C, about the centre C, propor-
tional to the times in which they were defcribed ; becaufe,
having the fame altitude C P, they arc as the bafes Q^r and
O S. Confequently, if R S be taken to denote the value
of k the fluxion of the curve line A R, the correfponding

fluxion

QUADRATURE.

= — : whence the area itfelf may

fluxion of the area ARC will be juftly reprerented by the
uniformly generated triangle Q C S ; which, cxpreffing C P

QSxCP_ji
by X, will be = -^ — — ■

be determined. But fincc, in many cafes, the value of z can-
not be computed (from the property of the curve) without
trouble, the two following expreilions, for the fluxion of the

sy y J J"' •*'

area, will be found more commodious, iitz. - — and — ;

2 t 2 a

where / = R P, and .v = the arc B N of a circle, defcribed
about the centre C, at any diftance a= C B. Thcfe ex-
preflions are derived from that above in the following man-
ner ; w«. i :} -.-.y (C R) : / (R P) ; therefore 2 = y ; con-

fequently -~ — • Moreover, becaufc the celerity of R

in the direftion of the tangent is denoted by i, that in a di-
reftion perpendicular to C Q (whereby the point R revolves

C P si.-

about the centre C) will, therefore, be = —-=5- x 2 = — '

UK y

which, being to x the celerity of the point N about the
fame centre as the diftance or radius C R (j/) to the radius
C N (a), we (hall, by multiplying extremes and means, have

. — - = y X, and, confequcntly, — = - — . In the exam-

y 2 2 H

pies fubjoincd, the letters x, y, z, and u will be ufed to de-
note the abfcifle, ordinate, curve-line, and area refpeftively.
Quadrature of a Right-angled Triangle. Let the bafe
A H [fg. 12.) = a, the perpendicular H M — b, and let
A B (x) be any portion of the bafe, confidered as a flowing
quantity, and B R \y) be the corrtfponding ordinate. Then,
the triangles A H M and A B R being fimilar, we fliall

bx
have a : b :: X : y =^ . — . Whence ji x (the fluxion of the

b X X

area A B R) = ; and its fluent (fee Inverfe Method

a

c/* Fluxions) or the area itfelf = — ^, which, when x = a,
■' ' 2a

,„„ . ., .,TT»;r n, «* AHxHM

and B R coincides with H M, will become ■ — =

2 2

= the area of the whole triangle A H M. See Menfura-

tien o/" Triangles.

Quadrature of a Circular SeHor. Let A O R (Jig. 13.)

be the feftor ; A O or O R, its radius, = a, the arc A R,

confidered as variable by the motion of R, =; c, and R r

= i ; the fluxion of the area will be — ^ die triangle
O R >• : whence the area itfelf is = — =:AOxiAR:

= 3' «r» r

refolved into an infinite feriee, we fhall have u

/ «_ _ x^ _ *' 5k» » \ _

^ V 2a ~ 8a' i6a' ~ izST^' ) ~

, . X^ X X^ X x^x\

x^ X — — - I, &c. whence, the

2 a Ha' lOa'/

fluent of every term being taken, there will arife u = at

(2 .-CT xT

28 a'

72a'

5"'

704 a'''

&c

) =

^ ax X

Sx-

28a'

&c.^

72 a' 704 a'

= the area A B R. When x = -i a, the ordinate B R
will coincide with the radius O E ; in which cafe the area

It to -m — -i^-tr —

a

becomes =
T-rircT> S:c.) =:

.^ i aa

X (0.6666 — O.I

0.0089

that is, the area of any circle is exprefled by a reftangle
under half the circumference and half the diameter. See
Circle.

Quadrature of a Semldrek. Let the femicirck be of y. Thus x being
AREH (fg. 14.) ; its diameter AH = a, A B = ar,
and B R = y, &c. and we have y"- (B R^) = ax — x''
(AB X BH), and, confequcntly, u {y x) = it ^/ (ax

— 0.0017 ~ 0.0004, &c.) = 0.1964a"; which, mul-
tiplied by 2, gives 0.3928 a' for the area of the femi-
circlc, nearly. In order to obtain a more converging feries,
let the arc A R be ^ 4 A E = 30°, and the fine B R
(being half the chord of double tiie arc or half the fide
of a hexagon, i. e. half the radius), will be = i A O •
and AB(.%-) = AO - OB = AO - ,/ (O R' -'B R');
which, radius being I, will be ~ 0.1339746 nearly: fub-
ftitute this quantity, with the value of a in the above feries,

X J-'

^a.r' X (f — — f, — i — &c.) and we fiiall have

c a 2o a

0.0693505 X (0.6666666 — 0.0133975 — 0.0001603 —
0.0000042 — &c.>— 0.0693505 X 0.6531046= 0.0452931
1= the area A B R : which, added to the area O B R
(=OB X :^BR= \/|-x 1= 0.2165063) gives
0.2617994 for the area of the feftor A O R ; the treble of
which, or 0.7853982 (A R being = ^ AE), will be the
content of the whole quadrant A O E ; which number,
found by taking only four terms of the feries, is true to the
lail decimal place.

We might have found a feries of more rapid convergency,
but fliall referve that part of our inveitigation for the
article Rectification.

Quadrature of the Lunes. See Lunes.

Quadrature of the Ellipfe. The ellipfe, alfo, is a
curve whofe precife quadrature in definite terms is not yet
effefted. Indeed the area of an elhpfe, being an exaft
mean proportional between the areas of the circles defcribed
upon Its two axes, is obvioufly dependent upon the latter ;
and it is, therefore, ufelefs to repeat the operation.

Quadrature of the Parabola. Let the curve A R M H
{Jig. 15.), be the common parabola, in which ^' (BR')
= a.v (AB x a, the parameter). See Conic Seaioni.
Whence we have^ = in x'^, and u (yx) := a^ x'^ x ; and,

therefore, u = .= x a'^ x'''' = \ a'^ x^ y. x := -I y x = ^
X A B X BR. Hence a parabola is -5- of a reftangle of
the fame bafe and altitude.

The value of tlie area may alfo eafily be found in terms

hav

2yi- '

= , and u

a

(y-)

2y\v

: whence a =

2y
= -^ X

»') = a"* x^ .i X

( I — - 1 } which expreflion being

a
=ixABxBR
In the cubic parabola, whofe equation is f

3^ 3
See Parabola.

2y
= -^ X

3

; we
have

QUADRATURE.

have y ■= p'-r x' ; multiply this by x, and wo liaveji jf =
p^ x^ X, for the fluxion of the area. Therefore fluent y x
= f ^5 *j ^ A of xy, that is, area = ^^of circumfcribing
reiSlangle.

And in the fame manner, it will be found that in the
general parabola, whofe equation is a" ^ ' x — ^" ; the area :=

X circumfcribing reftangle.

QuADRAi'LiRE of the Hyperbola. The analytical quad-
rature of this curve was firli given by N. Mercator of Hol-
ftein, tlie firfl; inventor of infinite fericfes. But Mercator
finding hici feries by divifion, fir Ifaac Newton and M. Leib-
nitz improved upon his method ; the one feeking them by
the extradliou of roots, the other by a feries prefuppofed.

See HYPEKBOi.A.

Quadrature of the Afymptot'ic Spaces in an Hyperbola.
Let D E F {Jig. X^.) be an hyperbola, of which the afymp-
totes are C M and C N ; to find the area E G H F, com-
prehended between the orduiatcs G E and F H.

Let C G = a, G E -= i, G H = A.-, F H ^ ji ; then by
the property of the hyperbola, CG x GE = CH x HF,

OT ab = {a — x) y, or y =: ; and, therefore, ji a-

ab ;

a + X
the fluent of which is ab X hyp. log. (a + «),

which fluent, however, requires a correftion, for when
X = o, the area = o ; but the above expreffion when x = o
h ab X hyp. log. of a, therefore the correftion is — ab
X hyp. log. of a, that is, the correct fluent which ex-
preffes the area ii ab x hyp. log. {a + x) — ab x hyp.

log. a, or area ^G¥ H — ab x hyp. log. .

If C G and G E each = i

yx =

the fluent of

I + X

which is hyp. log. (i -f x), which requires no correction.

Quadrature of the Cycloid. Let CAL {Jig. 17.) be
a cycloid, AD the axis, ABD the generatmg circle, A F
a tangent at the vertex, C F parallel to A D.

Take any point P in the arc, and draw P M perpendieular
to A M. Then the fluxion of the external area A M P =:
P M X the fluxion of A M.

Let A E = *, A D = 2 a ; then B E =r ^ (2 a k — x')
{a — x) X

and the fluxion of B E =
AlfoPB

^/ {2 ax — x')
the arc B A ; therefore the fluxion of P B =

and the fluxion of P B + BE, or of

v' {zax — x^) '

. -, {2a — x\ X , r in. /- ■

AM = — S —T\ ; therefore the fluxion of the area

^ (2ax — x^)

APM,or PM, X by the fluxion AM = (^^^- =''')''

^{2ax — x^)
z= X ^/ {zax — a-').

But the fluent of this fluxion is the fame as that found
above for a circle, whofe radius is a, and verfed fine x ; that
is, the area ABE; and, therefore, when j: = 2 a, the whole
•xternal area C F A is equal to the area of the femicircle
ABD. But C D being equal to the femicircumference
A D, the whole reftangle C D A F =: four times the femi-
circle ABD, and confequently the internal area ACD =
three times the femicircle ABD; or the whole area of

Vol. XXIX.

the cycloid equal three times the area of its generating
circle.

Quadratuiie of the Lo^yiic, or Logarithmic Curve.
Let the fubtangent PT (fig. 18.) = «, P M = a-, P/
= dx ; then will

^-^ = a

y

y i = ay
and fluent oi y x = ay.

Wherefore the indeterminate fpace HPMI, is equal to
the rcdangle of P M into P T.

Hence, i. Let QS = 2; ; then will the indeterminate
fpace I S Q H := az; and, confequently, S M P Q ^ ajr
— a% — a {y — %) ; that is, tlie fpace intercepted between
the two logiilic femiordinates is equal to the reClangle of
the fubtangent into the difference of the femiordinates.

2. Therefore the fpace B A P M is to the Ipace P M S Q
as the difference of the femiordinates A B and P M is to
the difference of the femiordinates P M and S Q. See
Logarithmic Curve.

QVADRATVRE of the Logarithmic Spira/. Let CBAC
(Jg. 19.), be the area propofed : let tlie right line AT
touch the curve at A, upon which, from the centre
C, let fall the perpendicular C T : then, fince by the nature
of the curve, the angle T A C is every where the fame,
the ratio of A T (t) to C T (t) will be conltant : and.

therefore, the fluent of - x -

t 2

= - X —

t 4.

tlie

quired area.

Quadrature of the Spiral of Archimedes. Let C R R
{Jig. 20.) be the curve, whofe area C R^ C is required. Let
A C be a tangent at the centre C, about which centre, with
any radius AC (= a), fuppofe a circle A_^^ to be defcribed:
then the arc or abfcifs Ag correfponding to any propofed
ordinate C R, being to that ordinate in a conltant ratio

{e. gr. as m to n) we have ^ (A^) = - ; therefore u =

my'^y my'

; confequently « = - "—

zan 6an

the

2a
CRR^C. Set SiPlv. At of Archimedes.

Quadrature of Defcartes^ Curve, whicli is defined by
the expreffion, b- : x' :: b — x : y.

Since b'y=- b x'' — x^

y = [bx"- - x^) -i- b-
y X = {bx- i — x' x) -i- b^

flu.

3b~x'^^b\

Quadrature of all Curves cs/nprehendtd under the general

Equation, y -z^. \/ {x -f a).

Since jf = (j: + a)"
y k ■= ic {x ■'r a)"'

Make (^ -f a) "' = 1;

Then X -\- a ■=■ v", or * = t>" — a

Whence x — mv""' v

y X = mv^v, the fluent of which 11

-— — - = — — - {x + a) (,f -f- a)". = — — - (x + a)'

Let jr = o ; the remainder will be

m + I

Whence,

QUA

Whence, the area of the curve =

m i- I

m + I

See on the fcbjeft of this article Maclaurin's Fluxions,
aad Simpfon's Fhixions, vol. i. feft. 7. p. 121, &c.

Quadrature, in yyironomy, that afpeft, or fituatinn of
the moon, when ftie is go (degrees dillaiit from the fun.

Or, the quadrature is when (he is in a middle point of her
orbit, between the points of conjunftion and oppofition ;
which happens twice in each revolution, -viz. in the firll and
third quarter.

When the moon is in her quadrature, flic exhibits tliat
phaiis wliich we call the half-moon, i. e. fhe thines with
juft half her face ; and is faid to be bifefted, or dichoto-
mized.

In the moon's progrefs from the fyzygies to her quadra-
ture, her gravity towards the earth is continually increafing
by the atlion of the fun ; and her motion is retarded for the
fame reafon. Hei- motion then, in her orbit, is flowell as
her gravity to the earth is greateft when in the quadra-
tures.

In her rccefs from the quadratures to the fyzygies, the
gravity continually decreafes, and the velocity increafcs.
The ratio is thus : as radius is to the fum, or diiTcrence of
one and a half the coiine of double the diftance of the moon
from the fyzygy, and half the radius; fo is the addition of
gravity in the quadratures to the diminution or increafe of it
in any other iituation. See SvzYCiY.

Hence the moon's orbit is more convex in the quadratures,
than in the fyzygies ; and hence the circular figure of the
moon's orbit is changed into an oval, whofe greater axis
goes through the quadratures ; and hence, alfo, the moon
is lefs diftant from the earth at the fyzygies, and more at
the quadratures.

It is no wonder, therefore, that the moon (liould ap-
proach nearer the earth when her gravity is diminifhed ;
that accefs not being the immediate effeft of this diminution,
but of the inflexion of the orbit towards the quadi-atures.

In the quadratures, and within thirty-five degrees of them,
the apfides of the moon go backwards, or move in antece-
dentia ; but they move forwards in the fyzygies. See Ap-
sides.

The moon's orbit undergoes various alterations in each
revolution. Its excentricity is the greateft when the line of
the apfides is in the fyzygies ; and the leaft, when in the
quadratures.

Confidering one entire revolution, the nodes move flower
and flower as the moon approaches the quadi'atures, and they
reft when fhe is in them ; but confidering feveral revolutions,
the nodes go back fafter in the quadratures.

The inclination of the plane of the moon's orbit iacreafes
as tlie nodes go from the fyzygies, and is greatefl: when the
nodes are in the quadratures. See Moon and Nodes.

Quadrature Lines, or Lines of Quadrature, are two
lines frequently placed on Gunter's ieclor.

They are marked with the letter Q, and the figures 5, 6,
7, 8, 9, 10 ; of which Q fignifies the fide of a fquare, and
the other figures the fides of polygons of 5, 6, 7, &c. fides.
S there (lands for the femi-diameter of a circle ; and 90 for
a line equal to ninety degrees in circumference.

QUADRATUS, in Biography, an early Chriftian writer,
who flouriflied under the reigns of Trajan and Adrian.
He is (tyled by Jerome and Eufebius " a difciple of the
apoftles," and he was reported to have been endowed with
the gift of prophecy. According to Eufebius, Quadratus

Q U A

prefentcd to the emperor Adrian, in the year 126, an apo*
ix + a) "^ (x- -j- a) logy for llie Chridlan religion, with a view of mitigatinij
the fu(fi rings inflicted upon the profeliors of that perioo.
This isfuppofcdto have boLMi the (ir(t written apology pre-
fentcd on the fame fubjeft to aiiv' of the Roman emperors,
and it produced a con(idi.ral)lf e(fect on tlie mind of Adrian.
Of this work only a fragment remains, which is preferved by
Eufebius, and which is cxtreir.' ly valuable on account of the
teftimony which it affords to the reality of the miracles ot
Chrid and his apoftles, by afterting that fome of thofe
miracles were wrought on perfons who were living at the
time when Quadratus wrote. Nothing is known refpedling
the time and manner of his death. Lardner.

QuADKATUs, in Anatomy, a name given to feveral mufcles
of the body, on account of their form.

QuADRATiT.s Fcmoris, le carre, ijchiotrochanlhien ; is
fituated at tlie upper and back part of the thigh, and ex-
tends from the tuberofity of the ifchium to tlie great tro-
chanter. It is flattened, quadrilateral, znd tolerably thick.
The pofterior furface is covered by the gluteus maximus,
the fciatic nerve, and the femi-mcmbranofus ; the anterior
furface covers the obturator externus, the extremity of the
tendon of the pfoas magnus, and the back of the trochanter
minor. The fuperior edge is parallel to the inferior ge-
minus ; and the inferior to the upper fibres of the adduftor
magnus. The inner edge, or origin of the mufcle, is fixed
to the outer fide of the tuberofity of the ifchium, in front of
the femi-membranofus ; the outer is attached to the bony
ridge, which runs from the great to the fmall trochanter.
It is tendinous at its two attachments, and flelhy in other
parts. It will rotate the thigh ouUvards upon the pelvis ;
or, if the former be fixed, it will move the pelvis upon the
thigh. When the thigli has been carried upwards and out-
wards, it will reftore the hmb to its natural pofition.

Quadratus Gend, a mufcle of the lower lip; fee the
article Deglutition, where it is defcribed under the name
of dtprejfor lalii inferioris.

Quadratus Lumborum. See Lumborum.

Quadratus Occipitis, a name of the pofterior or occi-
pital portion of the Epicranius ; which fee.

QUADRELLA, in Geography, 2l town of Naples, in
Lavora ; 20 miles E.N.E. of Naples.

QUADRELS, in Building, a kind of artificial ftones,
perfedlly fquare; whence their name. They are made of a
chalky, or whitiih and phable earth, &c. dried in the ftiade
for at leaft two years.

They were formerly in great requeft among the Italian
architeAs.

QUADRICEPS, in Anatomy, a name under which it
has been propofed to defcribe the extenfors of the knee-
joint, w'z. the vaftus internus and externus, the crurxus,
and reftus ; and the addutlors of the thigh, with the pecti-
nalis.

QUADRIGA, formed from quatuor, four, znd jugum,
yoie, in Antiquity, a car, or chariot, drawn by four horfes,
harnefled abreaft.

Various are the accounts we have of the inventor of the
quadriga. Cicero makes it the invention of Minerva. Hy-
ginus attributes it to Erichtlionius IV. king of the Athe-
nians ; which fentiment Virgil alfo follows in his Georgics,
lib. iii. ver. 113. jEfchyli;s gives Prometheus the honour
of it. TcrtuUian, De Spctlac. lib. ix. fays, it was in-
vented among the Argians, by Trochilus, in honour of
Juno ; and at Rome, by Romulus, in honour of Mars, or
Quirinus. Ado of Vienne, Chronic. aA iii. will have it
to have been invented by one Procidus, about the time of
the eftablilliment of the kingdom of Athens. Laziardels,

Hift,

Q U A

Hift. Uiilveif. Epitom. lib. xxiv. fays the fame of Trlpto-
lemiis. Lallly, if there be not opinions enoiieh ah-cady,
Herodotus gives us anotlier ; and fays, the Greeks bor-
rowed it from the Libyans. Pliny tells us, that his leal was
a quadriga, lib. xvi.

On the reverfes of medals we frequently fee Viilory, or
the emperor, in a quadriga, iiolding the reins of the horlcs ;
whence thefe coins are called, among the curious, nummi
quadrigali, and vlHorhiii. See Bigati.

QuADUlGA, from qiinliwr and jitga, yokes, in Surgery, a
bandage for tiie ilcrnum and ribs, lo called from its reiem-
blance to the trappings of a fonr-horfe car. It was iormcrly
employed in cafes of fractured ribs ; but, as it is not now
in ufe, a more particular account of it leems unnecelTary.

QUAURIGEMINA Cokpoha, in Anatomy, a part of
the brain, known more commonly by the terms nates and
teftes. See Bkain.

QUADRILATERAL, in Geometry, a figure whofe
perimeter confills of four right lines, making four angles ;
whence it is alfo called a quadrangular hgure.

If the feveral angles be right, the figure is a reftangular
jjuadrilatera!. If oblique, an oblique-angular quadrilateral.

If the fides of a quadrilateral be equal, and the angles
right, the figure is a fquare.

If the fides be equal, but the angles unequal, the figure
is a rhombus.

If the angles be equal, and the fides unequal, the figure
t« a reAangle.

If only the oppofite angles and fides be equal, the qua-
drilateral is a rhomboides.

If the oppofite angles and fides be unequal, the quadri-
lateral is a trapezium.

If any fide of a quadrilateral, infcribed in a circle, be
produced out of the circle, the external angle will be equal
to the oppofite, internal angle.

Hence, the two oppofite angles of any quadrilateral figure
infcribed in a circle, always make two right angles ; and,
therefore, no oblique-angled parallelogram can have a circle
defcribed about it, becauie its oppofite angles being equal,
mud together be greater or lefs than two right angles. See
Circle.

QUADRILL, QuADKiLLA, a little troop or company
cf cavaliers, porapoufly dreffed and mounted ; for the per-
formance of caroufals, julls, tournaments, runnings at the
ring, and other gallant divcrtiiements.

The word is borrowed from the Italian, being a diminn-
live of /quadra, a company of loldiers ranged in a fquare :
for fquaJrare is, properly, to dilpofe any thing fquare ;
whence their qiiadrigUa, the French /quadrille and quadrille,
and our quadrill. The French formerly wrote /quadrille,
ajld e/qtiadrille.

A regular caroufal is to have at leaft four, and at moft
twelve, quadrills.

Of thefe quadrills, eacli is to confift of at leaft three ca-
valiers, and at moft of twelve.

The quadrills are diftinguifiied by the form of their habits,
or the diverfity of their colours.

QUADRILLE, a well-known game at cards ; and
which has been, in feveral cafes, the objeft of mathematical
computations. See M. De Moivre's Doctrine of Chances,
jd edit. p. 97, &c.

QUADRIO, Francesco Saverio, in Biography, a
Jeluit, author of a voluminous hillory aod defcription of
every kind of Italian poetry, " Delia iloria e della Ragione
d'ogni Poefia," eight vols. 4to. publifiied at Bologna be-
tween the years 1739 and 1752.

The author feems a mere compiler, without feleftion,

QUA

taftc, or accuracy. It is a heavy work, hardly intereftinj
enougli to ftimulate a regular perufal ; and frum the diforder
of arrangement, very difficult to coiifult. Crefccmber.i ii
as fupcrior to Quadrio in every requifitc of an hillorian of
literature, as Tirabofchi is to Crefcimbcni.

QUADRIPARTITION, the dividing by four; or a
taking of the fourth part of any number, or quantity.

Hence quadripartite, &c. fomething divided into four.

QUADRIREME, Quadhihemis, a galley, or velTel,
with four oars on a fide ; the invention of which was attri-
buted by the ancients to the Carthaginians.

QUADRISETiE, the four-haired flies, a term ufed by
the writers in natural hiitory to exprefs thofe flies of the
feticaudc or hair-tailed kind, which have four hairs or
briflles growing from the tail, as the others have three, two,
or one.

QUADRIVIUM, the centre of four ways, where four
roads meet and crofs each other. By ftatute, polls with
infcriptions are to be fet up at fuch crofs-ways, as a direc-
tion to travellers, &c. 8 & 9 W. III. c. 10.

QuADRiviOM, befides the centre of four ways, was a
fcholaftic divifion, ufed in the middle ages in our univerfities,
to exprefs the highcfl clafs of philofophical learning and
fcicnce ; comprehending arithmetic, geometry, aftronomy,
and mnfic : as the trivium did grammar, rhetoric, and logic.
During this period, nuific, fuch as it was, muit have been
highly prized to be ranked with the moft fublime fciencet,
and thought an eft'ential part of a learned education.

QUADRO, Ital. literally means fquare, and in muCc,
at prefent, it implies a natural, ^, or Gothic B, in oppo-
fition to tondfj, round, or the round b , ufed for a flat. The
durum hcxachord is fometimes called the quadro hexachord,
from the circumftance of B being ^.

It was the opinion of Padre Martini and the prince abbot
of St. Blafius, that accents and points, enlarged, disfigured,
and lengthened, became mufical charafters for time as well
as tune. At firlt, when lines and fpaces were ufed, from
their being chiefly employed in a fquare form for writing the
chants eftablifiied by St. Gregory, they acquired the name
of Gregorian notes, quadrata, and in barbarous Latin, qua-
driquarta. As the church is flow in receiving new doftnnes,
and generally a century later in admitting thofe improve-
ments or corruptions in mufic (the reader may call them
which he pleafes) that are adopted by the laity as the for-
tunate efforts of cultivated genius, the notation of chants
was at firft cenfured and prohibited by feveral councils ;
and figurative harmony being regarded as a crying fin by-
pope John XXI I., was formally excommunicated by a bull
from the conclave 1321. See Notes, and Time-table.

QUADRUGATA Terr^., in Old La-w Records, de-
notes a team-hnd ; or fo much as can be tilled by four
horfes.

QUADRULA, in Natural Hi/lory, a word fometimes
ufed in the fame fenfe as tefTela, and fpoken of the cubic
pyrites. Sometimes it is ufed alfo as the name of thofe
little fpangles of fhining matter that are mixed among fand.
Thefe are generally fragments of talc ; and are of various
colours, white, yellow, and blackifh.

Solinus has ufed the word quadrula to exprefs the frag-
ments of yellow talc that are found in that fand called am-
mochry/os, or golden fand. He miftakes thefe fhining
particles for mafl'cs of real gold, and makes the fand itfelf
a kind of precious fubftance ranked among the gems, and
brought from Perfia ; but in this he does not agree with
the reft of the ancients.

QUADRUPED. The efTential charafter of quadra-
X z peds

QUADRUPEDS.

petls is, ■that Uiey have a hairy body and four feet, and that
ihc fimalos are viviparous, and give fuck to their young.

Quadrupeds are didiriguilhcd, by the number of their
feet, from otiier animals, which have only two feet, as birds;
from thofe which have no feet, as hfhes and reptiles ; and
from thol'' which have more than two feet, as infefts.

Ariliolle didributes quadrupeds into three clailes ; deno-
minating thofe whole feet are terminated by a hoof in one
piece, folipccles; thoi'e which have a cloven hoof he diftin-
guifhed by the name of forked or cloven-footed ; and thofe
whofe feet are digitated he called Jiffipeiies. With this ge-
neral divifion he contented himlell, without dcfcendmg to
li methodical diltribution of each clafs into their fevcral
'orders, genera, ?cc. Gefner, Aldrovand, Jonfton, and
many other naturalifts, have adopted the diftribution of
Ariltotle : but we are indebted ior the regular fyftematic
arrano-ement of quadrupeds to Mr. Ray, who jniblilhed hjs
*' Synopfis Mcthodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini
generis," &c. in 1693. According to this writer, quadru-
peds .Te divided into thofe which are hoofed, ungu/ata ; and
thofe which are clawed, or digitate, unguiculata.

Quadrupeds, Hnnfed, are either,

1. Whoh-hoefed, frilipeda, fj.a.-.ayn'kxf fi.uiv^c., folidungula;
as the horfe and afs, the onager or wdd afs, the mule ; and
the zebra of Africa, or the fine ftripcd Indian or African
afs, almoll like a mule in form and Itature.

Of the whole-hoofed kind, Ariilotle has obferved, that
no one hath two horns (he might have faid any horns) ; no
one hath the talus, or altragalus ; nor have the males any
appearance of teats.

2. Clo'oen-footed : and that either, i. Into two divifions
only ; as the 'i^x^Xn., or bifulcate kind ; which are again
fubdividcd into fuch as are,

Firft, Ruminant, ^iKfuxa^oaltr, that is, fuch as chew the
Cud ; and thefe either have hollow and perpetual horns, as
the bull, fheep, and goat kind ; or deciduous horns, as the
hart and deer kind, which ufually fhcd their horns annually.

Of the bull kind are reckoned thefe ; the common bos or
bullock, of which the male is taurus, the female vacca ; the
German urus, urochs, or aurochs ; the bifon ; the bonafus ;
the bubalus, or bufalo ; and the bos Africanus of Bellonius,
Obf. lib. ii. c. 50. which he takes to be the bub.alus of the
ancients.

Of ilicjheep kind, befides the common fort, are reckoned
the Arabian ovis laticauda, whofe tail is fometimes of thirty
pounds weight ; the ovis ftrepficeros Cretica Bellonii ; the
ovis Africana, with fliort hair inftead of wool ; and the ovis
Guineenfis, or Angolenfis, of Marcgrave, Hill. Brafil.
lib. vi, c. 10.

Of the goat kind are, befides the common capra doraef-
tica, the ibex, or German fteinbock, found on the tops of
the alps ; the rupicapra, French chamois, or German gems ;
the gazella Africana, or antelope ; the gazella Indica ; the
gazella Africana with fhorter, annulated, and bent horns ;
the capra fylveftris Africana Grimmii; the capra Mambrina,
or Syriaca of Gfcfner ; the bucephalus, or mofchelaphus
Caii, in Gefner ; the tragelaphus Caii, in Gefp.er ; and the
tragelaphus of Bellonius.

Of the hart, or deer kind, are reckoned, the cervus, AaZoc,
Or red deer ; the cervus platyceros, or p;dmatus, the fallow
deer ; alee, or the elk ; rangifer, the rein deer ; the axis
Plinii, according to Bellonius ; the caprea Plinii, the cu-
guacu-ete, and cuguacu-apara, of Marcgrave ; the caprea
Groenlandica.

Secondly, of animals whofe feet are divided into two
parts only, and which do not chew the cud, there is only
the hog and fwiae kind. Under this head, befides the com-

mon fwine, are reckoned the wild boar, or fwine ; the Gui-
neenfis Maicgravii ; the porcus Indicus, or babyroufl'a; the
tajacu or aper Mexicanus mofchiferus of Dr. Tyfon, called,
I, y Marcgrave, tajacu caaigoara ; by others, quauhtla coy-
matl, and quapizotl ; and by Acolta, and fome others,
zaino.

2. There arc fome quadrupeds, whofe hoof is cloven into
four divifions, and thefe f-em to be not ruminant ; as the
rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the tapijerete of Brafil, the
capy-bara ot Brafil, and the animal mofchiferum.

QuADUUi'EDs, Cla-wed or Digitate. Of this kind, there
is, firft, a fort whofe claws are not divided or leparated,
but adhere to one another, and are covered with one com-
mon flcin, but with obtufe nails, flicking out round the
margin of the foot ; as the elephant, which is anomalous,
and not clearly referrible to this kind, or to that of cloven-
footed quadrupeds.

A fecond fpecies of this digitate kind of quadrupeds,
which has only two claws, is the camel ; and though thefe
have no horns, they both rumiaate, and have alfo the four
flomachs of horned ruminant animals.

Of the camel there are two forts ; one having but one
hunch on the back, the other two.

To this kind alfo belong the Peruvian glama, which fome
have reckoned among the (hecp kind ; as alfo the pacos, the
ovis Indica, or Peruviana vulgo, which is much lefs than
the sflama.

o _ . - .

A third fpecies of this unguiculate kind includes fuch
animals as the Greeks called IWAunx^, and A/9fa.-5r'y(uof J«,
which have the foot divided into many claws, with broad
nails on them ; as the ape and monkey kind.

Of thefe, fome have no tails, and are called fimise, or
apes ; others have tails, and are called monkies, cercopitheci ;
and fuch as have either long or {hort tails, if they are of a
larger fize, are called papiones, or baboons. There are great
numbers and varieties of this fpecies of quadrupeds ; of
which naturalifts have defcribed thefe, i>;z. the orang-outang,
or homo fylveilris of Dr. Tyfon, defcribed by him in a par-
ticular difcourfc ; the guariba of Brafil, Marcgravii ; the
cagui of Brafil, greater and lefier ; the cay of the fame re-
gion, defcribed by Lerius ; the caitaia of the fame country ;
the cercopithecus barbatus Guineenfis, two or three forts of
it ; the cercopithecus Angolenfis major ; the' cercopithecus
non barbatus Clufii ; the cercopithecus Cluf. called fagouin.
Laftly, if apes and monkies have their fnouts very promi-
nent, like dogs, they are called cynocephali.

A fourth fpecies of this unguiculate kind is, when,
though the claws are many, yet tliey are not covered at the
end with broad flat nails, like monkies or apes ; but are
rather like the talons of hawks, &c. crooked and (harp-
pointed.

Thefe, in refpeft of their teeth, may be divided into fuch as
have many dentes primores, or incifores (that is, cutting teeth)
in each jaw, of which there are two forts ; a greater, which
either have a (hort, round head, as the cat kind ; or a lefler
fort, having a long flendcr body, with very (liort legs, as the
weafel or vermin kind. There are alfo fome of this fpecies
of quadrupeds which have only two large remarkable teeth
in each jaw : thefe are the hare kind ; and thefe live only
upon herbs, grafs, &c.

Of the cat kind of quadrupeds are reckoned to be the
lion ; the tyger ; the pardalis, whofe male is pardus, and
female panthera ; the leopard ; the lupus cervarius, or lynx ;
the catus pardus, or cat-a-mountain ; the common cat ; and
the bear.

Of the dog kind arc reckoned the wolf ; the lupus au-
reus, orjackall ; befides the eommon dog, of which kind

they

QUADRUPEDS.

they enumerate the maftive, or mafliflF; the canis venaticus
Graius, Graecus, or Scoticus, the greyhound; Graius
Hiberniciis, or the Irilh gieyhouiid ; the caiiis venations
fagax, indag.ilor, feftator ferarum, &c. the liound ; cania
veiiaticus Hilpanicus, or aviarius, the fpaniel for land or
water ; vertagiis, or tumbler ; canis OiKtuioi, or domefticus,
the houfc-dog; canis mehtieus, or the lap-dog; canis
Getuhis, or Idandicus, the fliock : and of all thefe forts
there are many varieties of mongrels, and l)ybridous breeds.

Other fpcci - of the dog kind are, the fox ; the animal
xibethicum, k,< • ivet-cat, as it is corruptly called, but by its
teeth and fnout is plainly of the dog tribe ; the American
coati, orrackoon, orrattoon ; the yzquiepati; the carigueya,
maritucaca, carigoy, ropoza, or opcfrum ; the taiubi ; the
taxus, or meles, the badger, grey, or pate ; the lutra, or
otter. To thefe fome add the phoca, fca-calf or leal ; the
equus marinus, niorle, or fea-horfe, niitlaken by fome for
the hippopotamus ; the Dutch call him walrus, the Danes
and Icelanders rolmaf us ; lallly, the manati, or vacca marina,
the fea-cow.

Of the vermin, or •weafel kind of quadrupeds, is, firft,
the niuftela vulgaris, the common weafel, in Yorkfhire called
foumart, or fitchet, ycfX'.r, : the viverra Indica, called quil
and quirpcle ; another fort called mungo, and mungathia,
of a ixddidi-grey ; the muilela, ermine, or float, and muf-
tela fylveftris, the ferret ; pu tonus, the pole-cat ; martes,
or foyna, the martin, or martlet ; muftella zibellina, the
fable: lallly, the gen'tta ; and the ichneumon Bellonii.

Of the bare kind of quadj-upeds are, firft, lepus, or the
common hare ; cunieulur,, the rabb'-t, or coney ; tapeti, or
Brafil coney, and the aperea of Braiil ; the hyilrix, or por-
cupine, and the hyilrix Americanus, or cuanda of Braiil;
callor, fiber, or the beaver ; fciiirus vulg. or fquirrel ; the
Virginian, Zeylandic, Barbary, and America., flying fquirrel ;
mus domefticus, major and minor, the common rat and
moufe : to thefe alfo may be referred mus major aquaticus,
the water-rat ; the muili-rat, mus avellanarum, major and
minor ; the dormoufe or fleeper, mus Noricus, Cricetus,
Alpinus, feu marmotta ; the cavia cobaya, or cuniculus
Americanus, the Guinea-pig ; the aguti, and paca of Brafil ;
the mus Norwcgicus, or leming ; the glis Gefneri, or the
rell ; the mus Indicus, Sec.

Quadrupeds, Anomalous- To thefe fevcral kinds, the
following anomalous ones muft alfo be added :

1. Such four-footed viviparous animals as have a longifh
fnout, with their feet divided into iv.any claws, and toes, and
having teeth ; as the echinus terreilris, or common urchin,
or hedge-hog ; erinaceus Indicus aibus ; tatu or armadillo
prima of Marcgrave; tatuete of Brafil, or the fecond fpccies
of the armadillo, according to Marc.:;rave ; tatu apara, his
third fpecies of armadillo ; tatu muitehnus, Soc. Reg. Muf.
the weafel-headed armadillo ; talpa, the molewarp, or mold-
tvarp ; and the mus aranens, threw, hardy flirew, fhrew-
moufe.

2. Quadrupedous and viviparous animals with a longifh
fnout, having their feet divided into many claws or toes,
but without teeth ; as the tamaiidua guacu of Brafil,
Marcgravii, urfus formicarius Cardani, the great ant-
iear ; the tamandua of Brafil, or Marcgrave, the leller
ant-bear.

3. Anomalous flying quadrupeds, with a (horter fnout,
and their feet divided as above ; being of the bat kind, or
flitter-mice, of which there are leveral iizes, and of different
forms.

4. There is one very anomalous animal, which has but
three claws on each foot ; and that is the ai or igiiavus of
Marcgrave, the floth or llu^gard.

5. Viviparous and fanguineous quadrupeds, breathing
with lungs, but Iiaving only one ventricle in the heart ; as
the raiia aqu-atica, the frog, or frolh ; rana arborca, feu ra-
nunculus viridis, the fmali tree or green frog ; bufo, five
rubeta, the toad ; tcftudo, the tortoife, in Greek %<X>iv) ; of
thefe there are land and water ones, and many different fpecie*
in foreign parts.

6. Oviparous quadrupeds, with a long tail ft retched out
horizontally. Such are the lizard kind ; as lacerius omnium
maximus, the crocodile ; cordylus, five caudiverbera, uro-
maflrix Griecis, larger than the green h'zard ; tapayaxin
Novx Hifpaniae, or lacertus orbicularis of Hernandez ; lacer-
tU3 vulgaris, tiie common eft, fwift, or newt ; lacertus viri-
dis, the green lizard ; lacertus fucetanus Aldrovandi, at
Rome and Naples called the tarantula ; lacertus Indicus,
called fenembi and •'^uana ; lacertus Brafilienfis, called teju-
guacu, and tcmapara by Marcgrave ; the taraguira ameiva,
taraguico Arcuraba, Americima, Curapopcba, Teiunhana,
<cc. of Marcgrave ; the lacertus Indicus ; the fcincus, or
crocodilus terreflris ; the feps, or lacerta chalcidica, a kind
of footed ferpent ; ftellio, the fwift, or fpotted lizard ; fala-
mandra, called the falamandra aquatica, the water-eft, lacerta
volans Indica ; and the chamasleo, or cameleon.

This fyftem of Mr. Ray obtained very generally among
naturahfts, till, in the year 1735, LinnEus firft publiflied
his fyftem. This was followed by feveral others, varying
in the arrangement of the animal kingdom, even to the laft
edition of 1767. Under the clafs, which he denominates
Mammalia, (which fee,) he comprehends not only all the
animals which we call quadrupeds (the lizard genus, or ra-
ther the reptiles pedati excepted), but alfo the cetaceous
order, or wiiales, cachalots, and porpefl'es : juftifying this
arrangement of whales with quadrupeds, from the agreement
of thefe animals in the ilrudlure of the heart, in the refpira-
tion by means of lungs, in their having moveable eye-lids
and ears, in being viviparous, furnifhed with teeth, and other
particulars, by whicli they differ fo materially from fifhes, as
more than to counterbalance their living with them in the
fame element. The majnmalia are divided into feven orders,
the diftinclions of which are principally eflabhflied on the
difference in the numbers, fituation, and form of the three kinds
of teeth, 'VIZ,, the primores or incifores, called fore-teeth, or
cutting-teeth; the laniarii or canini, called dog-teeth, canine
or lacerating teeth ; and the molares, double teeth or grinders.
-But Linnaeus does not entirely negleft the feet. See the
charafters of the feveral orders under Primates, Brute,
Fek-S, Glis, Pecora, Bellua, and Cete or Whale.
This part of the Linnasan fyftem, including a few fpecies
defcribed in the Appendix of the third tome, and in the
Mantilia of 177 1, contains about two hundred and thirty
fpecies.

Mr. Pennant, in his " Synopfis of Quadrupeds," and pro-
feflbr Martin, in his " Elements of Natural Hiftory," by
including fome animals that were unknown to Linnxus, and
giving the rank of fpecies to feveral that were coniidered by
him as varieties, have extended the number of mammalia to
two hundred and eighty-nine fpecies. Mr. Klein, in 1 75 1,
pubhlbed a new lylteni of quadrupeds, intitled " Quadrup.
Difpofitio brevifque Hitt. Natur." in which he diflributes
them into two orders, the firfl comprehending thofe whofe
feet are terminated by one or more hoofs, and the fecond thofe
which are digitated ; and eac'i of thefe orders is fubdivided
into five families or claffes. In his firft order he follows the
general arrangement of Mr. Ray, v.'hich he has confiderably
improved : but in the fecond, by a fervile regard to a me-
thod founded on the number of toes, he has combined very
oppofite animals ; the camel and tlie floth, the mole and the

bat.

Q U A

bat, the glutton and apes. Mr. Briffon, in 1756, publifhed
another iyiU-ni, in which he lias arranged animals by the
number or dcfeft of their teeth ; beginning with thofe that
are toothlefs, I'nch as the ant-eater, and ending with thof-
that have the greatell number, fuch as the opoirum. By
this arrangement, fome quadrupeds, very dillanl from each
otlier in tiieir manners, are too nearly connefted. We (hall fay
nothing of Mr. Buft'on's " Hiltory of Quadrupeds," thougli
it contains much valuable information, becaufe he fecms to
have difregarded fyitematic arrangement. Mr. Pennant has
introduced fome ufcful alterations ni his " Hiftory of Quadru-
peds;" this ingenious naturaliil has followed Mr. Ray in his
greater divifion of animals into hoofed and digit cil ed ; bvit,
after the manner of Mr. Klein, he has formed feparatc genera
of the rhinoceros, hippopotamus, tapiir, and muflc. The
apes are continued in the rank in which Mr. Ray placed
them, and are followed by the maucaucos. The carnivorous
animals are arranged according to the fyftem of Lmuseus,
omitting the feal, mole, (lirew, and hedge-hog. The herbi-
vorous or frugivorous quadrupeds occupy the clafs afiigned
to them by Mr. Ray, to which he has allotted likewife the
fhrew, the mole, and tiie hedge-hog. The fourth fettion
of digitated quadrupeds confifts of thofe which are abfolutely
deftitute of cutting teeth, fuch as the floth and armadillo.
The fifth feftion is formed of thofe which are dellitute of
teeth of every kind, fuch as the manis and ant-eater. The
third and fourth orders or divifunis which Mr. Pennant has
added, are the /mnaW and the •a-in^c^/ quadrupeds : the firlt
comprehends the walrus, the feals, and (in conformity to
preceding writers) the manati. But thefe, he oblerves,
feem as the links between the quadrupeds and the cetaceous
animals. The bats are winged quadrupeds, and form the
next gradation from this to the clafs of birds. See Pennant's
Hiit. of Quadrupeds, ed. 8vo. 178 1. Preface. See Clas-
sification.

QuAonuPEDs, Jointed. Among the many fabulous things
with which natural hiifory has been loaded, itories of
flying quadrupeds feem to claim a very high rank ; the
gryphon, the quadrviped dragon, and a great many other
imaginary animals, having been introduced fo ferioufly
among the defcriptions of real animals, that too many have
been taught to believe them. Schcuchzer, in his " Phyiica
Sacra Jobi," has done much toward difcountenancing fuch
relations ; and Hyacinthus Gemma, who has written ex-
prefsly " De Fabuloiis Animalibus," has added much on the
fame occaiion ; yet all is not done. The world have late
hiftories of lemmas and baiiliiks, which never exifted but
in the imagination of the relator, or in the fubtle contrivance
of the fabricator ; as is evidently the cafe in the baliliflvS
which we find in the mufeums of the curious, and which are
all made out of the ray-fifh. And the generality of
readers are fo fond of any thing that is marvellous, that thefe
things are fure to be remembered, while perhaps all the
truths in the book are forgotten.

Upon the whole, the flandard of the flying or alatcd quad-
rupeds feems to be properly enough reducible to this : that
the words flying and alated are not fynonimous terms, and
that there are three kinds of flying among the quadruped
clafs. The firll abfolute and fwift, flying as perfedt as in
birds : this peculiarly belongs to the bat ; which is the
' only alated or winged quadruped, properly fpeaking.
2. An imperfeft flying by means of certain membranes
ferving as v/ings, but impcrfcftly, and not turning quick,
or enduring long flights ! fuch is the flying of the lizard,
which is not properly an alated animal. And laftly, the
impcrfeft flying of the fquirrel kind, which even in that
(pecies ealled, by way of eminence, the flying fquirrel, ii

QUA

not properly flying, but only long leaping ; the creature
being able to turn but very little out of a right line, and only
to fufpend itfelf during a (hort time in a leap from a high
{■lace to a lower. Phil. Tranf. N^ 247. p. 34.

QuADiui'KDS, in Agricidturf, all fuch animals as walk on
four legs, and are of the domeltic kind, as liorfes, neat
cattle, fheep, fwine, and many other forts, which are bene-
ficial either for the purpofes of working, fattening, or in
any otlier way. Some animals of this nature are dilpofed
for one of thefe purpofes in piefersnce to others ; while
others are capable of being made to ferve more than one of
them. Thus, horfes of the lighter and more active kind are
adapted to the faddle, and fome forts of road work, and
thofe of the more heavy fort to all defcriptions of team work
in the field or other places. And noat cattle of the ox
kind, in the lefs heavy breeds, as the Devonfliire, Here-
fordfhire, and fome others, are well fuited to team labour as
well as fattening ; while thofe of the more heavy forts, as
the Lancafhire breed, or long horfes, &c. are better calcu-
lated for feeding only. Among flieep, fome breeds are
valuable for their mutton as well as their wool ; fome for
the former, or latter, of thefe articles only ; and others
again for their ready difpofition in taking on fiefli. In
fwine, fome breeds are much better formed than others ;
require much lefs food, in proportion to their fixes, in keep-
ing and fattening, and are more difpofed to feed, &c.

The fame is hkewife the cafe with fome other animals of
this defcription, which (hould conflrantly be taken into the
account in felecting and choofing them for the ufe of the
farmer.

Quadrupeds of all forts, (hould alfo, in all cafes, be well
adapted in their numbers, natures, and kinds, to the qua-
lities of the lands as farms, their extents, and the quan-
tities of labour to be performed upon them, as much in the
fuccefs of farming depends on this being properly done.
They (hould likewife be conftantly well kept and in proper
condition, according to the different intentions for which
they are dcfigned, as badly fed or half-ftarved animals never
anfwer any good purpofe for the farmer, they always re-
quiring a much larger proportion of food for reftodng or
bringing them again into proper order and for fattening
them, than would otherwife have been neceflary ; and they
never ultimately turn out fo well, or produce fo much ad-
vantage, as might have been the cafe under other circum.
ftances. And, in labouring animals, where this is the cafe,
they are never capable of performing nearly fo much work,
in confequence of which a vaft continual lofs is fuftained,
though fcarcelv perceived. See LiVE-ftofi, and Team.

QUAD RU'PLATO RES, among the Romans, were in.
formers, who had the fourth part of the confifcated goodt
for their pains.

QUADRUPLE, a fum or number multiplied by four,
or taken four times.

Quadruple is particularly ufed for a gold coin, worth
four times as much as that of which it is the quadruple.

The quadruple of the Spanifh piftole is a piece of four
piftoles, called alfo the double doubloon.

The quadruple of the louis d'or is a piece of gold coined
in the reign of Louis XIII. in 1641. The legend on one
fide is CHRisTus vincit, regnat, imperat : and on the
middle of this fide it has a crofs with four crowns, and can-
toned in four fleurs-de-lis : on the other fide it has the
legend, LUDOVlcus decimus tertius dei gratia franco-
bum REX, with the head of Louis XIII. Its value under
this king was twenty hvres.

QuADRUPLK Croche, in French Miific, is a note with
four hooks or four ties, one degree quicker than our demi-

femiquaver.

QUA

femiqiiavt-r, and for which we have no name. The term
erochc, in French a (jiuiver, is not derived from croli;hel, but
from tiie tall being crooked. And why our crotchet, with a
Jlraight tail, lias its name, is a whimfical abfurdity, for which
we are unable to account.

QUVE ejl eadiin, in Pleading, is ufed to fupply the want
of a traverfe. (2 Lill. Abr. 405.) In a claufum fregit
fuch a day, the defendant pleads the plaintiff's licence to
him to enter on the fame day, and that virlute mde he entered ;
he need not fay, quit ejl eadem tranjgrejfio.

Qua; Plura, a writ that anciently lay where inquifition
had been made by an efcheator, of fuch lands or tenements
as any man died feifed of, and all was fuppofed not to be
found by the office or inquiiition.

Tliis w1-it was to inquire what more lands or tenements
the parties died feifed of. But it is now made ufelefs, by
taking; away the courts of wards and offices poll mortem.
QvR Servilia. See Pen quic fervitia.
QUjERENS non invenit plegium, a return made by
the (heriff opon a writ dlrefted to him with this claufe,
viz. Si A. fecirit B. fccurum de clamore fuo profequeiido, isfc.
F. N. B. 38.

QUAERNES, in Geography, a town of Norway ; ^^
miles N. of Romldal.

QUjESTA, in our Ancient Writers, denotes an indul-
gence, or remiflion of penance, expofed to fale by the
popes.

QUjESTIONARII, in onr Ancient Law Books, were
people who went about with indulgences from door to door,
defiring charity either for themfelves or others.

Matt. Weft obferves, 1240, that the kuig, " Terram fuam
per papale quellionarios, depauperari, &c. permitit."
QU^STOR. SeeQuESTOR.

QUjESTUS, in Law, is that eftate, or thofe cfFeds,
which a man hath by acquifition or purchafe ; in contradif-
tinftion to hareditas, which is what he hath by dcfcent. See
Acquest, and Goods.

Glanv. lib. vii. " aut habet haereditatem tantum, vel
quaeftum tantum, aut hereditatem & quaeflum."

QUAG, in Agriculture, a name given to any fort of wet,
fwampy, moraffy, or boggy fituation in land, which has a
tremulouo or fhaking feel under the foot, and which p>-o-
duces nothing but a coarfe gralfy herbage that is unfit for
the food of animals. Low as well as high grounds are fub-
jeft to fpots of this kind wherever water is confined and re-
tained near the furface. They are to be removed by proper
means of draining, and the application of folid earthy matters
of different kinds upon the furfaces of them, with the ufe
of rollers in order to confolidate the whole. See Bog and
Swamp.

QUAGGA, in Zoology. See Equus.
QUAGLIATI, Paolo, in £;'oj/-a/'/iy, the mufic-mafter
of the celebrated traveller, Pietro della Valle, at Rome, in
the beginning of the 17th century. His difciple, della
Valle, fays, " that he was an excellent maeftro di cappelb,
who introduced a new fpecies of mufic into the Roman
churches, not only in compofitions for a fingle voice {oto«o-
£e), but for two, three, or four, and very often more voices,
in chorus, ending with a numerous crowd of many choirs or
chorufTes, finging together ; fpecimens of which may be
feen in many of his motets that have been fince printed.
And the mufic of my cart, or moveable-ftage, compofed
by the fame Quagliati, in my own room, chiefly in the man-
ner he found motl agreeable to me, and performed in mafl<s
throu.i^h the ftreets of Rome during the carnival of 1606,
was the firft attempt at an opera, or fecular drama in mufic,

QUA

\*hich had been heard in that city." See Oi'BRa, Rbci-

TATIVK, and l*IKTKO UELI.A VaLI.E.

QUAGMIRE, in Agriculture, the name of a fort of foft
miry fhaking or quaking bog, fvvanip, or morafs, which is fre-
quently and commonly met Vifitii in low hollow fituations,
where tlicre is none, or very little dcfcent, for the difcharge
of the Itagnant v\'ater or vvetnefs. They are formed in
many different ways according to the nature of the circum-
ftances which firft gave rife to them, and that of tfie places
in which they are found. The author of the " Treatife on
Landed Property" has remarked, that bcfides the common
moory quagmires or bogs, there is a fpecies which is con-
llantly charged with moiflure, yet does not accumulate a
thick covering of moory earth, owing probably, it is fup-
pofed, to the want of fertility in the water by wliich it
fed. Tliefe forts of quagmires are, in his opinion, for the
moll part, found in mountainous and hilly fituations. Other
kinds are occafionally feen on large peat moffes, and hollow
meadows, in fpots where the water is confined and kept
up nearly to their upper parts, and where there is much
decay of vegetable produftions on their furfaces, and the
reception of earthy materials from other places. Thefe
quagmires occupy large fpots of ground in many different
fituations, and are, of courfe, a great lofs to individuals
and the public, as little or nothing of any ufe is ever pro-
duced by them. (See MouAss.) They are, for the moll
part, capable of being readily drained by proper means,
a fort of improvement which ought never to be neglefted
where it can be performed with any chance of fuccefs.

QUAHU, in Geography, a dillrift of Africa, on the
Gold Coafl, in the kingdom of Acambou, or Aquamboe;
which fee.

QUAHVITLA, in Botany, a name ufed by fome au-
thors for the tree from which the refin commonly called gum
copal is procured.

QUAICHA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Sen-
naar ; 38 miles E.S.E. of Gieflim.

QUAIL, CoTURNix, orTetrao coturnix of Linna:us, in
Ornithology, X.\ii\<idl\. of all the birds of the gallinaceous kind.
They have, however, the genius of the cock kind, and may
be bred to fight like our game cocks.

This was an old cuftom among the Athesians, and is ftill
kept up in fome parts of Italy, and in Afia.

QOails are birds of pafl'age, fome entirely quitting our
iOand, others fhifting their quarters from one county to an-
other, and fheltering themfelves among the weeds near the
fea-fide ; with us theyfrequent the corn-fields, and fome-
times the meadows. They begin to fing in April, and make
their nefts in the month of May, building on the ground,
and feldom lay more than than (\% or feven whitifh eggs,
marked with ragged ruft-coloured fpots.

Quails are to be taken by means of the call during their
whole wooing time, which lafts from April to Auguft. Tlie
proper times for ufing the call arc at fun-rifi;ig, at nine
o'clock in the morning, at three in the afternoon, and at
fun-fet ; for thefe are the n.atural times of the quail's call-
ing. The notes of the cock and hen-quail are very different,
and the fportfman who experts to fucceed in the taking
of them, muft be expert in both ; for when the cock calls, the
anfvver is to be made in the hen's note ; and when the hen
calls, the anfwer is to be made in the cock's. By this
means they will come up to the perfon, fo that he may, with
great eafe, throw the net over them, and take them. If a
cock-quail be fingle, on hearing tiie hen's note he will imme-
diately come ; but if he have a hen already with him, he
will not forf.ike her. Sometimes, though only one quail
anfwers to the call, there will three or four come up ;

and

QUA

and then it is beft to have patience, and not run to take
up the full, but li?.y till they arc all entangled, as they
will foon be.

The quail is a neat cleanly bird, and w-ill not run much
into dirty or wet places : in dewy mornings they will often
fly inftcud of running to the call ; and in this cafe, it is belt
to let them go over the net, if it fo happens that th?y fly
higher than its top, and the fportfman then changing fides,
and calling again, the bird will come back, and then will
probably be taken in the not.

The calls are to be made of a fmall leather purfe, about
two fingers wide, and four fingers long, and made in the
fliape of a pear ; this is to be (luffed half full of horfe-iuiir,
and at the end of it is to be placed a fmall whillle, made of
the bone of a rabbet's leg, or fome other fuch bone ; this
is to be about two inches long, and the end formed like a
flao-eolet, with a little foft wax. This is to be the end faf-
tened into the purfe ; the other is to be clofed up with the
fame wax, only that a hole is to be opei.ed with a pin, to
make it give a dilUiidl and clear found. To make this found,
it is to be held full in the palm of the hand, with one of the
fingers placed over the top of the wax : then the purfe is
to be prefied, and the finger is to (liake over the middle of it,
to modulate the lound it gives into a fort of (hake. This is
the moll ufeful call ; for it imitates the note of the hen-quad,
and feldom fails to bnng a cock to the net, if there be one
near the place.

The call that imitates the note of the cock, and is ufed to
bring the hen to him, is to be about four inches long, and
above an inch thick ; it is to be made of a piece of wire,
turned round and curled, and cov-red with leather ; and
one end of it muft be doled up with a piece of flat wood,
about the middle of which there midl be a Imall tiiread or
ftrap of leather, and at the other end is to be placed the
fame fort of pipe, made of bone, as is ufed in the oth^'rcall.
The noife is made by opening and clofing the fpiral, and
gives the fame found that tlie cock does when he gives the
hen a fignal that he is near her.

QUAKERS, \n Ecclefiajlical H'lftory, the common deno-
mination of a fociety of Chnllians, who appeared firft in
England about the middle of the ieventcenth century, and
who continue to be dillinguifhed from others by peculiar
tenets and praftices. They call themfelves Friends. They
are remarkable for aflerting the continuance, to the prefent
time, of immediate revelation, or the communication of
divine inftruclion to the mind, by the teftimony of the fpirit
of God. This revelation they affirm to be necelfary for the
produftion of true faith, and that it neither does nor can con-
tradift the outward teftimony of the fcriptures, or right
and found reafon. Their doctrine on this fubject has been
often mifunderftood, even by theological writers ; and they
have in confequence been fubjefted to much obloquy. It
is, however, the principal feature in that peculiar view of
Chriftianlty, which has occafioned their feparation from
other churches.

Origin and Hi/lory. — Before the period above mentioned,
many ferious perfons, fatisfied with none of the modes of
rehgion which the reformation brought forth, had withdrawn
from the communion of every vUible church, to cultivate
in retirement, impreffions which they attributed to the ope-
ration of the fpirit of Chrill on their own minds: it is chiefly
from fuch, when brought to recognize each other by the
minillry of an individual, that the Quakers confider their
fociety to have been originally gathered. George Fox, the
individual in queflion, was born in 1624. He has left a
journal of his own life, written with a fimplicity of ftyle,

QUA

which proves that he has fairly laid open his own charafter.
In tliis work, the peculiar principles of Quukerifn. may be
fatisfaflorily explored in their early beginnings, which it
tiiay be worth while briefly to review. Fox's parents, who
were pious members "of the cliurch of England, had in-
tended him for the priellhood, his character affording very
early promife of fitnefs for religious fervice ; but others per-
fuading to the contrary, he was put under a malter to a
country bufiuefs. Being engaged herein at a fair, when
about the age of nineteen, a coufin of his, with anothcc
profeflor of religion, attempted to engage him in drinking
to intoxication. " The Lord had (hewn me," fays George,
" that I might not eat or drink to make myfelf wanton, but
for health, ufing the creatures in their fervice, as fervants in
their places, to the glory of Him who created them."

Accordingly, on perceiving the defign of his companions,
he role up, paid for the refrefhment tliey had had, and de-
parted, with emotions of N-irtuous indignation. Returning
home, he pafled a fleeplefs night, walking up and down,
and crying to the Lord ; who, he affirms, faid unto him,'
" Thou feeft how young people go together into vanity,
and old people into the earth ; ttiou muft forfake all,
young and old, keep out of all, and be as a ftrangcr unto
all." The reader will underlland this, and generally all
revelations profefled to have been received by Quakers, as
confiding not in an outward voice, but in an internal com-
munication to the mind. Taking the command litt-rally, he
detached himfelf from his connexions ; and having fome pro-
perty of his own whereon to fubfift, removed from place to
place, obferving the religion and profeliors of the age, with-
out engaging in clofe fellowfliip with any. He devoted
much of his time to falling, folitary prayer, and reading the
bible.

He became at length quite detached in his affeftions from
the world, diftrefled at the fpiritual condition of his fellow
Bien, and in much anxiety, bordering on defpair, about his
own ; yet was not without intervals of heavenly joy and
comfort. Such a ftatc of mind naturally led him to feek
for fpiritual counfel from others, and he had conferences
with many of the clergy, beginning «nth his ovvn parifh
prieft. In anfwer to a queftion from the latter, we find him
profefling faitii in Chrill, who, by his death as man, (for he
died not as he was God,) became an offering for the fins of
the whole world. The general refult of thefe conferences
was, however, unfatisfaclory to him ; " for," he obferves,
" they could not reach my condition." Purfuing, therefore,
his meditations on the iubjeft as before, he came to be fatis-
fied refpefting feveral propofitions which it involved, fuch
as the following : — that although it was faid that all
Chrillians are believers, both Proteftants and Papifts, yet
that none were truly fuch, but thofe who were born of
God, and who had pafled from death unto life. Again,
that to be bred at Oxford or Cambridge, was not enough
to fit and qualify men to be minifters of Chrift. At this
he wondered, becaufe it was the common belief that fuch
qualification was fufficient. " At another time," he fay«,
" it was opened in me, that God, who made the world, did
not dwell in temples made with hands. This at firft feemed
ftrange, becaufe both priefts and people ufed to call their
temples or churches dreadful places, holy ground, and the
temples of God ; but the Lord ftiewed me clearly that he
did not dwell in thofe temples, which men had com-
manded and fet up, but in people's hearts." George Fox
now ceafed to attend the eftabliflied preachers ; at which
his relations being offended, he fliewed them from the fcrip-
tures, " that there was an anointing within man to teach
him, and that the Lord would teach his people himfelf."

Obferving,

QUAKERS.

Obferving, as he thought, more of the fruits of this
internal teaching among the " didenting people," he went
for a while among them ; but, he continues, " as I had
forfaken the priefls, fo I left the feparate preachers alfo, and
thofe called the moil experienced people ; for I faw there
was none among them all that could fpeak to my condition.
And when all my hopes in them, and in all men, were
gone, fo that I had nothing outwardly to help me, nor
could tell what to do, then, O then, I heard a voice, which
faid, ' There is One, even Chrift Jefus, that can fpeak to
thy condition.' When I heard it my heart did leap for
joy. Then the Lord let me fee why there was none that
could fpeak to my condition, namely, that I might give
him all the glory. For all (he contniues, alluding to
Rom. xi. 32.) are concluded under fin, and (hut up in
unbelief, as I had been, that Jefus Chrilt might have the
pre-eminence, who enlightens and gives grace, faith, and
power."

The preceding is a fpecimen of Fox's own account of the
manner in whicli the doftrine he afterwards preached arofe in
his mind. The reader will perceive that he refers all his real
edification to the means which have been already indicated,
ilnmediate revelation. He fays, " though I read the fcrip-
tures, that fpoke of Chriil, and of God, yet I knew Him
not but by revelation, as he who hath the key did open,
and as the Father of life drew me to his Son by his Spirit."
Yet that he was fenfible of the importance of the holy
fcriptures, as the fource from whence, under this influence,
Chriftian inftruftion muft be drawn, is evident, both from
his declaring that they were very precious to him, and from
his having inceffantly ufed, and conftantly appealed to them,
both before and after beginning to promulgate his fyftem.

Having at length attained to a view of Chriftianity in
which he found peace or mind, he believed himfelf required
and divinely comraiflioned to become a teacher of it to
others: and from the year 1647, the reader may conceive
him always engaged in this office. He travelled as before,
preaching firft to fmall companies of enquiring perfor.s, then
to pubHc congregations, fuch as upon his appearance among
them were willing to hear him, and at length to large affem-
blies of people, convened on purpofe. This he did with
the courage and perfeverance of a reformer ; in the face of
oppofition from the national and ftipendiary preachers, of
frequent pcrional abufe from their hearers, and occalional
fevere treatment by the magiltrates. In moft places where
he came, he met with perfons who received his doftrines, a
proportion of whom, after affociating with him for a time,
became imprefled with the like apprehenfions of duty to
propagate their principles ; which they attempted by fimilar
methods. Thus, although interrupted at different periods
by imprifonment, he found himfelf, before many years had
elapfed, in connexion with a numerous band of fellow-
labourers, and a widely diffufed and refpeftable fociety of
religious friends. No inconfidcrable number of thefe quitted,
for the fake of their principles, livings in the church, com-
' miffions in the army, or feats as magiltrates.

When we confider that this happened in an age equally
remarkable for religious zeal and political turbulence, it
will appear that fome deviations from Chrittian propriety,
fome fruits of the mixture of imagination with good inten-
tions, could fcarcely fail to be exhibited among them. If
the new fociety, from a regard to its principle of internal
impulfes to particular duties, was flow to condemn thefe, it
was careful, on the other hand, not to engraft them, by
imitation on its praftice. Individuals, therefore, were alone
refponfible for fuch afts, and the general condudl of the
members, from the period of their firft affociating together.
Vol.. XXIX.

was found in no mean degree conformable to the morality
of the gofpel.

The moft ferious inftance of mifconduft occurred in the
cafe of James Nayler and his followers. This fell out in
1656, and was magnified beyond its real importance by
being fuffcred to occupy for ten days tlie attention of par-
liament. Nayler had been an Independent, and a quarter-
malter of horfe under major-general Lambert. He was one
of George Fox's earlicft converts, and for fome years an able
preacher and difputant in the lame caufe. Coming to
London, he found a fet of people who extolled him in his
office above meafure. His friends, and George Fox among
the reft, feeing his danger, gave him fuitable cautions ; but
flighting thefe, he became expofed to the flatteries of a
train of followers, chiefly women, whom he fuffered, at
lengtli, from a delufive notion of its being done to Chri/l in
him, to addrefs liim with the name and titles of the Saviour,
and with afts amounting to worfhip. In j)arlicular, his
entrance into Briftol was conduAed, by thefe infatuated
people, in imitation of the proceflion of Chrift into Jerufalem.
The parties implicated in this tranfaftion were committed
to prifon ; but Nayler alone was felefted by parliament,
after examination and long debates on his cafe, for punifti-
ment as a blafphemer. Cromwell kept aloof from the pro-
ceedings, which, by their exceffire feverity, moved great
commiferation in the public. The culprit was twice
fcourged through the ftreets, twice pilloried, branded in the
forehead, and bored through the tongue with a hot iron :
all which he endured with furprifing patience and fortitude.
His punifhment ended with two years' clofe imprifonment
in Bridewell, during which he attained to repentance, and a
founder mind. Having given proof of this by feveral
public confeflions, the Quakers, who had difowned both
him and his followers, received him back into their com-
munion, in which he lived circumfpeftly the fliort remainder
of his life.

Quakerifm prevailed at firft chiefly in the northern coun-
ties ; but many preachers having rifen up here, who travelled
in different direftions, it was not long in fpreading to the
metropolis, and the remoter fouthern and weftern parts.
Wherever its profeffors appeared, the ordeal of fuffering
awaited them ; for which their negative tenets commonly
furnifhed the occafion. They refufed to the priefls every
kind of payment, to the government military fcrvice, to the
magiltrate oaths, and to all perfons the cufiomary, and at
that time much looked for •worjhip, of kneeling or bowing
with the head uncovered. They adhered too, in every in-
llance, to their northern Englifh of thou and thee, judging
the plural mode of addreffing one perfon to have originated,
together with all empty titles, in a fpirit of flattery unbe-
coming Chriftians. Thefe peculiarities were a check to
fuperficial converlions ; fince an upright conformity to the
profelTion was in moft cafes purchafed by the lofs of friends,
contempt, and hardfhips. Even the privilege of meeting
to worfhip, apart from the national congregations, was ac-
quired only by perfevering in the praftice, through almoft
every kind and degree of coercive obftruftion, down to the
period of complete toleration, the revolution of 1688.
Hence their hiftory confifts in great part of a detail of buf-
fetings, imprifonments, and fpoiling of goods. So early
as 1659 they ftated to parliament, that in the preceding fix
years about two thoufand individuals had fuffered m perfon
and eftate, for being Quakers : and this reprefentation was
accompanied by one of the moft extraordinary public acts
on record. One hundred and fixty-four Friends offered
themlelves by name to the houfe, to be imprifoned in the
places of an equal number, who from ficknefs or the hard-
Y fhips

QUAKERS.

rtlips of their confinement, were conceived to be in danger of
perirtiiiig. The houfe, however, rejefted this propofal, and
exprelfed fomc difpleafure at " the refletlions on magiilracy
and mini (try," faid to be contained in the memorial. It
will be proper to give fome particular initances of their
fufferings.

James Parnel, a youth of good parts and education,
going to fee George Fox in a dungeon at Carlifle, became
a convert to his principles : and, preaching in Eil'ex, was
the means of raifing many congregations of Quakers in that
county. He was imprifoned in Colchefter callle, and at
the age of nineteen funk "under the cruel treatment there
inflidled on him. In 1656, two Quaker women arrived at
Boilon, New England. They were apprehended 'ere tliey
could land, committed to clofc prifon, and fearchcd in a
brutal manner, by ftripping Uiem naked, left they might
alfo be luttches ; an objciSt to the colonifts of equal and
equally rational dread. Tiiefe two, with eight others who
arrived afterwards, were forcibly fent away : but the pre-
caution was in vain, their principles entered the colony. An
aged citizen, and church m.ember of Bofton, was iirli found
favourably inclined to them ; he was fined, imprifoned, and
banifticd in the depth of winter. In Rhode ifland he was hof-
pitably received by an Indian chief, who offered, if he would
live with him, " to make him a warm houfe ;" obferving,
" What a God have the Enghfh wlio deal fo with one an-
other about their God !" So far is intolerance from re-
commending the religion of thofe who pradlife it. Penal
laws againll Quakerilm foon followed the appearance of
this people in New England. The fcourge was lirfb applied,
without regard to age or fcx : mutilation, by cutting off tlie
ears, followed: but thefe being found iniuflicient, cruelty
proceeded through another intermediate ilep, banifhment on
pain of death, to its dreadful extreme ; and four Quakers
were hanged at Bollon. Their names were William Robin-
fon, Marmaduke Stevenlon, William Leddra, and Mary
Dyar. Their cafes, as related by Sewel, in his " Hif-
tory of the Quakers," form an interefling piece of mar-
tyrology.

Charles II., on notice of tiiefe proceedings, granted a
mandamus, which prevented further executions 'in the colo-
nies ; but he was not equally ready to reftrain perfecution
at home. The Quakers had feveral meeting houfes in Lon-
don. Wlien affembled at thefe, thej' were often difperfed
by foldiers, under the direftion of the magiilrates ; thefe
effeAed the purpofe by fevere beatings with their arms.
One John Trowel being evidently mortally wounded in this
way, a coroner's inqueft was held, but the verdift of the
jury was fupprefli:d : and the king, on being informed of tlie
fafts, evaded interference, telling the complainants to pro-
fecute the law againil the foldiers ! Similar proceedings
took place at Colcheiler ; where the congregation, being
kept out of their houfe, met for many weeks in winter
ilanding in the ftreet. Here they were affailed by foldiers
on horfeback, who woanded many of them, and a man of
feventy 4oll iiis life in confequence. On one of thefe oc-
cafions a trooper's fword, by violent ufing, came out of the
hilt. The man he had been beating handed it up to him
with Ihefe words, " I defire the Lord may not lay this day's
work to thy cliarge." In this inftance, as in others, the
patience of the fufferers at length triumphed, and they were
quietly allowed their right of meeting.

In 1665 a hundred and twenty Quakers were in Newgate,
fentenced to tranfpiartatioti, under an aft recently made " to
prevent and fupprefs feditious conventicles." The niafters
of fliips generally refufing to carry them, an embargo was
laid, and it was made a condition of faihng to the Weft

Indies, that fome Quakers fhould be taken thither by
every vefiel. A mercenary •wretch being at length found for
the fervice, the Quakers, Unwilling to be active in their ov. 1
banifliment, refufed to walk on board, as did alfo the fea
men to hoift them in. By the help of foldiers from tli'
Tower, fifty-five of them were at length fhipped. But the
mafler was now in prifon for debt ; and the fhip, after feven
months' detention, quitting the coall, was immediately taken
by a Dutchman, and twenty-eight of the prifoners (the re-
mainder havmg died of the plague) were liberated in Hol-
land'and fent home. Other parties of Quakers were fet
on fhore again from diflcrent veffels, fo that the number ac-
tually fent to the Wefl Indies was fmall.

The preceding initances may ferve to fhew the kind of
perfecution wiiich this fociety endured for many years ; it
may be obferved in conclufion, that the court (or rather the
clergy) of Charles, in their eagernefs to fuj)pref8 the grow-
iiig fociety, aiftually defcended to the meafure of iffuing a
formal order of council for demolifliing their meeting-houfe
in Southwark, which was addrellt'd to no lefs a perfon than
Chriftopher Wren, efq. furveyor-gcneral of his majefty's
works ; but it was executed by the military, by whom the
congregation, who had the courage to meet on the ruins,
were dragooned as often as they affembled, for nearly three
months together, without however overcoming their firmnefs.

Though the Quakers never fent out mifTionaries, in the
manner of fome other focieties, we have feen that indivi-
duals went, under apprehenfions of religious duty, to dif-
tant parts. Several of thefe vifited Italy, where they did
not conceal their diflike of fuperftition ; and one John Love,
being detained at Rome on this account, died (as it feems
a violent death) in the prifon of the inquifition. Catharine
Evans, and Sarah Chcevers, after three years' confine-
ment, and many fufferings in the inquifition at Malta, were
releafed and returned to England. But the moft extra-
ordinary enterprize, in this way, was performed by Mary
Fifher, a maiden, and one of the two who had been fo ill
treated at Bollon. She, apprehending fhe had a meffage
from God to fultaa Mahomet IV. actually made her way
from England to his camp before Adrianople, where fhe
delivered, through his interpreters, what was on iier mind,
was treated with refpeft, and offered an efcort to Con-
ftatitinople, which file declined, and returned, as fhe had
gone, alone and in perfeft fafety. A young man, named
George Robinfon, went, through ftill greater difficulties, to
Jerufalem, where, fpeaking againfl.the fuperflitioS of the
pilgrimages, the friars procured him to be forced into a
mofque, whence the Turks, on Jiis refufing to turn Ma-
hometan, led him out to be put to death, as for wilfully
violating the place : but a fudden change taking place in
their lentiments concerning him, he alfo v/as permitted to
return. ^

In 1660 the Quakers held their firft general meeting,
for the care of their poor and other concerns of the fo-
ciety, at Skipton in Yorkfliire ; within a few years after
which, meetings for difcipline were eftablifhed throughout
England and Ireland, chiefly by the inceffant perfonal la-
bours and epiftolary recommendations of George Fox. At
this period the fociety received a confiderable acceffion of
refpeftability by the converfion of William Penn and Robert
Barclay. The celebrated Apology of the latter gave the
world an opportunity of fairly appreciating doclrines till
then but partially known, and' on this account the more
decried : and the fettlcment of the Jerfevs, and fubfequently,
of Pennfylvania, under the aufpices of Penn, opened to the
Quakers a new and promifing field of increafe, which they
did not fail fpeedily to occupy. Another perfon of con-
1 1 fidcrable

QUAKERS.

fidcrable learning, George Keith, after aflociating with
them for near thirty years, became the author of a Ichifm,
the eircumilances of whkh it will be proper to notice.
Kcitii was a native of Scotland, and educated at Aberdeen ;
he was iraprifoned, as a Quaker, in 1664, and in 1675
alTided Barclay in a public difputation againit tiie ftudents
at Aberdeen : he wrote much in defence of the prin-
ciples of the Quakers, whicli he thoroughly luidcrltood,
and was employed in the education of their youth ; but is
thought by them to have indulged too much in curious
and ufelefs fjieculations, which Iiis ijrethren did not encou-
rage. Being again repeatedly imprifoned, about 1684 he
removed to America in difguli:. Here, after fome previous
general cenfure of his friends, he acculcd ieveral, in parti-
cular, of grofs error in dottrine ; tlie pretext for which
was, their holding (as he himfelf had done) that the know-
ledge and belief of the hiilory of Chrill is not neeellary for
the falvution of thofe who h^ve no poffible means of ac-
quiring it. His complaints againft individuals leading to
more general contention, the Friends in England interfered,
and the parties were heard before the yearly meeting in
London, which decided the caufc againft Keith, and he re-
mained under the " difownment" pronounced againft him
in America. He now fet up a feparate Quakers' meeting
in .London, attacked the principles he had foriiierly de-
fended, (on which occafions the Quakers replied by quo-
tations from his own works,) and finally entered into the
church of England. He was foon after ordained prieft,
and made a raiflionary to America, to bring over his former
brethren. But his efforts, though for a while troublefome
to the Quakers, were attended with very little fuccefs :
he returned to England, funk into obfcurity on a fmall living
in Suffex, and his party gradually difappeared.

The jeopardy in which the Quakers almoil conftantly
flood on account of their principles, very early introduced
them to an immediate intercourfe with the throne ; and they
thus acquired the privilege, which they ftill excrcife, of pre-
fenting public addrell'es to the king, by a deputation from
their body, in a manner which does not violate their con-
fcientious fcruples. The accefTion of a new fovereign, the
conclufion of a peace, or an impending war, have commonly
drawn from them addreffes, in which fentiments not unworthy
of their Chrillian profeflion, are conveyed in llmple but re-
fpeftful language. And very recently (1814), they availed
therafelves of the prefence in this country of the emperor of
RulTia, and the king of PrufTia, to addrefs each of thefe
monarchs in favour of a perfeft toleration in their re-
fpeftive dominions : in which they met with a favourable
reception. Another great and intercfting object, the aboli-
. tion of the (lave trade, has frequently brought them forward
to government in this way. In the caufe of humanity, as it
regards the opprefied Africans, they have proved themfelves
ftrenuous and indefatigable : the reproach, even of holding
a fellovvf man in flavery, was wiped away from the members
of this fociety many years before the abolition of the trade
was decreed, either in England or America. This was ef-
fefted by their difcipline ; and it was made a part of this, in
confequence of that view of Chriftianity, which regards
every individual of the human race as a fit objeft of its
benefits, and as entitled to the charitable regard which it
inculcates. Much was done on the Negroes' behalf, in
America, by Anthony Benezet, whofe character is well
known to the world ; and by ,Tohn Woolman, a minifter of
the fociety, whofe writings difcover a mind of uncommon
purity, fimplicity, and tendernefs.

The Quakers as a body have been long relieved from aftual
perfecution : yet they are Hill involved by their principles in

occafional trouble as individuals. The refufal to bear arms,
or to pay military fines, fubjefts them to legal diftrjrint on
their goods, and if noue of thefe be found, to imprifonment.
Tithes and other eccleliaftical claims, enforced upon them,
likewife render dillraiiit a very common, and fometimes an op-
prefTive occu.rence : and it the prolecutor be more rigorous,
they may be imprifoned for an indefinite time. In America
they are exempt from ecclefiallical but not from ruilitary
feizures ; by which, during the war for independence, many
of them were impovcrifhed. It is obvious that, refuling to
f wear, thev cannot fill any office of profit Or trufl under go-
vernment. Except for thefe purpofes however, for ferving
on juries, and in cafes of criminal profccution, their folema
afBrmatiou before the magiftrate has the legal force of an
oath.

The Quakers are difperfed over the united kingdom, and
moft of the flates of North America; from the fouthern
ftates of the latter they have moflly emigrated of late to
the Ohio. In America they are chiefly engaged in agricul-
ture ; and for a feries of years have been making judicious
and fuccefsful efforts to introduce this, with the other arts,
and the manners of civilized life, among the Indian natives.
There are a few Quakers in Germany, and their principles
are entertained by fome perfons in France.

In this country they are found chiefly in the middle clafj
of citizens, and in trade or manufafture. Their general de-
reliction of agriculture feems to have refulted from the im-
pediments offered by the tithing fyftem : a yoke which, under
their fcruple, become.s doubly heavy on the farmer. There
is a- greater approach to equality in the civil condition of the
Quakers, than obtains in almoft any other body : the children
of fuch as become very rich are apt to quit the fociety, either
by marrying perfons not in its communion, or for the fake
of liberties wluch it prohibits : and the children of the poor
commonly get a plain but folid education, fuperior to their
condition, by means of which they rife in civil fociety to a
higher level. They have feveral excellent eftablifhments for
this purpofe : the principal of which, iituated at Ackworth
in Yorkfhire, contains, of both fexes, three hundred children,
and was founded in 177S, at the inftance of Dr. Fothergill.
With provifion for mathematical and claffical learning, the
Quakers, though they have fome good private fchools, are
but flenderly furnifhcd ; and they have in confequence few
accomphfhed men in thefe branches. They are by no means
deficient in general information, and of late years many of
them have cultivated natural philofophy with fuccefs. The
fociety in its earlier ilage, including many men of regular
fcholaitic education, who had joined it on principle, had of
courfe the advantage, in point of theological knowledge,
over the modern Friends, who chiefly inherit their profefTion,
and whofe education has but of late begun to include
fyllematic inlfruftion in the dcftrines of Chriftianity at
large.

In morals they are allowed to excel : their youth is
watched over in this refpeft with more ttian ordinary care ;
and when grown up, their difcipline prohibits, to alt condi-
tions, thole amufemeiits which offer to the mind the ready
means of diflipating ferious impreiTions. Habitual offenders
againll their peculiar regulations forfeit their memberfhip, as
well as thofe who violate the more obvious rules of juftice
and morality : their moral charafter, and confiltency as a
body, ai-e thus kept up. But it is alleged, that they are
not equally well guarded againft a money-getting fpirit ;
which is apt to grow upon thofe who intently profecute trade
and commerce to the exclufion of all other purfuits. From
the occafional tenor of the fociety's advices to its members,
it fliould feem that this is in a certain degree true ; and that i;
Y 2 behoves

QUAKERS.

behoves tliom to feck for an adeqviate remedy. They arc
not, however, ehargi'able with the love of money for its
own fake ; no chifs of men being more beneficent, or more
prompt to contribute their time and fubftance to various
public inllitutioMS, which the fpirit of the Clirittian religion
has at length raifed U", for relieving the dillrefles, promoting
the comforts, and improving the moral and religious condi-
tion of mankind.

As to the minuter features of their charafter, the Quakers
arc prudent and methodicd in their bufinefs ; generally
good cconomifts of time ami money. Their converfation
has many peculiarities ; fome of which flow from their
principles, others merely from- their afl'ociatiiig chiefly
among themfelves. They were early thougiit to be habi-
tually crafty i" the Quaker fly," lays Pope; ; but there feems
no other ground for this, than the extreme caution with
which they incur engagements, or make profelTions and pro-
mifes. Viewed at a diilaiice, they appear cold, formal, and
referved in their manners ; and have hence been unjultly
concluded void of domeltic cheerfulnefs, and incapable of
the enjoyments arifing from locial coiiverfe, and the inter-
courfe of cultivated minds. They are plain in their drefs ;
the peculiarities obfervable in which refult, not from any
regulations on the fubjeft, but from an indifpofition to vary
with the fafhion ; they have, however, (lowly followed
changes which have proved general and permanent, and
thus become lefs confpicuoufiy fmgular. Mourning habits
they rejeft on principle : and with a people whofe ordi-
nary drefs is fo grave, the moral reafon for them feems not
to exill. They are averfe to fplendour in furniture and
equipage : though the rich among them, in thefe articles,
and moft of their females in drefs, have contrived, without
ceaiing to be known as Quakers, to refine confiderably upon
abfolutc fimplicity.

Doffrine. — A recent publication on behalf of the fociety,
entitled, " A Summary of the Hiftory, Doflrine, and
Difcipline of Friends," afcribed to one of the fociety, held
in high eilimation, inz. Mr. J. G. B-van, who died whillt
this article was in the prefs, ilates their doftrine as follows :

" We agree with other profellors of the Chrillian name,
in the belief of one eternal God, the creator and preferver
of the univerfe ; and in Jefus Chrifl his Son, the Meffiah,
and mediator of the new covenant.

" When we fpeak of the gracious difplay of the love of
God to mankind, in the miraculous conception, birth, life,
miracles, death, refurreftion, and afcenfion oi our Saviour,
we prefer the ufe of fuch terms as we find in fcripture ; and
contented with that knowledge, which divine wifdom hath
feen meet to reveal, we attempt not to explain thofe myfte-
ries which remain under the veil ; neverthelefs we acknow-
ledge and aifert the divinity of Chrift, who is the wifdom
and power of God unto falvation.

" To Chrill alone we give the title of the Word of God,
and not to the fcriptures ; although we highly efteem thefe
facred writings, in fubordination to the Spirit from which
they were given forth ; and we hold with the apoltle Paul,
that they are able to make wife unto falvation, through
faith wiiich is in Chrift Jefus.

" We revere thofe moft excellent precepts, which are
recorded in fcripture to have been delivered by our great
Lord, and we firmly believe that they are pradlicable and
binding on every Chrirtian ; and that in the hfe to come
every man will be rewarded according to his works. And
further it is our belief, that, in order to enable mankind to
put in praftice thefe facred pn-cepts, many of which are
contradiftory to the ur.regenerate will of man, every man
coming into the world, is endued with a meafure of the

10

light, grace, or good Spirit of Chrift ; by which, as it is
attended to, he is enabled to diftinguifti good from evil,
and to correft the diforderly paihons and corrupt propen-
fities of his fallen nature, which mere reafon is altogether
infufficient to overcome. For all that belongs to man is
fallible, and within the reach of temptation ; but this
divine grace, which comes by Him, who hath overcome
the world, is, to thofe who humbly and fincerely feck it,
an all-fufiicient and prefent help in time of need. By this,
the fnares of the enemy are detected, his allurements avoided,
and deliverance is experienced through faith in its elfe£tual
operation : whereby the foul is tranflated out of the king-
dom of darknefs, and from under the power of Satan, into
the marvellous light and kingdom of the Son of God.

" Being thus perluaded that man, without the fpirit of
Chrift inwardly revealed, can do nothing to the glory of
God, or to effeft his own falvation ; we think this influence
efpecially necefTary to the performance of the higheil act of
which the human mind is capable ; even the worlhip of the
Father of lights and of fpirits, in fpirit and in truth :
therefore we confider as obltruftions to pure worftiip, all
forms which divert the attention of the mind from the fecret
influence of this unftion from the Holy One. Yet, al-
though true worftiip is not confined to time and place, we
think it incumbent on Chriltians to meet often together, in
teftimony of their dependence on the heavenly Father, and
for a renewal of their fpiritual ftrength : tlius, ' Each not
only partakes of the particular refreftiment and ftrength
which comes from the good in himfelf, but is a fliarer of the
whole body, as being a living member of the body, having
a joint fellowftiip and communion with all.' Barclay.

" Neverthelefs, in the performance of worftiip, we dare not
depend, for our acceptance, on a formal repetition of the
words and experiences of others ; but we believe it to be
our duty to lay afide the aftivity of the imagination, and to
wait in filence to have a true fight of our condition bellowed
upon us ; believing even a fingle figh, arifing from fuch a
fenfe of our infirmities, and of the need we have of divine
help, to be more acceptable to God, than any performances,
however fpecious, which originate in the will of man. If
any fhould objefl the difficulty of laying afide the adlivity of
the imaginatioii, let fuch confider the following ftatement —
That it is our duty to maintain a watch over our thoughts,
by endeavouring to preferve our attention from being carried
away by fuch as manifeftly originate in our own natural will
or habits, and to wait patiently for the arifing of the life of
Chrift ; which by bringing every thought into fubjedlion,
produces a true inward filence, and therein affords a true
fenfe of our condition.

" From what has been faid refpefting worfhip, it follows
that the miniftry we approve muft have its origin from the
fame fource ; for that which is needful for a man's own di-
reft:on, and for his acceptance with God, muft be emi-
nently fo to enable him to be helpful to others. Accord-
ingly we believe, that the renewed afliftance of the light and
power of Chrift is indifpenfably neceftary for all true mi-
niftry; and that this holy influence is not at our command,
or to be procured by ftudy, but is the free gift of God to
chofen and devoted fervants. — Hence arifes our teftimony
againft preaching for hire, in contradiftion to Chrift's pofitive
command, ' Freely ye have received, freely give ;' and
hence our confcientious refufal to fupport fuch miniftry, by
tithes or other means.

" As we dare not encourage any miniftry, but that which
we believe to fpring from the influence of the Holy Spirit,
fo neither da-e we attempt to rellrain this miniftry to per-
fons of any condition in life, or to the male fex alone ; but,

as

QUAKERS.

as male and female are one in Chrift, we hold it proper that
fuch of the female fex as we believe to be endued with a
right qualification for the miniftry, ftiould exercife their
gifts for the general edification of the church ; and this
Lberty we efteem a peculiar mark of tiie gofptl difpenfation,
as foretold by the prophet Joel, and noticed by the apoitle
Peter.

" Three are two ceremonies in ufe among moft profeliors
of the Chriftian name, water-baptifm, and what is termed
the Lord's fuppcr. The firft of thefe is generally eftccmed
the elTential means of initiation into the church of Chrift ;
and the latter, of maintaining communion with him. But
as we have been convinced that nothing Ihort of his redeem-
ing power, inwardly revealed, can fet the foul free from the
thraldom of fin ; by this power alone we believe falvation to
be efFedled. We hold that as there is one Lord and one
faith, fo his baptifm is one, in nature and operation ; that
nothing fhort ot it can make us living members of his myf-
tical body ; and that the baptifm with water, adminiitered
by his fore-runner John, belonged, as the latter confefled,
to an inferior and decreafing dilpenfation.

" With refpeft to the other rite, we believe that commu-
nion between Chrill and his church is not maintained by that,
or by any other external performance, but only by a real
participation of his divine nature through faith ; that this is
the fupper alluded to in the Revelation, ' Behold I iland at
the door and knock : if any man hear ray voice, and open
the door, I will come in to him, and will fup with him, and
he with nie,' and that where the fubftance is attained, it is
unnecefTary to attend to the fhadow : which doth not con-
fer grace, and concerning which, opinions lo different, and
animofities fo violent, have arifen.

" Now, as we thus believe that the grace of God, which
comes by Jefus Chrift, is alone fufficient for falvation, we
can neither admit that it is conferred on a few only, whilft
others are left without it ; nor, thus aftcrting its univerfality,
can we limit its operation to a partial cleanfmg of the foul
from fin, even in this life. We entertain worthier notions
both of the power and goodnefs of our heavenly Father,
and believe that he doth vouchfafe to affift the obedient to
experience a total furrender of tlie natui'al will, to the
guidance of his pure unerring Spirit ; through whofe re-
newed affiltance they are enabled to bring forth fruits unto
hohnefs, and to ftand perfeft m their prefent rank.

" There are not many of our tenets more generally known
than our teftimony againft oaths, and againil war. With
refpedt to the former of thefe, we abide literally by Chrift's
pofitive injunftion, delivered in his fermon on the mount,
' Swear not at all.' From the fame facred coUeftion of
the moft excellent precepts of moral and religious duty,
from the example of our Lord himfelf, and from the cor-
refpondent conviftions of his Spirit in our hearts, we are
confirmed in the belief that wars and fightings are, in their
origin and effefts, utterly repugnant to the gofpel ; which
ftill breathes peace and good-will to men. We alfo are
clearly of the judgment, that if the benevolence of the gof-
pel were generally prevalent in the minds of men, it would
effedlually prevent them from opprefling, much more from
enflaving, their brethren (of whatever colour or com-
plexion), for whom, as for themfelves, Chrift died; and
would even influence their condutl in their treatment of the
brute creation, which would no longer groan, the viflims
of their avarice, or of their falfe ideas of pleafure.

" Some of our tenets have in former times, as hath been
fliewn, fubjefted our Friends to much fuffering from govern-
ment , though to the falutary purpofes of government, our
principles are a fecurity. They inculcate Tubmiffion to the
laws, in all cafes wherein confcience is not violated. But

wc hold, that as Chrift's kingdom is not of this world, it
18 not the bufinefs of the civil magiftrate to interfere in mat-
ters of religion, but to maintain the external peace and good
order of the community. We therefore think pcrfecution,
even in the fmalleft degree, unwarrantable. We are careful
in requiring our mem.bers not to be concerned in illicit trade,
nor in any manner to defraud the revenue.

" It is well known that the fociety, from its firll appear-
ance, has difufed thofe names of the months and days,
which having been given in honour of the heroes i,r falfe
gods of the heathen, originated in their flattery or fuper-
ftition ; and alfo the cuflom of fpeaking to a fingle perfon
in the plural number, as having likewifc arifen from motives
of adulation. Compliments, hiperfluity of apparel, of fur-
niture, and of provifion for tlie table, outward fhows of
rejoicing and mourning, and the obfervation of days and
times, we efteem to be incompatible with the fimplicity of
a Chriftian life ; and public diverfions, gaming, and other
vain amufements of the world, we cannot but condemn.
They are a wafte of that time which is given us for nobler
purpofes ; and divert the attention of the mind from the
fober duties of life, and from tlie reproofs of inltruftion, by
which we are guided to an everlafting inheritance.

" To conclude, although we have exhibited the feveral
tenets which diftinguifli our religious fociety, as objects of
our belief; yet we are fenfible that a true and living faith is
not produced in the mind of man by his own effort ; but i«
the free gift of God in Chrift Jefus, nouriftied and increafed
by the progreflive operation of his Spirit in our hearts, and
our proportionate obedience. Therefore, although for the
prefervation of the teftimonies given us to bear, and for the
peace and good order of the fociety, we deem it neceflary
that thofe who are admitted into memberfhip with us, fhould
be prcvioully convinced of thofe doftrines which we efteem
effential ; yet we require no formal fubfcription to any ar-
tides, either as a condition of memberfhip, or a qualifica-
tion for the fervice of the church. We prefer judging of
men by their fruits, and depending on the aid of Him,
who, by his prophet, hath promifed to be ' for a fpirit of
judgment to him that fitteth in judgment.' Without this,
there is a danger of receiving numbers into outward com-
munion, without any addition to that fpiritual fheep-fold,
whereof our bleffed Lord declared himfelf to be both the
door and the fhepherd ; that is, fuch as know his voice, and
follow him in the paths of obedience."

To this flatement may be added the following extrafts,
the firll of which is from a declaration iflued on behalf of
the fociety in 1693.

" We fincerely profefs faith in God by his only-begotten
Son Jefus Chrift, as being our light and life, our only way
to the Father, and alio our only Mediator and Advocate
with the Father; — that God created all things, he made
the worlds, by his Son Jefus Chrift, he being that powerful
and living Word of God by whom all things were made;
and that the Father, the Word, and the Holy Spirit, are
One, in divine Being infeparable ; One true, living, and
eternal God blefted for ever ; — yet that this Word or Son
of God, in the fuhiefs of time, took flefh, became perfect
Man, according to tiic flefh defcended and came of the feed
of Abraham and David, but was miraculouOy conceived by
the Holy Ghoft, and born of the Virgin Mary, and alfo,
farther, declared powerfully to be the Son of God, ac-
cording to the Spirit of fanftification, by the refurredtion
from the dead; — that, as Man, Chrift died for our fins,
rofe again, and was received up into glory in the heavens ;
he having, in his dying for all, been that one, great, uni-
verfal offering and facrifice for peace, atonement, and re-
concihation between God and man ; and he is the propitia-
tion

QUAKERS.

cion nol tor our fins only, hut for the fiiiS of the whole
world ; wp were reconciled by his death, but faved by iiis
life i — that divine honour and worfliip is due to the Son of
God ; and thai he is in true faith to be prayed unto, and
tl^e name of tiie Lord Jefus Chrift called upon, (as the pri-
mitive ChriRians did,) becaufe of the glorious union or
onenefs of the Father aud the Son." Sewcl's Hillory,

" The dodlrine of the refurredlion df the dead is fo con-
ncdled with the Cliriilian religion, that it will be alfo proper
to fay fomething on this fubjeft. In explaining our belief
of this doiflrinc,, we refer to the 15th chapter of the id
Epillle to the Corinthians. In this chapter (vei'fes 40. 42.
44. 50.) is clearly laid down the rcfurreftion of a body,
though not of the fame body that dies. Here we rell our
belief in this ' myllery,' without defiring to pry into it
beyond what is revealed to us ; remembering that ' fecret
things belong unto the Lord our God, but thofe things
which are revealed belong unto us and to our children.'
Principles of Religion, as profeded by the Quakers, by
Henry Tuke.

Dljdpliiic : from the "Summary," with fome abridg-
ment.— " The purpofes which our difcipline hath chiefly ni
Tiew, are, the relief of the pooi', the maintenance of good
order, the fupport of the teftimonies which we believe it is
our duty to bear to the world, and the help and recovery of
fuch as are ovortakrn in faults : in a few words, the promo-
tion of piety and charity.

" In the practice ot difcipline, we think it indifpenfable
that the order recommended by Chriit himfelf be invariably
obferved. ' If thy brother fliall trefpafs againft thee, go
and tell him his fault between thee and him alone : if he (hall
hear thee, thou haft gained thy brother ; but if he will not
hear thee, then take with thee one or two more, that in the
mouth of two or three witnefles, every word may be efta-
blilhed ; and if he (hall neglcft to hear them, tell it unto
the church.'

" To efleft the falutavy purpofes of difcipline, meetings
were appointed, at an early period of the fociety, which,
from the times of their being held, were called quarterly
meetings. It was afterwards found expedient to divide the
diftrifts of thofe meetings, and to meet more frequently ;
from whence arofe monthly meetings, fubordinate to thofe
held quarterly. At length, in 1669, a Yearly Meeting was
eltabliflied, to fuperintend, affift, and provide rules for, the
whole : previoufly to which, general meetings had been oc-
cafionally held.

" A monthly meeting is ufually compofed of feveral par-
ticular congregations, lituatcd within a convenient diftance
from each other. Its bufinefs is to provide for the fub-
fiftence of the poor, and for the education of their offspring ;
to judge of the fincerity and fitnefs of perfons appearing to
be convinced of the religious principles of the fociety, and
defiring to be admitted into memberlhip ; to excite due at-
tention to the difcharge of religious and moral duty ; and to
deal with diforderly members. Monthly meetings alfo grant
to fuch of their members as remove into other monthly
meetings, certificates of their member(hip and conduft ;
without which they cannot gain memberfhip in fuch meet-
ings. Each monthly meeting is required to appoint certain
perfons, under the name of overfeers, who are to take care
that the rules of our difcipline be put in praftice ; and when
any cafe of complaint, or diforderly conduft, comes to
their knowledge, to fee that private admonition, agreeably
to the goipel rule before mentioned, be given, previoufly
to its being laid before the monthly, meeting.

" When a cafe is introduced, it is ufual for a fmall com-
jnittee to be appointed, to vifit the offender, to endeavour

to convince him of his error, and to induce liim to forfake
and condemn it. If they fucceed, the pcrfon.is by minute
declared to have made latisfaftion for the offence ; if not,
he is difowned as a member of the fociety.

•' In difputes between individuals, it has long been the de-
cided judgment of the fociety, that its members (hoidd not
fuc each other at law. It therefore enjoins all to end their
dilferences by fpeedy and impartial arbitration, agreeably to
rules laid down. If any refufe to adopt this mode, or,
having adopted it, to fubmit to the award, it is the direiiiou
of the yearly meeting that fuch be difowned.

" To monthly meetings alfo belongs the allowing of mar-
riages ; for our fociety hath always farupled to acknowledge
the exclufive authority of the priefts in the folemni/.atioii of
marriage. Thofe who intend to marry, appear together,
and propofe their intention to the monthly meeting ; and if
not attended by their parents or guardians, produce a written
certificate of tlicir conlent, figned in the prcfence of witncdes.
The meeting then appoints a committee to inquire whether
they be clear of other engagements refpefting marriage ; and
if, at a fubfequent meeting, no objeftions be reported, they
have the meeting's confent to folcmnize their intended mar-
riage. This is done in a public meeting for worfliip, towards
the clofe whereof the parties (land up, and folemnly take each
other for hulband and wife. A certificate of the proceedings
is then publicly read, and figned by the parties, and after-
wards by the relations, and others as witnefles. Of fuch
marriages the monthly meeting keeps a record : as alfo of
the births and burials of its members. A certificate of
the date, of the name of the infant, and of its parents,
figned by thofe prefent at the birth, is the fubje£l of one of
thefe lali mentioned records ; and an order for the interment,
counterfigned by the grave-maker, of the other. The naming
of children is without ceremony. Burials are alfo condufted
in a fimple manner. The body, followed by the relations and
friends, is fometimes, previoufly to interment, carried to a
meeting ; and at the grave a paufe is generally made ; on
both which occafionsit frequently falls out, that one or more
friends prefent have fomewhat to cxprefs for the edification of
thofe who attend ; but no religious rite is confidered as an
eflential part of burial.

" Several monthly meetings compofe a quarterly meeting.
At the quarterly meeting are produced written anfwers from
the monthly meetings, to certain queriesrefpefting the condudl
of their members, and the meeting's care over them. The ac-
counts thus received, are digefted into one, which is fent, alfo
in the form of anfwers to queries, by reprefentatives, to the
yearly meeting. Appeals from the judgment of monthly
meetings are brought to the quarterly meetings. ; whofe bu-
finefs alfo it is to afiifu in any difficult cafe, or where remiflhefs
appears in the care of the monthly meetings over the indivi-
duals who compofe them.

" The yearly meeting has the general fuperintendence of
the fociety in th(? country in which it is eftablifhed : and
therefore, as the accounts which it receives difcover the ftate
of inferior meetings, as particular exigencies require, or as
the meeting is imprefled with a fenfe of duty, it gives forth
its advice, makes fuch regulations as appear to be requifite, or
excites to the obfervance of thofe already made; and fome-
times appoints committees to vifit thofe quarterly meetings
which appear to be in need of immediate advice. Appeals
from the judgment of quarterly meetings are here finally de-
termined, and a brotherly correfpondence, by epiftles, is
maintained with other yearly meetings.

" There are eight yearly meetings, -viz. I. London, to
which come reprefentatives trom Ireland ; 2. New England ;
3. New York ; 4. Pennfylvania and New Jerfey ; j. Mary-
land ; 6. Virginia ; 7. The Carolinas and Georgia ; 8. Ohio.

" Jn

QUA

" In this place it is proper to add, that, as we believe
■women mny be rightly called to the work of the minlllry, we
• alfo think that to tliem bclonfrs a (hare in the fupport of our
Chriftian difcipline ; and that fome parts of it wherein their
own fex is concerned, devolve on them with peculiar pro-
priety. Accordingly they have monthly, quarterly, and
yearly meetinjrs of their own fex, held at the fame time with
thofe of the men ; but feparately, and without the power of
making rules.

" In order that thofe who arc in the fit nation of ininifters
may have the tender fympathy and counhl of thofe of either
fex, who, by tiieir experience in the work of religion, are
qualified fur that fervice, the monthly meetings are adviled
to feleft fuch, under the denomination of elders. Thefe,
and minifters approved by their monthly meetings, have
meetings peculiar to themfelves, called meetings of miniilers
and elders; in w'hich they have an opportunity of exciting
each other to a difcharge of their feveral duties, and of ex-
tending advice to thofe who may appear to be weak, without
any needlefs expoiure. Such, it may be here obferved, as
believe themfelves required to fpeakin meetings for worfhip,
are not immediately acknowledged as minilters by their
monthly meetings ; but time is taken for judgment, that the
meeting may be fatisfied of their call and qualification. It
will alfo fometimes happen, that fuch as are not approved
will obtrude themfelves as miniilers, to the grief of their
brethren ; but much forbearance is ufed towards thefe, before
the difapprobation of the meeting is publicly teftified.
Thefe meetings of minifters and elders are generally held in
the compafs of each monthly, quarterly, and yearly meeting.
They are condufted by rules prefcribed by the yearly meet-
ing, and have no authority to make any alteration or additftju
to them. The members of them unite with their brethren in
the meetings for difcipline, and are equally accountable to
the latter for their conduft.

" It is to a meeting ot this kind in London, called the fe-
cond-day's morning meeting, that the revifal of manufcripts
concerr.ing our principles, previjully to publication, is in-
trufted by the yearly meeting held in London : and alfo the
granting, in the intervals of the yearly meeting, of certificates
of approbation to fuch miniilers as are concerned to travel in
the work of the miniftry in foreign parts ; in addition to thofe
granted by their monthly and quarterly meetings.

'.' The yearly meeting of London, in the year 1675, ap-
pointed a meeting to be held in that city, for the purpofe of
advifing and affilling in cafes of fuffcring for coiifcience-fake,
which hath continued with great ule^to the fociety to this
day. It is compofed of friends under the name of cor-
refpondents, chofcn by the feveral quarterly meetings, and
who refide in or near the city. The fame meetings alfo ap-
point members of their own in the country as correfpondents,
who are to join their brethren in London on emergency.
The names of all thefe correfpondents, previoufly to their
being recorded, are fnbmitted to the approbation of the
yearly meeting. Such men as are approved m.iniilers are
alfo members of this meeting, which is called the Meeting
for Sufferings ; anameariling from its original purpofe, and
which is not yet become entirely obfolete.

" The yearly meeting has intrulled the meeting for fuffer-
jugs with the care of printing and dillributing books, and
with the management of its (lock ; and, confidered as a
(landing committee of the yearly meeting, it hath a general
care of whatever may arife, during the intervals of that
meeting, affedting the fociety, and requiring immediate atten-
tion : particularly of thole circumitances which may occa-
fion an application to government. The ilock of the yearly
meeting, jull mentioned, is an occafional voluntary contri-
bution, expended in printing books, — falary of a clerk for

Q U A

keeping records, — the palTage of minifters who vifit their
brethren beyond fea, — and fome fmali incidental charges:
but not, as has been falfely fnppofid, the reimburfemcnt of
thof^ wlio fuffer diilraint for tithes and other demands with
which they fcruple to comply." G. Fox's Journal. Sewcl's
Hiftory of the Quakers. Gough's Hillory of the Quakers.
Belle's Sudcrings of tiie Quakers. Barclay's Apologv.
Clarkfon's Portraiture of Qiiakcrifm.

The editor is indebted for the iiillorical part of the pre-
ceding article to a refpeftable member of the fociety of
Friends. Mr. Clarkfon's work, which was compofed in
confcqucnce of his intimate f crfonal acquaintance with many
of its leading members, produced by his labours for the aboli-
tion of the flave trade, may be confulted for a more ample ac-
count of the manners, praftices, and opinions of this fociety.

OUAKER-TOWN, in Geography, -.i poA-town of A me-
rica, in Bucks county,, Pennfylvaiiia ; 184 miles from
Wafliiagton. - ,

QUAKING-Bog, in Agriculture, a name ufually given
to a fort of foft pulpy, flexible, earthy depofitions, which
are formed in hollow moiil fituations, in confequence of the
ftagnation of water in them in fome manner or other. Bogs
of this kind differ much in their nature, qualities, and pro-
perties, according to the difference of circumftances and
fituations, but tiiey have all a tremulous motion under the
foot, when capable of being trodden upon. See Bog and
Quagmire.

Draining is here equally neceffary, as in all other cafes of
a fimilar kind, and may moftly be carried into execution
without any great difficulty.

Qi.'AKlNG-Gr<i/r, in Botany, fo called from the trembling
of the httle pendulous fpikelets, occafioned by their capil-
lary zigzag 3alks. See Briza.

QuAKiNG-Gr.7/f, in Agriculture, the common name of a
fori of grafs, which is laid to thrive and flouriili well on
mod kinds of poor cold land, and which cattle eat in a
greedy manner; but which is not much adopted for cultiva-
tion in grafs grounds, though it makes lolerably good hay.
See Briza.

QUAKU, or Quaqua, in Geography, a diftrift of
Africa, on the Gold Coaft.

QUALATCHE, a town of the Hate of Georgia ; 40
miles W.N.Vv'". of Tugeloo.

QUALE Jus, in La-w, was an ancient writ judicial,
which lay where a religious perfon had judgment to recover
land ; before execution was made of thejudgment.

Tins writ was iflued forth to the efcheator between judg-
ment and execution, to enquire whether the religious perfon
had right to recover, Qf whether tlie judgment were obtained
by collufion between the demandant and tenant ; to the intent
that the true lord might not be defrauded.

QUALEA, in Botany, a Caribbean name, ufed by An-
blet, and inadvertently adopted by Schreber ; pofiibly be-
caufe, as it appears, he fufpecled the genus not to be fuffi-
ciently dilfinif from Vochy of the fame author, Bis own Cu-
CULLARIA ; fee that article. Willdenow, however, has fol-
lowed hirn ; and thus one name more is added to dunghill,

which fome future botanical Hercules muft fweep away

Aubh Guian. v. i. 5. Schreb. 7. Willd. Sp. PI. v. i. 18.
Mart. MiH. Dift: v. 4. Juff. 424. Lamarck llluftr. t. 4.
— Clafs and order, Monandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. per-
haps Guttijem, Juff.

Gen. Cli. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, in four very
deep ovate, coriaceous, concave, unequal fegments ; the two
lowermoll largelt, fpreading widely. Cor. Petals two, un-
equal, iaferted into the calyx ; the uppermoil ereCl, round-
ifh, emarginate, terminating at the bafe behind, in a fhort,
obtufe, horn-like ncftary, projefting between the upper leg- ■

ments

QUA

ments of the calyx ; lowermoll largeft, (loping downward.
Slum. Filament folilary, fhort, afceiidiiig, iiifeittd betwixt
the lower petal and the gcrmen ; anther oblong, furrowed,
recurved. /"//?. Germen fuperior, globofe ; ityle thrcad-
fliaped, afcendnig, the length of the Itamen ; llignia obtufe.
Peric. Berry ? of one cell. Seeds numerous, imbedded in pulp.

Obf. The corolla is, as it were, two-lipped. This genus
is akin to Cucullaria. Schreb.

Ed. Ch. Calyx inferior, in four deep unequal fegments.
Petals two, unequal. Berry I with many feeds.

1. Q. rofea. Aubl. Guian. t. I. Willd. n. I.— Lower

petal undivided. Leaves elongated at the point Native of

the woods of Guiana, flowering in September. The inha-
bitants call this fpeeies Laba-laba. A tree, whofe trunk is
fixty feet or more in height, terminating in large fpreadiiig
branches. IVood red, compaft. Leaves oppofite, in pairs
crofling each other, on (hortifh ftalks, elliptical, three or four
inches long, entire, fmooth, with an elongated blunt point ;
their tranTverfe veins very numerous, llraight and parallel.
Stipulas deciduous. Panicles terminal. Flotvers numerous,
two inches long, powerfully and agreeably fcented, white
on the outfide, rofe-coloured, and finally ycllowifli, within.

2. Q.caru/ea. Aubl. Guian. t. 2. Willd. n. 2. — Petals
two-lobed. Leaves with a fhort point. — Native of the
Guiana forefts. This fpeeies flowers in October, and is
known by the name of Quale. It diffefs from the former
in having fmaller^otffr,r, of a grey or blueifli colour, but
fragrant like thofe of Q. rofea. Then petals are emarginate,
cr almoll obcordate. Points of the leaves Icfs elongated.

QUALIFICATION for killing game,ior jurors, jujlices,
members of parliament, and eledors of members. See Game,
Jury, Justices, and Parliament.

Qualifications /or a complete mufician, required by Zar-
lino. This venerable theorilt had very exalted ideas of a
perfeft mufician, and tells us (Inllit. vol. ii. part iv. p. 342,
et feq. ) that it is necefl'ary he (hould have a knowledge in
arithmetic, for the calculation of mufical proportions ; of
geometry, to meafure them ; of the monochord and harp-
fichord, to try experiments and efix-fts ; that he fliculd
be able to tune inftruments, in order to accuftoin the ear to
diftinguilh and judge of intervals ; that he fliould fing with
truth and taflc, and perfedlly underltaiid counterpoint ; that
he fltould be a grammarian, in order to write correftly, and
fet words with propriety ; that he fliould read hillory, to
know the progrefs of his art ; be a mafter of logic, to rea-
fon upon, and inveftigate the more abft;rufe parts of it ; and
of rhetoric, to exprefs his thoughts with preciiion ; and,
further, that he would do well to add to thefe fciences fome
acquaintance with natural philofophy, and the philofophy of
found ; that his ears being perfeiilly exercifed and purified,
may not be eafily deceived. And adds, that he who afpires
at the title of perfetl mufician, has occafion for all thefe
qualifis-ations, as a deficiency in any one of them will fre-
quently render the reft ufelefs. An additional qualification
is now become neceliary to be added to thofe enumerated by
Zarlino, which is a perfeft knowledge of the genius and
powers of all the inftruments for which a mufician writes ;
otherwife he will not only embarrafs a performer by ufelefs
and unmeaning difficulties, but lofe opportunities of pro-
ducing effefts by the bow of a violin, the coup de langue of
flutes, and a feleftion of the pureft and baft tones on other
wind inftruments.

Qualifications of Land-managers, &c. the requifite
acquirements which are preper and effential to them in order
to the due and full performance of all the different forts of
bufinefs in which they may be engaged or employed. In this
view, a confiderable knowledge of the principles and prac-
tices of different forts of farming and farm-management,

QUA

fome acquaintance and experience in furveying land, in me-
chanics, in rural architedture, and in the bufincfB of plant-
ing, are indifpenfibly neceffary, as well as a notion of the
various mineral and other fubftances contained in the bowelj
of the earth, and a ready facility in arranging the manage-
ment of difterent forts of accounts.

They fhould at tiie fame time poffefs mild, conciliatory
difpofitions, exaft upright principles, and ftrift moral cha-
rafters. See LAKD-/?Ci'i'i', Y.K^n-Stenvard, and Officb o/"
EJlate.

The duties and ufes of thefe forts of managers, bcfides
thofe of regulating and directing the hufbandry, management,
and other matters, are, the preventing all forts of encroach-
ments from taking place ; the feeing that a proper and
right method of flocking is purfued on the commonable
lands ; the guarding againft the turf or foil being injured by
being broken up or pared off ; the looking after the public
and private roads, lanes, and driftways, to fee that the
fences on the fides of them are properly cut and pruned as
occafion may require, the travellable parts of them kep-; free
from obihuttions, and in a fuitable ftate of repair, and that
the farm-ways are well calculated to the ufes and intentions
for which they were defigned ; the duly attending to the
open drains, water courfes, and common fewers, to take
care that tiiey are kept clear and free at all times, without
doing injury to any one ; the confidering the ftate of the
natural ftreams and running waters as fit for the purpofes of
watering live-ftock at home or in other places, thofe of ir-
rigating land, the turning of mills, &c.; the examining the
borders of rivers, brooks, &c. to fee that they are not car-
ried away, or their courles altered in any injurious manner :
the taking care of plantations, and all forts of woodlands,
as well as timber-trees and young plants, by feeing that they
are preferved in a proper manner, and no damages committed
by cutting them down, or in any other ways ; the attending
to the fituation of the fences, gateways, &c. to fee that the
live hedges, with their banks, be duly cut, weeded, pruned,
and kept up, as well a!: the gates, Itiles, pales, and other
dead fences properly preferved and in repair ; the keeping
the home buildings, farm cottages, and garden grounds, be-
longing to them, in proper condition, with their tenants in
a full ftate of induftry ; and lattly, the regulating the order
of the different occupiers, by preventing improper meetings
of all kinds, the repreffing of bad houfes, and all forts of
irregularities that have a tendency to lefien induftry and fru-
gaUty.

Befides thefe, there are many other duties which properly
belong to them, but which need not be mentioned in thi»
place. See Bailiff.

Qualifications of Tenants, the neceffary properties
and circumftances which render them fit for holding lands
as farms. The importance of having perfons perfedly
qualified as tenants, is very great, in the fuperintend-
ance and management of all landed property, being, in a
great meafure, the bafis, or principal bearing, on which its
uniform and lafting profperity depends.

The proper qualifications of a good tenant, according to
the author of the " Treatife on Landed Property," are the
having capital, fkill, induftry, and charafter. And he con-
tends, that without a fufficient capital, the reft are unavail-
ing ; but that, it the fame time, an induftrious, frugal,
good farmer will ftrive with difficulties, and get on with lefs
money than a man of contrary qualifications. But if he has
not fufficient ftrength to work Ins lands, nor 3 fufficiency of
live-ftock to raife manure, or money wherewith to purchafe
it, he muft, under ordinary circumftances, live in a ftate of
poverty and hard labour ; and, on the firil attack of mif-
fortunes, or the firft failing feafon of crops, he will probably

fink

QUA

fiiik under the weight of his accumulated burden, and be
ruined.

Further, that in regard to the proper ratio or proportion
between the rent and capital, it depends on the exilling ftate
and circumftanccs of the farms, and the ftyle of manage-
ment in wliich they are intended to be coiidutted ; as well as
on the number and llrength of the occupiers' famihes, and
their induftry dnd frugality. However, in order to afford
fome general notions on the matter, it may be faid that, for
farms of fizc, as tliofe of from one to five hundred pounds a
year, tlie occupiers fliould have at their commands from
five hundred to a thoufand pounds of capital, for every
hundred pounds of rent which they may pay. Yet itill, on
the greater number of farms, the firft proportion is too fmall
to manage them with full advantage and profit. And, if
they be farmed with fpirit, and the higher order of improve-
ments be attempted, particularly the introduction of the
bed breeds ot live-ftock adopted by modern farmers, the
latt will not be found too large for the purpofe.

It may be remarked, that it is conftantly the bell way for
tenants to farm fomewhat within their capitals, as a few
pounds kept in their pockets enables them to embrace and
take the advantage of every tavounible opportunity that
may offer, and to iell or buy with the greateft benefit.
While fuch as are llraightened for mowey, are forced to take
the chance of markets, and liable to make bargains of a
lofing and difadvantagcous nature, as well as experience
many other inconveniencies of different kinds.

Notwitliilanding, where there is a want of fuflicient ex-
perience and flvill m the art, and different branches of prac-
tical hufbandry, tenants cannot farm or manage tlieir lands
•with the moft profit, either to themfelves, or the proprietors
of them. Where, however, their capitals and exertions are
great, they may, by obfervation and practice, acquire Ikill ;
and by this means be enabled to perform the bufinefs in a
tolerable manner, and in fome meafiire do juftice to their
farms, whatever they may do for their families in the way
of getting money for their benefit. But where, with a want
of flcili, fcanty capitals are joined, it is not all the exertion,
induftry, and frugality in the power of man, that can fave
or preferve the families or the farms from injury and incon-
venience.

However, without induftry, capital and (kill may be faid
to be thrown away. In the management of rural bufinefs,
in which fo much depends on the nature of feafons and
weather, idlenefs is a vice of tlie darkeft caft. Every inftance
of negligence is not only injurious in itfelf, but operates as a
dangerous and bad example ; ferving as an apology or excufe
for the half indullrious, with whom every farm or eftate k
incumbered ia a greater or leis degree.

In confequence of the intimate connedlion which necef-
farily fubiiits between the proprietors and tlie occupiers of
land, and feeing how advantageous and profitable it is to
preferve good order and regularity upon farm lands, as
giving thereby full liberty and freedom to the exertions of
^heir tenantry, it becomes a matter of fome importance, in
tlie feledtion of farm-tenants, to make proper and neceilary
inquiries into their characters for morality, and particularly
as they relate to habits of fobriety or extravagance, as well
as to a peacefulnefs or quarrelfomenefs of difpofition.

And it is farther to be remarked, in refpeit to the proper
feledting of tenants for farms, that nothing of mterell, or
any other confideration whatever, that is not intimately
conne6t:ed with the above qualifications, can properly war-
rant the choice : unlefs in particular cafes and circumftanccs,
as in providing for the widows and orphans of deceafed
Vol. XXIX.

Q U A

tenants, &;c. A farm-manager Ihould not fuffer himfelf to
be influenced by any fort of family connettion, favour, fee-
or reward. Superinlcndants of this kind, merely as fuch,
cannot have any true intereds fepariite and diftinft from
thofe of the farms or lands they may overlook. It, there-
fore, becomes a dilhoneft adt in any agent of this fort, to
put an inferior tenant into the poltcfTion of a farm, through
his own interett, even at a fair rent for the fam.v.

Laftly, it may be noticed, tiiat in a diftrict which (lauds
forward in a prominent manner in the ranks of rural im-
provements, merit (liould be h.oked for and encouraged
near home. But to advanc ■ or bring up a farm or ellate
which remains in the rear of modern practices, two or more
tenants of the higher clalfes (liould be fought for, at a
diltance, in fuch diftri(5ts as are of a kindred nature, but in
which the more modern and profitable management of farm-
ing prevails, in order to lead and direft the native tenantry
of the fituation.

Thefe are fome of the principal and leading qualification*
which ought in all cafes to diredl and regulate the choice
of farm-tenants ; there are, however, many others which
Ihould have an influence in certain circumftaaces, and par-
ticular metiiods of farm-management, otherwife the full
interefts and advantages of the proprietors of the lands mav
be overlooked and negledled.

QUALIFICATOR, in the Canon Laiu, a divine ap-
pointed to qualify, or declare the quaHty of, a propofition
brought before an ecclefialtical tribunal ; chiefly before the
inquifition.

The quahficators of the office are not judges ; they only
give their fentimenta on the propofitions prefented to them.
They are the inquifitors that judge.

QUALITY, QuAHTAs, that affeiStion of a thing,
whence it is denominated fuch ; or that which occafions a
thing to affeft our fenfes in this or that manner, and gives
it this or that denomination. Accordingly quality is faid
to be an attribute, from which no fubftance is exempt. See
Mode.

Thus, that power in fire, whatever it be, by which it
excites in us the fenfation of heat, fince it is that whence
the fire is denominated hot, is called the quality of fire.

The word quality, qualitas, is faid to have been firft; in-
troduced into the Latin by Cicero : till his time the Romani
itudioufly avoided ufing a term which denoted an abftradl ;
and in lieu of it only confidered concrete, fignified by
quale. The like is obferved of the ancient Greeks, who ,
did not ufe •aoi.-iTn:, but ■ctoio>.

Quality, it is to be obferved, is an ambiguous term ; and
ha* been applied to fome things which ought rather to have
been looked upon as ftates of matter, or affemblages of
levcral quaUties ; as hfe, health, beauty, Sic.

There are, alio, other attributes, as iize, fliape, motion,
and reft, ufually reckon>?d among qualities, which might
more conveniently be ranked among the primary modes of
the parts of matter ; iince, from thefe liraple attributes, all
the qualities are derived.

The ancient fchool-philofophers dillinguifh quality in the
general, which they call mt-taph^Jual and predicamental qua-
lity, into effenttal and acciJtiital. The moderns more ufually
divide it mtofphilualiwi corporeal.

Qualu'els, Spiritual, or Qualitits of the Soul, are afFec.,
tions of the mind, confidered as in this or that habitude or
dilpofition. Of thefe they make two kinds ; the one be-
longing to the underftanding, the otlier to the will : of the
former kind are knowledge, opinion, certainty, doubting,
&c. Of the latjjer are all the moral virtue* and vices.

QUA

QUA

QuALlTlKs, Corporeal or Phyfical, are what we chiefly
coiiiider under this di nominatioii, and to wliich the defini-
tion above hiid down is accommodated.

Philoiophirs arc divided as to the nature of thefe qualities,
or what they are in the body. The general language of
the Peripatetic fchool is, that they are things diftinft from
the bodies thcmfelves ; and are fuperadded to them, or flow
from their fubftantial forms : on which principle, they hold
qualities to be real, and denominate them acc'uUnts ; fup-
pofing them to be inherent in fubllances, though not in the
relation of parts, but to be fuftained by them as in a fubjedl,
and incapable of lubfifting without them. In effeft, the
Thomills define qualities to be accidents following or arifing
from the form ; in the fame manner as quahty is an accident
foUowinsr or arifina; from the lubftance.

The moderns abfolutely explode the notion of qualities
dillinft from the body ; and infiil, that the powers by which
bodies excite in us the ideas of fuch qualities, are no other
than the mechanical affedtions of the bodies themfelves, viz.
the figure, magnitude, ir.otion, &c. of the parts of which
they coiifift.

The principal confiderations infilled on by the retainers to
real qualities are, that thefe powers may be aftually feparated
from the fubllances they inhere in ; as we fee in light, heat,
&c. That from thefe very qualities, confidered as fo many
determinations, tliere arifes a very great diverfity in bodies ;
and that bodies, according to the diverfity of their qualities,
affeftour fenfes very differently.

The adherents to the experimental way, on the contrary,
account for all the qualities of bodies from mechanical
caufes. Thus all tlie phenomena of a clock, the motion of
its wheels, its hands, &c. by which it llrikes the hour, points
the minute ; day, moon's age, &c. do all evidently arife from
the fingle fpring ; which we never imagine to have any par-
ticular powers by which it (hould be enabled to make fuch
difcoveries ; nor any other principle but that one of elalticity.
Why, then, may we not conceive, as- to fenfible qualities,
that though, by virtue of a certain congruity or incongruity
in point of figure, texture, or other mechanical properties,
the portions of matter they modify are enabled to produce
various effefts, on account of which the bodies are faid to
be endowed with qualities ; yet thefe are not, in the bodies
endowed with them, any real or diftinft entities, or differing
from the matter itfelf of fuch a determinate bignefs, Ihape,
and other mechanical modifications? Thus, though the
modern goldfmiths and refiners reckon it among the moft
diftinguifhed qualities of gold that it is diffoluble in aqua
regia, whilft aqua fortis will not work upon it ; yet thefe
attributes are not ii the gold any thing diftinft from its
peculiar texture ; nor is the gold we have now of any other
nature than it was in Pliny's time, when aqua fortis and
aqua regia were unknown.

We all know that the fun hath a power to harden clay,
foften wax, melt butter, thaw ice, turn water into vapour,
make air expand itfelf in weather-glafFes, contribute to
blanch linen, render the white llcin of 'the face fwarthy, and
mowed grafs yellow, ripen fruit, hatch the eggs of filk-
worms, caterpillars, &c. apd perform many other things,
fome of which feem contftry to others ; yet thefe are not
diilinft powers, or faculties in the fun, but only the pro-
duftioa of its heat, diyerfified by the different textures of
the body it chances to work on, and the condition of the
other fubftances concerned in the operation. And, there-
fore, whether or not the fun, in fome cafes, has any influence
at all diilindt from its light and heat, we fee that all the
pheiiomena mentioned are producible by the best of comipon

fire, duly applied and regulated. Some of the ancicnte,
and particularly the Peripatetics, have diftinguifhed qualities
into fenji/i/e and accull.

QUALITIES, Senfiblc, or Manifejl, are thofe arifing from
certain modifications of matter, and which become imme-
diately the objedts of our fenfes. Such are all thofe above-
mentioned.

Though, in ftriftnefs, thofe only are faid to be fenfible
qualities which affcft fome one fenfe alone ; as colour does
the eye, found the car, &c.

Thefe are fometimes, alfo, called tangible qualities, becaufe
they only produce their effeft, /'. e. excite their idea in us,
when contiguous, or in contaft with the organ.

Qualities, Occult, are certain latent powers arifing from
the fpecific forms of things, of which no rational folution
can be given on any principles of phyfics.

Senfible qualities are ufually fubdivided into primary and
fccondary. See Ideas.

Qualities, Primary, or General, are fucTi as are found
in all bodies ; or which agree to all matter, confidered as
matter, and therefore to the elements themfelves. Such are
extenfion, figure, motion, reft, folidity, impenetrability, and
number.

Qualities, Secondary, or FarlicuJar, are fuch as refult
from a compofition or mixture of elements, and do not
agree to body as body, but as a mixt. Such are light, heat,
cold, colour, found, talle, fmell, hardnefs, foftnefs, fluidity,
firmnefs, roughnefs, fmcothnefs, opacity, tranfparency, &c.

According to Ariftotle, and the Peripatetics, the primary,
or elementary qualities, are thofe of the four element*
themfelves ; w'z. heat, cold, moifture, and drynefs.

The fecondary qualities, according to the fame, are all
the reft ; which are combinations or affemblages of the
former elementary ones ; as colour, odour, tafte, &c.

To give an idea of Ariftotle's method of accounting
for thefe fecondary qualities from thefe primary ones, we
fhall inftance in his account of colour. All colours, then,
fays he, are generated of a mixture of the four elementary
qualities : white, e. gr. is produced when the humidity fur-
mounts the heat, as in old men, whofe hair grows grey ;
black is produced when the humidity dries off, as in walls,
cifterns, &c. red, &c.

Among the fchool-philofophers we meet with other di\n.
fions of quaUties ; as adive, iud paj^ve ; real, and intentional.

Qualities, j43ive, are thofe by virtue of which effefts
and operations are aftually produced on other bodies duly
difpofed with refpeft to them. Such are the heat of fire,
the moifture of water, &c.

Qualities, Pajfive, are thofe by which bodies are dif-
pofed to receive the aftion of others. Such are inflamma-
bility in oil, &c.

Qualities, Real, are thofe which remain in the fubjeft,
and only aft on things adjacent to it. As fire in a piece of
iron not ignited, &c.

Qualities, Intentional, are thofe which iffue from the
fubjeft, and operate at a diftance. Such is the light emitted
from the fun, Sec.

But the moderns are agreed, that either all quahties are
real, or all alike intentional. So that the diilinftion is im-
pertinent. See on the fubjeft of quality, its various fpecies,
and its different properties, Harris's Philofophical Arrange-
ments, chap. viii.

However ignorant we ma)' be of the nature of qualities,
or of the manner of their operation, yet we know the laws
of their intention and rennffion. Dr. Keil demonftrates,
that every quality which is propagated in orbcm, fuch as

light,

QUA

light, heat, cold, odour, &c. has its efHcacy increafcd, or
abated, in a duplicate ratio of the dillaiici'S from the centre
of radiation, or exertion of the quahty, reciprocally.

Thus, let A (Plate Xll. Geometry, fig. I.) be a centre
from whence any quality cxcrtt itfelf round about, accord-
ing to the right lines, A e, Af, &c. The efficacy of the
quality, b^ it heat, cold, odour, &c. will be (at equal dlf-
tances from A) as t!^e fpiflitude or denfity of the rays, A b,
Ac, A J. But the rays within the inner circle, or rather
fpherical fuperlicits, bcdW, when they come to be ex-
tended to the other fpherical furfacc, efg K, will be much
lefs clofe than thev were before, and tiiat in the reciprocal
proportion of the fpaces they take up ; that is, if the outer
furface be the double of the inner, the rays tliere will be but
half as thick ; but fince fpherical fuperilcies are as the
fquares of their radii, therefore the efficacy of the quality in
tlie inner furface will be to that of the outer, as A ^ fquare
to A b fquare. Q- -£• ^•

Sir Ifaac Newton lays it down as one of the rules of pUi-
lofophizing, that thofe qualities of bodies which are in-
capable of being intended and remitted, and which are found
to obtain in all bodies in which the experiment could ever
be tried, are to be efteemed univei'fal qualities of all bodies.
See Philosophizing.

Qualities, Cofmical. See Cosmical Qualities.

Quality is alfo ufed for a kind of title, or degree of
eminence given to certain perfons, in regard of their terri-
tories, fignories, or other pretenfions.

Thus the king of Great Britain ufed to take the quality
of king of France ; the king of Poland that of king of
Sweden ; the king of Sardinia that of king of Cyprus and
Jerufalem ; the czars of Ruffia, and kings of Spain, have
whole pages of qualities. The cmpeior of China aflumes
the quality of fon of the fun.

Quality of Curvature, in Geometry, is ufed to fignify
its form, as it is more or lefs inequable, or as it is varied
more or lefs in its progrefs through different parts of the
curve. Newton's Meth. of Flux, and Inf. Scr. p. 75.
Maclaur. Flux. art. 369. See Curvature.

Qualities of Trees and Plants, in ylgriculture and Gar-
dening, are the properties which are peculiar to them, in
relation to th'^ir magnitude, modes of growth, textures or
confiftences, forms, colours, taftcs, fmells, means of pro-
pagation, culture, ufes, and values.

In regard to the firlt, as foon as the fimple conltituent
fibres of plants are evolved and niereafcd, as far as the na-
ture of them and the arrangement of the primary nutrient
fubilances will permit, they ceafe to receive any more for
their farther increafe ; the primary matters merely replacing
the lofs which is occafioned by the performance of the na-
tural functions of the plants ; confequently they have each
a particular prefcribed increafe or meafure of growth.
Some are very large, others extremely fmall. The Indian
fig, in confequence of ramifications being fent off, which
concrete with the primitive trunk, by infenfible degrees ac-
quires a very confiderable bulk or thicknefs, being fre-
quently twenty, or even thirty cubic feet in its diametric
feftion. And there are accounts given of particular plants,
which are fcarcely vifible to the naked eye ; and of fome
trees, which are fo large as to cover with their branches
two hundred perfons, or more.

In this country, fome trees and (hrubs of the ornamental
fort are either very high, or very low : of the former kind
are the-horfe-chefnut, larch, cornelian cherry, fnowdrop-
tree, and many others ; and of the latter, the mountain-afh,
hemlock, fir, Scotch rofe, butchers' broom, and many
more. There are fome trees which are very broad, in pro-

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portion to their height, as the oak, Spanifh chefnut, &c. ;
others which are very narrow, as the larch, fpruce fir, &c.
And there are ilill fome others, in which there is a medium
between thefe extremes, prefervcd and kept up, as in the
afh-leaved maple, the evergreen oak, the Virginian rafp-
berry, the Guelder rofe, and a number of others.

The modes or habits of growth in trees' and (lirubs ara
alfo extremely different : fome fending out their branches in
a horizontal manner, as in the oak ; m others they have an
upward direction, as in the Huntingdon willow ; while in a
few they fall downwards, as in the lime, acacia, and otliirs.
Again, there are fome which have an obhque inclination,
as may be feen in the Scotch fir ; or they recline, and then
rife up again, as in the larch kind ; and tiiere are ilill others,
in which they hang direAIy downwards, as in the weeping
afli, weeping willow, &c. There are likewife fome flirubby
plants, which creep along tlie furface of the ground, as the
periwinkle ; others which clafp themfelves to trees, as the
paffion-fiower ; and a few which fix and attach themfelves
to buildings, walls, &c. as the ivy. Farther, there are
fome trees that, in whatever way they may be placed, cut,
or pruned, coiiftantly affume and take on one principal
ftem, from which all the different brancJies proceed or go
off, as rays from a centre, as in the fir tribe ; while in
others, the trunks divide themfelves into arms, or large
branches, which fend out boughs or fmaller branches in an
irregular manner, as in the oak and others. Some kinds of
fhrubs have merely one fingle Hem, as the alth^a ; while
other forts invariably fpread and extend along the furface
of the ground, throwing or fending up a greater number,
as the hypericum, and fome others.

The texture or confidence of plants of different kinds is
likewife very different, as hard, foft, membranous, carneous,
fmooth, downy, thorny, &c. which are moftly obvious to
the feel. Plants of the young kind are commonly muci-
laginous, becoming hard as they advance in growth ; though
many luxuriate in the Hate of continual foftnefs, as the tre-
mella ; yet fome are fo hard as to fink in water, as the iron
wood of the ifiand of Ceylon, &c. Thus among trees and
{hrubs, fome have a foft fmooth appearance, as the lime,
the fcorpion fenna, &c. ; while others have a hard, rough,
firm appearance, as the evergreen oak, the holly, &c.
There are fome alfo which have a Imooth, filky appearance,
as the tamarift, &c. ; while others have a downy, woolly
appearance, as the hoary poplar, &c. And fome appear
wholly befct and covered with thorns or prickles, as the
furze, hedgehog holly, S:c. ; while others, again, appear
wholly compofed of thveady Ihoots, as the Portugal broom,
&c. Befides thefe, there are many other forts, which fur-
nifh different appearances from any of thefe.

The forms in the different forts and varieties are ftill
equally, if not more, various ; fome being apparently folid
and compact, from being thick fet with branches and foliage,
as in the horfe-chefnut, the Engliih elm, tiie lilac, the
fyringa, &c. ; while others are of a more light, airy, ele-
gant form, being thin of boughs, branches, and leaves, as
the a(h, the hoary poplar, the bird cherry, the Canadian
mefpilus, &c. ; and there is a middle degree between thefe
extremes, in the broad-leaved euonymus, the afh-leaved
maple, and fome others. They may alfo be further dillin-
guillied into thofe whofe branches begin from nearly the
furface of the ground, as in the fir ti^ibe of trees, and moll
fhrubs ; and into thofe which (hoot up into a ftem before
their branches are begun to be fent off, as in the mour.lain-
afh, the althsa frutex, &c. It may likewife be noticed in
refpeft to thofe whofe branches begin from the ground,
that fome of them rife in an elegant cone, as the larch, the
Z Z hoUy,

Q IJ A

lioUy, &c. ', otliers in a cone, whofc bafc is very broad, as
in the cedar ; or whofe bafe is very Imall, as in the upright
cyprefs. There are lome which fwell out in the middle of
tlieir grovi'th, and diminifh or contraft at both ends, as in
the Weymouth pine, &c. ; while others are broadoft at the
top, as in the rafpbcrry, the alpine lioncyfiickle, &c. ; and
fome few irregular and bufliy throughout, as in the ever-
green oak, the fnowball tree, &c. Among tliofe which
{hoot up into a ftem before their branches arc fent off, there
are fome which are in the fliape of flender cones, a» in the
deciduous cyprefs ; others in thofe of broad cones, as in the
balf :n poplar. Still others afiume a globular form, as in
the niouDtain-adi ; while many arc irregular throughout, as
in the Scotch elm, the acacia, and feveral others.

Ao to colour, it appears to depend upon the colouring
principle, the proportion of vital air and light which is con-
tained, and is proper to different parts of the fame tree or
plant : hence, when exhalation is prevented, and light in-
tercepted, the green colour is changed into white. In trees
and flirubs it is either accidental or permanent : the latter
including all the dilferent fliadci of green in the fummer
months ; the former, the different tints of red and yellow,
which are pecuhar to the autumnal ai.d vernal feafons.

There are fome of the permanent kinds of colour, which
are of a dark green, as thofe in the horfe-chcfnut, the yew,
&c. ; while others are of a light green, as thofe in the afh,
the common laurel, &c. ; and others, again, which are of a
blueifh-green, as thofe in the Scotch fir, tlie bladder fcnna,
&c. Some trees have a green tinged with brown, as the
Virginian cedar ; others a green tinged with white, as the
abele and the Lapland willow. Alfo, in fome trees the
greens are tinged with yellow, as in the afh-leaved maple,
the Chinefe arbor vitx, &c. ; in others with red, as in the
fcarlet tnaplc, &c. ; and in a few with purple, as in the
purple beech. There arc fome greens which are fpotted
with white, yellow, and red, as that in the variegated holly,
privet, fycamore, box, and various others. The colours
which arife from accident are almofl infinite in number,
each kind of which is liable to great variation : moftly,
however, it will be found that in autumn the wild cherry
affumes a bright red, the birch a deep red, the beech a
brownifh-red, the fcarlet oak a deep fcarlet, the hornbeam
a ruflet colour, the fugar maple a rich yellow, the common
oak a reddifli-yellow, the lime and afli a draw colour, the
balfam poplar a black, the fycamore a dark brown, and
others different forts of other colours.

In regard to tafle and fmell, tlie former depends upon
the different principles which compofe and conititute the
juices or hiuiiours of the different kinds, and varies as well
in the different forts, as in the different parts of the fame
fort of trees or plants. The latter depends on the volatile
principle, or principles, which ilTue or exhale from them,
and differs in its nature, according to the kinds of plants,
or the parts of them, in which it chiefly refides or is pre-
fent. There are fome trees and fhrubs which have fcarcely
any imell, as the evergreen oak, platanus, &c. ; others
liave a moil; grateful rich fragrance, as the birch, fweet-
briar, honeyfuckle, &c. ; fome again have a lufcious, power-
ful fmell, as the mezercon, the fyringa, &c. ; others a dif-
agreeable naufeous fmell, as the elder, &c. ; in fome the
Imell is very ivi-eet, as in the flowering hme ; in others it
is deleterious, as in thofe of the walnut, the artenoifia, &c.
There is alfo the greateft fragrance in fome while they are
ir. bloffom, as in the hawthorn, ar.d in fome it is folely con-
fined to it, as in the lilac ; while in others it is equally dif-
fufcd over or throughout the whole plant, as in the fwect-
briar, and many ethers.

QUA

Thefe may be confidcrcd as fome of the mofl general clia-
rafteriffic qualities of trees and fhrubs ; but various other
peculiarities incident to them prefent themfclves, on a more
.iiiiiute inveftigation, which equally intereft and deferve the
attention of the ornamental planter and gardener, as well as
the cultivator of all forts of wood and timber ; and which
principally relate to differences in tlie barks, the buds, the
leaves, the flowers, and the fruiti. The aopearance of the
bark is very different in many different forts of trees and
(lirubs, as red, white, black, brown, and green, as in the
dogwood, birch, oak. Guelder rofe, and holly. It difFer3
alfo in Its properties, as in fome it is firm, in others fpongy,
in fome thin, in others thick, brittle, glutinous, or thready,
as in the oak, the cork-tree, the beech, the Scotch fir,
the hornbeam, the holly, the lime, and the elm. It varies
likewife in its duratioji, the outer bark or coat in fome trees
being thrown off aiuuially, as in the arbutus, the birch, &c. ;
while in others, for the moll part, it is conftantly retained
or kept on. It differs equally in refpeft to its properties
of tafle, being in fome allringcnt in its nature, in others
fweet, bitter, refmous, &c., as in the oak and bramble,
lime, abele, fir, &c. In regard to buds, fome trees have
none at all, as the pine and evergreen forts ; in fome they
are very large, in others very fmall, as in the horfe-chefnut,
and tlie willow. In fome they are coated over with a
covering of glutinous or reilnous matter, as in the horfe-
chefnut, &c. ; in others they are overfpread with a dry-
film or tegument, as in the beech, Sec. There are likewife
lome buds which are of a red colour ; others which are
yellow, black, brown, or red and greenifh ; as thofe in the
lime, the willow, the afh, the beech, and the common fyca-
more, in tlie order in which they occur.

The variety in the leaves is flill much greater ; fome be-
ing very broad, as thofe of the common laurel ; others
very narrow, as thofe of the larch. And there is a medium
between thefe extremes, in thofe of the willow and the
almond. In fome they are entire, as in the bay ; in others
ferrated, as in the cherry ; and pinnatiiid, as in the acacia,
&c. In fome again they are covered with down, as in the
fea buckthorn ; in others with wool, as in the hoary poplar ;
with prickles, as in the holly ; with a glutinous matter, as
in the gum ciflus, &c. They are of aL the different (hades
of green in the fummer feafon ; and of all the different
tints of red and yellow, in the autumnal and vernal feafons.
There are fome which retain their leaves and colours
during or throughout the whole year, as the pine tribe, &c. ;
others which lofe their green colour in the autumn ; but
retain their leaves all the winter, as the beech, hornbeam,
&c. in particular circumftaiiees. A great number of trees,
among which are the elm and the afh, drop their leaves in the
autumn, and are naked all the winter. In general, the
leaves have the fame propertie: as the barks, but in a fainter
and lefs perfetl degree; which are of much importance in
fome points of view. Tliofe of the alder, the box, &c.
are refufed by moft forts of cattle ; thofe of the elm, the
thorn, &c. greedily devoured by them ; while thofe of the
fir tribe are offenfive to many forts of infefts, which are
liable to infeft hot-houfes, and other fimilar places.

And the flowers are much lefs various than the leaves.
Thofe of fome trees being large and fhowy, as of the rofe,
the honeyluckie, &c. ; while thofe of others are fmall anci
obfcure, as of the alaternus, &c. In fome they cover the
whole plant, and quickly fade away, as thofe of the hpw-
thorn ; while in others they are but thinly diftributed, yet
continue a confiderable length of time, as thofe of the
paffion-flower, Sec. There are fome, which come into
bloH'om at an earlv period, as thofe of the mezereon, almond,

&c. ;

QUA

tie, ; others that are very late, as thofe of the fweet chefnut,
the althsea frutex, &c. And thare are feme trees and flirul)5
which ceafe flowering before tlicir leaves expand, as the
almond ; and others in which the bloflbm makes its appear-
ance only when the leaves fall off, as that of the hazel.

In the fruits or feeds of trees and plants the variety is
likevvife confiderable. There ai'e fome, in which they are
brilliantly coloured and (howy in their appearance, as in
the cluttered berries of the mountain-allj ; while in others,
the feed is very much in'dden and obfcure, as in the willow.
On fome trees they remain two or more years, as the cones
on the fir tribe ; on others but a few weeks, as the capfnles
of the elm. The trnits and feeds of fome are ufed for culi-
nary purpofes, and contribute to increale and enrich the de-
ferts of the table, at the apple, pear, walnut, &c. ; while
others are appropriated to and liave the properties of fatten-
ing the inferior forts of ar.imals, as the acorn, the beech
mail, &c. ; and others again are poifonous, as the berries
of the deadly nightlhade, and thofe of the mezcreon, &c.

Further, along witli their charadteriftic diftindlions, fome

QUA

In their more young growths trees and plants not only
demand foils, fituationa, and afpedts fuited to tiieir parti-
cular natures and habits, but alio fueh methods of culture
as are adapted to them. Some kinds requiring the earth
and mould about their roots to be repeatedly dug up and
ftirred, as the lime, the lilac, &c. ; others advance with
equal rapidity, where the ground on the furface is pre-
ferved free and clean from other injurious vegetable produc-
tions, as the oak, the chefnut, &c. ; while others again
fucceed in the beft manner, where the furface of the und
is covered with mofly matter, as the rhododendron, the
erica, &c.

In regard to cutting and pruning, there arc fome tree*
which will not bear the kniT-, as the cherry, &c. ; the
wood in others is many times hurt by it, as in the pine and
the fir tribes. Some again are capa'iL- of bearing it to any
extent, as the hawthorn, the crab-: - pie, &c. However,
thefe peculiarities are moflly applieaL to trees of confider-
able height ; as moil lorts when very )Oung endure cutting
in, and pruning very well, many kinds requiring thefe

trees and plants combine and comprife what may be con- operations to train and bring them to fingle Hems. For

fidered particular properties.

In the roots, they are as much varied underneath the
ground, as the trunks, Hems, and branches are above the
furface of it. There are fome which fpread themfelves
in a horizontal manner, as thofe of the pine, and fir tribes ;
others which fend down perpendicular roots to a great
depth, as thofe of the oak, the chefnut, &c. ; and there
are thofe which form a medium between thefe extremes, as
in thofe of the hme, the beech, &c.

In the modes or means of propagation in trees and plants
there is equal or more variety. There are fome which are
raifed from feeds, as the moll part of forell-trees, fueh as
the oak, elm, aJli, larcli, &c. ; others from layers, as the
lime, platanus, rofe, and mjiny forts of (hrubs ; Hill others
from fuckers, as the abele, gale, fpirea, &c. And fome
are propagated by ingrafting, as the weeping a(h, apple,
&c. ; others by inoculation, as the double -bloflomed almond,
the weeping cherry, &c. And fome kinds, again, by the
roots, as the thorn, mezereon, and others.

In refpedt to culture they require different kinds of foils,
fituations, and management ; fome delight in a deep, itrong
foil, as the oak ; fome in a dry gravelly one, as the beech ;
fome in a deep moid one, as the poplar ; others in a foil
of the peat-earthv kind, as th- erica, and various other
forts ; ftill others are natural to a rather moift foil, as the
alder. Sec. And there are fome trees which will grow in
a foil of almoft any fort, as the Scotch fir tribe ; while
others will fcarcely grow in any, but that of their natural
one, as the rhododendron, the andromeda, &c. There are
fome again which hardly Hand in need of the aid or aliiil-
ance of any fort of foil, as the ivy, &c. ; while otlicrs are
of the parafite kind, as the milletoe, &c.

There is likewjfe much variety in the fituations and ex-
pofures which trees and plants natur?,lly affeft. Some
kinds will endure almoft every fort of expofure, with the
exception of that of ilrong powerful fea breezes, as the
larch, the Scotch fir, the mountain-alh, &c. : while fome
again endure and withftand the fea breezes in a much better
and far iupcricr manner to others, as the fycamore, afh,
fervice, elder, &c. ; others will not profpcr except in low,
or (heltered fituations, as the black fpruce, moll forts of
American plants, &c. ; while others will rife and grow
under the drip and fliade of others, as the Scotch elm, the
Norvvay maple, hemlock, fpruce, dogwood, box, &c. ; but
others again die in fueh fituations, as the larch, the pine,
•the willow, and many other forts.

inftance, the filver fir, while in the nurfcry Hate, require*
the fide ilioots of it to be cut and (hortened ; and young
oak plants, fome time after they have been finally planted
out, are often cut over jull above the furface of the ground,
and iuppofed to grow up ftronger by it.

A great many forts of trees and plants Hand in need of
being removed or tranfplanted the firil or fecond year of
their growth from the feed, while in the nurfery ground ;
and to be fet out from that fituation into plantations of
different kinds, w-hile under the height of four feet, or ia
their more early growth. There are fome forts which
are little or not at all hurt by fueh removals, as the elm ;
while others are liable to die after it, as the fpruce fir, the
Weymouth pine, &c. ; fome kinds are alfo apt to die on
being tranfplanted, after they are eight, ten, or more feet in
height, as the pine, the fir tribes, &c. ; while other forts
may be fafely tranfplanted at nearly double fueh ages and
fixes, as the lime, the elm, the fycamore, and various other
deciduous kinds ; however, a year or more before their re-
moval is to take place, they (hould have their roots cut in,
and their tops thinned by the pruning knife, or other means,
as fueh precautions are highly important and neceffary,
and (hould never be omitted, in removing trees of the latter
cf the above heights.

In refpeft to the ufes of trees and Hirubby plants, though
the latter fort are commonly fet out for the purpofe of orna-
ment, vuriety, &c., and the former for that of timber, as
well as thefe and other ufes ; there are Hill fome other ways
in which they occafionally contribute, and become of utility
and importance to th^ planter. There are different products
of fome of them, which are ufefnl in different arts and pro-
feffions. For inftance, the bark of fome is ufefnl in che-
miHry, for the making of bird-lime, as that of the holly ;
that of others, as of the lime, the elm, &c. for the manu-
fafturers of mats. The leaves of fome, as thofe of the
mulberry, for the growers and raifers of filk. The blolfoms
of others, as thofe of the rofe, for the apothecary, and thofe
of the fyringa for the confeftioner. Thofe parts of the
feeds of the beech which are proper, are converted into
bread. And the fruits of others, as thofe of the pear,
apple, plum, 6cc. are of very general utihty and value.
Some kinds of wood are of particular ufe and value for
particular purpofes, as the oak to (hip-builders ; and others
might be trained for this application, as the larch, by bending
down the Hem when about twenty feet in height, fecuring it
in that pofition, and then re -bending it again fome confider-
able

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QUA

able time afterwards, leaving the bole or trunk in a differently
crooked Hate. The woody parts of the tir and pine are em-
ployed by houfc-carpenters, of the crab-tree by mill-wrights,
of theafh by plougli-wrights, of the bocch, the walinit, the
cherry, the plum, the box, the holly, the yew, and others,
by the cabinet-makers. The lime is particularly ufeful to
the carver, the fycamore to the turner, the box and holly
to the mathematical inllrumcnt-maker, and the alder and the
birch to the lad and the heel-maker. Charcoal of any of
the kinds is valuable for the iron-founders ; that of the dog-
wood, fallow, alder, hazel, &c. forthe gunpowder manu-
fafturers. The larch, the filver fir, &c. afford the coarfe
turpentine and its fpirit ; the fpruce and pine tribes, relin,
tar, pitch, lamp-black, &c. Mod woods, but efpecially
the beech, alh, elm, &c. afford potafh. The fap-juice of
fome trees, as the birch, &c. yields a vinous liquor ; and that
of others, as of the fugar-maple, &c. affords fugar.

The value of wood as timber, and 'for other purpofes,
differs much according to local fituation, and other circum-
ftances ; when near a dry-dock or iTiip-yard, oak, elm, &c.
fuited to {hip-building, are of much higher value than when
at a great dillance in the country. The undergrovvths of
feveral forts of trees, as dog-wood, fallow, willow, alder,
&c. are of the moll value when near large manufaftories of
gunpowder, being of little utility, except as fuel, when at
adiftance. Some forts of wood, however, from the gene-
rality of their application and employment, are of great
value in all fituations, as thofe of the oak, the elm, the afh,
the beech, and perhaps the larch has ftill more value than any
of them. Others, on account of their fcarcity, are alfo va-
luable in all places, as the box, -the holly, the yew, &c.
All the lighter products of fome forts of trees, as thofe of
bird-lime, potalh, turpentine, tar, pitch, &c. maylikewife
be confidered of equal value in all fituations. But a tree
which would be of the greateft value in a particular fituation
or place, may not find in it that fort of foil that is fiutable
to its nature or habits of growth ; in which circumftances
that which will come to the moil perfeClion in it, will com-
monly be found of the moft value. Such woods as may not
be valuable in confcquence of local circumftances, may be
rendered a great deal more high in their value, by having
them manufaftured in the places where they are met with,
thus leffening the expences of conveyance, &c. In confc-
quence of the great improvements in roads, canals, &c. and
the general promotion of them, woods and plantations for
timber, muft, in almoft all places, be valuable, and there
can be few in which the other forts of produfts will not be
of great importance. In the meafuring of ftandard trees
for the purpofe of afcertaining their value, though many
think themfelves fully qualified by being fimply able to mea-
fure them ; it is only by the perfeA knowledge of the ufe
and application of the different (hapes, bends, and woods
of them, that a correft eftimate can be given ; as a fmall por-
tion of wood may be of little confequence in one fort of
bufinefs, while it is of much in another, which is a fecret of
great intereft and importance to the purchafers of timber of
the ftanding kind.

In addition to thefe qualities, almoft every tree and plant
is poffeffed of various others, -which excite emotions that
have a relation to them, and which give their charaftcrs or
expreffions. For initance, the cyprefs is of a regular, in-
variable fhape, or form, and always, in colour, of a dark
green, having a ftill, folemn appearance ; hence it has ac-
quired the charafter of melancholy. A fimilar, but fome-
what fainter, train of emotions, is produced in the mind
by the falling branches, drooping fpray, and yellow greenifh
colour of the weeping willow ; hence it fuits with fcenes of

folitude, and induces meditation. In the light, airy form of
the a(h, and the bright white of the variegated holly, there
are fome traits of certain degrees of the cheerful kind j in
the felloons of the virgin's bower, eafe and gracefulnels ; in
che myrtle, delicacy and neatnefs ; and in the fwecp of the
ftem, the curve of the branches, &c. of the larch, a pecu-
liar elegance. In the oak and the chefnut are forms which
have long given the notions of grandeur and fublimity.
Both thefe and other trees are particularly expreflive of
peculiar known charafters, arifing, in fome degree, from
tiieir own nature, and in part from afft>ciations in the ir.ind.
Thofe of the cyprefs and yew kii.ds have been planted in
burying grounds, and other fimilar places ; the weeping
wiUow, as the fiiade of urns ; the laurel ufed as the crowa
of warriors ; and the chefnut introduced in landfcapes.

Some accidental charaftcrs and expreflions of plants are
produced by novelty and fingularity cither in their natures,
forms, or appearances ; hence exotics are at firft diftinguifiied
from thofe of the indigenous kind, and called beautiful,
elegant, fanciful, ftrange, rare, &c. according to circum-
ftances. The creeping alh, the ftone pine, &c. derive and
retain their characters from their comparative fcarcity and
unufual (hape ; while others have that of elegance and no-
velty in a much lefs degree, as the cedar of Libanus and the
cyprefs ; the hemlock fpruce, and the fcarlet oak, &c.
Some trees and plants are common, and thought nothing
of in one diftrifl or country, while, in others, they are un-
common, and thought highly of; thus, the weeping willow,
the narrow-leaved elm, the acacia, &c., which abound, and
are little valued, in the fouthern parts of the ifland ; are
fcarce, highly efteemed, and termed elegant in thofe ot the
north ; while the arbutus, tlie uva urfi, the erica alba, and
even the mountam-afti, which are plentiful, unnoticed, and
common in the north, are held in eftimation, and thought
highly elegant in the fouth.

Thefe are fome of the more particular qualities of trees
and plants, which are concerned in the clafiification and
arrangement of them, as the materials by which the objefts
of planting and ornamental gardening are to be accom-
plifhed, but there are others which are peculiar to them in
other points of view, that it is quite unneceffary to notice
in this place, as they are fully explained in fpeaking of them
individually under their proper heads.

More ample information on the above fubjeft may, how-
ever, be obtained by confulting Mr. Loudon's work " On
Forming, Improving, and Managing Country Refidences,"
in which will be feen their particular utility, and their moft
appropriate modes of apphcatioH in the bufinefs of planting
and ornamenting different kinds of pleafure grounds, under
ail the various circumftances which may occur in fo far as
their nature, fituation, foil, and other fimilar particulars are
concerned, as well as the pitlurefque effeft which will be
produced.

Qualities of Seeds, Sets, and Produce, the properties
which are cffential to them for the produftion of full and
beneficial crops of the feveral different kinds, and the moft
perfeft and advantageous ftates of growth and maturation
of fuch crops, for their being confumed, either as food or
otherwife. In all forts of feeds of the grain kind, thofe
which are the moft fully bodied, bright, thinneft in the ikin,
and the moft found, without being too long kept, are the
moft iuitable for making ufe of as feed. Such as are fmall,
lean, ill fed, and fhrunk in their Ikins, or which have been
in any way heated in the mow or ftack, are moftly quite im-
proper for this purpofe. Some have, however, fuppofed
the contrary to be the cafe, but they have hitherto adduced
no proofs whatever, of the fa£l, while the former opinion is

fupported

Q a A

fupported by the daily experience of the befl farmei*s in the
country. There is another circumilaiice whieli is of lome
importance in this btifinefs, which is that of the grain for
this ufe bciiig condantly newly threlhcd out from the llraw,
as fuch, for the moil part, fprouts and grows more expe-
ditioufly, and is lei's hable to rot and perifh in unfavourable
feafons and fituations.

All forts of difeafed grain, and fuch as is not perfeftly
free from the mixture of the feeds of weeds witii it, fhould
always be, as much as pollible, avoided in this intention.

In regard to the fmaller forts of feeds for raifing all kinds
of plant-crops in the Held, as well as thofe of the grafs fort,
both natural and ariiticial, the principal necedary qualities,
in each, are thofe of their being of a bright, lively, fliining
colour, perfeftly found, and Irefh, or lately colletled from
the plants. Such as are old, or kept more than a few months,
are mollly improper for this application. The belt lorts
commonly (lide freely over each other, without llicking or
being heavy in the hand, and have a brilliant bloomy ap-
pearance.

In gardening, moft forts of feeds alfo are the bed, and
require to have thefe properties and qualities as much as
poffible ; but there are a few which are apt to grow too
luxuriantly for fruiting well, as feme of the cucumber,
melon, kidney-bean, and other kinds, which are better for
being kept for fome length of time, as this property is
thereby in fome meafure correfted and reftrained. Molt
forts of nuts and Hones, when ufed as feed, fhould, how-
ever, be employed in as frelh a flate as poflible.

Sets are different in their nature, being of the root or
plant kinds. In the former, the fets or cuttings flioald
have the eyes or buds in a perfedl Hate, and be of a mid-
dling fize, as both thofe which are very large and very
fmall are objeftionable. This is the cafe with the potatoe
and fome other forts. In the latter, the plants fliould not
have too large growths, but be in a fine young Hate of ve-
getation, fo that they can be fet out with facihty, and
readily take root again, having their heads or upper parts,
for the produftion of the produce, wholly in an uninjured
condition. They fliould alfo be quite newly drawn up,
cut or flipped from the ilalks of the old plants, without any
fort of clubbing near the roots in thofe which are drawn.
Such as have rifen the moft quickly from the feed, are, in
general, the beft. They fhould none of them ever be kept
any great length of time after being drawn, before they are
re-planted. This is equally apphcable to the field and garden
kinds. See Seed, Set, and Sowing.

The produce in all the white or grain crops, which are
employed either for the purpofe of mealing or malting,
fliould conftantly be well ripened ; but where the ftraw is
to be made ufe of as cattle food, the crops are better to be
cut before they have reached the Hate of full maturity,
as this purpofe is thereby more completely anfwcred.
There is much lofs in the produce of molt forts of field
plant-crops, by taking them before they have formed their
bulbs or heads in a perfedl manner. But many of fuch
like produfts, in the garden,- are the beft and molt advan-
tageoudy taken in fuch impcrfeft flates, being tough, and
Coarfe when full grown, and without the necellary tender-
nefs. Others require to be cut or drawn early in order to
have the proper degrees of fweetnefs and flavour. The
fruit kind of produce is taken both before and when nearly
ripe, according to the ufes for which it is intended. Some
forts of vegetable produce are ufed quite in their green
ftate, as food ; while others are belt in a fomewhat more
advanced ftate: and others, again, in both thefe ftates.
And there are thofe which require to be well ripened,

QUA

and kept for fome length of tiirie before they are ufed in
this way.

All lorts of produce of the grafs-kiiid, are cut and ufed
to the molt benefit, when they are taken a little before they
become perfectly ripe, as they go the farliielt, whether they
are to be confumed in the green Hale, or in thv.t of hay.
This is equally the cafe with the more luxuriant artificial
forts, as with thofe of lefs growth, of the natural kind.
This is explained more fully in fpeaking of the differeiit
plants and crops individually, and in the article Hay J
which fee.

QUALO, in Geography, a town on the N.E. coalt of
Sumatra. N. lat. 2'-" 45'. E. long. 99" 40'.

QUALUGA, a town of Africa, 111 the country of Whi-
dali ; 18 miles N.W. of Sabi.

QUAM, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Dron-
theini ; 68 miles N. of Drontheim.

(^v AM dill fe bene gijferit, a claule frequent in letters pa-
tent, or grants of offices, to fecure them fo long as the
perfon they are granted to Ihall not be guilty of abufing
the fame.

Thus, e. gr. we find it in thofe given to the barons of the
exchequer : where it intimates, that they fliall hold the fame
as long as they Ihall behave themfelves well ; which is to be
reftrained to matters of their ofBces ; and fignifies no more
than the law would have implied, had the office been granted
exprcfsly for life. See Judge.

A grant therefore, with this claufe, is equivalent to a
grant for life.

QUAMASH, in Botany, a name given, by the North
American Indians, to a plant called Phalnnghtm Quamajh,
by Mr. Purlh, in his Flora, v. i. 226; who neverthelefs
mentions an irregularity m the petals, that might poffibly
eftablifh it as a new genus. See Phalangium.

This plant was obferved by governor Lewis, about the
upper part of the MilToiiri, near the Rocky-mountains, flow-
ering in June. The bulb is roundifli, tunieated. Stem none.
Leaves radical, few, long, and hnear, half an inch broad,
fmooth ; keeled underneath. Flower-Jlalk folitary, naked,
ereft, round, fmooth, unbranched, a foot or more in height,
terminating in a fp'ike, or rather clujler, of large, pale-blue
Jlowers, each accompanied by a linear, membranous, wither-
ing bradea, longer than the partial llalk. Petals lineaV-
lanceolate, nearly equal in length ; five of them afcending ;
the fixth deflexed.

The bulbs are carefully collefted by the natives, and
cooked between heated ftones, when they aflume the ap-
pearance of baked pears, and have an agreeable fweet tafte.
They form a great part of the winter ftores of thefe In-
dians. Though governor Lewis's party found them a plea-
fant fort of food, they could not be eaten, in any quantity,
without caufing bowel complaints.

QUAMOCLIT, an Indian name, retained by Plumier
and Tournefort as generic ; but by Linnreiis ufed only as
the fpecific appellation of a beautiful fpecies of IpomjEA ;
fee that article.

QUAMPEAGAN Falls, in Geography, falls in Ame-
rica at the head of the tide on Newichwanock river, which
joins Pifcataqua river, lo miles from the fea ; fo called by
the natives, becaufe filh were there taken with nets. At
thefe falls are a fet of faw -mills and others, and alfo a land-
ing-place, where great quantities of lumber are rafted. Here
the river has the Euglilh name of Salmon Falls river, from
the number of falmon caught there. On many places from
Quampeagan to the pond, from which it ilTues, there are
mills for boards and corn.

QUAM-TOM, a town of China, of the third rank,

in

QUA

in the province of Yim-nan ; 15 miles N.E. ofTchou-

hiong.

QUAN, a town of China, of the third rank, in Chan-
tong ; 22 miles W. of Tong-tchang.

QuAN, or Gimn, in Ornithohgy. See Pemelope Crijlata.
QUANAMORA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in
Upper Guinea, on the banks of the Scherbro', faid to
contain 5000 families. N. lat. 7° 45'. W. long. 10° 15'.

QUANDROS, a name given by writers of the middle
ages to a ftone to which they attribute great virtues, and
which, they fay, is found in the liead of a vulture.

QUANG-LING, in Geography, a town of China, of
the third rank, in Clian-fi ; 15 miles W.S.W. of Ouei.

QUANG-NING, a town of China, of the third rank,
in Quang-tong ; 35 miles N. of Tchao-king.

QUANG-PING, a city of China, of the firfl rank,
fituated in the northern part of the province of Pe-tche-li,
between the provinces of Chang-tong and Ho-nan, which
has nine towns of the third clafs dependent upon it. All
its plains are well watered by rivers. Among its temples,
one is dedicated to thofe men, who, as the Chinefe pretend,
difcovered the fecret of rendering themfelves immortal ;
212 miles S.S.W. of Peking. N. lat. 36^ 47'. E. long.
H4° 29'.

QUANG-PUNG, a town of China, of the third rank,
in Pe-tche-li ; 17 miles N.W. of Tay-ming.

QUANG-SI, a province of China, iituated between
thofe of Quang-tong, Hou-quang, Koei-tcheou, Yun-nan,
and the kingdom of Tong-king ; about 360 miles from
E. to W., and 230 from N. to S. In commerce, as well
as extent, it is not equal to that of the other provinces ;
and yet it fo abounds with rice, as to fupply, for fix months
in the year, the province of Quang-tong, without which the
inhabitants of this province could not fubfift. The moun-
tains with which it is covered, abound with mines of gold, fil-
▼er, copper, and tin, and in this province is a lingular kind
of tree, containing a foft pulp, which yields a fort of flour,
and of this flour they make a very good bread. Befides
parroquets, hedge-hogs, and the rhinoceros, wild animals,
curious birds, and uncommon infefts are found here in great
•number. This province contains twelve towns of the firft
clafs, and eighty of the fecond and third. Its capital is
Qilei-ling. Groflier's China, vol. i.

The population of this province is eftimated by fir George
Staunton at 10,000,000 ; its extent is faid to comprehend
78,250 fquare miles, or 50,080,000 acres. The revenue
transferred from it to the treafury at Peking, comprifing
land, fait, and taxes, is ftated at 500,000 tahels, or ounces
of (ilver.

QUANG-TCHANG, a town of China, of the third
rank, in the province of Chan-fi ; 28 miles S. of Ouei.

QUANG-TCHEOU, or Quang-chou-fou, a city of
China, of the firft; rank, in the province of Quang-tong,
ufually called by the Europeans Canton ; which fee.

QUANG-TONG, the moft conliderable of the fouth-
ern provinces of China ; bounded on the N.E. by Fokien,
on the N, by Kiang-fi, on the W. by Quang-fi, and the
kingdom of Tong-king ; the reft is waflied by the fea. The
country is diverfified with plains and mountains, and the
land is fo fertile that it produces two crops every year.
Trade and the fecundity of the foil fupply this province
■with every thing that can contribute to the pleafures of
life ; it fumilhes gold, precious ftones, filk, pearls, eagle-
wood, tin, quickfilver, fugar, copper, iron, fteel, faltpetre,
ebony, and abundance of arom.uic woods, which are much
valued, Befides European and Indian fruits, it produces
feveral that are peruliar to itfelf. All the toails abound

QUA

with fi(h, and furnifli great quantities of oyftcrs, crabs, and
tortoifes of an immenfe fize : of the ftiells of thcfe the
Chinefe make feveral pretty toys. Tame ducks are reared
in this province in great numbers : the Chinefe are induf-
trious in breeding them, and they hatch their eggs in ovent
or dunghills, tiiough they do not feem to have derived
this mode of breeding them from Egypt, wliere it is prac-
tifed. They carry them on barks in large flocks to feed
on the fea-lhore, where, at low water, they find (hrimps,
oyllers, and other kinds of ftiell-fifh. At the approach
of night they are collected together by only beating on a
bafin, upon which they immediately form themfelves into
different flocks, and each returns to the veflel to which it
belongs. The Chinefe have a method of faking their meat
without injuring its flavour, and they fait their eggs by
enclofmg them in a coat of clay mixed with fait. Thefe ■
faked eggs are faid to be very wholefome, and even fick
perfons are permitted to eat them. Although the climate of
this province is warm, the air is pure, and the people are
robuit and healthy. They are noted for their induftry,
and for a talent of imitation, which they poffefs in an emi-
nent degree. As this province is at a great diftance from
court, its government is one of the moll important, and it
is alfo one of the moll flourilhing in the empire. Its vice-
roy has alfo the command of Quang-fi, and refides at Chee-
king, for the convenience of expediting his orders to either
of thefe provinces. Tliis governor always has a number
of troops ready, properly polled, to check the incurCons
of robbers and pirates, who might otherwife interrupt and
injure trade : for the fame purpofe, a great number of for-
trelfes (moft of them being cities provided with numerous
garrifons) have been built along the coafts and in the
interior parts of the country. This province is divided
into 10 diftrifts, which contain 10 cities of the firft clafs,
and 84 of the fecond and third. Groflier.

The number of inhabitants, according to, fir George
Staunton's ellimate, is 21,000,000; its-area comprehends
79,456 fquare miles, or 50,851,840 acres. The revenue
remitted to the imperial treafury at Peking, and raifed
from land, fait, and taxes, amounts to 1,340,000 tahels,
or ounces of filver. The military force is faid to amount
to 50,000 men. Its capital is Canton ; which fee.

QUANG-YANG, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Quang-fi ; 30 miles S. of Tfuen.

QUANG-YUEN, a town of China, of the third rank,
in the province of Se-tchuen, feated on the Kialing ; 50
miles N. of Pao-king.

QUANNEFIORD, a bay on the W. coaft of Weft
Greenland. N. lat. 62° 10'. W. long. 48° 5'.

QU ANO, a town of Japan, on the illand of Niphon, on
the S. coaft, 70 miles E. of Meaco. N. lat. 35° 58'. E,
long. 136° 14'.

^UANTALLA, an ifland of Africa, at the mouth of
the Zaire, celebrated for a filver idol, to which the neigh-
bouring kings fend prefents and offer facrifices.

QUAN-TAO, a town of China, of the third rank, in
Chan-tong; 25 miles W.N. W. of Tong-tchang.

QUAN-TCHANG, a town of Cliina, in Chan-tong ;
13 miles N. of Po.

QUANTITE', Fr. This word in mufic, like profody,
does not fix the number of notes or of fyllables, but their
relative duration. Quantity produces the rhythm, as accent,
produces intonation. Rhythm and intonation generate me-
lody. Roufleau. See Melody.

QUANTITY, QuANTlTAS, any thing capable of efti-
mation or menfuration ; or, which being compared wth an-
other

Q II A

other thing of the fame kind, may be faid to be greater or
lefs than it ; equal, or unequal, to it.

Mathematics is the fcience or dodrine of quantity.
Quantrty is a general attribute, applied in a very different
manner to things of very different nature ; whence it is im-
poflible to give any univerfal definition of it.

Quantity is applied both to things and to modes ; and
this either fingularly to one ; or plurally, to feveral. In the
firlt cafe it is called i:uigmtude, in the latter multtluik.

Quantity may be reduced to four claffes ; viz.

Quantity, Moral, which depends on the manners of
men, and the free deterrnmation of their wills. As the
prices and value of things ; degrees nf dignity and power,
good and evil, merit and demerit, rewards and punifli-
ments, &c.

Ql^ANTiTV, Notional, arifing from the operation of the

underllanding only. Such as the largenels or narrownefs of

the capacity of the mind, and its conceptions. In Logic,

■ univerfals, predicaments, &c. In Grammar, the quantity

or meafure of fyllables, accents, tones, &c.

Quantity, Ph^fical, or Natural, which is of two kinds :
I. That which nature furnifhes us with in matter, and its
extenfion. And, 2. In the powers and properties of natu-
ral bodies : as gravity, motion, light, heat, cold, rarity,
denilty, &c.

Quantity, TranfcenJental, as duration, the continuation
of ajiy being, exiftence, time, &c.

Quantity is alfo popularly diftinguillied into continued
and difcrctc.

Quantity, Continued, or Continuous, is when the parts
are connefted together, and is commonly called magnitude.
This, again, is of two kinds ; either fucceffive, or improper,
as time.

Quantity, Difercte, is when the parts of which it con-
fifts exilt diftin&ly, and unconnefted together ; which makes
V>'hat we call number or multitude.

The notion of continued quantity, and its difference from
difcrete, appears to fome without foundation. Mr. Macliin
confiders all mathematical quantity, or that for which any
fymbol is put, as nothing elfe but numbfr, with regard to
i'ome meafure, which is confidered as one ; for that we can-
not know precifely how much any thing is, but by means
of number. The notion of continued quantity, without
regard to any meafure, is iiidiftinft and confufed ; and
though fome fpecics of fuch quantity, confidered piivficallv,
may be defcribed by motion, as lines by the miction of
points, and furfaces by the motion of lines ; yet the ma;;-ni-
tudcs, or mathematical quantities, are not made by tiie mo-
tion, but by numbering according to a meafure. Vide I'liil.
Tranf. N^447. p. 228.

Permanent quantity is farther diftinguifhable into length,
breadth, and depth.

Wolfius feems to give us a more precife notion of mathe-
matical quantity, and its two fpecies of difcrete and con-
tinued, hatever is referred to unity in the fame manner
as one right line to another, is what we call quantity ; or
number in general.

If, now, the thing be relerred to a given unit, aa 3, it
is called a determinate number ; it to unity in the general,
or at large, it is called a quantity ; which, on this principle,
is the fame with indeterminate numl)er.

Thus, e. gr. the breadth of a river is accounted a quan-
tity ; if, then, it be enquired how great it is ; to conceive
its quantity, we take fome unit at pleafure, and fee the re-
lation of the breadth to it ; and according to the different
unit affumed, we exprefs the breadth of tiie river in a dif-
ferent determinate number.

Vol. XXIX. ,

Q U A

The breadth of the river, therefore, is quantity confi-
dered as referred to a vague unit, or to unity at large ; but
tlie unit being determined, the thing is underftood by a de-
terminate number.

In this fenfe, algebra is the arithmetic of quantitie,. See
on the fubjed of quantity, Harris's Philofophical Arrange-
ments, chap. ix.

Quantity of yl a ion. See Action.
Quantity, Impojfdde, and Imaginary. See Root.
Quantity of Curvature at any point of a curve is deter-
mined by the circle of curvature at that point, and is reci-
procally proportional to its radius. Newton's Meth. of
Flux, and Inf. Series, p. 60. Maclaurin's Fluxions, b. i.
c. xi. See CuRVATURii and Evolujk.

Quantity of Motion, in Mechanics, is of two kinds ; viz.
of momentary motion, and of entire motion.

Quantity of entire motion. The Cartefians define the
entire motion as the momentary one, by the faftum of the
mafs, or quantity of matter, into the velocity ; but fince
motion is a fucceffivc being, and has no parts co-exilling toge-
ther, its quantity ought to be eflimated by the aggregate of
the feveral parts exilling fucceflively ; and is therefore equal
to the faftum of the momenta into the time.

Quantity of momentary motion is the faftum of the ve-
locity into the mafs ; or it is a meafure arifing from the
joint confideration of the quantity of matter, and the velo-
city of the motion of tlic body ; the motion of any whole
being the fum or aggregate of the motiorr m all its feveral
parts.

Hence, in a body twice as great as another, moved with
an equal velocity, the quantity of motion is double ; if the
velocity be double alfo, the quantity of the motion will be
quadruple. Hence, the quantity of momentary motion coin-
cides with what we call the momentum, or impetus of a
moving body. See Force.

In the collifion of bodies, the quantity of momentary mo-
tion, which is found by taking the fum of motions tending
the fame way, or their difference, if they tend towards con-
trary parts, is not at all changed by any actions of the bo-
dies on one another. See Percussion.

Quantity of Matter \n anybody, is the produdl of the
denlity into the bulk ; or a quantity arifing from the joint
confideration of its magnitude and denfity.

As, if a body be twice as denfe, and take up twice as
much lp:ice as another, it will be four times as great.

Tliis quantity of matter is the bell difcoverable by the
abfolute weiglit of bodies. See Matter.

Quantity, Infnite. See Infinite Quantity.

Quantities, in Algebra, are indeterminate numbers, or
things referred to unity in general. See Number.

Qi antities are properly the fubjcft of algebra ; which
is wliolly converfant in the computation of fuch quantities.

Given quantities are ufed to be noted by the firil letters
of the alphabet a, b, c, d, &c. the quantities fought by the
lall, =,j', .V, &c. See Characters.

Algebraical quantities are chiefly of two kinds ; pofttive,
and negative.

Quantities, Pofitive, or Affirmative, are thofe which are
greater than nothin;^, and wliich are affefted with the fign -|-
prefixed ; or fuppofed to be fo.

Qi:antities, Negative, or Privative, are thofe lefs than
nothing : which are affefted with the fign — prefixed.

Hence, i. Since -f is tiie fign of addition, and — the

fign of lubtraftion ; a pofitive quantity is produced by

adding any real quantity to nothing ; e. gr. o -)- 3 — 4- 3 ;

and o -[■ a = -^ a. And a privative quantity is produced

A a by

QUA

by fubtrafting any real quantity out of nothing ; e. gr.
o _ 2 = — 3 ) s"*^ ° — a ~ — a.

For an illuttration. Suppofe when you are quite defti-
tute of money, fomebody gives you a hundred pieces ; you
have then a hundred pieces more than nothing ; which pieces
conftitute a pofitive quantity.

On the contrary, fuppofe you have no money, yet owe a
hundred pieces ; you have then a hundred pieces Icfs than
nothing ; for you mull pay a hundred pieces to liave jult
notiiing. This debt is a negative quantity.

Thus in local motion, progrefs may be called a pofitive
quantity, and regrefs a negative one ; becaufe the firlt in-
creafes, and the fecond dimiaifhes the fpace pafied over.

And in geometry, if a line drawn towards any part be
accounted an affirmative quantity, another the contrary way
will be a negative one.

Privative or negative quantities, therefore, are equally
real with pofitive quantities, but oppofite to each other, fo
as to take away each otiier's effeft, in any operation, when
they are equal as to quantity. Thus 3 — 3 = 0, and

QUA

depends, in a material degree, upon a number of diflererrt:
circumftantes, fuch as thofe of tlie fituation, the nature and
quality of the foil, the period of fowing, the ftate of the
f-'afon, the manner of putting them into the earth, and fe-
veral others.

A great deal more feed, fets, and plants, are requifite
in late fituations or backward feafons, heavy, wet, ftiff
lands, and late fowings ; than where they are more forward,
more light and dry, and put in early. And far lefs quan-
tities made ufe of in the drill and dibble methods of put-
ting in the crops, than in that of the broadcaft, or by the
hand.

In moil forls of white, or grain crops, the quantities are
from two to live bufhels^i-r acre, being more in barley and
oats, than in thofe of the other kinds, as from three to five
in general.

In thofe of the pulfe kinds, ufually from fix or feven
pecks, to two, three and a half, and four bufliels, being
commonly the latter, or more, in fome forts of beans.

In thofe of the fmall feed defcription, as the buck-wheat

a = o.

However, though + a, and — a, arc equal as and turnip forts, from one to two and three pounds ; but in

to quantity, we do not fuppofe in algebra, that + a
becaufe to infer equality in tliis fcicnec, they muft not only
be equal as to quantity, but of the fame quality, that in
every operation the one may have the fame effeft as the
other. A negative quantity is faid to be lefs than nothing,
becaufe it is oppofite to the pofitive, and diminiflies it when
joined to it ; whereas the addition of o has no efFecl. But
a negative is to bo confidered no lefs as a real quantity than
a pofilive. Quantities that have no fign prefixed to them
are underflood to be pofitive. See Negative Sign.

Quantities, commenfurabh, compound, exponential, hi-te-

the cabbage kind, only from fix ounces to half a pound,
and a quarter or half a peck.

In the tap-rooted crops, as the carrot, parfnip, manglc-
wurzel, &c. from two to five pounds, and fometimes fix.
In lettuce crops, in the field, from three to four pounds the
acre.

In different forts of plantation crops, as thofe of hemp,
flax, woad, weld, teafel, iic. from two to three up to five
or fix bufliels, in the three firll ; but only from two to four
quarts, and from one to two pecks, in the two laft.

The fcls in the hop, madder, liquorice, and lavender kinds.

rogeneous, Uhe, rational, fimpk, tranjcendental, and variable.- are from fix to feven hundred, and a thoufand or more.

See the adjeiflives.

Quantities, /Iddition of. l. If the quantities denoted
by the fame letter be affefted with the fame fign, the num-
bers prefixed to them are added as in common arithmetic.

. 2. If they be affefted with different figns, the addition is
changed into fubtraftion ; and to the remainder is prefixed
the fign of the greater.

3. Quantities denoted by different letters, are added by
means of the fign -f- ; as in the following example :

Sd-g a- b

^d-^g t

^a + 2 b — 2 c —
^a — 2b + 6c Jr

b + .

See Addition.

Quantities, SiibiraHion of. See Subtraction.

Quantities, Mnlliplication and Divifton of. See Mul-
tiplication, and D. VISION'.

Quantities, Combination of. See Combination.

1. If a pofitive quantity be multiplied or divided by an-
other pofitive quantity, the refult is alfo a pofitive quantity.

2. If a negative quantity be muhiplied or divided by a
pofitive, the refult is a negative.

3. If a negative quantity be multiplied or divided by an-
other negative, the refult is a pofitive.

4. If a pofitive quantity be multiplied or divided by a ne-
gative, the refult is a negative quantity. See Multiplra-
TlON, in yllgebra.

Quantity of a Degree. See Degree.
■ Quantity of an Ec'tipf. See Eclipse.

Quantities of Seed, Sets, and Plants, in Agriculture,
the proportions of each, which are neceflary for raifin;r
good crops of the difTennt kinds. The afcertaining of the
moll ufeful and beneficial quantities, in the feveral cafes,

in the firll, and two lail ; but in the madder from fifteen
to twenty thoufand per acre. In the cabbage fort, from
eight hundred to a thoufand and more plants or fets to the
acre. And in the potatoe the quantity of fets vary from
eight to twenty or more bufhels to the acre, according to
the foil and manner of their being put into the ground.

The quantities of natural grafs feeds which are generally
employed upon the acre, are from two to four bufhels and
upwards. And thofe of the artificial grafs kinds, in the
clovers from ten to eighteen pounds ; in faintfoin from three
to four bufhels ; in lucern from fixteen to eighteen pounds ;
tares from two to three bufhels ; trefoil, three pottles of
cleaned feed, or two bufhels of the uncleaned fort. And
in chicory from eight to twelve pounds. See Seed, Set,
Plant, and Sowing.

The fubjeil is more fully explained in fpeaking of the
culture of the different forti of crops, and the moll fuitable
quantities under different circumflances put down.

Quantity, in Grammar, denotes the meafure and
magnitude of the fyllables ; or that which determines them
to be called long, or fhort ; or, it is the meafure of time
requifite for the diltinft pronunciation of a fyllable.

This quantity is the objeft of profody ; and it is the re-
gard to this that dittinguifhes verfe from profe.

The economy and arrangement of the quantities, i. e. the
diflribution of long and fhort fyllables, make what we call
the number.

The quantities are ufed to be diflinguifhed among gram-
marians by the charafters fhort and long.

The proportion between the long and fhort fyllablf s may
be generally fixed the fame as that between the crotchet and
quaver in mufic ; viz. as two to one. See Time.

Syllables are long or fhort, either by their nature, or by

accident j that is, on account of the place where they are

7 put

QUANTITY.

■put and the letters that follow them, which is called pofi-
tion.

In moft laiip-uages, there are fome fyllablcs whofe quan-
tities vary, as the meafure requires, which are called com-
mon ; as in the Engliih record and record.

Some authors confound the quantity with the accent ; but
the difference is very evident ; the former being the length
or fhortncfs of a fyllable, the latter the raifing or falling of
the voice.

From two quantities, viz. long and (hort fyllables, arife
all the varieties of poetic feet, which are very great. Ho-
race alone ufes no lefs than twenty -eight. Yet the Greeks
went vallly beyond the Romans in this rcfpeft. In effeft,
as many ways as two quantities may be varied by compofi-
tion and tranfpofition, from two to fix fyllablcs, fo many
different feet have the Greek poets contrived, and that under
diftinft names, to the number of 124. Though it is the
opinion of fome of the learned, that poetical numbers may
be iufhciently explained from the feet of two or three fylla-
bles, into which the rcfl may he refolved.

The feet, formed bv the ancients of the long and (hort
fyllables immediately, are the fpondee, confdling of two long
fyllables ; the pyrrhic, of two fliort ones ; the trochee, of
a h)ng and fhort fyllablt ; and the iambic, of a fhort and
long fyllable.

'I'hofe of three fyllables are the moloffiis, confifting of
three long fyllables ; the tribrach, of three fhort ones ; the
dadyl, of one long and two fhort fyllables ; and the anapeji,
of two fliort and one long fyllable.

The Englifh tongue admits of no feet above two fylla-
blcs, though both the Latin and Greek allow of fix.

Our heroic verfes conCll of five long and five fhort fyl-
lables intermixed alternately ; though not fo (Iriftly but
that the order may be difpenfed with. Dryden varies them
with admirable beauty ; frequently his heroic verfe begins
with a long fyllable followed by two (hort ones.

The truth is, the quantity of the fyllables is but little
fixed in the modern tongues ; and there is ftill lefs regard
had to it in the compofition of modern verfes. The want
of feet, or rather the fliortnefs and uniformity of our feet,
makes great difference between the numbers of the ancient
and modern verfe. Our poets are fettered ; and their fetters
are fo fhort, confifting of but two poor links, that it is no
wonder they can make no extraordinary motions.

The ancients fubfifled by their quantities alone ; fo well
were they diflinguifhed, and fuch a variety and harmony did
they afford ! Our quantities make fuch poor mufic, that
we are forced to call in the Gothic aid of rhyme to diltin-
guifh our verfe from profe.

Yet have attempts been made to fettle our verfe on the
ancient and natural footing of quantities, in exclufion of
rhyme, and vi-ith fuch fuccefs too (witnefs the immortal
Paradife Loft) as feems ta leave the praftice of rhyming
inexcufable. The French have likewife attempted the faijie
in their tongue, particularly Jodelet, and after liiin Pafquier,
' Pafferat, and Rapin ; but they have all failed.

On Qiiantity in the Greek Language.
Rules for the determination of quantity in the Greek
language, chiefly relate to the doubtful vowels a, 1, v, fince
E, 0, are, by nature, or not affefted by />o/?/ioff, fhort ; and r,, oj,
. are, by nature, or not affefted by pofition, long.
Pofition.
I. A fyllablp in which a (hort or doubtful vowel precedes
two confonants or a double letter, is long in every fituation ;
as tiiiT, 3e xXayyr, ixird^ ejus Zei);> xara f^ivx, rarfij, ilKtoii.

Horn.

r. Except that aJJ^ort vowel before two confonaiit?,
whereof theformcr is a mute and the latter a liquiel, is
common ; as

'AXK imXixl^ov im, d-teov cxk1vtc-j xarajaxvi'. Hom.
Pa.'T^ci.x. V. 45.

MJTjx ^iicjxi SsoKTi, TO ya^ //.Vtjov (ri> ajirov. Phocyl.
V. 92.

Note. — I. In pafloril, elegiac, and epigrammatic verfe, tl.c fyllable
is more I'requenily (hort.

Z. In diamatic poetry we may obferve, ift, that a (hort vowel liefore
Ajhort or ajpiratc mute followed by a liquid, and before a middle
mute followed bv {, remjin-- (Imrt. In tragedy the fyllable, if not
linnl, is often long. 2dly A (Inort vowel before a wiitdlc mute
followed by X, /i, or v, lengthens the lyllablc in all drani.itic poetry.

3. When the fyllable i- length'-ned b fore two confon,iiits, ilie vowel
in pronunciation 'alfumes one of them; as 5ex-Xay7s), ifietr-Ail;^
Karxp-^ivxy Tyr-^c^j rcK-^ev. Hom When tlie fyllable remains
{hort the vnwel concludes it ; as -rv-r^gs, rt-Kvov.

2. A (hort vowel is fometimes made long before a fingle
confonant, particularly before a liquid, as 7ro>.Aa Xtcro-o;x£v^,
Hom. ; wKfa p'ny^uVn, Hom.

Note — k is generally long before f, vi-liich with its afpir.-te appears
to have been doubled in pronunciation ; .is •jret^ffffnyfiii't. This
licence is not confined to a liquid ; as iTit^hy o<P'v. .ic Hom.

3. A fhort fyllable is often made long when the next word
begins with a digammated vowel, as 0, o^, for foi. Hom.
MfAajo; o'itoio for Fnmtc. Hom. 'Ouil ovi for Fnu-:. Horn.

4. When three (hort fyllables come together, it is necef-
fary, on account of the meafure in heroic verfe, that one
fhould be made long ; as aflsaTo-, nfixixi^'r)-.

Note. — This takes place even where the three fyllables are in dif-
ferent words; a5 itu fttv, Horn.; }^ua; t^Vfza, Hef

5. A vowel before another does not fuffer elifion, as in
Latin, at the end of a word, unlefs an apoftrophe is fub-
flituted.

Note. — The elifion of diplithongs takes place in verbs only : real in-
fiances of this are to be found only in the fr.ignients of the new
comedy.

6. A long vowel, or a diphthong, is generally fhortened
at the end, and fometimes at the beginning, of a word,
before a vowel ; as oiVw ev, Hom. ; iroiii, Soph. ; 4 I^m
ujjil:, Theocr.

Note. — A long vowel, or a diphthong, may be confidered as confifting
of two lliort vowels. If the latter is fuppofed to fuffer elifiou, tlis
former will of courfe remain (hort; as o'Uo Iv.

Crajis, or Contradion.

7. A contrafted fyllable is always long ; as o^ifj, ojl; ;

l:^0:, 'i^ijC.

8. Two fuccefTive vowels, forming two fyllables, even in
different words, frequently coalefce m poetry ; thus 6tos be-
comes a monofyllable, ic^vrij! a diffyllable, and in » xdQ'.T'f
n ovK hmTit, Horn. ; ri ovk are pronounced as one fyllable.

Compofition and Derivation.

g. Compound and derivative words follow the quantity of
their primitives ; as 'a,^'^^oi from xi^-ir, ^vyn from 'iffvyot; lixai-
from fivn,

fjote, — Grammarians have fometimes complained that " non feinpcr
huic reguls fidendum." But Dr. S. Clarke alh'rms; — " Deriva'i
pro eo, a qua parte fluant penultimam fimiliter \el perpet^o corri-
piunt, vel peipctuo producunt. Latini habent Ic-go, Isgi, quafi con-
traci^tum eK loli^gi. Similiter sfideo, sr-di,indeque sC-des,sedile. Coii-
fimili quadam ratione, apud Orsecos fit. Verba ninurum inuumera
funt, qu^ in prsfentibus et imperfc(^lis omnibus et in aorillrs pri-
mis, aCtivis et mediis, femper producantur ; in futuris autem er
auriftis lecundis omnibus, temper corripianiur ; ut ^I'w, ?^a«*a»,
E^jjya; ^stvwj i^ivov^ E^owc'/inv, indeque ^affii, ^angoj. Sec. K^ivu,
ix^tyov, ixgivflt ; x^'ivM, indeque x^^/y, xelrig, y.a'iTr.s, &c.

A a 2 .Accordiup

QUANTITY.

According to tlie lime analogy, fiu^rj^oiiiti, 'i/ia^rH^a/ivt, and
IfcKfTupa/irt, always lengthen the antepenultimate; as in Eurlp,
Med. 22. 619. 1410 ; Aiiltoph. Acharn 916. Nub 495, &c. thouth
fiupTvoovf^xi, and its derivative ^u^tv^ia/y Ihorten that fyllable ; as
in Ariltoph. Eccl.557, Sophod. Antigon. 525. In the iame niaiw
Mer, xij^bt fut Kij^Uy gives rife to kjj^hs und K^^iu, &c.

10. A, privative, is (hort, as ariuo-: ; but long in iSavaio-.
li.'Afi, f{i, 0fi, Svi, i^'j., in compolition, are fhort ; as

Of the Increments of Nouns and jliljeHives.

12. The penultimate increafe, A, of nouns and atljeftives

is ftiort ; as a-Ufiecro;.

1. Except nouns in «>-avo? ; as tit«v, riTavo,.

2. And the Doric genitive ; as At^u^xo, jj^vs-Hat for

3. Alfo, >!sV-'' ''■fS«"> 5 ";"*-' ■(?''■'''"■ i ■J'^p) J'K?^; ;

^iiaKo;, are long.

13. The penultimate increafe, I, of nouns and adjectives,
is Ihort ; as iji?, sf A,-.

1. Except in words of two terminations; as JeX?;-/,

2. And monofyllables ; as 6U,6"hi but A!-, Aw,-;
%'?> ■'■?''X<'> 5 <'"''?» <'"'''X^? ; '■'?> ""Of, yrc fliort.

3. Alfo nouns making tea: or i9o; ; as xvruif, k»!/*vJo:;

4. Nouns in if, >yo?, or ixov ; ao /xKo-rtl, jj-eiallyo; ; ijoivt J,
CoivTHo;,

5. Monofyllables in i4-, i~o; ; as Sji^-j S^W'^"-

14. The penultimate increafe, T, of nouns and adjeftivcs,
is (hort ; as ^Jj, m^o:.

1. Except iu words of two terminations ; as ft'{>.i/»
and ipi^iiu;, with nri^v\, n»i';iixc>-,

2. rfi/4/, yjfTTos ; yj-l-, yvirii ; Psofi/f, ^noft/y.oc; are
common.

Increment of Verbs.

15. The quantity of all tenfes generally remains the fame,
as in the tenfe from which they are formed ; as from xclvoi
are formed Expivov, xolvo^ai, £xoi»-j/x»;v ; from KpIvS are formed
X:xoVxa, xEx^V/xai, EX^tOwv.

16. The perfea follows the quantity of the firft; future ;
as f^vw^ Ci'T-^i •:n^ij-'f.a,,

17. Verbs in tti', except Tr.'^rli,-, p'lVli', and thofe in xizlv,
fhorten the penultima of the perfeft.

18. In the Attic reduplication the penultima is fhort ; as

19. The />erfea middle follows the quantity of the fecond
aoriil : as 'inrtov, rizt-x ; except $tl?fAa, i'j^r/a, xfxjayo:,
xexflya, jxiy-vv^x, ^jT^aya, ^E^plxa, Ttr^iya.

20. The doubtful vowels before o-i are long ; as TiTuSdirt,

21. In the^r/I aorijl participle, a^x. is long.

22. In the Imperative of verbs in p.i, v is (hort in polyfylla-
lables ; as x-xXuSj, but long in diffyllables, as x\y9i.

23. In ihefirfl future, a, 1, and i; followed by o-d, are (hort ;
as &a*jy.a^w, Qau/^ac-w ; voui(^Lt, tc^'i^dj ; xAu^tt-, xXutrw.

24. But 0.3-0) is long before from verbs in au preceded by
a vowel, or m sc/.w, as Ofaw, Siao-w ; ^^a'l;, J^ac-i'. I<7ai and t/s-a
are long from verbs in 10 p ure ; as tj 1 , tio-oi ; iV;\;t!(D, »cr;(,uc-»i.

r^r Quantity of doubtful Vozuels in the Firfl or Middle
Syllables.

25. A, ;, V, before vowelf, arc generally (hort ; as 'Hv"ox°'

1. Except A, the penultimate of nouns io tim in'
creafing by 0, and feminine proper names in aiV, are
long ; as Map^awv, ©»*c. Alfo in a*^, *a>)f, x^ccec:, >.aor,
5^«o,-, waof : likewife the antepenultimate of "oTaTc.-,
a/.fccavlocy *aic"ff**, 'Axai'x^?, 'Ai^vic, 'Aw'^Trr, ^lao^at, /irt-
yiaoc, &C.

2. I, the penultimate of nouns in Im, o«;, is long,
(except comparatives) ; as ,5fa;jitt>, 'il(tm. Alfo m
Xf(C?, xia^w, 'iao^ai, 'tt^^w, 'iw;^/>o,-, -zna^^iui^i',, ttV.^i:. -But

the penultimate of nouns in »« are accounted common ;
as i7ii^m, xixX>x. Likewife 1 is faid to be common i»
thefe : Ixtvu;, 'Ufji.ai, *e^&;, C^i«i, S^iov, Xtav, ^viov, o/tt',

3. Y is long in hCuf vta^, lyvv*:, ^avO.'i:, jj^vw^j •:?/.%-
Tt'Ct^:^', :7£70', xuav;?:'.

26. A, I, f, before final /xk in neuter nouns, are long j
as ^sajLta, ^nvi/xK, ;^L'y.a.

Except ■/.y.tfj.x, K^ijjia., !fu;/.a, v:\tii^a, which fometimes
fliorten the penultimate.

27. A before /3, 7, i', ?, x, a, /*, », tt, j, a, t, f, j;,
IS moitly (hort ; as «.A>iJC. xax^r a^iHf x^aTE|c» o* iwi f^v^ov
fTSAAi. Hnm. II. a. 25.

1. Except polyfyllables in arof, if j era vowel goes
before ; as a.>ixioi, A^aTo;, an-Xaro; : except sfaTO.-.
Likewife nouns in kt»;, whether gentiles proper, or
the names of ftones, are ufually long ; as 'Aa-Kz-nr,
dx^r-n-, 'Ev^^drx;, Vxyt-.-r,;, &c. Alfo numerals in
a.K'xrto;.

2. A is alfo long in 'xSaM, "dyr,, a^oXso^o;, "ayunt,
Vxyiriof, 'Axi', KAOST/vr, 'apafaxof, 'An?, 'Airjti', driver,
aT£, Koc^r,^, cdyv^f Scc>Q^) Aa^uoiTaf, Ad^u-j, ad-At:, 3id-
xoo;, d\a^;X:t?*i, o^drTiTr.c, ^ctTE^of, ^id'^v^, 'Jdtru^Vj 'led*
yc^yU, xai'atoivof, xa^*;, xa^C;, y.},dco^j xca?ttuof, xc'caXo?,
K^avtov, x^avci', xgarr^, xiaxo;, 7.doa:vy Xd^or, vdvcc, rdrrVf
tdTTiix, 'Ofi^dXr,, -izdn^w, ■arET^axiij, f*5i|, <ra:r!fJ))?, cvd-
^ij, £tii;h^i»Xc;, o-^jayi;, tkXi;, Tid^a, i^dmi, <i>dXana,
(^dio;, ^XtaoO;-, -^d^':, a'^axiaw, adfx^y 'Avctirof, 2a^o«-
va^aXo;*.

3. A is common in xfjixx, "A^n;, xx^aSoc, lavof, xaXor,
xja;)^!/;. More frequently (hort in 'aXac?, '£?.ifjxx,
"ctfircv, prandium, 'ara/Ao;, /JaXtra/zOJ', daTTEdoy, Zaxfvicf,
vaysTyiij, vai;:4yioy, 'iccfoCf to'tt*:?, a^aXa^vo; : aud more
frequently long in '«;?., Saxo;, ^ijo-:.

4. In the nominative, a in 'AtoXAuv is fhort ; in
other cafes, common. 'Avn^ in the nominative is com-
mon, in other cafes long.

28. I before /3, y, o, S, x, X, p, v, w, c-, r, <f, Xf is
(hort. But 1 before or after f is moftly long ; as BfQv,
LtEya, fi^ba^cv, Tij accfxyr,:Ti a"TT';^a? avc^wv. rlom. 11. £. J^O.

■ I. Except nouns in Im, Jxn, Jrr, iTur, »to?, whicli
generally have their penultimate long ; as fc", Aw,
'A^jO^Jr*;, 0£^c-i7>;--, adJi^iVcc.

2. Alfo 1 is long in thefe : 'Ay;tioTif, 'Aiyua, ay'ulu^
KXlvaxJif, stxoviTOv, afjivljoc, ap^ico,-, Atow, di^au, lyiT*.
'EviTr:'.'.-, Jc-i,-, "iJd, "jJo;, 't9i/?, 'Ixa^of, (Xu, »Xiy|, IXio«,
'jXUi, "lAis-co;, 'ifif^O;-, 'ivt'ciy, 'Ivoj, 'Iva^of, 'I(pi7of, i'?6l/xOf,
tX^^> Kk^Tvoj, xlxajitov, xixi;i, xI;^o§oy, xXitavoj, xXI/Lxa^,
x?.7t:,-, xv(^)i, x»Ito;, xovJs-aXor, xovJXk, xoxXce^Tvo;, xujt.Iyoi',
X't^o'y fjiafi^:t, Mio^Iyavoy, ivag9EV07r»5nic, «jEd*Xo7, TO*tfa^,
CvT^uw, itIXew, TTJtra, traTlyov, trEXIvov, <r*yr, SIcwy, XiXrvcf,
<r7ot<jU,G^5iov, trjcru^o?, crl^o;, a-l^u-j, (TXiTuy, o-/-(iX»), o"^»Xa|,
(TTi^w, (TtI^O;, Tily^o?, Tibyg»f, riOwvGf, rifjMU, TiTay, Ti^'Jf,
ipjfio?, ?'ii!i'f, ^Jti'd, ;^aXiK)j, ;^;!Xidiiy, X''^'""> JC''^"?' X^**"'
4- iXOi'.

3. But i in thefe is common : 'Ai£r;^tyr,f, tCJyi-, ixtXofj
ixfT}}f, tx^ya;, 'f'^f) xfyfO', y.o^ivoi, xcTiyO;, Xt7of9 ^t/^*^^*

5 'firtyaf.

QUANTITY.

toivaf, o-t^ji, (fi^oc; and fomctimes in Xifai, Safinor, Xi-

4. Though J before and after 5 is generally long,
yet in the compounds and derivatives of r^a it is fliort,
Tfira*f>,- excepted. It is alio (hort in i^i^'o.:, SjtSaf,

KffVOV, XflO-Jf, XJIT115, XflTSi", '7^1&o;,. 9{'|) "^^'X"-' With

their compounds. And in materials in im; ; as xeJ^ivo;,

j-ti/^jivo.-. Sec.
29. T before (z, i, 9, x, ?., v, •et, f, t, <^, is fliort; but
before y, y., o-, ;)c, moilly long : as 'Y/iJp; /^ajTujoi soTE, f I'-
■■cttrrcTE 5' o»xio6 TTtT-vci. Hom. II. y. 380.

1. Except verbals in utth^, vrm, vro:, uth'^, arc long;
as AiTJif, f^wnln,-, xi'i-.KTOi-, ftJ™^ : except a few in uto{
fometimcs fliort. Difl^yllables in -jXr,, mr, un-;, are long;
except jx.vXfi, yvn, ■aXiJvo:. Adverbs in u^av are long ;
as /SoTftiJo», •cjjrfoy, except ^u^of.

2. Thcfe alfo havei/ long: 'Afi'tJ^oj, ayKv^u., «X<;xtif>ic,

^T^vooct Ky.^iJ}iVf xeXu^oCj Kivouvos, xoy^^uXiov, Ko^xu^a, xo-

oLiXi--, ;i0Xj^a> Xt/^iSfl XcC^VeOV, XlTTVOOVy AuoO?, XU^I, ^V't.OC-

4/x.Ki, fiujai»», jy,ii;s;j plJjioi, /wXiaw, oXufK, dicffJO!, onyvp-t

o-jj-iyl, a-^Z^^, no'.vc, tu^o;, cguTaw, litjoj, %uXo;, ;^£Xuvii.

3. But K in thefe is common : (SoSuvo;-, /JuSof, x^xju-
faXo;-, WKim^o.;, (-'ut!-:, cnfvin, TVKot, afovlvXiio-;, -rofuvJi,
7ju.fai', TV;-oEif> loi'f ; and fometimes m ■yiJ'Aio:, y.o^un,

4. Though u, before 7, /,-., cr, x> is generally long ;
yet it is fhort in the terminations vf/oi and vfxa-v ; as in
v^vj^n;, Jia(rii'f/i.v ; and alfo in ivo't;, ^uio;, "R}.Saio;, 5i/-
^aXi,, CUj'y-ovj xu^ivov, Xyyoi', Aua"i^, ^cc^ixa^vyVf fJ-^X^^-y
wj^iaro,, T>iirc7io;, t^iz/I!, ;^;uo-ii ; and u is often fliort in
Syff-aTOf, '\j^r,v, (pvcrti, and Si^^Krnp.

i^/«a/ Syllables.
30. A, I, V, final are fliort : as jxaa^, ziTv(p^., ux, Wztot^ ;

1. Except nouns in ^V, 9a, pa, sa, »a, and polyfyl-
lables in aiu. ; as xtpatK ; with suAaxa. Aia, i'a, p*ji,
ToTvia, however, are fliort. So are oiyyiv^a, axa»6^,
yfi^u^a, Ke^xi^^cT, oAu^a, (rxoA&TTEi'd^a, cr-^u^a, Tavay^a ;
compounds of /xstji-, as yiwfiit^ct ; fci preceded by a
diphthong, as vti^a ; except d'v^x, Aa't/^x, iiXiv^c.',

2. Duals of the firft; declenfion ; as /xcuVrf.

3. Adjeftives in a. pure, and ^a from mafciilines in
oc ; as dtxaja, >)^£Tf^a.

4. Nouns in sia from eui. ; as oonAEi'ii from JouAtiJa;.

5. Oxytons of the firft; declenfion ; as x^?"-

6. Accufatives in a. from nouns in vj;, in the Attic
dialect.

7. Vocatives from proper names in «;, as A»«ia,
n«AA«.

8. The Doric a, as a Tray a, for rj T»yr, /Sofs* for

9. Adverbs in ti as ufually long ; in ij-i, fliort ; as

«vi()'^iJT(, EAAEVir*.

10. Tu Doric for av is long; and adverbs in \j, as
ft£Ta|u : but dmx^v is common.

11. The names of letters; as Jr, /^il ; to which add

12. The paragoge in pronouns and adverbs ; as
iiiToa-l, »yvi ; except the dative plural ; as aoTa-t.

13. The Attic 1 for a, t, or t/ ; as rauxl for ravja,
ojI for oOe, TouTi for toDto.

14. The imperfeft and fecond aorifl of verbs in u^i,
as i<pv.

ji. A., .V, L., final are fliort ; as ^:,, Z 'Aii, ; w«a», trVv »

tri/y.

1. Except that a* is long in circumflexed words,
and in oxytons mafculine ; as to«i., r«a«.

2. Thefe adverbs, «y«v, JWv, xi^,,, ^.' . 3,,^ j,,^
accufative of the firtt declenfion, whofe nominative is
long ; as Aivsi'av, ^,xlx<i.

3. I» is long in words of two terminations ; as JiAg:,
and SiX(pl;. *■

4. 'H^,> and i^ii. whfn circumflexed : t!v Doric for
a-ol, Xlf\ii is fometimes long in Homer.

5. Nouns in iv, <vc,c, as pno/- '1, lengthen iv final.

6. Tv is long in words of two terminations ; as ziew/
and pi^Kv:.

7. Accufati.'es from uc long; as oif^Jv, with vDv;
though lu, the enclitic is fliort ; as io( vv.:

8- The imperfedt and fecond aonll of verbs in l^i ;

as EdEiXVUU, e'^I/v.

32. Af final is fhort, uj final long; as Nect^j, aura^;

Except that yaj and at/Ta» are fometimes long m
Homer.

33. Af, <;, t/;, final are fliort ; as Axpra,-, fisys?,-, woAfe, ^;,

1. Except that «; is long in the nominatives of
participles; asTuJ-aj: in all cafes of the firft declenfion ;
as 'AivEidf, taf^i'j.:, $iAiV„, pouVxf, except the Doric
accufative ; as v^iuCa,- ; in plural accufatives in c„- from
the long a in the accufative lingular of nouns ; in sui ;
and in nouns in a,-y.yn.^ ; as AiV.- ; with txAc.;.

2. Alfo »j is long in words of two terminations; as
h\<p\i and hX'iU ; in nouns in >; increafing long ; as
x.njj,\c, o^n--, X14, &c.

3. And us is long in words of two terminations ; as
i^ofxuv and f o^xui- ; in monofyllables, as />.D;, with xnl/zi/j ;
oxytons making the genitive in 0; pure ; as ttxM; :
iX^ui is common. And in verbs in t/u» ; as e'^eixh;-,
&c.

On Quantity in the Latin Language.

As the profody of the Latin language is confidered to
form an eflential part of a claflical education, we fhall,
therefore, devote the more peculiar attention to this part of
the fubjeft. In the courfe of wliich fome rules will be given
on the quantity of fyllables ufually faid to be long or fhort
by authority ; which, we believe, have never yet been col-
ledted by any writer, ancient or modern. Perhaps, there-
fore, in particular for this, and for fuch other reafons as the ■
candour of impartial difccrnment fhall difcover, ^-e fhall
not incur the cenfure of having been too fanguine, fhould
we have indulged the hope of being enabled to offer the
moft complete fyftem on Latin profody that has hitherto
been prcfentod to the pubHc.

General Rules.

A Vowel before a Vowel.

I. One vov/el preceding another, in the fame word, is
fliort ; as piier, egregise.

O Melibxe, DSus nobis ha;c otin fecit. Virg.

2. The fame happens, though an h intervene ; as nihil,
ahenus, dehifco.

De nViito n'lhil^ in nthihrni nil pofle reverti. Perf.

Nate. — tl is generally confidered only as a note of afpiration or
breathing: though fome ancient granmiarians confidered H as a
confonant, and ranked it with ^he femi-vowels. See Terentiauus
Maurus, de fyll. Jli.

I. Except

QUANTITY.

1. Except the / of fio is long, when it is not fol-
lowed by e and r ; as flam, fiebam, flat.

Omnia jam /'(.'iK, /'icr' 4"* ^oU'm nggabam. Ovid.

2. The c of the genitive and dative of tiie fifth de-
clcnfion, wlicn it comes between double /', is long ; as
faciei ; but it is fliort in ipei, and long and (hort in
rei and fidei.

Ventum erat ad Veftjc quarta jam parte diet. Hor.

Extingiie flanimas; neve te iirxjpci. Seneca.

Ipfius rci rationem rcdderc poiri.s. Lucret. *

Curta: neicio quid iemper ai)eft rei. Hor.

lite vir hand magna cum re, led plenu\/t(/r/. Enn.

Unum peitus liabent, /iVie/yHC immobile vinclum. Manil.

* Lucretius furninie-s five examples of rsi ; Plautus two. Thefe cafes
appear to have been anciently written both e-i and ei-i, which accounts
for the variation in quantity.

3. Genitives in ins have the i long in profe, though
in poetry it is common : as unius or unius, illius or
illTiis : except the i of alTiis, which (formed by crafis
from aliius) is always long, and the z of alterlus, moftly
ihoi-t.

Navibus, infandum ! amifTis, unius ob iram. Virg,

l'arf4ue meje pajnic totius inftar erit. Ovid.

Tu potes alterlus Itudiis hsrere Minerva;. Claud.

Mox dum altt^rms* obligurrias bfna. Enn.

* Alterius i.s three times long in Terentianus ; de fyllab. 1071, de
metr. ^l; and 464.

4. The penultimate is long m auraV, aulaV, and other
antique genitives of the firft declenfion, and in fiich vo-
catives as Pompei, Ca'i ; becaufe thefe were originally
written with a double / ; thus, Pompeii, Caii.

-tthereum fenfum, atque aurai fimplicis ignem. Virg.

Accipe Pompei, deduitum carmen ab iUo. Ovid.

5. In ohe, in io (whether interjeftion or proper
name), and in Diana, the firll fyllable is common.

Ohc ! jam fatis eft, ohe^ libelle ! Mart.

Rurfus, io, magnos clamat tiLi Roma triumphos. Mart.

Ouaque ferebatur duc^or Sidonius, 10. — Conclamant. Sil. Ital.

/i, verfa caput, primos mugiverat annos. Propert.

Qu2 tibi caufa fug^ ? quid Io freta longa pererras ? Ovid.

Experta eft numen moriens utriuique D'ioike. Mart.

Juno, Vefta, Ceres, Diana, Minerva, Venus, Mars. Enn.

6. Aer, Dlus, eheu, have the firft fyllable long.

Proxinius eft Her illi levitate, locoque. Ovid.

Italides : quas ipla decus fibi dia Camilla. Virg.

JBheu, quid volui mil'ero mihi .' florihus Auftrum, Sec. Virg.

7. In many Greek words a vowel is long, though
immediately followed by another: as Achiia, Aclie-
lous, Laertes, Laodice, and other words compounded
with Xaof ; Lat5us, Enyo, Panchai'a, Threicius, Tay-
getus, Troas, Troius, Galatia, &c.

Erubuit Mavors, averfaque rifit Enijo. Claud.

8. Thofe words which are written in Greek with
the diphthong ii, and in Latin with a fingle e or /, have
that e or / long ; as ^neas, Mufeum, Darius, Thalia,
Clio, ElegTa, Oreades, &c.

Et;»f;nficea potens, et ThelTala centanrea. Lucan.

9. Moft adjeftives in eus, formed from Greek proper
names, have the e long ; and it continues fo, when
refolved into ei.

Oppida femoto Pelopeia marte vigerent. Claud.

Note. — I. Thofe which contain a choree ('') in the two fyllables
immediately preceding the penultimate, were more frequently
formed, for the convenience of furnitliing a dai^tyl, with the penul-
timate (hort ; as Hed>Oreus, NeftOreus, AgenOrCus, AntenOreus,
&c.

2. In imitation of the Greeks, we fee in Statius, the Jidjeflive
Tiberelus.

10. Names of towns, temples, or monuments ia ea,

ia, or cum, formed in tiie Greek manner, from the pro-
per names of perfons, mull commonly have the penul-
timate long ; as Laodlcea, Apamea, Cxfarca, Alex-
andria, Antioclila, Mauiolcum.
'I'errar'um mediis Apjmea: masnia clara. Prif.

11. Academia, Chorea, Platea, Malea, have the
penultimate common.

In Latium fpretis Acaikmla migrat Athenis. Claud.

Atque Academia celebraium nomine vilUm. Laur. Tul.

Pura; funt;>/a/tfr, nihil ut me<litaniibus obftet. Hor.

Afpice ! per bitidas plebs RomuLi fundi'ur plalcas. Prudent.

12. Greek genitives and accufatives from nominative:
in eus have the penultimate fhort, according to the com-
mon dialeft, long according to tlie Ionic.

Ti/dijas ilia dies : ilium tugiimtque tremuntque, Stat.

//;on«a petit dcxtrJ, levaque -ereftum. Virg.

0/ Diphthongs.
3. A diphthong is long; as aurum, fcenus, audio, xtaty
poenitet, iEneas, laus. Grams, Caius, Pompeius, Proiju-
lems, &c.

T/iesauros, ignotum argenti pondus et auri. Virg.

1. Except prae, immediately before a vowel in a
compound word, is generally Ihort.

Nee tota taraen ille prior ^»-<^t'«n(^ carina. Virg.

Note. — Prae, originally being prai or prae, by the elifion of the latter
vowel before a following one, the words became pr4*-ullis, pra'-
eunt.&c. Statius, however, (Theb. 6. 519.) and Sidonitis Apol-
linarius (carm. 23.) preferve the J£ long.

2. A diphthong is once fhort in a line of Virgil, out
of compofition ; thus,

InJ'ulCB lonio in inagno, quas dira Celxno. Virg.

3. The eu of Greek proper names in eus (genitive
eos) becomes a diphthong.

Parvo dilexit fpatio Minoida Theseus,
Conditus luarimes arterna mole Ty^li'veus.

Propert.
Lucan.

Orlihyiiin amans fulvis ampledititur alis.
Et patrio infontes Uarp^f'tas pellere regno.

4. Ti is alfo a diphthong in Greek names, fuch at
Orithyia, lUthyia, Harpyia, Agyieus, &c.

Ovid.

Virg.

ji Voiuel before two Confonants.

4. A vowel is long by/io/7/»on, when it immediately pre-
cedes two confonants, one or both of which being in the
fame word with it ; as arma, Errabat sllva In magna.

Pafcere opmtet oves, dudiU^um dicere carmen. Virg.

5. Alfo, a vowel is long by pofitkn, when it immediately
precedes a double confonant (X or Z), or the letter J ; as
axis, patrizo, cujus.

At nobis, Pox alm.1, veni, fpicamque teneto. Tibul.

It Sthenelus, qualem Mavortia vidit Amazon, V. Flac.
Caufa parrocinio non bona jiejor erit. Ovid.

Note. — In reality the J or I makes a diphthong with the preceding

vowel; viz, major, pejor, are from mai-or, pei-or: — and Io in
Mai-a, jVIal-us, Bai-^, Troi-ie, Ai-ax, ai-unt, Ciii-eta, Cai-us.
and Grai-us, dilTyHablcs. Hujus and cujus were, like illius, originally
trifyllables, of v.hich the firft two, by fynarefis, coalefced into
one.

Except the compounds of jugum, which have the
i fliort before _/ ; as bijugus, quadrijugus.

Martis equi hljitgeSf et magni currus Achillis. Virg.

Note, — ^The word which in England we pronounce jugum, is in
reality i-ugum or yu-gum, as the Germans at this day pronounce it.
And in the meeting of two vowels, the former is tacitly elided,
leaving the words biilgus, quadriugus.

6. If

QUANTITY.

6. if the former of two words end in a rtiort vowel, and
tlie next begin with two confonants or a/tlouble letter, the
vowel often remains (hort.

1'u poteras viri es jiejinis hebelar^ fmaragdos. Ovid.

Jam medio apparet fluttu ni;mnr>tsfi Zarynlhus, Virg.

2\/ote. — Virgil, however, wlio has adopted fuch licences as fultus
Hyacintho, ami qui amaiit, has lengthened the fliort fyllable hut
in one line ; ' I'erte citi fcrrum, date tc/u, fcaiidite muros.' Many
of thcfe vowels, wliicli at tlie end of a vv^rd are found long before
two confonants beginning a following word, are lengthened by the
csfura ; as ' Ocrulla fpolia, et plures de pace triumphos.' Juvcn.

0/ a Voivtl befsre a Mute and a Liquid.

7. A vowel naturally rtiort, followed by a mute and a
liquid, is common, though always pronounced rtiort in profc :
as %ris, pharetra.

Natum ante ora piitris, patrcmque obtruncat ad aras. Virg.

Nox tcnelrras profert, Pliotbus fugat inde tenibras. Ovid.

Note. — I. To produce this kind of pofition, three things are reqtiifite.
I. That the mute precede tb-' liquid. 1. That the mute and the
liquid be both in the following fyllable ; or otherwife this rule can-
not taJce place ; as in ab-luu, where tlie t«o confonants cannot be
founded in the latter fyllable. 3. That the vowel preceding the
mute and liquid be Ihort by nature. Hence the a in acris and
matris is always long, becaufe the a in iker and mater is always
long.

1. In l^atin words, / and r are the only liquids preceded by a vowel
and a -mute; in Greek words, /, r, and alfo ni, n, have the fame
effect as Cyclopes, 'i'e-cnieira. Da phne.

3. H is not, ntither in th's, nor th" foregoing rule, to be deemed a
co-ifonani . Joined with any of the < onfiman s, it has not the power
of len^theTiing a preceding ihort vowel ; not even with two confo-
nants (;. e. a mute and a liquid,) in the next fyllable; as

lUic P*ll.si proles Vi'fina Piiilippi Lucan.

Cernitur egre.;ius lapis hie, cut nomen achates. Prif.

Hie Paphias myrtos, hie purpure.is amSthi/Jlos. Ovid.

w^riS/- hab.:t frondes, pabulayemyjer h.imus. Ovid.

Of Crafts, or ContraSion.

8. Every fyllable formed by the contraftion of two fylla-
bles into one, is long ; as cogo lor c6-ago, the genitive alius
for alii us.

Tityre co^e pecus, to poll care6ta latebas. Virg.

Obfcurte funis patres a'mbu-'iii'u.s errant. Ovid.

N&ie. — This is a rule of very extenfive application. We are tWd
that the ancients exprefTed a long fyllable by a reduplication of the
vowel; thus vgenit for the perfedl venit. And it will be found
that in many words the long fyll.ible aril'es from the contraftion of
two vowels. Thus we write tibicen for tibiicen ; ambages for
ambfSges; bigas, trigs, for liijfiga^, trijOga; junior for jQvi!nior;
bohus for bOvibus; it for iit ; mi formihi; and malo for mSgis
v6lo.

Of Derivatives.

9. Derivatives ufually follow the quantity of their pri-
mitives ; as animus, auima, animal, animalis, animofus,
animare : from lego ; legebam, legerem, legam, &c. : but
from legi ; legeram, legerim, legero, &c. totalis from totus,
and totus from tot.

Nee tnta pars, homo terrai quota to:ius unus. Lucret.

1. Except defiderative verbs in ur;o, which have the u
(hort, although formed from the participle in urus, that
has u long ; as nuptiirio from nuptiirus.

2. Frequentative verbs, formed from the fecond
fupine of the firll conjugation, by changing atu into
tto, have the i rtiort ; as clamito, volito.

Parturmnt montes, nafcetur ridiculus mus. Hor.

Infelix fua terta fupcr voruaverat alis. Virg,

3. There are other long derivatives formed from
ftiort primitives, and fhort derivatives formed from long
primitives.

Note. — I. Of the former, the following is nearly an nccurate lift:
como from cOma; fomes and fOmentum from fovco; humanus
from homo; jucinidus and jumentum from javo; mobijis from
mOveo ; tcgula from iCgo ; rigula from rCgo ; tragula fro u trSho ;
vomer from vOmo ; vox-vocis from vOco ; dc-ni from dCcem ; fuf-
picio from fufpicur;secius frorr. sfcus; pc-nuria from pCnus; humor
from humus; jugerum from jflgum ; niScero from mScer; placo
fram placeo.

a. Of the latter, the following are the principal ; arena, Srida from Sreo;
dicax from dico ; difertus from diflero ; dux-ducis from dfico; fides
from fjdo; fragor and frigilis from frango; iDcerna from lu'ceo;
ditiofrom dis-ditis; mico from mica ; nato from n5tu ; noto from
notu; proniibus and pronuba from niibo; (ju.lfiUus from quSlus;
rofafrom ros-rriris; ftabulis from rtabam ; sOpor fromsopio; ftipula
and ilipulor from (lipes ; sSgax from sfigio; vadiim from vado;
arufpex from ara; ambitus, ambitio, ambitioiiis, fromambitu.

3. Some of thefe anomalies have, perhaps, aril'en from the influence
of crafis and fyncope. Thus mubilis (torn mOveo, may have been
mOvibilis; momentum, mOvimentum ; mOtum, mOvitum; fOtuin,
fOvitum from foveo; jutum, jfiv.'itum ; and jumentcm, juvamen-
tum from jttvo. Sometimes the derivative becomes Ihort by
dropping one of the confonanis which rendered the word wlience it
is fuppofed to come, long by pofition ; as difenus from dilfero;
mamilla from mamma; volutum from volvo; sOlutum from.solvo;
tigillum from tijnuni ; pOtui from polTum. When th.? primitive
is neceffarily fliort, by one vowel's preceding another, as in hyems,
the derivative fometimes becomes long, by the infertion of a' con-
fonaiit , asin hiberna, hiherno, bibernacula. Liquidus is fuppofed
to have its lirit common (as it may be derived from the deponent
liquor, or from the neuter liijueo,) on the following authoiity.
JSrafTaque conveniunt liquidis, et llquida cralTIs. Lucret.

Compound Words.

10. Compound words have the fame quantity as the fimple
words from which they are formed ; as perlego from lego ;
perlegi from legi ; improbus from probus ; perjijrus from per
and jus-jiiris.

11. The quantity of the primitive word is generally pre-
ferved in the compound, notwithttaiiding the alteration of a
vowel in the latter ; thus accido from cado, accido from
csdo, acquiro from quasro, inlqiaus, obliquu^, antiquus
from sequus.

IN'luIta renafcentur, qua jam cecidere, cadenlque. Hor.

Except I. The following are rtiort compounds from
long primitives ; nihilum from hllum ; dejero and pejero
fromjiiro; caufidicus, fatidicus, maledicus, veridicus,
froin dIco ; femisopitus from sopitus ; cognitum and
agnitum from notum ; hodie from hoc die.

2. Irabecillus from bacillus has the fecond fyllable
long : connubium from niibo has the u common.

Porto meis, nuUo dextram fubeunte bacillo. Juven.

Imbecillus, ineis, fi quid vis .' adde propino — Hor.

Conmdno jungaui ftabili, propriamque dicabo. Virg.

Hettoris Andromache ! Pynhiii' connubia feivas. Virg.

\7. Prepofitions, in compofition, have generally the fame
quantity as out of it ; thus amitto and deduco have the firft
long, becaufe a and de, as a final and monofyllabic e are
long. Aboleo and pgrimo have the firft; fhort, becaufe ab and
per, as b and r final, are fhort.

Expediam, piimj repetens u4 origine, famam. Virg.

Nee poterit ferrum, nee edax «io/rrf vetuiias. Ovid.

-Note. — I. A prepofition ending in a vowel, although out of compo-
fition it may be long, becomes fhort by the lirlt general rule, if
followed by another vowel ; as deofeulor, prohibeo. And if a fliort
prepofition end in a confonant, and be followed by another confo-
nant, it becomes long, by th.3 fecond general rule ; as admitto,
p6rcello.

2. Sometimes the prepofition, inflead of becoming long by pofition,
lofes its final confonant, and remains Oiort ; as Omitto, Operio.

Except I. Z)i is fliort in dirimo and difertus : as
Hanc Deus et melior litem natura diremit. Ovid.

Caufas, inquis, agam Cicerone d?/er:ij<sipfr Mart.

2. Ri

QUANTITY.

2. Re is fliort ; as remitto, repello, refero. But re
(which here is fuppolcd to be the ablative of res) is
long ill the iniperfonal verb refert, it concerns.

Propellit Boreas; alius et unda rcfirt. Ovid.

Prseterea nee jam inuuri pabula rcfirt. Virg.

13. Pro, when ufed as a Greek prepofition for ante,
is fhort ; as propheta, prologus, propontis : but pro, a
Latin prepofition, is generally long ; as prodo, proveho,
promitto.

Mifit in has fiqvios longa Pripontis aq\ia5. Ovid.

Qvia tarn fella dies, ut cefltt proderi: fiirem. Juv.

Except profundus, profugio, profugus, pronepos,
proneptis, profeftus, profari, profiteor, profanus, pro-
fefto, procella, protervus, and propago, fignifying
lineage ; but propago, fignifying a vine-ftock, is
long.

iVo(e. — Not.vithllandingfuch diftinaioiis, propago, whofe figiiificatiori
is always radically the fame, may be confidered among the doubt-
fiils ; to wiiich tlafs procunibo is likewife added by Ibme. But
when the rematkaljle irregularity of ;n-o is confidered, without the
flighted apparent reafon to determine wfi;/ it Ihould hejiiort in one
word, long in another, and common in a third, it feems mod pro-
bable, that it was in reality every where common, and that we
(hould, doubtlefs, find it fo,' had we enough of the ancient poetry
extant. The word being evidently borrowed from the Greek, in
which it was written with an 0-nucron, we might for that reafon
expert to find it invariably Ihort ; but the Latin final 0 being iii
other cafes more generally long, we might, on this aerount, as na-
turally expetl tofindjTO ufunlly made long, by thofe at lead who
were unacquainted with Greek. The poets feem to have availed
themfelves of this convenient ambiguity by makiiig pro Jong or (hort,
as proved mod fuitable to tlieir purpofe.

Of thejinal Vowels of frjl Words in Compofu'ton.

14. If the firft member of a Latin compound word end in
A, that vowel is long ; as trado, trano, quare, quapropter,
quatenus ; but in Greek compounds the A is fometimes
fliort J as adipfos, fonjetimes long, as Neapolis.

Quare agite 6 proprios genentim difcite ctiltus. Virg.

Extinguitque fitim porno, cui nomcn Mi/ifos. Prif.

Ambarum medio procera Neapolis arceni. Avicnus,

Except eadem, unlefs it be the ablative,

Non cixdem arboribus pendet vindemia noflris. Virg.

15. If the firft member of a compound word teraiinate in
e, that vowel is (hort ; as in the firft fyllables of nefas,
nefandus, ngque, trfidecim, trecenti ; in the fecond of vale-
dico, madefacio, ftupefacio, trem«facio ; and in the third of

hujufcSmodi, ejufcemodi,

Credebant hoe grande nifai, et morte plandum. Jtiven.

Except I. Tie E is long in words compounded of
fe for fex or for femii as fedecim, femeftris, ferjiodius ;
(but in felibra it is ftiort.)

Sentihominis Cari fades, quam dira tegebat. Virg.

Argentl libram mittebas ; fafta sStibrii eft. Mart.

3. It is long alfo in nequis, nequicquam, nSquam,
nequitia, nequando, videlicet, and veneficus,

Nequicquem feros exeicet noftua eaniu:!. Virg.

3. Liquefacio, tepefacio, and patefacio, liave the
e of the fecond fyU.^ble chiefly fhort, though fome-
times long ; rarefacio and raifefio have the e generally
bng.

Sic mea perpetuls liqiiSjiunt pe£lora curis. Ovid.

Tibe liquZfaClis, tendens ad fidera palmas, Ovid.

Et rarefccit calido miiecnte vapore. Lticret.

Intremuit, m^tuque linus;)a2?/eci< aquarum. Ovid.

Atque pstefccit, quas ante obfederat ater — I-ucret.

i^Qtg, — VoffiuB obfetves tji«t Virgil Ihortens the e in fuch words, and

that Lucretius and Catullus lengthen it, the former wiiliout carfura.
Indeed it is probable that in thel'e words it was generally confidered
common.

16. If the firft member of a compound word terminate
in i, that vowel is (hort ; as biviurn, trivium, triceps, siquidem,
fatidicus, agricola, vatTciriiuni, fignlfioo, architectus, dime-
ter, trimeter, Iphigenia, &c.

Jane Imeps! anni lacite labcntis origo. Ovid.

1 . Except thofe compounds in which the i is changed
in declining ; as quidam, quTvis, quilibet, quantlvis,
quantlcunque, tantldem, uniculque, eidtm, relpublicx,
quallqunque.

Jure mihi invideat qu'm's, iu te quoque amicum. Hor.

2. The final i is long in thofe compounds which may
be feparated without deftroying the feiife ; as ludl-
magirter, or ludl magifter ; parvipeudo, or parvl pcndo ;
luctTfacio, or lucrl facio ; siquis, or sT quia.

3. Thofe woruo which in loining undergo a cnfis or
fyncope, are long ; astiblcan for tibiicen ; bigs, tngx,
&c. for bijiigje, tniugK, Sec; Ilicet for Ire licet;
fcTlicct for fcire licet ; but tubic-n, which has fuffered
neither, is fliort by the general rule.

Ilicel ignis edax fumma ad failigia vento. Vir^.

4. Idem mafculi:.i- is long ; but in the neuter, it is
(hort. Ideiiti4i'm has the penultimate (hort.

Omr.iij'is idtm animus, IceUrata excedere terra. Virg.

Invitum qui ftrvat, idrm facit occidenti. Hor.

Qui fedens advcrfus identldc-m te. Catul.

5. The final / of the foraier compounding word, is
long in mmirum, ublque, utroblque, ibidem.

Dixi equidem et dico. Captes adutus ublque. Hor.

6. As the I is common in ubi ; fo it is in ubicunque
and ubivis.

Clamat : io mattes audite ub'icunque Latins.
Server, nbicunque ed : uni mea grudia fervo ? -

Virg.
Ovid.

7. The compounds of dies have the final i of the firfi
word long ; as biduum, triduum, meridies, pridie, pof-
trldie.
Si folus tibi trlduo legatur. Mart.

Note. — I. Pridie ar.J podridie are long by exception 3, being priori
die, and podcriori die.

2. Quotidie and quotidianus are f.id to have the i fometimes diorr ;
but this is not fatisfattorily afcertained, fince the lines, adduced in
proof may, by the figure synizefis, be differently meafured ; thus

Conjugis in culpa flagravit quolttdlana.* Catul.

* OrquC'ttid-yS-Ba. It mud be confeded, however^ that thus read
the line is harih, and is unnecefSrily rendered fpondaie.

3. Triginta, trigefimus, tricefimus, and triceni, are not confidered as
compound words, in which the tri is diort, as it is in all the real
compounds of trh, f/:. triceps, triplex, triformis, tricufpls, tri-
centies, &o. &c, for triginta cannot with propriety be called xcom-
pound word, fince g/nta is only a termination. At all events the
?)■;■ in triginta, ic. is ever long.

17. If the firft member of a compound word terminate
in 0, it is (hort ; as Argonauta, Arftophylax, areopagus,
bibliotheca, philofophus, facrofantSlus, duodecim, hodie.

Non nautas puto vos, kd Argonautas. Mart.

Non dices hodie, quorfum hsec tarn putida tandem— Hor.

1. Except words compounded with intro, retro, con-
tra, and quando ; as introduco, intromitto, retrocedo,
controverfus, quandoque, &c. ; but quandoquidem has
the 0 fliort.

Ipfe nVroyj^r/i^? fqualentia protulit ora. Ovid,

2. Alfo alioquin, utroque, caeteroquin, utrobique;

and

QUANTITY.

.md the compounds of quo ; as quomodo, quocunquc,
quominus, quocirca, quuvis, and qiioquc the adjeftive ;
but quoque, the particle, has the u fhort.
Mendol'a eft natura, aiioqui retfta, velut ii. llor.

3. Thofe words which in Greek are written with an
u-mega, have the 0 long ; as geomctria, geographia,
minotaurus, lagopus.
Si mcusruiritiigaudet Ingopode Flncciis. Mart.

i8. U and Y terminating the firft member of a compound
word, are (hort ; aj in Tlirasybulus, Eurypylu5, Polypus,
dUcenti, dilpondium, quadnlpes, centfiplcx, TrojQgena,
cornilpeta, Polydorus, Polyphemus, &c.

Nam fuit hoc vitiofus ; in horu faspe dtlcciUos — Hor.

Nam qualis quantui'que cavo Polj/phcvms inamro. Virg.

Except judico, which in its lirft fyllablc is, by fyncope,
long.

Et fapit, et mecum f.xit, ct io\e judical, aquo.

Hor.

Of the frjl Syllable of Dl/fyllabtc Preterites.

19. Preterites of two fyllables have the firft long; as
veni, vidi, vici.

f^enit fumma dies, et ineluflabile tempus. Virg.

Except bibi, tiili, dedi, Iteti, ftiti, fcidi from fcindo,
(for abfcTdi is long from abfcido, and abfcidi (hort
from abfcindo,) fidi from tindo, (for fidi and confidi
from fido are long.)

Aut fcldit, et medias fecit (il)i littora terras. Lucan.

Of the twofrjl Syllables of Reduplicated Preterites.

20. Preterites doubling their firft fyUable, have that fyl-
lable and the following both fhort ; as tetigi, pepuH, peperi,
dldici, tutiidi, cecidi from cado.

Si memtni fiierant tibi quatuor, /Elia, dentes. Mart.

Littora, quae cornu pSpulit Saturnus equiiio. Val. Flac.

Except cecTdi from caedo has the fecond fyllable
long ; and likewife thofe preterites, in which that fyl-
lable is followed by two confonants ; as fefelli, mo-
m5rdi, fpopondi.

Ebrius et petulans, qui nullum forte ccctdit. Juven.

V axamfpopondlt : nulla propter me f.irro. Senec.

Qus Deu'i ipfe viris intermina fortibus /pipondit. Prud.

2\/ote. — From the authorities here quoted, it is evident thitfp'opondi
is the claffic orthography, noljjynf/wndi, which would have the tirft
fyllable long by pofition, before sp, as we may invariably obferve
in compound words; as refpuo, refpicio, rcfpondeo, refpiro, re-
fpergo, &c.

OfthefrJ Syllable of Dify liable Supines.

21. Supines of two fyllables, and the perfeft participle
formed from tliem, have the firft fyllable long ; as vTfum,
tnQtum, efum, fietum, vllus, motus, &c.

Terrihiies vlju forms, letumque, laborque. Virg.

Quos ego — fed nio/05 praftat componere fluiftus. Virg.

1. Except the firft fyllable is fhort in datum, rStum,
fatum, itum, litum, quUum, situm, riituni, and fiitum,
from the obfolete fuo, whence we have fiiturus.

Cui diitus hjerebam cuftos, curfufque regebam. Virg.

2. Citum from cieo of the fecond conjugation has
the i (hort ; but citum from cio of the fourth conjuga-
tion has it long.

Corripuit fefe, et teflis citus e.'ttulit altis. Virg.

Unde ruunt toto cO'iclta periculu mundo. Lucan.

3. Statum is common : hence we find ftatunis,
conftaturus, obftaturus, ftamen, ttatus-a-um, ftatus-us,

Vol. XXIX.

praeflituni. Ratio, ftatuo, ftabllis, ftabulum,ftator, ftatim,
&c. : the former of which are faid to come from fto, the
latter from fifto.

H\c Jfutus iti <-a?lo multos pcrmanfit in'annos. Ovid.

Uamnavit multoy^a/u/-«m fanguine Marteni. Mart.

lujntor imperii, caupo fainofus lionorum. Claud.

Noll prtijldta fibi pracftat natura fed uuus. Prop.

(,'unjtiiinra fuit Megalenlis purpura centum. Mart.

Of thejirjl Syllable of Polyfyllabic Preterites and Supines.

22. Preterites and fupines of more than two fyllables
have the fame quantity in their firft fyllable as the prefent;
thus vocavi and vocatum have the tirft Ihort, bccaufe the firft,
of voco is (hort : clamavi and clamatuni have the firft long,
becaufe the firft of clamo is long.

Si v"'Cai ofiicium turba cedente vehetur. .Juven.

liiduit, implevitque mero, divofque viirar/f. Virg.

Except pofui, pofitum from pono ; genui, genitum
from glgno ; potui from polfum ; folutum, volutum
from folvo and volvo.

S^cula } qui tanti talem gciiucrc pareiites.

Vlrs.

Of the Penultimate of Polyfyllabic Supines.

23. Supines of more than two fyllables, in atum, elum,
and iltum, lengthen the laft fyllable but one ; as amatuin,
dtletum, minutum.

24. Supines in itum, from preterites in ivi, alfo have the
penultimate long ; as cupivi, cupTtum ; petivi, petitum ;
quassTvi, quxsTtum ; polivi, politum; but the compounds
of CO, ambio excepted, have the penultimate fhort.

25. Supines in itum, from any other preterites, fhorten the
penultimate ; as cubui, cubitum ; monui, monitum ; abolevi,
obolitum ; agnovi, agnitum ; credidi, creditum : recensltum
of recenfeo is long, on account of its origin from the ob-
folete cenfio, cenfivi.

Namque ferunt luiftu Cycnum Pliaethontis nmati. Virg.

Ddetas Volfcorum aeies, cecidifTe Camillam. Virg.

Suftulit exutas vinclis ad fidera palmas. Virg.

Sspe lacessitus probris, gladiifque petitus. Claud.

Cedamus Phtebo, et moniti meliora fequamur. Virg.

Prifca 7-t'CCKSE(/5 evolvite fscula faftis. Claud.

Of the Penultimate of Participles in RUS.

26. Participles in rus always lengthen the laft fyllable but
one ; as amatiirus, habitiirus, leAiirus, auditurus.

Tarda venit, feris faSlura nepotibus umbram. Virg.

Increment of Nouns.

Note. — I. If the genitive cafe fingular do not contain a greater number
of fyllables than the nominative, that noun has no incremeiit, as
jienna, penns, caro, carnis. But if the genitive contains more
fyllables than the nominative, the penultimate of the genitive is the
increment ; and whether that fyllable be long or fhort, it preterves
the fame quantity in all the oblique cafes fingular and plural. If
bCibus or bubus be an exception, we fliould recollefl, it is fo by fyn-
cope and cralis from bovibus. Aufonius, contrary to the praftice of
better autiiors, has an example of bobus ihort, as if it had been
formed by (imple fyncope without crafis. See Aufon. Epig. 62.

2. Nouns feldom have more than one increafe in the fingular: iter,
jecur, (when its genitive isjecinoris,) fiipellex, and the compounds
of caput, ending in ;m, have two increments. The dative and ab-
lative of the third declenfion have two ; of the aforementioned
words, three increments. They are reckoned in the retrograde
order, beginning with the penultimate, for the laft fyllable is never
confidered as an increment.

1 » 13 3

i-ti-ne-ris, i-ti-ne-ri-bus.

je-ci-no-ris, je-ci-no-ri-bus.

fupel-lec-ti-lis, fupel-lec-ti-li-bus.

an-ci-pi-tis, an-ci-pi-ti-bus.

Bb 0/

QUANTITY.

Of the Increments of the Singular Number,
Of the firjl, fecond, fourth, and fifth Declenfwns.

27. In the firft, fourth, and fifth declenfions, there is no ^_ ,__..„ _,. _ ^._ .... ^ .^ _ ,„

increment in the fingular ; except the antique mcrement ot increment of nouns ending in ON. Many lengthen the gen

thefirlldeclenfionjb'ythe refolution ofthediphtliong <s into tive penultimate ; as Chiron, Demiphon, Agon, Helico:
ai, in which the a is long ; as

39. Nouns in EN fliorten the genitive penultimate ;
crimen-inls, flumen-inis.

Quodque m:igis mirum eft, au(?^orem crimmis hujus — Mart.

40. No certain rule can be given for the quantity of tl

Dives c-quilm, dives ;)/aii veflis et auii. Virg.

28. The increments of the fecond declenfion are (hort : as
pueri, viri, fatiiri, teneri.

Opueri ! ne tania animi.'i afluefdic bella. Virg.

Except Iber, Iberi, and its compounds Celtiber, Cel-
tiberi, which lengthen the penultimate ; as
Quique feros movlt Senorius cxul /6eros. Lucan.

Vir CeltibSris iion ucende geiitibus. Man.

Increments of the third Declenfion.

29. Nouns in A (horten the genitive penultimate ; as
dogma-atis.

Non quivis vldet immodulata poewuta judex. Hor.

30. Nouns in I, compounds of meli, fliorten the genitive
penultimate; ashydromeli, hydromelitis.

3 1 . Nouns in O, increafing in inis, fliorten the genitive pe-
nultimate ; as cardo, cardinis ; imago, imaginis.

32. Enisandonis, from 0, are long; as anio, anienis ;
fermo, fermonis.

1. Except gentiles in 0 generally fliorten the incre-
ment ; as Macedo, Macedonis ; Saxo, Sax6n:s. To
which add Lingones, Seuones, Teutones, Vangiones,
Vafcones. Some lengthen the penultimate; as Su-
effiones, Vettones, Burgundiones, Eburones. Juvenal
ftiortens Britones ; Martial lengthens it.

2. Nouns in on, from the Greek iit, which feme-
times drop the n, preferve in Latin the fame quantity
which they have in the original ; as Agamemnon or
Agamemno, Aganicmnonis ; Demiphon or Demipho,
Demiphonis.

Sanguine plaraftis ventos, et fiVgme casfa. Virg. ,

Hac turn mukipliii populosy^rmuKC replchat. Virg.

Nun longinquadocentdomito quod Saivnc Teibys. Claud.

Qua nee terribilesCiiibri, ner Briiones unqoaai — Juveii.

Quani veteres brat-cae Britones pauperis et quam — Mart.

Quo ferusiiijufto petitt J^amemnina ferro- — Ovid.

33. Nouns in EC lengthen the genitive penultimate ; as
halec-ecis.

Haleccm fed quam protinus ipfa voret. Mart.

34. Nouns in D fliorten the genitive penultimate ; as
David, Daviidis.

EreiSo indulgel Davidis oiigine lumen. Juven.

2\[ote. — Ecclefiadical writers often lengthen tlie penultimate ot"
David.

35. Mafculines in AL fliorten the genitive penultimate ;
as Hannibal-alis ; fal-falis (mafculine or neuter).

36. Neuters in AL lengthen alis ; as animal-alis.

Vela dabant Ijeti, et fpumas siili's aere ruebant. Virg.

Pronaque cum fpeclent aniniaUa catera terram. Ovid.

37. SOL lengthens solis : and alfo Hebrew nouns in EL
lengthen the genitive penultimate ; as Daniel-elis.

Regia iolii erat fublimibus alta columnis. Ovid.

38. All other nouns in L fliorten the genitive increment ;
as vigil-ilis, conful-tilis, exul-tllis.

Aut urfum, aut pugiUs, his n»nn plcbecula gaudet. Kor.

penultimate ; as Utiiron, JJemiphon, Agon
Lacon, Sicyon, Solon, Simon : many fliorten it ; as Actacon,
Agamemnon, Amazon, Jafon, Memnon, Philaemon, Orion,
Sidon, Sindon : and JEgxan has the penultimate common.

(Vedit, et excludlt fanos Hcliconc pogr.3s. Hor.

Et veint abfenteni certatim Adieina clamant. Ovid.

Audifirat duro^ laxantem yE^ceina nexus. Stat.

j^gfeona fuls immania tcrga lacertis. Ovid.

41. All other nouns in N lengthen the genitive penulti-
mate ; thus Titan-anis, Siren-enis, delphin-Tnis, Phorcyn-
ynis.

Concitat iratus validoi TiUmcjK in arm--. Ovid,

Orpheus in fylvis, inter dctphlnns Aiion

Virg.

42. Neuter nouns in A R lengthen the genitive in Iris;
as calcar-aris.

Seu fpumantis equi foderet calcaribus armos. Virg.

But thefe neuters fliorten aris ; bacchar, jubar,
neftar-aris. To which add par-paris, and its com-
pounds ; as impar-imparis ; difpar-difparis, &c. ; alfo
hepar-atis.

Pugnavereyjureo; fuccubuere/m/-e5. Mart.

43. But mafculine nouns in AR fliorten aris ; as Caefar-
aris, Hamilcar-aris, lar-laris.

Ecce Dionsci proeeiTit Cecsun's aftruin. Virg.

Except Car and Nar ; as,

Laudibus immodlcis Cares in aftra ferant. Mart.

.Sulfureas pofuit fpiramina J^dris ad undas. Enn.

44. Greek nouns in TER lengthen the increment ; as
crater-eris, charafter-ens, fpinther-eris ; except aether-eris.

Indulgent vino, et vertunt crattrai ahenos. Virg.

QuRcumque ilia levem fvigiens fecat ret/tera pennis. Virg.

45. Nouns in OR lengthen oris; as amor-oris ; timor-
oris.

1. Except neuter nouns ; as marmor, a:quor-6ris.

2. Greek nouns in OR ; as Heftor, rhetor-oris.

3. Arbor-oris, and memor-memoris.

4. Ador forms adoris or adoris, whence adoreus in
Virgil, Horace, and Claudian.

Inter fpem curamque, tin/ores inter et iras. Hor.

Pr^terea fuit in tectls de manuure lemplum. Virg.

Ingemit et dulci frater cum Cajlire Pollux. Val. Flac.

Finiet, ante gravem quae legerit arb^re folem — Hor.

Mox ador, atque adhri's de polline pultificnm far. Auion.

Emicat in nubes ardor adnris. Pril'.

46. The following nouns lengthen the increment ; fur-
fiiris, ver-veris, Recimer-Recimeris, Byzer-Byzeris, Ser-
Seris, Iber-Iberis, (as well as Iber of the fecond declenfion.)

Velleraque ut foliis depecSlant tenuis Seres. Virg.

47. Other nouns in R, not mentioned, fliorten the penul-
timate ; as aer, aeris ; mulier, eris ; cadaver-eris ; iter,
itineris ; verber, verberis ; vultur, uris ; murmur, ilris ; fe-
mur, robur, jecur, ebur-oris ; martyr-yris.

Virg.

Virg.

48. Latin nouns in AS lengthen the increment ; as pietas-
atis ; Mscenas-atis ; vas, vafis, a vefiel.

Virg.

*

Si nigrum obfcuro comprt-ndcrit iiera comu.
Afpice, ventofi oeciderumwiitnKiir/saurs.

Infignem pieiatc viruin tot adire kboresi

Except

QUANTITY.

Except anas, anatis ; mas, maris ; and vas, vadis, a
Security.
Tyrtarufque mares animos in martia bella. Hor.

49. Greek nouns in AS (horten adis, atis, and anis ; as
Pallas, lampas, adis ; artocreas, atis ; Meias, anis.

I Hilar montis equum diviiu I'alladis nrte. Virg.

50. Nouns in ES (horten the increment ; as miles, militis ;
feges, fegctis ; prifes, prxsidis ; obfes, obsidis ; Ceres,
Cereris ; pes, pedis.

Metiri fe qucmqiie fuo modulii ac ;)«/<■, v rum ei\. Hor.

Except locuples, quies, manfucs, etis ; hseres, mer-
ces, edis : alfo Greek nouns which have etis ; as
lebes, Thales, tapes, magnes, etis.

Afcaniiim fnrgcntem, et Ipes hter-dJis luli. Virg,

Viginti fulvus ojierofo er. are IcKtcs. Ovid.

51. Nouns in IS fliorten the increment ; as lapis, Phyllis,
idi» ; cinis, eris ; fanguis, inis.

Imraolat et poenara fcclerato ex fangmnc lumit. Virg.

I . Except glis, gliris, and vires the plural of vis,
which lengthen the increment.

.Soinniculofos iUc porrigil g/ircs.

Sic fatus validis ingentcm viribus haftam —

Mart.
Virg.

2. Latin nouns which have itis, as dis, dltis ; lis,
litis ; Quiris, Samnis, Itis ; but Charis, a Greek
noun, has Charltis fhort.

lufoqueris tameii liuiic, et !llc msraris iniqua. Hor.

Tres fucrant Chantes, fed dum mea Leibia visit — Aufon.

3. Crenis, Crenidis ; Nefis, Nesldis ; Pfophis, Pfo-
phldis, lengthen the penultimate ; but Pfophis (hortens
it once ni Statius.

Svlvaique, quse lixam pelago AVsIda coronat. Stat,

^.pytios idem arl>or agros, et PJ'upida celfam. Stat.

Ul'qae fub Orchornenon, Pfophidaque Cyllenenque. Ovid.

4. Greek nouns in is, which have alfo the termi-
nation in ; as Salamis, or Salamin-Inis.

Tilniris umbra tui, Teitcer Satamliui paireiiiqup. Hor.

52. Nouns m OS lengthen the mcrement ; as nepos,
Otis; ilos, floris; 03, oris ; cuflos, cuH:odis ; rhinoceros, Otis ;
Tros, ois ; heros, ois.

Qui Iegit4sj?yre5, et humi nifcentia fraga. Virg.

Egreffi optati pot'uintur TrSes areiiS. Virg.

Except bos, bovis ; compos, impos, otis; which in-
creafe fhort.

Pcrpetui tergo buvis, et lullralibus extis. Virg.

53. Nouns in US (horten the increment ; as lepus, corpus,
oris ; vellus, eris ; tripus, odis.

Ut canis in vatuo ttip^iTcm cum Gallicus nrvo. Ovid.

1. Except thofe nouns which have udis, uris, or
ut'ts ; as incus, inciidis ; tellus, telliiris ; falus, falQtis.
But thcfe are (hort ; Ligiiris, from Ligur or Ligus ;
pecudis, from the obfolete pecus ; and intercutis, from

, intercus.

In medio : facri tripodes viridefque coronsc — Virg.

Fas ct j«rre finunt : rivos deducere nulla — Virg.

Non egote Ligiirum dui^tor fortiflime hello — Virg.

2. Comparatives in us lengthen the genitive penul-
timate ; as melius, melioris.

Perge, decet, forfan milcros melivra fequentur. Virg.

54. Nouns in YS (horten tiie increment ydis and ydos,
and lengthens ynis ; as chlamys, ydis or y'lus ; Trachys,
ynis.

In medio, cidnmpdc, ct pi^lis confpettus in armis. Virg.
HerculeS Trachi/ne jube, tub imagine regis. Ovid,

55. Nouns in S, preceded by a confonant, (horten their
increment ; as coelebs, ibis ; (lips, ftipis ; Lailaps, apis ;
Cecrops, Dolops, opis ; auccps, cupis ; likms, cmis ; alfo
anceps, biceps, cTpTtis, and fimilar compounds of caput, in
which both increments are (hort.

Ad matrcs prime aiic//)i(es, oculifque malignis — Virg.
Hie Dotopitm rnunus, hie la;vus tendebat Achilles. Virg.

Except Cyclops, opis ; feps, fcpis ; gryps, yphis ;
Cecrops, opis ; plebs, plebis ; hydrops, opis ; and
genitives long by pofition ; as excors, cxcordis ; pars,
partis.

Fortunam, et mores antiquse plebis, et idem — Hor.

Antiphats memores immanfvietiquc Cycliijns. Ovid.

56. Nouns in T (horten the penultimate of itis; as
caput, Itis ; finciput, fincipitis ; occiput, occipitis.

Magna fuit quondam cap'ilis reverentia cani. Ovid.

57. A noun in X (hortens the vowel before gis ; as har-
pax, agis; grex, gregis; aquilex, legis ; biturix, igis ; Styx,
ygis ; AUobrox, ogis ; conjux, iigis ; Phryx, ygis.

Quinque grtges iUi balantum, quina redibant. Virg.

Ad Styga Ta;nari^ ell aulus delcciidere porta. Ovid.

Except lex, legis ; illex, exlex, legis ; rex, regis ;
coccyx, ygis ; maftix, Igis ; and friigis, from the ob-
folete frux.

Omnia tub leges mors vocat atra iuas. Ovid.

58. A noun in EX (liortens uis ; as vertex, icis ; pon-
tifex, icis : vibex (rather vibix), Icis excepted.

Qualem virgineo dcmefTum jioU'ice fiorem — Virg.

59. But EX having ech, lengthens the increment ; as
vervex, ecis.

l^et-veciwi in patria, crafToque fub aere nafci. Juven.

Except nex, necis, vicis, and precis, wanting nomi-
natives ; alfo fcenifex ; refex, ecis ; and fupellex, eftllis.

Quam 7i(C(S artifices arte perire fua.

Ovid.

60. And all other nouns in X generally lengthen the
increment ; thus nouns in ax ; as pax, pacis ; fornax, acis.

Except abax, fmilax, Atrax, dropax, fax, Atax,
climax, panax, opoponax, ftyrax, colax ; the com-
pounds of phylax and corax ; as Arftophylax, Nome
phylax, nydicorax, phalacrocorax, iicis.

Fraternxque fidem pncis petiitque deditque.
Dicite /^/7C(:., anim^ tuque, optime vatcs.

Ovid.

Virg.

61. Thus words in IX ; as radix, felix, cicatrix, nutrix,
vi6lrix, altrix, perdix, coturnix, pernix, lodix, icis.

1. Except appendix, choenix, coxendix, cihx, calix,
fornix, filix, hiifrix, larix, pix, falix ; varix, icis, and
itrix, ftrigis.

2. Nix, nivis ; maftix, ichis, a gum.

Ecce coturnices inter fua praelia vivunt. Ovid.

"ExJU'icnn curvis invifam pafcit aratris. Virg.

'E.tjlrigis invents per bulla jacentia pium^. Propert.

Jam fatis terri,<: ntvis atque dirs. Hor.

Contritumque (imul cum maftiche confer anethum. Seren. Samon
B b 2 62. And

QUANTITY.

(iratius.
Val. Fhr

62. And words in OX ; as vox, vocis ; velox, ucis. Ex-
cept Cappadox ; prxcox, 6cis.

Ciindimus ct magna fupremum voce ciemiis. Virg.

Mancip is locui>les, egtt srrLs Cappadncum rex. Hor.

63. In UX ; aslux.lucis; Pollux, lucis. Except dux,

crux, nux, trux-ucis.

Rellitit j^iiieas, claraquc in t!icc refulfit. Virf

Confedere duci-s, ct viilgi ftantc corona. Oviil.

64. In YX ; 33 bombyx, ycis. Except onyx, ychis ;
Eryx, ycis; calyx, ycis; Naryx, ycis. But Sandyx and
Bebryx have the increment common.

Ncc fiqua Arabio Uicet bombf/cc pucUa. Proiicrt.

lUaque plebeio, vel fit./iuirfic/.? amiau. Properi,

Iiuerdum Libyco fuc3iitury;i)ir(ice pinna:.
Bebri/cis et Siythici procul incleinentia lacri.

Of the Increments of the Plural Number.

65. The plural increments, A, E, O, are long; as
musarum, ambabus, animabas; rerum, rebus, horum,
quorum, rcgnOrum.

Tuque, Affnim interprcs ciirOTH/H,et confcia, Juno. Virg.
Scilicet in nobis rimm natura novata eft. Ovid.

Rebus in angulUs facile eft contcmnere vitam. Mart.

Projicis ? O Latio caput /i5rum ct cautamattnim. Virg.

66. The plural increments I and U are fhort ; as quibus,
trlbus, montibus, vcnlbus, lacubus.

Except bubus or bobus, which, on account of its
contraftion from bovibus, as already explained, is
long.

Nede tr'ibus nodis ternos, Amarylli, cslores. Virg.

Non opibus mentcs liominurn cunque levantur. Tibul.

Pars in frufta fecant, vernbn/ijuc trementia figunt. Virg.

Cum faber eduxit,fa«"(i-Hsdemittit: at i Hud Ovid.

Et totum luftret curvatis nrcwtes orbem. Manil.

Et Tiberis noftris advena bubus erat. Propert.

Increment of Verbs.

Kote. — I. When any part of a verb exceeds, in the number of
fyllables, the fecond perlbn fingular ei the indicative prelent,
adtive, the excefs is confidered as tlie increment. As in nouns,
the laft fyllable is never reckoned the increment ; fo alfo in verbs ;
and, therefore, when there it only one increafe, it mud be the pe-
nultimate.

J. Thus amat, amant, ama, amera, amans, containing, like amas,

1 1

only two fyllables, have no increment. A ma-mus, a-ma-tis,

fle-tis, fci-res, da-mus, have one increment, becaufe they ex-

1 s
cced, by one fyllable, amas, lies, fcis, and das. A-ma-ba-mus,

i-ma-bi-mus, have two increments, becaufe they exceed amas

13 3

by two fyllables. A-ma-ve-ri-tis has three increments. Au-

di-e-ba-mi-ni has fotir, becaufe it hat four fyllables more than
audis. In determining the increments of deponent verbs, an

active voice "may be fuppofed ; thus, co-na-tur has one incre-

1 c 1 s 3

mcnt ; co-na-ba-tur, two; co-na-re-mi-ni, three; becaufe
conas of the ficlitious aftive voice has but two fyllables. Or
their increments may alfo be regulated by other verbs of the
fame conjugation and number of fyllables, wiiich have an acWve
voice.

67. A is long in the increments of verbs ; as ilsbam,
ftares, properamus, docebamur, audicbamini.

Serius aut citius fedem p:-opcrainn^ ad unam. Ovid.

Pugnahunt armis, qua? ^^ fabricaveroi ufus. Hor.

Et caiitdrc pares, et refpondere;'ar.7//. Virg.

Contemplator item, cum fe nux plurima filvis. Virg.

Except that do, and its compounds of the firft conju-
gation, have a fhort in their iirlt increment ; as dnmus,
diibunt, dare ; fo circundSmus, venxindiibo, kc. But

in any other increment do, like its compound* of tlie
third conjugation, is long ; as dabamus, dederatis,
circundabfimns, credamus.

Hie lacrymis vitam diimits, ct miferefcimus ukro. Virg.

Taurino quantum pofftnt rircumdliri- icrgo. Virg.

Nam<]uodconfiHum,aut qua; jam fortunat/ofto^ur.' Virg.

68. E is long in the increments of verbs ; as flebam,
rcbar, amdris, doccrem, lege.runt, amemus, amaremus,
amavifsetis, regcbat, audicbar, &c.

i

Sic cqwidem duct'cam animo, rTi-arquc fut\)ruin.
Neu juvencs cclebrct multo lermone, cacHo.

Virg.
Tibul.

Except I. E before R is (liort m the firfl increment
of all the prefent and imperfect tenfes of the third
conjugation : as legeres or Icgere, the indicative pre-
fent paiTive ; legt^re, the infinitive prefent adlive, and
imperative paflive ; legt;rem and legtircr, the imperfcft
fubjuniiive adtive and paflive. But reris and rere are
long ; as amareris, amarcre ; docereris, docerere ; rege-
reris, regerere ; audireris, audirere.

Mart.
Ovid.
Ovid.
Virg.

Parccrr perfonis, diccre de vitiis.
Sic flendus Peleus, li morerotur, erat.
Cum conllcrnatis diripereris equis.
Noilra, nequc ad fedes viftor veJierlre.

2. Beris and bere are every where fhort; as ama-
beris, amabere ; moneberis, moncbere : and among
the ancients, largiberis, experibcre of the fourth. Ex-
cepting where the b belongs to the termination of tlie
prefent ; as fcriberis and fcribere of the future pafTive
being long by the general rule.

Sanguine Trojano et Rutulo dotaftvt-, virgo. Virg.

■ Scribcris Vario fortis, et hortium — Hor.

3. E, before ram, rim, ro, and the perfons formed
from them, is fhort ; asamavcram, amaverim, amavero ;
monueram, monuerim, monucro ; rexeram, rexerim,
rexgro ; eram, fucram ; potero, potuero, &c.

Vincere, nee duro poteris convellere ferro. Virg.

4. By fyftole, the poets fometimes fhorten e before
runt; as

Obftupui_/?t'/mii!fc/Hc com.-c, ct vox faucibus hsfit. Virg.
Di tibi divitias dedirunt, artemque fruendi. Hor.

69. In every increment, (whether the firft, fecond, third,
or fourth,) I is fhort; as amabimus, docebimini, regitur,
regimus, audlmlni, audiebamini.

Mora tarda mente cedat : fimul ite ; Jequimini. Catul.
Venimus ; et latos indagine cinximus agros. Ovid.

Note. — In fuch verbs of the fourth conjugation as have in the fir;l
perlbn plural of their prefent and p.;rfeiit indicative, the fame
words, in regard to fpelling, there is a dillindtion by the quantity ;
the penultimate of the former being long, as venimus, reperimus ;
and that of the latter fhon, as venimus, reperimus.

Except I. Thefe have i long; simus, velimus, no-
llmus, with the other perfons coming from them and
their compounds ; as sitis, velitis, nolitls, nolite, noli-
tote ; malimus, malitis ; pofsimus, pofsltis, &c.

Ne nimium simus, ftultorum more, molelli. Mart.

2. I before vim preterites is always long ; as petivi,
quKsiTi, audivi, and in its derivative perfons ; as peti-
vifti, quassivit, audivimus, &c.

Ceffi et fublato montem genitore piCcl. Virg.

3. Tlie firft increment of the fourth conjugation is
long ; as audimus, auditis, auditur, audito, audlrem,
fcimtis, fcire ; and in audibam, as it is fometimes con-

6 tracled ;

QUANTITY.

traded ; an J iaibam and Iho, from eo. But when a
vowel follows, i is (liort by pofition, as audk-bani.

Nutr'ihat teneris immulgens ubeia kbris. Virg.

Lenibunt tatito vulnera iidHrii (imi. Propert.

Tu ne cede malis ; fed contra nudc-ntior ito. Virg,

Jungiinus linfpicio dextras, et le&aj'ui'imus. Virg.

Qui non edittis, (:xi\n file fabiilis. Plant.

A'„;,,. — Imus in every preterite, and in that of the fimrtli conjugation

alfo, islhon; as juvimus, vidimus, fecimus, veniinvis, amavimus,
' adoieviniMs, pcpercimus, munivTnius.

4. Rimus and ritis in the fubjunftive preterite are
fhort.

Egcrhmia na{V\ ; et nimium meminilTe necefli eft. Virg.

5. Rimus and rlitis in the perfedl future fubjunftive
are common.

Ouas oh res, ubi vida'inius nil pofle creari. I.ucret.

Net- mi aurum polco, nee imi pretium dcdcrltis. Enn.
T^'der'ilis ilelhs illic, ubi circulus axcni. Ovid.

Dein cum millia multa/ef«-ini«s. Catul.

OderTnnis magis in culpam pocnal'que creates. Manil.

Cum maris lonii tranfieritis aquas. Ovid.

l^ote — We have imiumerable examples to prove that rimis and
ritis in the perfeit future fiibjunfVive is common ; but concerning
the quantity of rimus and rilis in the preterite fubjuniHive, gram-
marians are not agreed. A difficulty in this inveftigation arifes
from the fimilarity of the two tenfes ; the latter having not un-
frequently been millaken for the former, and vice vcifd : fince
" the perfeit: of the potential feems to be both paft-perfeft con-
tingent, and future-perfert contingent. The pcrfc(;t future has
alio lb great an affinity to the preterperfeil potenti.il, that often a
word may, canliftently with the fenfi-, be fuppol'ed to belong to
either. As liicfe tenfes are ul'ually interpreted in Englifli, there
is a great refemHance in tlieir flruciure, as well as in the ideas
which they exprefs. Boi h are conipofed of verbs in prefent time,
the one a verb of prefent liberty, or the like, the other of prefent
intention or obligation ; of an infinitive denoting fubfequent or
dependent pofleflion ; and a participle (igniticant of the perfertion
of the ac'tion denoted by the verb : thus, / mai/ liav>: wrilti-n,
I Jhall have wrillcn." We find by A. Gellius, 18, a, that it
was a fuhjett of difpute at Rome, whether the tenfe in iim ought
to be conlidered as jwjl or Jut tire, or both. Such difpiites may,
perhaps, have arifen from the acceffory circumftances which are
implied, liefides the immediate attion of the verb ; in the fame
manKcr as, in Engli(h, two forms, precifely the fame in their
itruiSure and reference, are charafleriled by certain erammarians
under different times, viz. I may write, and Ijliall leritc, the
former being named, from the accefTory idea, a prefent, and
the latter, from the depending acftion, a future, while, in
reality, if we apply the fame criterion to them, they are both
prefent, or both future. Indeed it has been contended that
the future had the termination rim, as well as ro ; fo t,hat
it is reckoned not improbable that both may originally have
been but one tenfe, which had both a paft and future refer-
ence. It is evident that this is a coclideration by no means
ii'relevant, but indifpenfably necelfary, before we can, with
certainty, determine the quantity of nmus and ritis in the lub-
junflive preterite. In addition to the authorities for reckoning
rimus and ritis common, there is likewife fufficient example from
Horace, M,irtial, Ovid, Seneca, Tibullus, and Plautus, to conlider
ns of the future, at leall as common ; and this is an argument
founded on the analogy of other tenfes between the quantity of
the tin.nl fyllable of the fecund perfon lingular, and the penul-
timate of the f.rft and fecond perfuns plural, for confidering the
following rimics and ritis alfo common. — Ris, rimtis, and ritis,
are ufually accounted (hort ; but it is exceedingly probable that,
whether referred to the preterite or perfect future, they ftill
might be ufed as common.

70. O, in the increment of verbs, is always long ; as
amatote, facitote, itote.

CumquS loqui poterit, matrem/oci/iife falutet. Ovid.

71. U, in the increment of verbs, is (hort; as sumus,
poisumus, volCimus, maliimus.

Dicite, Pierides ; non omnia pofsiinius onmes. Virg.

jVoie. — For U in the penultimate of the future in rus, fee the
rule.

Skction II. — 0« the quiintity of the peniillimale and anle-
pemiliimnte fyllahhs, mid on the quantity of j'uch as are ufually
faid to be long arjhort by authority.

Note. — It Is very well known that the profodial rules, hitherto ex-
tant, determine not the quantity of every fyllable of the J-atin
language ; but of fuch only as arc more commonly afcertained
from the circumftances oi pujltioii. dcrivUion, preterites, Jupines,
increment, and Jlnat J]/tlables. Confequently, in the greater
number of inllances, the inquiries of the ftudcnt are at a (land
until lie can appeal to that obfercation, which would be more
happily employed in comlirming his previous acq.iifitions. And
thus witli but partial inftead of complete information, he arrives
at hut mere intimation, the firft llage of his progrefs, at the time
when he imquellionably might achieve the fecond, the fatiifactorv
and practical illuftration of Ids previous attainments. If we depend
on practice for the Jirjl principles of our knou ledge, we lofe its
beft and happieft effltt. Practice will always evince its molt pre-
valent efficacy, when its oliice is alone to rear the fuperltrutture
on the bafis of regular fyllem and theory, and not to attempt the
cafual and fortuitous talk uf laying a tranlitory foundation, and that
too on a vacuum, the halelefs texture of ignorance, not admitting
that analogy and arrangement, that reciprocal and corroborative
illuftration, which fo elfentially aid the intellei'tual faculty with
effeciual and permanent imprellion. The part which follo.vs is an
attempt to fupply this ilejideratum. It was obtained by four con-
fecutive analyfes of the languige, in which every word and fyllable
palled under minute and dccifive coniideration. This inveftig.nion
was undertaken in confequence of its being fufpeited, that lince it
isa general rule in the profody of the Latin language, that a vowel
ftefore two confonants, Uc. is long, that a law exiits, dire6Hy the
reverfe of this, and of not lefs extenlive influence ; viz. that a
vowel before a iin^e confonant is ihort : though each of thefe
general and very extenlive rules, may have, in fpecial cafes, their
exceptions. The refult juliified the expectation, and proved, that
principally with the addition of another general rule, the profodial
fyllem might become fo comprehenfive, as to include and provide
for the whole langtuge ; and confequently, for all thofe fyllables
ufually faid to be long or fhort only by authority. The exceptions
to this general principle are chiefly included in the rules for the
penultimate and antepenultimate fyllables. And though fome of
thefe have appeared in former treatifes, yet from their enlarge-
ment, the addition of others, the general rule, and its mora
fpecial exceptions, which have arifen from the repeated analyfis
we have undertaken, it will be eafy to perceive, that we have in
this part fome claim to originality. In the preceding rules, and
in fuch as (hall follow on final fyllables, in juftice to the fubjedf and
our readers, we have felt it indifpenfably incumbent on us to avail
ourfelves of the valuable refearches of preceding and contemporary
profodians. And the originality of this fection places us under
the obligation of devoting peculiar attention, efpccially to the de-
monftrative part, that every rule and exception, wiiich we now
(iril offer, might not appear to reft on our bare affertion, but on
the only legitimate warrant, poetic fandlion. And thus, perhaps,
we have now the opportunity, for the tirft time, of offering tie
only complete collection or fyllem which determines the quantity
of every fyllable, at leart of pure and Auguftan Latin, that has
hitherto been prel'ented to the public.

1. Mafculine patronymics in ades or ides ufually (horten
the penultimate ; as Priamidcs, Atlanticides.

Atque hic/)!'/nm it/em laniatuui corpore toto. Virg. JEn. 6. 494.

1. Except thofe formed from .nouns in eus ; as
' PelTdes.

2. Alio 'Amphiaraides, ^BelTdes, ■'Japetionldes,
^ Lycurgldes.

I . Par (Ibi Pelides : .nee inania Tartara fentit. Ovid. iVIet. i z. 619.
z. Ampliiartiides Naup.-!rtoo .--Vcheloo. Ovid. Faf. 2. 43.

3. Beitdie nomeii P.ilamcdis et i^jclyta fama. Virj:. /En. I. 82.

4. J«;),'i/imH/« Atlas fuit. Ultima tellus. Ovid. Met. 4. 632.

5. Quique /.i/c«)gWt'n lethavit, et arbore natum. Ovid, in lb, S^S-

2. Patronymics and fimilar words in ais, eis, and o/V,
lengthen the penultimate ; as Achais, Ptolemais, Chryseis,
^ncis, Minois, ■ and Latois.

Protinus .Egides, rapti Minoide, Dian. Ovid. Met. 8. 174.

Except 'Thebais and -Phocais : * Nereis is common.

■■' 1. The.

QUANTITY.

<. TUcbtttdis juflis I'lia tcinpora froiidibus oniaiit. O/ul. Met. 6. 163.

1. I'kociis efFundit vnftos b.iUilU molares. Silius Ital. i. 334.

3. Et tibi prx invidia Nereides increpitarojit. Prop. i. a6. 1.;.

4. Nerii, tevereor; tua fulmine fev'ior ira e!l. Ovid. Met. 13.858.

3. Words ending in actis, kus, and hliis, fhorten the pe-
nultimate ; as 'jCgyptiacus, 'aromaticus, ■'callidus.

1. Quos ./Sg?/p///j'rt>.\' Temper renuifti.s ab svo — C'dc.

2. Idalise Uicos, ubi mollis omuracits ilium — Virg. /En. i . 693.

3. Vnhfaltd'ifir, cecinit qua: prim.T fiiniriis. Virg. JEn. 8. 340.

4. Utquefuitmlaqueis, quoscnW(/Hsabdiditaiiceps. Ovid.

1. Except 'Meracus, 'opacus, 'amicus, ^apricus,
*antlcus, 'ffcus, 'mendlcus, ''pollicus, 'pudTcus,
'"umbilicus, "vTcus.

2. Alfo "nidus, "sidus; '■'fidus, infldus : but
"perfidus (from per and J Jes), follows the general
rule.

I. Ah ! pereat quicunque mm/cas repperit uvas. Prop. 2. 3. 27.

:;. Continui monies, nifi diUbcicntur opcrra. Hor. Epift. i. 16.

3. Elfe tibi niagnus, Thelefine, videris (im'nns— Mart. 3. 40. 3.

4. Duceret apricis in coUibiis uva colortm. Virg. licl. 9. 49.

5. Et I'uper anticos in frontis imagine crines — Mill.

6. Cum meficus .ilat, cum palcar dulcibu!> uvis. Mart. 13. 49.

7. Nee mendicu fei.it barbati prandla nudi — Mar. 14. 8r.

8. Occipiti cxco, pifJIioE occurrite fanna?. Perl', i. 62.

9. Perduci poterit tam frugi tamqvie ;)i(rf?ci. Hor. b. 2. s. 5. 77.

10. Nee umbilicts quod decorus et cedro. M.irt. 8. 61.

11. Ettua patricius culmina I'icHs liabet. Mart. 7. 7s.

12. Ore ferunt, dulcem )im/m immitibus efcnm. Virg. G. 4. 17.

13. Hoc metuens, cccli menle.s et s'ulern ferva. Virg. G. 1.33.?.

14. Fortimata domus, \r.oib CiX uhifhlus am'icus. Prop. 3. 20. 9.

15. Diirimulare etiam Qieradi, perf'idc tantmn. Virg. .'En. 4. 305.

4. Words ending in ' imits or 'ymus, fliorten the penulti-
mate ; as finitimus, maximus, thymus, fortisslmus.

Thus animus, decimus, fimus, octmuir., anonymus,
callionymus, and all adjectives and fuperlatives in imus
ftiorten the penultimate.

1. Entelle heroumquondam/D?;(/s™e fruftra. Virg.. ■En. 5. 389.

2. Fervet opus, redolentque thy-mo Iragrantia mella. Virg. G. 4. 169.

1. Except 'blmus, 'llnius, 'mlmus, ■'opimus, ^qua-
drimus, ^'slmus, 'trlmus.

2. And two fuperlatives, Imus and primus.

1. Turn vituloSjftiTJffS curvans, jam corniiafronte. Virg. Gcorg.

2. i™»s ut hicdurelcit,et hacnt ceraliquei'cit. Virg. Eel. 8. 80.

3. Scribere (i fas eft imitantes tvirpia mimos — Ovid. Trilt. 2.515.

4. Aut fpoliis ego jam raptis laudabor o;)!m;s. Virg. y?in. lO. 449.

5. Deprome (;u«nf?-hn)fm Sabin^. Hor. b. i. od. 9. 7.

6. Dum tenera attondent simic virgulta capella. Virg. Eel. 10.7.

7. Qu^, velut latis equa t?-5/)m campis — Hor.b.3.od. Ii.v,9.

Note. — The quantity of the penultimate of patrimus and matrimus
is undetermined : Facciolatus, the Italian lexicographer, fays ** lis
eft inter giammaticos de qiiantitate eorum penultima, qux adhuc
eft fub judice, quia Mihil ceni afferri adhuc potuit."

5. Other vowels before final mus or mum are long ; as ra-
mus, remus, pomum, dumus.

So am5mum, camus, cardamomum, cinnaraomum,
demum, extremus, fumus, grumus, hamus, poftremus,
promus, racemus, fupremus, volemum.

Sylvellrib raris fparfit labrufca raclmis. Virg.

I. Except 'atomus, -balsamum, 'cinnamum, •'do-
mus, 'glomus, 'humus, poftumus, * thalamus, -to-
mus.

. 2. And words ending in dromus, from the Greek
)f(>^oi ; as epidroraus, hemerodromus.

I. Parvarum ferie conftant connexa atomorum. An.

a. & 3. £uhtimaK{u\ femper, cinnam/t femperolet. Mart,

4. Nan unquam gravis acre d'^mwrn mihi dextra redtbat. Virg.

5. Ut vinofa glmnos furtivse Pyrrhia lan^ — J|or.

6. Spargite AiijHMirt foliis, inducite fontibiis umbras. Virg.

7. Silvius, Albanum nomen, tuapo/liiina proles. Virg.

8. Poft ubi jam thalXmis fc compofuere, filctur.

9. Scriptura quanti cunfiet, et li/nim vilis.

Virg.
Mart.

6. A vowel before final le, 'lit, or 'let, is long; as mo-
iiTle, annalis, moles.

So ancile, bovlle, biile, caprile, crinale, focale, fce-
nlle, lie, incile, mantele, mantile, ovile.

And ales, anilis, aprllis, civllis, carduelis, curulis,
crudelis, conjugalis, dotalis, cxHis, fidelis, herllis,
miles, patruelis, proles, quinftHis, fubtilis, fextllis,
Sec. with many others.

1. Et opjjortuno fe iiowi/i condidit. Phaedr.

2. At qui umbratagerunt «'!<i// tempora quercu. Virg.

3. Tota cohors. Rarus venit in ca*nacula ni^^?5. Juven.

1. Except 'verbal nouns or adjeftives ; a« agilis,
amabilis, facilis, insile, mifsilis, milsile, utilis.

2. And all adjeftives in atilh; as aquatilis, fluvia-
tihs, plicatilis, volatilis.

3. Al(o dapsilis, daftylis, 'gracilis, 'humilis.
■indoles, 'parilis, ''fimilis, ' fterilis, "fuboles.

1. Nee tibi deliciiEyflc?/e.5, vulgataque tantum. Ovid.

2. Pallor agens telis, liquitque volat'de ferrum. Virg.

3. Dajmlis cxcepit di(^tis, Cercremque ferentes. Falifc.

4. Hmc pedem fi ceperimus, edere iterum daClplum. Terent

5. Et grac'dtA ftru6tos effugit umbra rogos. Ovid.

6. Atque hum'des habitare cafa.s, et figere cervos. Vhrg.

7. Quid pius -^neas tanta dabit indUe dignum ,? Virg.

8. Et no61es;)ar?/es agitare diebus. Lucret.

9. Stes capite obftipo, multum Jimjiis metuenti. Hor.
10. FTic, ^/?er//e7H exiguus ne deferat humor arenam. Virg.
r 1 . Denfior hinc f}bok'Sy hinc largi copia laCtis. Virg.

7. Adjeftives in inus derived from nouns fignifying 'trees,
■plants, and Hones; alfo from 'adverbs of time, or from
fubftaatives fignifying the four feafons of the year, (horten
the penultimate ; as faginus, hyacinthinus, adamantinus,
craftinus, diutinus, perendinus, chimerinus, annotinus, hor-
notinus : to which add bombycinus, elephantinus, which
feem rather to refer to the filk and ivory, than to the animals
themfelves.

1. Truditur e ficco radix olenghia ligno. Virg.

2. Grandia toUtmtur en//7a//?»a, maxima rurfus. 7.

3. M)/rrhma^ deinde adamas notiflimus. \

4. Et lux cum primum terris fe crajima reddet. Virg.

5. Delicias et panniculus Z>oni6^c?K«j urit. Juven.

Except 'repentlnus, ^matutlnus, ^ vefpertlnus.

1. Inque rg;ew(^HOS convivia verfa tumultus. Ovid.

2. Jiiatutina parum cantos jam frigora mordent. Hor.

3. Nee vefpertinus circumgemit urfus ovile. Hor.

Note. — ^The penultimate of malinus, Ainfworth, as well as everv
Englifh lexicographer, h-is, without any poetic authority, marked
long. Facciolatus, however, gives it that quantit}*, which, as de-
rived from malus, a tree, it certaiirly fhould have.

8. AU other adjeftives and words ending in 'mus lengthen
the penultimate ; as canlnus, binus, trinus, feftlnus, La-
tinus, medialtlnus.

Vix primes inopma quies laxaverat anus. Virg.

Except 'asinus, ^cominus, ^dorainus, "eminus,
'facinus, 'sinus, 'terminus.

1. Suadebat Asino fugere, ne pofTet capi. Phafdr.

2. & 4. Comhius enfe ferit ; jaculo cadit einmus ipfe. Ovid.

3. Turn caput ipfi aufert dom'nio^ truncumque relinquit. Virg.

5. Nondum Julliiiam facmua mortale fugarat. Ovid.

6. Nunc tantum 5mws, et ftatio malelida carinis. Virg.

7. Ouici mque mundt ternunus obltitit. Hor.

9. Other vowels before final nut and num are long ; as
urbanus, plenus, donum, miinus.

So ahenus, fanum, pronus, prunus, ferenus, vene-

nuiB,

QUANTITY.

num, vanus, and many others ; for the nouns and ad-
jeftives comprifcd by this rule are numerous.
Aut mnnlmxi Icdct circum caftell.i Tub armis. Virg.

Except galbanus, maims, oceanus, "platanus,
'tympanum; 'ebenus, 'genus, "tenus, 'Venus ; 'bo-
nus, "onus, "sonus, 'tonus.

1 . Fulcos colores, Gnlbanos habet mores. Mart,

2. Et mihnts in gremio languida fadta jacet. Ovid.

3. Quid tantuni ucctino propcrcnr fo tingere foles. Virg.

4. Non line natanti plcilmn\ lentaque forore. Catul.

5. Hinc radios trivere rotis, hinc iy?Hprma pUullris. Virg.

6. Fert cb'inum^ folis eft thurea virga Sabxis. Virg.

7. Idiie eft vcrum ? Im5, id^'Crt^/selt iiotiiinum pefTunium. Ter.

8. Eft quAdam prodire t'iniis^ II noiidatur ultra. Hor.

9. Sic f^mts ; at f^nt'vis contra fie Hliu.s ortus. Virg.
ID. At bona pars procerum tacitS libabit accrra. i'erlius.

11. Tupueriscurre,Parmenoobviam,atquehis5jtfraadjuta. Ter.

12. Omnibus auditur. Smiia eft, qui vivit in ilia. Ovid.

13. Ta;dia dukisOnis auferat ilia tmii. Cato.

10. Words ending in ino or tnor (horten the penultimate;
as lino, fulmino, termino.

So stno, inquino, coinquino, circino, femino, gran-
dino, germino, eminor, procrailino, comperendino ;
the compounds of cano, as concTno, and many others.

Nunc smite, et placitum Ijeti componite fosdus. Virg.

Except 'divino, 'omnlno, proplno, ''fupTno; alfo
^clino, and its 'compounds, as acclTno, incline, pro-
clino, reclTno.

1. Htc div'mavi, notitiamqiic tuli. Ovid.

2. Non impulit me, lisc nunc omnhio ut crederem. Terence.

3. a emo projnnabit, Calllodore, tibi. Mart.

4. Gramen, et eret^to currum tenione fupinant. Stat.

5. Quare etiam, atque etiam paulum c''"f're neceiTe. Lucret.

6. /nc/ma£ curfus; et eafdcm tvVcf/mi auras. Ovid.

1 1 . Other vowels before final no or nor are long ; as
mano, exareno, pono, Juno.

So piano, trano, fereno, dono, conor, and feveral
others.
Hac te nos fragili dbnabimus ante cicuta. Virg.

Except 'cano, "reno, -'honor, ■'sono, and Hono.

1. Sicelides Mufe, paullo majora canamns. Virg.

2. Sed juremus in hxc; fimul imis laxa rcHrtr/H^ Hor.

3. Sed cum fummus Aonor finitu computet anno. Juven.

4. Te lyra pulfa manu, te carmina noftra smabmit, Ovid.
J. Cum /'ma/, exanimes prime quoque munnure cosli — Juven.

12. A vowel before final na is long ; as lana, vena, fpnia,
nona, Liina, rana, arena, arvina, carina.

Hic r(?gma gravem gemmis auroque popofcit. Virg,

Except 'advena, "buccTna, 'domina, ''gena, 'fifcina,
'foemina, 'machina, *pagina, 'farcina, "tibicina,
"trutina.

1. Non tamen hofpes eris, nee j.am potes arfi'oia dici. Mart.

2. Sed qui ferniones ? Qua.* tccd.e tucc/zia fama? ? Juven.

3. Concurrunt trepidae comites, donunamquc recentem — Virg.

4. Pendentelque g?«as, et tales afpice nigas. Juven.

5. PreflaquG flammeola rumpatur J?/t'i'Ha caltha. Col.

6. Fcenihia palantes agtt, atque hiec agmina vertit ? Virg.

7. Aut h:ec in noftros fabricata eft mac/ihta muros. Virg,

8. Quam fibi qua? Vari prxtcripfit pagina nomen. Virg.

9. Muli gravati farc'tnis ibant duo. Phsedr.
10. Ebria nos madidis rumpit tibicma buccis. A-Iart.
ri. Si volet, hac lege in trntma ponctur eadem. Hor.

lontr:

14,

duceni, and other numerals in en't ; fo ffinis, accllnis,
inclinis, inanis, commijnis, immiinis, communis, im-
miJHis, &c.

1. Et qu£e mmi rcfert, et qua; furgeniibus aftris. Virg.

2. His dcnas Italo texnmus robore naves. Virg,

3. Qufid vivis: chiis, et mmifs et fabula ties, Perf".

4. O curashominum ! O quantum eft in rebus ina«e/ Perf.

Except bene, 'sine, ^penes, "canis, 'cinis, 'ju-
venis ; and 'nouns derived from /nai»o^ai, as hippo-
manes, trichomanes.

Vivitur parvo bene, cui paternum —

Mollia cum duris, sine pondere habentia pondus.

Me penes eft unum vafti cuftodia mundi.

Sic Cfinibus catulos fimiles, ^^^ matribus h^edos.

For c'mis, fee verfe 3. under' the above rule.

6. Clamolus J«w?ncm pater excitat ; accipe ceras.

7. HippomSnes, quod fjcpi malse legirc novercae.

A vowel before final 'nea,

Hor.

Ovid.
Ovid.
Virg.

Juven.

Virg.

neo, 'ma, ''mo.

s, and
ng ; as linea, caneo, miinia, punio, favonius.

"mum, is long

fcrlnium.

So aranea, ganeo, declTneo, delTneo, iTneo, cic5nia,
msania, Ir5nia, colonia, alccdonia, lacinia, querimonia,
delenio, exinanio, finio, insanio, miinio, conflnium,
patrimonium, vadimonium, and many others.

I , In foribus iaxos fulpendit aranea c.iffes, Virg.

. Carpamus T dum mane novum, dum gramina C(7«eni, Virg.

. Sievit amor ferri, et fcelerata insmua belli. Virg,

Oppida cceperunt miinire, et ponere leges. Hor.

Primo reftituent vere Faviinii. Hor.

Pullati proceres, differt vadimtmia prietor. Juvew,

1. Except 'caftanca, Hinea, 'maneo, •'mineo,
moneo, 'teneo.

2. Alfo 'ignominia, 'venia, 'linio, '°lanio, "venio.

9-

10.
II,

CaJlanciB molles, et prefli copia laftis. Virg,

Aut tineas pafces taciturnus inertes, Hor,

Qua finis .' Aut quod me mthiet ftipendium, Hor.

Inclinata mhicnt in eandem prodita partem. l.ucret.

Aliquid ini''u.'aty ut ilia, quce te fcire credas, nefcias, Ter.

Utque viam icneas, nulloque errore traharis. Ovid,

Multa gemens, ignommium, plagaique fuperbi, Virg.

Orantes veniavi, et templum clamore petebant, Virg.

Neve tua Meda; Ihiiantnr csede fagitt;e. Propert.

Ouin lament mundum; tanta eft difcordia fratrum, Ovid.

Momento cita mors oenit, aut vi(Storia IcCta. Hor,

15. A vowel before final Jo is long ; as vado, cedo, for-
mido, rodo, teftijdo.

So rado, credo, alcedo, dulcedo, cupido, crepido,
nodo, ciido, liido, altitiido, beatitiido, and many
others ; for the nouns and verbs comprifed by this rule
are very numerous.

Po/Te putes Illes ficco freta r«A'rc paffii. Ovid,

Except 'cado, 'divido, ^trepido; and''rudo\ which
is common ; and 'edo, to eat ; edo, to declare, pub-
lifii, &c. (the prepofition e being long,) follows the
above rule.

1. Multa renafcentur, quie jam cccidere, caf/en/yuc. Hor,

2. Dividimus muros, ct msnia pandimus urbis. Virg,

3. Cftm fubit6 (rqifrforc intus prxcordiafenfi. Ovid,

4. Findor ; ut Arcadia? pecuaria rudere credas, Pei-f.

5. Inclufumque cavo faxo, atque infueta riidentitm. Virg,

6. Ut ver6 eft ^xpulfa quies ; furit ardor edendi. Ovid, *

he-

13. A vowel before final 'tie, ^n't, ■ iies, *nis, is
mane, seni, manes, finis.

So bulblne, anemone, confine, pene ; bini, lucani,
antepilani, quini, fepteni, oftoni, noveni, deni, viceni.

16. E before final rus, ra, rum, is fhort ; as merus,
dera, casterum.

The nouns and adjeftives comprifed by this rule are
numerous.

Ite domum fatur^, venit Hefptrus^ ite capella;.
Certum eft, in fylvis, inter fpelaa/franim.

Virg.
Virg.

I. Except

QUANTITY.

r. Except 'aufterus, 'galtrus, 'plcrufque, ■'scrus,
'feverus, Serus ; 'pera, "ccra, and Mincerus, from

line cera.

2. And though of anthera, Oenothera, ftatera, there
is no poetic fanSion, they are long by derivation from
a'A^a, Stifsui', and raTnjx, fo pantliera (Virg. JEn. 8.
460.) from Sic.

1. Qui volet aii/?«os arte ferire viros. Prop.

2. Bina nianu, fulvofque lupi de pelle i^alero.i. Virg.

3. fliraqtte diflciat, et priEl'eiis in tempus omittat. Hor.

4. Scrus in offenf.im rcttuleiitque pcdciii. TibuU

5. Cum fit ti-illc habitu, vultuque et vnHefmrum. Juven.

6. K«-um, quid facJM? Ut homo eft, ita morem geras. Ter.

7. I'rrns impol"uit Jupiter nobis duas. Phxdr.

8. Ljmus ut hic durtlcit, et haec ut cent liquefcit. Virg.

9. Enfe reddendum ; ne pars fmcera trahatur. Ovid.

17. Other vowels before final ' rus, ■ rn, ^rum, are long ;
as carus, minis, morus, miirus ; hara, fpira, ora, natiira,
lorum, &c.

So ara, tiara, Tra, lira, hora, aurora, lora, manti-
cora, prora, captura, figiira, censiira ; alfo the nouns,
adjeftives, and participles in rus, &c. are very nu-
merous.

1. Exultans rorem lat^ dilpergit nmiiruwi. Virg.

2. Vela legunt focii, et proras ad littoia torquent. Virg.

3. Punlceo tingit pendentia wtora colore. Ovid.

1. Except 'barbarus, =cammarus, 'camurus, ^can-
tharus, ^chorus, *helleborus, 'nurus, 'opiparus, 'ovi-
parus, '"fparus, "Tartarus, '-torus.

2. Alfo "anchora, "cithara, '^mora, "purpiira,
"philyra.

3. And the following in mm ; ''forum, "fupparum,
-°garum, "pan\m.

4. Alfo the -'compounds of -voro, as carnivorus,
omnivorus ; thofe ending in '"phorus and phora, from
Jfji;, as amphora, canephora, echphora, phofphorus,
ciitophorus, &c. ; and the derivatives of a^yu^o-:, as
hydrargyrum, lithargyrus.

I. ^flritrMS hie ego t'um, quia non intelligoruUi. Ovid.

1. Sed tibi dimidio conftrii^tus Cmnnifinn ovo. Juven.

3. Pes etiam et camiirzs hirt^ fub cornibus aures. Virg.

4. Et gravis attrica pendebat fan(/;(7r?(6- ans4. Virg.

5. Dodtus et Phcebi churns, er Dians. Hor.

6. SciUanique, hdlebm-ofqun graves, nigrumque bitumen. Virg.

7. Si qua tibi nurus eft, fi qua eft tibi filia, voces. Ovid.

8. Vino ornamentis opipfirifquc opfoniis. Plant.

9. Prspinguis teres, ovipara congeftior alvo. Aufon.

10. Agreftilc.ue manus armat ,/;)";-!(S ; vertitur ipfe. Virg.

11. Tartfira Panthoiden itorum Oreo — Hor.

1 2. Proximus ut viridante tnro confederat herbse. Virg.

13. .(^«c/K''/-a jam noftram non tenet ulla ratcm. Ovid.

14. Non ftudio cithurfTy nee Mnla? deditus ulli. Hor.

15. Troja cadet; fed erit noftri nvira longd laboris. Ovid.

16. Per hoc inane ;jiir;>?Jj-«? decus precor. Hor.

17. Difplicent ne>::e />/(/(y''^ coronce. Hor,

18. Infanumque J'yrHTn, aut populi tabularia vidit. Virg.

19. .S';(;);;//ra nudatos cingunt angufta lacertos. Lucret.

20. Preifit cella, gtiro de fueei.s pifcis Iberi. Hor.

21. Matutina ;>(7;'uni cautos jam fri^ora mordent. Hor.

22. Mittere caryiivm-is prasberi p.ibula mandat. An.

~ 23. PAo/;)/( fire redde diem; quid gaudia noftra moraris ? Mart.
24. Ainphora non meruit tarn pretiofa mori. Mart.

18. E before final ro or ror is fhort ; as fero, gero,
tero.

So tempero, alpero, blatero, caetero, capero, celero,
confidero, defidero, fcelero, propero, s2ro (to fow),
queror, &c.
Ver{im, quid facias.^ ut homo eft, ita morem ^eras. Ter.

Except 'fpero; -affevero and ^perfevero from fe-

verus, and the adverb '•scro from ucrus j for Scro, to
fow, is (hort.

1. Sjirrrt idem, fudet nudium fniftraque Uborct, Hor.

2. Profitebitur, jurabit, tiffeverabit. Scaz

3. Polt manes tumuUnnque ;;(^r/t7;'h-«i. Mar'

4. Veriim. Age mod6 hodie ; struacnequidquam vol«s. Ter.

19. Otiier vowels before final /-a or ro/- are long ; as varo,
fpTro, oro, uro.

So liro, tiro, inquiro, acquiro, coHquiro, ploro,
laboro, auftoro, ignoro, cijro, figuro, luror, duro,
and many others.
Delicias et panniculus bombycinus iirit. Juven.

1. Except 'aro, ^caro, 'furo, ''hilaro, 'inforo,
'"moror, 'paro, "faturo, 'voro.

2. Alfo the 'derivatives from genitives incrcafing
fhort in oris or uris ; as decoro, n-.urmiiro, from decus-
oris, murmur-iiris.

So memoro from memor-oris ; corporor from corpus-
oris ; roboro from robus-oris ; exauguro from augur-
iiris ; fulguro fro.m fulgur-uris ; expccloro from pec-
tus-oris.

1. Littus nrani, Rutulofque exercent vom'ere colics. Virg.

2. Scd mal^ viva ctiro eft. Lambendo mater in anus — Ovid.

3. Quid fiiris? Aut quonam noftri tibi cura rcceflit. Virg.

4. Hos ubi facundo tua vox hilSraverat ore. Ovid.

5. I.icetne infwarCj ti incomitiare non licet ? Plaut.

6. Quid vitam viorur invifam, Pallante perempto. Virg.

7. Umbras, et coelo diffundere figna ;;«r(j6a^. Hor.

8. Qua fatiirat Calabris culta Galefis aquis .' Mart.

9. Optima lylvarum interea, pelagique vurabit. Juven.
10. Et validas auget vires, et roborat i<^um. Lucret.

20. Words ending in 'aiiis, ^elus, ^otus, ^vtus, lengthen
the penultimate ; as probatus, cetus, totus, tiitus.

So gratus, facet us, boletus, potus, agrotus, argiitus,
altiitus, brOtus, hirsiitus, mutus, and many others ;
alfo participles in atus, itus, olus, and utus, as man-
datus, decretus, notus, miniitus, metiitus, conftitiitus,
volutus, &c.

1. O fortunruos nimium, fua fi bona norint ! Virg.

2. Turem impeditam et p«rditam rellituas? hem ! quo 7„

Jrclus fum. 5

3. Facile omnes, cum valemus, _refta confilia, argroft-s 7_,

damns. 5

4. T'w^a manent; mediis Tanais fumavit in undis. Ovid.

1. Except 'catus, ^latus-eris, 'ftatus-us ; ^impetus,
^metus, ""vetus ; and 'antidotus.

2. *Venetus is fhort by derivation from Venetias ;
'quotas from quot ; '^totus (fo great), from tot, for
totus is long ; and "arbutus from arbor-arboris.

3. Of dicrotum, and automatus from automaton,
there is no poetic authority.

4. Except alfo the plural genitives of nouns ending
in ma-matis ; as poematum.

5. And the participles datus, ratus, satus, ftatus ;
for which fee the rule concerning diflyllabic fupincs.

1. Meplusraperequamvos,dederimvobisconfiliumc6r^Kr?i. Plaut.

2. Impulit in Ictus, et venti, velut agmine iaifo — Virg,

3. Etenimver6quoniamfonnamcepihujusinmeety/«(wm. Plaut.

4. yEquora ; fie illain fert ?7n^e/io' ipfe volantem. Virg.

5. Necdum eft ille dolor, fed jam itifias incubat amens. Lucan.

6. Et Vetera oblitis jura referrc foris. Propert.

7. Et venditaret falib autidotum nomine. Phjedr.

8. Sic yeiiitus ft&gnante Pado, fufdque BritannuE — Lutan,

9. & 10. Nee /o(a pars homo terrai, yic/fa <(;</as unus. Lucret,
n. Inferitur ver6 ex foetu nucis ar6?i^it5 horrida. Virg.

21. Words ending in itus lengthen the penultimate; as
auritus, crinitus, invltus, peritus.

Fac jam tu, prsco, nunc omnem auritum populum. Plaut.

I. Except

QUANTITY.

1. Except 'anhelitus, 'fervitus, ^fpiritus, and-Tur.
piritus.

2. Alfo ^all adverbs in ilus ; as humanitus, penitus.

3. ' Blitum is not derived from the termination ilus,
but from pxnov, and therefore (hortehs the penulti-
mate,

4. Alfo polyfyllablic participles in ilus, not derived
from preterites in Ivi ; as habitus, cxercitus-a-um, and
nouns derived from them ; as habitus-us, and exer-
citus-us.

5. And the participles from the verb eo, and its
compounds ; as transitus-a-um, and their derivatives ;
as transitus-us ; the participle ambitus is, however,
long, and the noun ambitus-us fhort.

T. it 4. Siniul enunciuto JhJjurUus, Vix fufferOj^ pi

hercle, anhel'Hum. 3

a. Apud me juila et cleniens fuerit fervUus. Ter.

3. Dum memor ijile mei, Awvn fpiritus hos reget anus. Virg.

5. Infequor, et caufas />t'uf/u.f tentare latentcs. Virg.

6. Apponunt rumicem, brafilcam, hetam, bl'ttum. Plaut.

For the 4th and 5th exceptions, fee the rules for polyfyllabic fupines.

22. A vowel befo're final ^ nun, ''mens, 'mentum, is long;
as levamen, clemens, amentum.

So aciimen, crimen, flamen, fliimen, gramen, jur-
gamen, volQmen, argiimentum, jiimentum, atramen-
tum, and many others ; the nouns comprifed by this
rule being numerous.

1. Flnminfbus falices, cralTique paludibus aini. Virg.

2. Ego banc c/CTn^nfem vitam, urbanum, atque oiium. Ter.

3. Stramenta defunt. ToUere h^c aranea. Phadr.

1. Except 'tamen, '^coliimen, 'hymen, ■'elementum.

2. Alfo *alimentum, ''dociimen or documentHm,
'emolumentum, 'monimentum or monumentum, 're-
gimen, '"fpecimen, " tegimen or tegumen and inte-
gumentum.

3. And fuch verbs as fremo, gemo, &c. will na-
turally (horten the penultimate of fremens, gemens, &c.

Note. — The irregularity of fuch words as monimentum, docflmen-
tum, &c. has lieen confidered as arifing from the lupine of the
fecond or third conjugation; which originally, before the effeft of
fyncope, is fuppofed to have generally been in U vi; as moneo,
monitum, monimentum ; doceo, or dokeo, dokitum, and by fyn-
cope dok'-tum or doftum ; whence dokimentum or docdmentum,
&c. But if thefe verbal nouns were primitively deducible from
their fupines, many of them muft have fubfequently aflumed the
charad^eriilic of the infinitive prefent, as the g of regimen and
tegimen will teftify. See Salmon's Stemmata Latinitatis on the
terminations men and mentum.

1. bed tiimen iidem olim curru fuccedere fueti. Virg.

2. Bone cuftos, falve ; coluincn verb famiUa?. Ter.

3. Vulgus Ht/men H^nentee vocat, fuglt ille vocantes. Ovid.

4. Doitores, elementa velint ut difcere prima. Hor.

5. Atque ipfffi vitiis funt afhnevta vices. Ovid.

6. Et docmnenta damus, qua fimus origine nati. Ovid.

7. Nullus in urhe locus, nuWa emoliimoitn laborum. .Tuven.

8. Hie dabat, hceredes monhnoUuni ne fequeretur. Hor.

9. In quo confilium vitse, reghncnque locatum eft. Lucret.

10. Hocc' etiam in primisyJjt'c^Hfn verum efTi videtur. Lucret.

11. Iliac ego mihi femper habui aetati ^'jTf/nif'rt/w??! mea^. Plaut.

23. A vowel before final 'ma, '^mes, '■mis, is long; as
llama, limes, fublTmis.

So agema, dama, fama, pliima, poema, rima, riima,
sima, fquama, fpuma, ftruma, fomes, trames, illimis,
comis, semis, deplumis, deciremis, quadriremis, quin-
queremis, infamis, and many others in each of thefe
terminations.

\. Cum canibus timidae venient ad pocula d'nna*. Virg.

*. Kxcitat invalidas admoto /"wm/fe flammas. Lucan.

3. Subltmes in equis redeunt, pacemque reoortanf. Virg.

V<5i,. XXIX.

1. Except 'coma, ^cornes, 'cucumis, "fames, 'in-
columis, 'lacryma, 'nimis, "pyramis.

2. Alfo the ■'derivatives'" of animus and decimus ;
as anima, exanimis, decima or deciima.

3. "Dynamis and '"endromis have their penultimate
regulated by the Greek fhort a and 0 ; as ivvxfjj;,

I. CTmiuntur nodra, matre jubente, con'is. Ovid.

1. Jamque ctrmcs femper magnorum prima malorum. \ i „.,_

4. Siva fames aderat t nulloque obfcflus ab hofte. J

3. Ca;ruieus cuclimis, tumidoque rvicurbita ventre. Propert.

5. Fecit ; et incolliinis lictor qu6dvivit in urbe. Hor.

6. Cogat et invitam /(jcr'/nmi liccare cadentes. Propert.

7. Fortuna multis dat nhiih, fatis nulli. Mart.

8. Non milii /ji/ramidum tumu'.is evulfus Amafi.s. Lucan.

9. Tanti»mfmmin.«,nobisaiiimKmquoque;mutuusutnos. Juven.

10. 'I'ibi propino deciima fonte : tibi tut^ unde, fi fapb. PUut.

1 1 . Dynumin domi habent maxumam. Plauu
1%. Dona peregrinam mittimus endri'imida. Mart.

A'b/e.— Ainfworth refers to Plaut. Trinum. 3. 3. 15. for colQmi:
Taubmanni edi'. anno 1621, has '• Columen te fiftere illi, et
detraxe autument." The editions of Lambinus and Camerarius
have alfo colflmen, according to the mod ancient MSS. and edi-
tions. Facciolatus confiders colQmis to be of doubtful authority : it
cannot, therefore, be admitted as an exception to this rule. For
columen, fee rule ii. No. I.

24. I or Y, or a vowel derived from the (hort increment
of the genitive, before final mo or mor, is fhort ; as animo,
ajftimo, decimo, lacrymo, and hiemo from hiems-emis.

Quo redit ad faftos, et virtutem aejlhnet annU. Hor.

Except 'limo and 'rimor.

I. Limnt non odio obfcuro morfuque venenant. Hor.

S. Dulcibus in ftagnis rlmantur prata Ca'iftri. Virg.

25. Other vowels before final mo or mor are long ; at
clamo, nemo, promo, siimo.

So famo, fquamo, temo, demo, poftremo, fumo,
irriimo, fpiimo, rumor, &c.
Excutit et longe lapfum temme relinquit. Virg.

Except 'amo, ^autumo, ^cremo, *d6mo, *em(»
'fremo, 'gemo, 'homo, 'premo, '"tremo, "tiimor,
"vomo.

1. VotuminiTma7t(enovum;veUem,quodffmajiiusabenet. Ovid.

2. Neque I'e id pigere, et deinde fafturum autumal. Ter.

3. Atque omnem ornatum, flammS crepitants, crcmnri. Virg.

4. Non anni domuere decern, non mille carina. Virg.

5. Si quis emat citharas, emptas comportet in unum. Hor.

6. Poll tergum iiodis, frernit horridus ore cruento. Virg.

7. Parte llagellari gimuit fua robora caudje. Ovid.
S. Homo fum ; humani nihil a me alienum puto. Ter.
9. Ignofci ; premit ille graves interritus iras. Lucan.

10. Tempellas conculfa ?rojizV, /rem?>»yyHe moventur. Lucret.

11. Cuflodum et nullo fepta tnmore, placet. Propert.

12. Mane I'alutantum toti.st<5mi«zdibus undam. Virg.
Note. — ComO-ere follows the general rule ; but c«mo-Sre, a verb

feldom ufed, (hortens the penultimate : both are derived from
cOma.

26. A vowel before final lo or lor is long ; as calo, celo,
pTlo, solo.

So halo, malo, velo, silo, nolo, palor, sSlor, pe-
ciilor, and feveral others.

Excipit, ac felTos opibus solatur amicis. Virg.

I. Except 'alo, 'calor, ^color, dole (^noun or
Werb), ''dolor, 'molo, 'ventilo, 'volo, and '"colo-ere,
to cultivate, but "colo-are, to filter, foUowi the ge-
neral rule.

2. Alfo the penultimate of "'consiilo is ftiort, from
nful-ulis; fo «gelo from gelu, and '"aflimllo from

3. Except

con
fimllis

Cc

QUANTITY,

a. Except alfo "verbs in ulo or ulor, wliicJi are
jreiierally derived from diminutives in uhis ; as circulo,
circiilor, from circulus.

Propert.

Lvitret.

Virg.

Virg.

LuLTCt.

Hor.

1. Tutins ct gcmiiios anxia mater (ilit.

a. ix ciilor extremus primo cvwn frijore mixtus,

). Millc trahens varios advcrfo Sole nlori:.s.

4. Vila ir.anu, fxvofquc gtTunt in bulla doluias.

<:. Matericmqiic ilutan-, levare ac radirc tigna.

6. Nulla tides damiiis, vc-nrqiie r/.Vor/6t/s adiit.

7. MStcndwn ufiiue in piilrino ; vapulandum; haW-ndx ? -j.^.^^

coinpedes. 3

8. yeniVct altivuni digitis fudantibus aurum. Jvivcn.

9. Cxpere : alternos Mufc mcniiniirc v'l'iletmnt. Virg.

10. Igneni Trojanum, ct Vcllam cultt Alba minorcm. Juveii.
ri. Et colore vagos induitls tetihns arant-s. Manil.

11. Utriqne; id nro te, in cummnn-j ut consWas. Ter.

13. Nee Pallas I'pectarc potcll : vultufqut i;H((//i.-n(. Liican.

14. Grandia li parvis ojjiiii'i/arc licet. Ovid.

15. Licet fuperbus amliihs peeunia. Hor.
V„/f. Aiiifvvorth has bonibilo, which fliould be bombito. .'Jec

I'acciolatus.

27. A vowel before final ' ia and ^ges is long ; as nubes,
ambages.

So labes, tabes, piibes, compages, impages, llrages,
friiges, &c.

1. Sub pcdibus videt n!76t's et fidera Daphnis. Virg.

J. Jam catervat'im dat fnigem atquc aggerat ipfis. Virg.

Except 'hebes, -indigcs, ^Icbes, ■'seges, and
^teges.

1. Utque ktbt-ti pei^us tantummodo enntudit iciu. Ovid.

2. Dii patrii ind'igeles et Romule Vcftaque mater. Virg.

3. Tertia dona laeit gcminos ex aere lebctc.s. Virg.

4. Ilia urges demum votis relpondet avari. Virg.

5. Inftitor hyberna; trgdis, nivcique cadurci. Juven.

'' 28. A vowel before final ' Jes and 'pes is fliort ; as fides,

tapes.

So analeiSides, anterides, hyiides, pleiades, sudes,
and all mafculine patronymics, according to the firft
rule ; fo alfo apes, dapes, trapes, and tiie following
compounds of pes, bipes, tripes, quidrupes, centipes,
antipodes, celeripes, gracilipes, altpcs, levipes, fo-
nipes, connpes, ignipes, longlpes, loripes, palmipcs,
folidipcs, capripes, &c.

1 . Mens bona, i'am3, fides, hxc clare, er ut audiat hofpes. Peif.
3. Inftratos oftro aripedcs pidlilquc trlpetis. Virg.

1. Except 'clades, -sedes, ' riipes, ■'sepes, and
'ftlpes.

2. And though we are without poetic authority for
carcinodes, caulodes, horminodes, yet their penulti-
mate is evidently long from the Greek !• ; fo epodes ;
as xa^t(i;ij^\c, )cat.'XaJd«;', c^^ivldw;, l-:ru:dric,

1. C^«£//6h.^ irruimus nocituraque pofcimus arma. Lucan.

2. Ducit ad infernas per multa filentia srdes. Ovid.

3. lUe, velut pelagi rupcs imuiota reliliit. Virg.

4. 'i'exendx srpes etianl, et pecus omnc tenendum eft. Virg.

5. Stipitibus duris agitur &udibufquc prxuliis. Virg.

Note. — The claflical cxiftence of trudes Teems not to be fatisfaftorily
proved; AinlVorth and Faceiolatus cite cmly one authority, Tacrt.
Ann. 3. 4*^1, where commentators piopole sudes, as a better
reading.

29. A vowel before final '</«, '^S.v, ^lex, *mex, ^nix,
or ''rex, is long ; as codex, radix, Ilex, cimex, jiinix,
carex.

So judex, lodix, fpadix, halex, piilex, piimex, ra-
Biex, tomex, remex, miarcx, sorex, &c.

z. Indo porr6 ad puteum, atque ad robuHum ccirf/efm. Plant.
3. Pronus ab arborci cecidit raUicc retentus. Ovid.

3. Frocumbunt picex, Tyrat iHi lecuribus Hex. Virg.

4. Cui domus ot dulees latebrofo in piiiiikc nidi. Virg.

5. yuiini mox horfum ad itabulum Juiu'r rccipiat (e "^"l pJ3^,

pabulo. J

6. Et C3labr^lm coxit vitiate miirice vcllus. Perf.

Except 'culex, -sTlex, and 'riimex.

I. Tota abit hora. Mali riilieen, ranaque palufires. Hor.
1. .Spem gregiii, ah ! s'llice in luida coiinixa rcliquit. Virg.

3. Apponunt riimiccm, bralTicam, betam, blituni. Plaat.

jVu/r. — ,\lex, in the beft^authors and editions, is read ilec, and is
therclbre no exception to this rule.

30. A vowel before final 'J>tr and ^ler is (hort ; as siipii ,
arbiter.

So .ipcr, caper, iter, later, accipiter, diameter,
pater, Jupiter, DicfpiL:r, and all adverbs in ter; a-
aliter, ampliter, acriter, celeriter, and many others.

1. Hum juga montis iiper, fluvios dum pil'eis, ainabit. Virg,

2. Non locus eH'ufi lati"> maris arbiter, aut'ert. Hiir.

1. Except 'iiuper, 'ater, frater, 'mater, 'crater,
'deter, 'teter.

2. Uter-tra-trum follows the general rule; but
Titer-tris, a bag, lengthens the penultimate.

3. Alfo 'soter from s-jjt^j, of which the poets give
no example, except through its derivative soteria.

1. Nunc hue rcmifit nw/^er ad me cplftolam. Plaut.

2. Calculus immitem dimitlitur I'lter in urnam. Ovid.

3. Cui volet, importvnius ebur; fiiiter, ;«/(fr, adde. Hor.

4. Cui mi'iler media leCe tulit obvia fylvi. Virg.

5. 'I'um ;)<i7('r Anchifes magnum cr(?i(.'ru corona. Virg.

6. Nam deteriuna on'.nes fumus licentia. Ter.
;. /"c/er ut immunda; carnis abiret t)Jor. Mart.
8. MoUibus in pratis une'tos Taliere per vtres. Virg.
y. Nam quoties furgis, sulcria pofcis amicos. Mart.

31. A vowel before final ' ia, ''bo, ^pa, *po, is fhort ; as
faba, Mbo, sapa, nunciipo.

So jilba, fyllaba, cibo, probo, globo, cubo, ar-
rhabo, fcabo, nepa, lupa, popa, upupa, alapa, cripa,
legicrepa, metopa, crepo, ftrepo, capo, occiipo,
emancTpo, participo, anticTpo, &c.

1. Denfa,/«4«, et dextro jaftata recumbit in armo. Virg.

2. Non auro, myrrhaque iiittit/.' fed gurgite puro. Lucan.

3. Et Laletanif nigra lagena sajuc. Mart.

4. Adfidct, et totum prope fiucibus o6ci//)«i amneni. Lucret.

Except 'gleba, ^^fcrlba, ^fcribo, -libo, 'nubo,
'biibo, -cepa, "rapa, 'fcopa, " clepo, "ftipo.

1. Liquitur, et Zephyro p'jtris feg/i6arefolvit. Virg.

2. Linqiiimus, infani ridentes prxmia^r?6iE. Hor.

3. Suniile materiam veftns, qui yirii/iM aquam. Hor.

4. Purpureofque nietunt flores, et flumina lihaid. Virg.

5. lis 7ii'6a)if, et illos ducere eadem hsce lex jubet. Ter.

6. Solaque culminibus ferali carmine iiibo. Virg.

7. Ccedenda ell hortis eruta cepa meis.

8. Hicc tibi brumali gaudentia frigore Tai)a.
y. Vilibus in fcopis, in mappis, in Icobe, quantus.

10. Qui hxc habent confilia ; ubi data occafio eii, "P<^' "l piju,

ctPpe, tene, harpaga. _f

11. Stipant, et liquido diftendunt ncclare cellas. Virg.
Note. — Cupa, liupa, .Tnd pupa, are fomeliraes more properly fpelled

cuppa, ftujipa, puppa ; fince this latter orthography delignates their
quantitv, arid is more confident with their derivation from xvZ^a.^
(French couppc,) ^uTirn, &c. Copa and copo fcem corrupted
readings for caupo, whicii the more accurate editions fublUtute.

32. A vowel before final ^a is long ; as ftega.

So auriga, biga-, quadriga, collega, saga, pyga»
riiga, fanguisuga, folipijga, &c.

At Novius coUcga gr.idu port nie ledet uno. Hor.

Except 'caliga, 'offifraga, toga, and the •'deriva-
tives of fiigo, as fiiga, perfuga, lucifuga, lucri-
fuga.

I. Cafar

Ovid.

Mart.
Hor.

QUANTITY.

r. Cafur cngiiomeii callg^ cui caftia cledcrunt. Aulbn.

■2. Adclpitrcs, ;itq\ie ojjij'rafi/c ^ nvjri't;iiiuc, marliii^. Lucret.

3. JJs numi)uam, (fi/ffl ran, mens qulcta. Mnrc.

4. Quii vciiti iiicubuere, fu^am dnnt mibil.i ctclo. Virg.

33. A vowel before i'liial go is long; as imago, origo,
iulligo.

So xrupro, rugo, aungo, /uKgo, compago, carti-
lago, coniilTgo, e.ilfgo, flgo, Hfgo, herperiigo, sugo,
lufFrago, &c.

Adljuiate meis, primrique ab ori^mc mundi. Ovid.

1. Except 'ego, "fiigo, ^harpago, ligo (■'noun or
-verb), ''rego, ^ngo, -rogo, 'llrigo, '"tego.

2. Alfo '^congrego is ihorL, from grex-grcgis ; and
'^jiigo, fromjugwm.

3. '^Lego-ere of the tliird conjugation (Imrtens the
penultimate; but '■•lego-are, of the iirfl, lengthens it.

4. Except alfo '^ago, and its "^compounds; as
iiego, navtgo, litigo, mitigo, &c. It is to be ob-
ferved, however, that when the ''compound has been
formed by fyncope or oralis, the penultimate, according
to the rule for contradled fyllables, becomes long ; as
fatlgo, from fatum or affatim and ago ; nidago, from
inde and ago ; farrago, from farre and ago ; vertigo,
from vertendo and ago ; caltlgo, from caltum and ago ;
dego, from de and ago, <kc*

1. i^ 12. <2uas i';,'.! nnn gentes, quas ncvi face corda^'w^ar^'. Stat,
a. 'I'raiis puiitum /'i/*ni» ct terris immittit apricis. Virg.

J. Conlulit bl.indiluqucBCuliis,/(ar;»//^D,mendax,cuppes, 1^ p.
avariis. _f

4. Lotigis purijare Hgonibus arva. Ovid.

5. DifJtitfiata lopis concordi pace r/^ar/'t. Ovid.

6. Pac3tanic|ue regrt patriis virtutilnis orbeni. Virg.

7. Prata r/get tons intcrdnm, campilque reduiidet. Lucret.

8. Sacerdos id faciam ; atquc aquam hinc de pruximol „,

rognbii. J

9. Nanique Mh'\ pr'tgnndinn fit, et uiti curroiiduni, kiu. Pha^dr.
10. SvqK-rba j.idlas, trgere quod del)L-t pudor. Pluxdr.
Ji. Iiide ea compreiidunt inter le, cunque gugantuT. Lucret.
i^V Qui (f'giiis (lores, et huiui nalcentia thiga. Virg.
14. tjuin poiii^s, <|uod frgatum eft tibi ncgotium. Plaut.
35 Et potum, palbs nge, 'I'ityre, et inter ageniluni. Virg.
j6. Hoc etiam I'a-vas paulatini viWigat iras. Ovid,
XJ. Cunfiliis aiurwwm fat t gas f" Hor.

34. A vowel before tinal ^gusy '^guni, or 'gium, is Ihort ;
as pelague, jugum, navigium.

80 afparagus, catalogus, confragus, naufragus, of-
fifragus, dialogus, epilogus, ethologus, elegus, luci-
fugus, indigus, noclivagus, magus, rogus, the noun
bagus or sagum ; conjCigium, elogium, fortflegium,
iiaufragium, prodigium, diffugium, perfugium, horo-
logium, remigium, facrilegium, aquilegium, confu-
gium, &c.

I. Materia; tanto in pdngo^ turbique alienu ? Lucret.

■2. Robuftus quoque jam taurisy"i,'a I'olvet aratur. Virg.

3. Excipe naaf'righim non duro littorc nolhum. Ovid.

1. Except fagus, "fragum, *frTgus, "^pagus, and
the adjective ''sagus.

2. Alio ' contagium, 'faltigium, ^fufFragium, ^vef-
tigium.

3. And 'choragus, ""choragium from ;^o^7i-)o:, ^o^n-
yio> ; and '^psdagogus from ay^:,

I. Tityre, tupatulse recubans fub tesmine_/«^'i. Virg.

a. Arbutoos tcctus, moutanaque /'rrjiija legebant. Ovid.

3. Ante focuni, iij^fgus crit, fi niellis in umbra. Virg.

4. yuam fi me toto Lfudet vieinia/>'7^'y. Juveii,

5. Ipie nihil certum mlgi's clangoribus a-ther. Slat.

6. Nee malavicini pecoTia contf/^' hi ladent. V'irg.

7. Amhavjcs; led lumma lequar /(-////t-iV/ rerum. Virg.
S. Libera li denrur ^o\ni\o /'ulfri}giu^ qiiis tarn, &c. Juven,
9. Pauca tamcu luherunt jiriUS vcjligia traudis. Vir?.

10. Ipfe omamenta a Choriigo \\xc fuinplt fuo iJenculo. Plaut.

1 1. Nam Jioc pa-ne iniquum ert Comico diuragio. Plaut.

12. M\h\ }ia-diigugus fuerat, quali uti mihi foret. Plaut.

35. A vowel before final ' T'i7, '-vr, ves,^visj ^vo, ^vus,
is long ; as clava, procilve, dives, civis, pavo, rlvus.

So ceva, conviva, diva, gingiva, pava, prasrogatTva,
-Qva, xRlva, oliva, conclave, neve, clavis, f-.tavis, navis,
ravis, accllvis, decllvis, procllvis, vivo, pravo, rivo,
navo, privo, aeftlvo, flavus, ignavus, xillvus, divum,
ovum, pravus, and all adjectives ending in Ivus, which
are numerous.

r. Duceret apricis in collibus ftva colorem. Vir;;.

■z. Currcre per totuni jt.ividi conclaie magifque. Hor.

,V l^tics agris, dhT.s pofitis in Ixncre nummis. Hor.

4. Necprohibent cl/fiex, ct canis ipfetatet. Tib.

5. Ulccris OS ; alitur vitium, y/i-zVyut' tegendo. Virg.

6. 'J"am i\Si\ jnih'iguc tenax, quam nuncia vcri. Virg.

1. Except 'avis, '^brcvis, ^gravis, '*levis, ^ovis.

2. Alfo ^cavo, ''gravo, '*juvo, ^lavo, "*lcvo, "novo,
'^ovo.

3. And ' avus, '"'cavus, '^favus, '^novus.

1 . Eiet apef , mod6 av/Sj modo fa:<um, et, cum volet, arbor. Hor.

2. Vit:E funima brt-ri.-i ipem nos vetat IncTioarc longam. Hor.

3. Reddit, ubi ^oliden i'lxum grt/ve Siiyphon urgct, Ovid.

4. Ante lacs ergo palcentur in a-there cervi, Virg,

5. Inftituit, Pan curat 'Jfc.v, ovivrnqnc niagiltros. Virg.

6. Duratanien moHt I'axa c/Tiuiniur aqua. Ovid.

7. Unde^r"!'f( pennas; fi celfior ignis adurat. Ovid.

8. Temperie ccrli, corpuique, aniniurque^"'/yaK(ur. Ovid.

9. Prandeo, poto, cano, ludo, Ir/vOj c;eno, quiefco. .Mart-

10. Cantantes ut eamus, ego hoc te fafce Icvabo. Virg.

11. Necremorantur ibfii : lie rerum lumma H'lrt'a^xr. Lucret.

13. Quo uuitc Turnus nvat^ fpolio g^iudeiquc potltus. Virg.
I J. Stat fortuna domus ct livi^ numerantur /•/f'or^Jrt. V'irg.

14. Ned tiim fort^ rtiva dum perlbiiat sqnora concha. Virg.
I > . Mella^f/m, iUi tills atquc uberrima piuus. Virg.
16. Pura novwn vati laurea mollit iter. Propert.

^6. A vowel before final ca is long; as fpica, formica,
feiluca.

So ajttica, apica, cloaca, carriica, currQca, erica,
mica, myrlca, lacluca, Icclica, nodlilijca, nca,_ ru-
brlca, lorlca, pica, paltinaca, phoca, fambiica, sica,
urtica, veltica, &c. ; and feveral ending in theca^ from
6?:'>cr, as apotheca, bibliothcca, oporotheca, &c.
Parvula nam txemplo eit, magni /un/iifa laborjs. Hor.

Except 'alica, 'brafslca, ^fulica, **mantica, ^per-
ticaj '■tunica, -lalarica or phalarica, ^dica.

1. Nos aUvamy mullum potcrit tibi mittere dives. Mart.

2. Me notat, et junco b'aj'ficn vinila levi. Propert,

3. Ill ficco luduntyi/Z/cvr, nutalque paludes. Virg.

4. AlanOca cui lunibusonere ulceret, atque equesarmos. Hor.

5. PerOcd dat plt-nis immitia vulnere ramis. Ovid.

6. Sufticiunt tunica- funwiiis ylidllibus alba.-. Juven.

7. Sed magnum liridens contorta /a/ar/ca venit. Virg.

8. Cedt dum, en unquam injuriamm audlftimi fcrlptam ") -«

d'lcuvi. f

iVu^f. — I. Aphaca is rather aphilce-es from aipetKhy and therefore
does not relate to this rule.

2. And fince adjectives iu tens fliorten tlie penultimate j wherever
the termination I'ca is derivable from an adjeiftive in icus^ though
the adje<5tive itfelf be not in ul'e, the penultimate is (hort by de-
rivation ; as,

Piratica from piraticus; Lc. ars piratse piratica.

Fabrica from fabricus; /. e. ofiicina fabri fabrlca.

Flaminica from flaminicus; i. e. focmina Haminis flaminlca.

Manica from manus j /. a. veftis mai^ijs manica.

Pedica from pedicus; i. c. catena pedis pedica.

Lucanica from LucanTcus; i.e. efca L>fcanorum lucanica.

Bucolica from bucolicus; i.e, carmina jSoyjeaX/arK bucolfea.

Bafilica from bafilicus; i. c. aida (iainXia/i p>aa-iXiy.r: vel bafilica.

Aritluiietica from aritlimeticus ; i.e. Tix^r, aoi^uuv arithmetica,

JVlnemonica from fAVKfioviKOS ; i. f . t's'^vv} fAvnfcr,^ fj^^nfLoytxh. ■

C c 2 37. Words

Virg.
Juv.

"capparis,

Hor.

Hor.

Ovid.

Mart.

Ovid.

QUANTITY.

»7. Words ending in 'arts oi 'are lengthen the penulti- from TOa>.s'it, lengthen the vowel before /; as bibliopola,
mate ; as alaris, altare. _ oenopolium.

So agricolaris, peculiaris, naris, alveare, capillare,
plantare, quare, and many others.

I. Sufpiciens, patulis captavit nihribus auras.
1. Sufpitit exigui latum planturibus horti.

Except 'hilaris, ''bimaris, 'cantharis,
*mare, and 'dare.

I. Odenmt liUdrem trifles, triftemque jocofi.

a. Aut Ephtfum bimmijhe Corinthi.

.V CanthSrklum fuccos, dame parente, bibas.

4. Capjitirhi, et putricepas alece natantes.

5. Ante niiirf el tellus, et quod tegit omnia calum.

6. See, for d(ire, the verbal increment in a.

38. Words ending in ' e/ii, ^elus, 'ela, 'elum, ""ofus,
-udus, 'ator, utor, lengthen the penultimate; as fidelis,
phaselus, fuadela, prelum, fumofus, sudus, orator, utor.

So crudelis, carduelis, patruelis, candela, loquela,

querela, corruptela, cicindela, clientela, muftela, ni-

tela, Philomela, parallelus, polymelus, arenofus, for-

mofus, luftuofus, perniciofus, nudus, criidus, ludus,

udus, and many others.
I. Nunquam tAJtdelis cum potente focietas.
4. Et circum piitis vehitur fua rura jihusitis-

3. Qualis populea mserens Philomela fub umbri.

4. & 5. Colaque prehrum fumi'ifis deripe tecftis.

6. Quid Nero t:im sasvS, crud.ique tyrannide fecit .'

7. Hinc alta fub rupe canet froiiddtoT ad auras.

8. Nee foleas fecii ; si'itur tamen eft fapiens. Qui .' —

39. Words ending in ' ober, ^ uier, or ^ aver,
the penultimate ; as Oftober, falQber, papaver.

So fuber, tuber, uber, huber, puber, cadaver, &c.

I. Te taceo, OlUlcr foenere ditat agros.

J. Quique fiequens hecbis et feitilis ubere campus.

3. Lilia purpurels -.iiift.! papdvertbus.

Except colaber and ^ riiber.

I. Inque pruinofo ct^ttibcr diftenditur arvo.

a. Crine TK^dr, niger ore, brevispede, lumine l^efus

40. Adverbs in ' tim lengthen the penultimate ; as' oppi-
datim, viritim, tributim : except ' ftatim.

I. Et velut abfentem certStim A(!laeona clamant. Ovid,

a. Nee fpernat auris, nee tamen credat_/7ui/i». Pliadr.

^ote. — *' Noftra Lexica, Gradufqiie ad Pamas. Paenultimam ad-
verbii, affdtirn, longli apice figiiant. Nee eo inficias, quin poetae
degeneris Latinitatis earn pryduiierint." Vide tamen Lexicon
Facciolati, ubi banc obfervaiioiiem invenies, " Annianus poeta,
apud Gell. I. 7. c. 7. ita difputat de quantitate penuliim^, ut fta-
tuat earn elfe corripiendam : innuat, autem, oIii\i ctiam produ6tam
fuilTf : quod et ab Aratore factum eft. L. a. in Ac. Apoftol.
326. Vcrim non eft hoc fatb, ut contra communem ufum

Phffidr.

Virg.

Virg.

Virg.

Juven.

Virg.

Hor.

lengthe

Aufon,

Virg.

Prop.

Lucan.

Mart.

So myropola, myropolium, propola, pharmacopola,
&c.

1. Sed qui ine veiidit 5!6/io;'o/a putat. Plaut.

2. Namomneis plateas perrcptavi,g)mnaCa et m^rop«;/a. Plaut.

43. Words ending in 'area, ' ariiu, 'erium, * oritu,
lengthen the antepenultimate ; as pareo, cibarius, acro-
terium, mefsorius.

So areo, clareo, hordearius, fextarius, librariub,
mercenarius, herbarius, capilterium, difterium, eccle-
fialterium, niceterium, fphaerillerium, adulatorius, cen-
forius, and many others.

I. Vim gemlnam fentit, paref^Uf incerta duobu."*. Ovid.

1. In huiic diem jam tuus fum mercenarius. Plaut.

3. Omnibus arrides, t/Zf/crm dicis in omnes. Mart.

4. Quern ct?nA"wria cum meofevero. Mart.

1. Except ■ careo, ^ vSrius, and ' neftSreus, from
neftar-Sris.

2. Alfo ■* defidgrium, from defidgro ; ' magiilerium,
from magiftgr; and ' minifterium, from minifttSr.

3. And the ' derivatives of genitives increafing in
fliort em ; as sequoreus, arboreus, caftdreus, corpO-
reus, eboreus, marmCreus, Itercoreus, roboreus, from
zquor-oris, arbor-oris, caftor-oris, corpus-oris, ebur-
oris, marmor-oris, ftercus-oris, robur-oris.

4. Except alfo fome " derivatives from 0 (omicron),
as boreus, antiboreus, hyperbdreus, from /So^E'aj.

Juven.
Virg.
Mart.
Ovid.

1 . Scilicet et morbis et debilitate citrebis.

2. Et vdrias wfus mtditando extunderai artcs.

3. Attica neCliireitm turbatis mella falernum —

4. Roma, domufque fubit, t/^(/cr/itm^ue iocorum.

5. VIrtute, id fat^tum, iu5, et magi/ierw tuo. Plaut.

6. FefTa mutt/ter/is mulces, reparafque labori. Ovid.

7. ^i^r^'/rt'tE frondes aiiro radiante nitcntes. Ovid.

8. Vita proculpatria peragenda fub axe Borea. Ovid.

44. Words ending in ' aceus, ^ afeus, ' aneus, ■• eneut,
* oneus, lengthen the antepenultimate ; as teftaceus, cafeus,
fubitaneus, aheneus, idonem.

So arenaceus, hederaceus, hordeaceus, refinaceus,
cretaceus, araneus, conditaneus, rfjetSaneus, collefia-
neus, bipedaneus, and many others.

1. Herbasutilioresar^';V/r7tea terra. Var.

2. Pinguis et ingratas premeretur cafeus urbi. Virg.

3. Nee nebulam noftu, neque aranei tenuia fila — Lucret.

4. Si reftfe fades : hie murus aheneus efto. Hor.

5. Opportunus ita eft ft forte et i(/o7it.'Wsaer — Lucret.

I. Except caftaneus, from caftSnea.
Cajiu7teq/l{ue nuees, mea qvias Amaryllis arr.abat. Virg.

45. Words ending in ictus, icium, or itius, (horten the

prodiici poftet
41. Words ending in final guus are compounded with antepenultimate; as patrlcius, asdificium, xdilltius,
(tquus, and therefore lengthen the penultimate ; as antiquus,
iniquus, obliquus.

' Terra antiqua, potens armis atque ubere glcbs. Virg.

Except reliquus, which is not derived from zquus,
and is therefore excepted.
Texantui reOqua te£^a patude tibi. Mart.

^o(e. — Though the real caufe of the penultimate of iniquua, anti-
quus, &c. being long, is the contraOlon of the 1^, of squus, from
which they ate derived, into'z, which is therefore long, according to
the rule we have given for coniradion ; yet fince the above may be a
more obvinus tliftinflioii than a laieni caiJe, we have not thought it
improper to add it. And (incc this remark is applicable to fome
other If rtninations and examples, noticed in this atialjlis, it is fuffi-
fient hei'', once for all, to give this general anfwer.

4a> Words ending in pdk, or polium, being derived

J'atrtdos omnes opibus cCtm provocet unus. Juven.

So gentillcius, tribunicius, adventitius, faflitius,
aufpicium, judicium, artificium, arufpicium, malefl-
cium, beneficium, opificium, extifpicium, harrufpi-
cium, facrificiimi, indicium, off icium, paneflcium, and
many others.

1. Except 'novicius, or novitius ; and thofe which
come from long fupines ; as effutitius, from effutio,
ire, ivi, Itum.

2. Alfo ^convicium, ' licium, and ■* nutricium, from
nutrix-Icis.

1. Jam fedei in ripa teirumque novitius horret.

2. Neve in me ftolid£ conuuiafuniere lingua.

3. Et pretifosdomitare boves, el Una tels.

4. Omniaquc infantum mixta nutritta turba—

Juv.
Ovid.

Virg.
Ma nil.

46. Words

QUANTITY.

46. Words ending in ' attcus, ■ atilit, ' etudo, " alio, ' utio,
lengthen the antepenultimate ; as aquaticus, aquatilis, valc-
tudo, feftinatio, locutio.

So pluviatilis, plicatilis, defuetudo, cremfitio, bal-
butio, and many others.

I. Calcav^re pedis, nee folvit oj«n^cMs Auftcr. Ovid,

X. l.abitur orculct, fallitque volatilis setas. Oviil.

3. Graiia, fama, valitudo eontinpat abunde. Hor.

4. Seelefta: Iw fuiit ades, impia i-li haliildlia. Pl.iut.

5. Balbiilil fcauruin, pravis f\iltum niali- talis. Hor.

Except feme ending in maticuj, from neuters in
ma-atis; as aromaticus, from aroma-Stis ; rheumaticus,
from fiZfj.a.-tx.roi ; grammiiticus, from ■y^d/Jij.a.-a.m ; and
hepaticus, from hepar-atis.
Grammiilimi, ambirc tribus, et pulpita digiior. Hor.

47. Abilis lengthens the antepenultimate ; fo does ibUis,
when from long preterites in ivi ; otlierwife it (hortens it, as
amabilis ; expetibilis, from expeto, ivi, Ttum ; terribilis, from
terreo, ixi, itum.

Accipiam, cunflifquc meum lielubile fj£lum. Ovid.

Tcrritili fqualore Cliaron ; eui plurinia memo — Virg.

48. ' Abulum, ' aculum, - ecula, lengthen the antepenul-
timate ; •• iculum, '^ icula, (horten it ; as pabulum, guberna-
culum, apecula, ridiculus, auricula.

1. i*a/'«^a parva legens,ni(lifque loquacibus efcas. Virg.

a. Onittia tranbformat fefe in miraatfa rerum. Virg,

3. Aut ulfum, aut pui;il<-s ; his nam jy/t'/rcw/fl gaudet. Hor.

4. Quam ex hucfontlcido t,iutiindeni i\nnere. Eh fit. Hor.

5. Humanum genus eft avidum nimis aiiricularum, Lucret.

Except ' perTcuIum, and ^fome long by derivation ;
as hsediculus, from hxdile ; redimlculum, from redimio,
jvi, &c.; loricula, from lorica ; poillculum, from poiti-
cus ; nutricula, from nutrix-icis.

I. Sed tibi vexala? per m\\\\ti pfricula vitie.

u. Et tunics matiicas et h.ibent redinunda initr^e.

Prop.

Virg.

49. Words ending in ' actum, " elia, ^far'tam, lengthen
the antepenultimate ; as mendacium, pittacium, contumelia,
(nultifariam.

I. Impercepta pia 7nf nrf(7ao fraude latebant.
%. Quod quum MiqiilnafreTt omni ciiUumelta.
3. Ut dilpartirem cbfonmm hie HJar'tam.

Ovid.

Phaidr

Plaut.

50. Numerals ending in ' ni, lengthen the penultimate ;
in ^ ginti, ^ ginta, * gies, and ^ efimus, the antepenultimate;
as bini, seni, viceni, duceni, viginti, oftoginta, nonagies,
oologies, vigefimus, multefimus.

So quini, fepteni, oftoni, noveni, undeni, duodeni,
tredeni, &c. ; quadraginta, quinquaginta, &c. ; qua-
dragies, quinquagies, &c. ; trigefimus, quadragefimus,
&c.

I. Bii deHa,« halo texamus robore naves. V*''g*

%, ^^'iH/i tauros magnorum liorrentia centum. Virg.

3. 7Vi»/7z/a mai;nos voivendismeniibusorbes, Virg.

4. Phttbus n'i?trti;?('5 illucefcei poliim utrumque. Hipwinac.

5. Bis jam pene tibi conful /r?^'r^»!H.s' inftai. Alart.

51. Words ending in ^ ales, ^ itis, ' elis, 'ota, and ^ eta,
lengthen the penultimate ; as vates, vitis, caryotis, diota,
meta.

So crates, penates, raitis, chalcitis, pleuritis, am-
pelitis, arthritis, capritis, mephitis, caryota, ceftrota,
beta, creta, cofmeta, cometa, poeta, seta, &c.

1. Cslicol^, clarique luos pofufre;)e»o/rs. Ovid.

2. Contuderii t;/i('5, i ieamve momorderit .eftas. Hor.

3. Et notas rnryiitidas iheatris — Mart.

4. O 1 haliaiche meruni diijtd — Hor.

5. Quorfum abeant fani ? cre/ij an carbone notardi .' — Hor.

Except ' potis, • sitis, ' nota, ^ rota, * drapeta.

1. Quis pJ/is eft, nifi vis animar, qua membra gubemat. Lucret.

2. Dcpofitura sllim vicini fonti» in uridS. Ovid.

3. A quo repull'us irKiein fuftiiuiit ii;;(«m. Phxdr.

4. Hie neque turn rolisr'7<aeenii, lumine largo. Lucret.
•S. Conftanijtonfeniiitfermoncs inter fefe rfra;)?(<». Phut.

52. Laltly ; the following final fyllables lengthen the pre-
ceding vowel, 'nar, ' cal, 'gal, ' nal, and ■■ tal ; as lacu-
nar, pulvinar, cervical, vedigal, Bacchanal, minutal, and
fome others.

1. Mea renidet in demo ?afi<jiar. Hor.

2. Tinge caput nardi folio, cervical olebit. Mart.

3. Jurgaiur verbis : ego wfli^'oWa magna. Hot.'

4. Bacchmal te exercuifTe, quom qui (is, alium rogites ? Plaut.

5. Heftcrnum folitus medio fervare mmwfa/. Juven.

53. Alfo, whatever terminations are naturally derivable
from any of the preceding final fyllables, lengthen or (horten,
according to their primitive termination, their penultimate,
or antepenidtimate fyllable ; as mafculines ending in 5rius,
may form femihines in aria, and neuters in arium ; fo orius,
oria, orium ; etus, eta, elum. Sec. as aerarius, belonging to
copper or brafs ; seraria, a copper mine ; aerarium, a trea-
fury ; hence rosarium, pomarium, mufcarium, meritorium,
quercetum, rosetum, palmetum, &c.

Niile. — I. An<l it fliould be recollefled, that fince compounds and de-
rivatives follow the quaBtity of their primitives, the compounds and
derivatives of luch words as form ex< eptions to any of thefe rules,
will follow the general rule for the quantity of derivative words.

2. And it may be here neceflary, finally, to remind the young profo-
diah of the fime rule, fince the quantity of mmiy vowels is explicable
folely by this law, and requires no other direction ; as aedilitius from
^dilis ; alienigena from alienus ; contrSdico from contra ; aliquatenus
from aliqui, ice. Hence adjeitives ending in aj-ocis form deriva-
tives in acii, acitas ; as capax-acis, capScitas, audax-Scis, audacia :
in the fame manner genitives increafing ibort, (borten the corre-
fponding vowel of the derivative ; as cartilai^o-ginis, cartilagineus,
cartilaginofus. Thus preterites and fupines having their penulti-
mate long, lengthen accordingly the derivative vowel ; as dormlto
from dormio-ivi-itum ; conditio, condititius from condio-ivi-itum ;
fo conditio, conditus, condltor from condo-didi-ditum ; hence ar-
rifio, arfifor, auditio, definitio, are from arrideo-rili-rifum, &c.
Thus words ending in alii may form derivatives in alia, (iliUis, allter,
atitius, tUiculus; hence cerealia, atquSlitas, artificialiter, canaljtius,
canaliculus, arife from the primitive termination Slis : and thus
sours in iitij have their derivatives in atiuncula ; as sdificatio, 3tdi-
ficatiuncula, Uc.

54. I ' before or * after r, is long ; as ira, fcrinium.

1. /ra furos brevis eft. Animum rege, qui nifi paret — Hor.

2. Mixtaque rJt/i^nii colocafiafundet acatitho. • Virg.

1. Except ' hirudo, "hirundo, 'rifgo, •'rigeo, * tri-
bus, ' vireo.

2. Alfo, ri followed by ' c is fliort ; as frico, Afri-
cus, fabrlco, lubrico, curriculum ; yet " lumbricus, 'ru-
brica, '"tricse, and its derivative " extrico, and "ri-
ca, follow the general rule. >

3. And ri followed by a vowel, is fhort by the rule
"a vowel before another," &c. as penuria.

1. Qualis volo, vetulos duo ; jam ego me convortam in

kirudinem —

2. Pervolat, et pennis ahaatria luflrat Inrundo.

3. Omnia qua maria, ac terras, fparguntque, riganlque.

4. Sanguine el igne micant oculi, r'lget horrida cervi-c.

5. Et ditant Latias tertiadona trUus.

6. Quo feges in campo, quo v'lret uva jugo.

7. Ajricus in glaciem frigore ucitit aquas.

8. Foras, foras, ltunl'nct',c[\\\ fub terra ere])lifti modCt.

9. Non fecCis ac fi oculo ridricuTn dirigat uno.

10, Litibus, neque /rids: quam ob rem ego argentum 1

numerem foras .' J

11, Mercedem aut nnmmos unde unde extrhat, amaras — Hor.

12, Supparum, aut fubminiam, Hcam, balilicum, aut ex- 1 pi^^

oticum, J

? Plaut.

Virg.

Lucret,

Ovid,

Mart.

Prop.

Prop,

Plaut,

Perf.

• Plaut.

55. Y

QUANTITY.

55. Y before or after R, is long ; as Butyrum, coUyrium, gilmeii ( for wliich fee fedt. 2, rule 22) ; liilmus, poftuiiiL

papyrus. (for which fee iect. 2, rule 5) ; cueOmis (for which fn-

j. Co//vr^tacileut madejnt cl coWiphia. I'lmit. '^■'^^- ^' """^^ ^S) i »'"! autaino ; (for whieh fee fcct. 2,

i. Succinrtus jairii quondam Crifpineywy;y/-L>, Juvcn. rule 25-)

1. Except Machryma, Myra," ^ corylus, ^ philyra, 5- I'O'" circumeo and circilmago, fee the rule for ,-,
' pyrus, ° fatyra, ' zcpliyrus. nual.

2. And the derivatives of a^yv^nc ; as hydrargyros, '• Q«i'l eumvclit, homo, aiimfnam (ibi HccoUodctrahit. Plaut.
lithar^vros. ^' -^'^haultumin if/rfm/oj> umiiUquctn Hu^tibus undacCt. i.iicaii.

3 See tile Jd px(-pntinn to the lift ml,. 3. Ipfe lubibo Aftmcm ; nee me l.ibor iite ^ravabit. Virg.

3. Cjee tne 3a exception to the Ult ruk. ^ j^,^_.^_^^^ catenas, carc-res, numellas, pedjcas boias. Plaut.

«. Et /nrrym/s fpjrgunt rorantibus ora genafque. Lucret. 5- Rari quippe boiii, im/Ho-o vix funt totidem,quot — Juv.

a. Sit tibi Mufa /yr<p I'olers, et cantor Apollo. Hor. 6. Alii limul delinquunt, cenforesSKMWj. Pliardr.

.v Neve inter vites cory/K?)! fofL- ; neve tiagella. Virg. 7- Igne micant oculi, corpus (Xmcf omne veneno. Ovid.

4. Ebru,sincinotis;,/»7//ra.onvivac,.pilli5. Ovid. -g. U before c is long ; as bucula, duco, caducus.

y. hiiere nunc, Meln)(re,;)'//'.),v, i>ot)c ordme vites. virg. "

6. Sum quibus in Saivni vid'c-ar nimis accr, et ultra. Hor. ^ '''' *S" labentes acies, et tela cadilca . Prop.

7. Atvcr6/fe;j/,///«cumto.ivocantil.usa-a-is— Virg. i. Except ' lilcellum, " lucerna, Miadeii.s, ^ volilccr.
56. U "before or 'after R, is long; as luridus, uro, 2. And in ^genitives incroafing (hurt in uds, and

rumor. their derivatives ; as dux-ticis, crux-Vlcis, trux-ucit ;

I. NeglertisSr^rfaftoinnafcituragris. Hor. hence crilcio, trflcido, &C.

1. Qua vos ad ccelum effertis nmiort lecundo. Hor. !• Quid pure tranquiUct ; honos, an liulce Ka-ffum — Hor.

,-, r ^ !■ o ^1 ' r » r '^* Ha-c e^o non credam Venulinadi^na/wt'cr/i,!. Juv.

1. Except -curuhs, ' csrOlus, ' faro and filror, 3. Mdia dari, n«r/ro/que jubet, dulcelque placentas. Wart.
■• frCltex, Memures, ' nClrus, ' querijlus, * ri'idis, 'nldens, 4. Interea tio/i/ccr motis conterrita pennis. Petron.
'" rilbeo, " riitilus, " rumex, " tugiirium, '' fatilr-flra- 5- Ablir.ixitque homincm in niaximam malam LTi/ct-m. I'laut.
lirum. 59. Syllables indifferently fpelled with one or two confo-

2. Except alfo ti in '* genitives, increafing fliort in nants are long ; as litera; or litterae, litus or littus, cupa
Sets or uris, and their derivatives ; as crux-crflcis, triix- or cuppa, pupa or puppa, ilfipa or iUippa, fciroma or fcir-
trilcis, augur-uris, murmur-uris, fiilphur-iiris, which roma, lllopus or iUoppus or fcloppus, cohphiutn or colli-
give crilcio, trucido, murmiiro, augLlrium, fulphureus, pliium, which (hould invariably retain the double confonant,
and the like. iince it is by pofition alone that they are long, by the conlo-

3. Alfo, '^mcditatives in iirio and /i/xSrio ; asesiirio: nant, and not by the vowel, reduplication.

" other verbs in uria follow the general rule ; as ligurio, 60. Syllables indifferently fpelled with a fingle vowel, or

fcaturio. a diphthong, are long ; as tcda or tsda, prelum or praelum,

4. U before final 1; and m followed by a vowel, whicli latter orthography, the moil exprellive of the vowel
are regulated by the rules for thofe circumltances ; as quantity, it is better to retain.

augtir, fatur, rOino. 61. Vowels derived from >,, 1, si, a, are long, as herous,

I. Pra-tor adeft vacuxque loco cetTere rmiifcs. Lucan. Sirius, mufa, ivom r^u;:, au^K;, fj.'Z^a.

^- ^'^.''■•■'JJ"''''"™^ i?v»^3s, et cwnria verrunt. Virg. N„te.—M:ms ofthefe are already compriled under the preceding rules ;

3. ymd./ «,■/*-' Atit quonam noftn tibi cura receflit .> Virg. ,hc principal words referrible' u/..i£f to this rule, are colon, cratf-ja,

4. Coiitexit dlum /,-i;(/c,', ct admoruit fimul. Phadi". he-par, horos, lecythus Icthum, l.chen, ode, rhetor, fpila^um, fpf-

5. Noflurnosto.n„-«iK>rtentaqueTheiraIa rides? Hor. lunca, thffauros, thorax, theoria. To thefe we m.y add near

6. Unctaque adcft virp matrum mmmmque catervi. Ovid. joo words of very rare occurrence, chiefly f■snif^ing pbnts, herbs,

7. Et nunquam qiu-ruli cauia doloris abeft. Ovid. ftones, minerals, &c. &c. as anthedon, al-clepias,'alplcnon, ic. Or
■6. Qiieni d.x/>re Chaos; rudi, mdigeftaquc moles. Ovid. ,hele >ve «ould here inlert our manuliript lift, but fince thev are
9. nlequitur clamorque v.rflni, ftridorque rMcntum. Virg. nrincipaUy confined to luch .luthors as Pliny, Cellus, Vitruv.us', and

10. lurnee.sniyeolaroto Aurora rw6,■6«^ . V.rg. Frontiuus, they are matter rather of oecafional reference, than of

11. Robora complexus r.ndu curvata metallo. Lucan. any erammatical rule.

11. Apponunt ri™?t-<™, braflicam, betam, blitum. Plaut. /- o " j i-i • 1 1 vn- •

J.?. Pauperis ft /i,^H,; congellum cefpite culmen. Virg. "2* ^"'"^ words alike m orthography, diHer in quantity
14- Aut intusclaufosya(;"(;-.j adprsfcpiafervant. Virg. ^"(v according to their fignification ; as

15. Vultusinunumme/,f,c«. Hor. , Populusa.bor

16. Graculus, ■>«««.■,,» ecelumjun-eris.ibit. Juven. ^ Eft ; notat et pOpulus

17. Iraaav.;cahcemman.bus,dumturia/,Vi„>. Hor. 3 Plebem. Sic ni.Mus eft pro

57. "O and -U, before m are long; as vOmer, bu- "• Pravo ; gignit item mslum.

maftus 5" .... ■ Navismrilus; mriHnanv.ilus,

6. . . Stirpe una produci poiTuu. Msla genam vult ;

1. Ingemere, et fulcoattritusfplendefcereiwnt;-. Virg. 7 M.ilapoma. Et palus

4. Quale fulct fylvis bn'amtli frigore vlfcum. Virg. 8 Faciens paludis ; eft feri

1. Except, too before »;,-c6meta, --comedo, 'omittO, ' Rtagnum lacufve ; at non tumen fie

H^~ 1 '^ ' ' -^....i.i.v^, jQ Palus notans sudem. Nitor, nitenfque,

tomaclum. jj Niteo; creatque nitor etnltensst-cfis.

2. Alio atomus, domus, glomus, t6mus( for which fee 12. . . . Protellme solum ; non ita solus aut
feft. 2, rule 5) ; coma, comes (for whicli fee feft. 2, '.'• • • • Ab cosolimi. Plriga notione
rule 23); ddino, homo, and vomo ; (for which fee '■*• • • • R^tis vel one corripitur ; licet
feft. 2 rule 2" ) '■'' ' ' ' ^ '=''""''S aut vice vulneris, tu

' ^'' 16. . . Kxtcnd.isitaplrigam. Pila fie in elobuli lOco

, I. Nonfecus achquida fi quando noftecOTrt^. Virg. 17 Contrahiturque : mole

2. Ut hbet ; hLcc pi.rcis hodie cwjiedeiirfa relinqucs. Hor. iH. . . Denotata, porrige pilam : 'notat atque pilus

3. Pleraque dift'erat, et pr.x-fcns in tempus om;■«a^ Hor. , 19 Aciciltnem raillilequc ;

4. Quod fumamia qui tomarla raucus. Mart. 20 Ea pilum quoque, maflamque terit. Sin

3. Except, to u before ?n, ' criimena, ■ cdmulus, 5 hii- ^' Vice crmis pilus eft; .itque pilodat: pilo

merus, 'mlmella, ^nilmerus, 'siimus, -tllmeo. 22. . . . Significat farari, non fOriSre. Et notat cOnwre

4. Alio, colamen, doctlmentum, emoWntum, te- l^. [ ; [ SSr:;^^ niScirTy^r^;^^::;::;.na.

QUANTITY,

.YuA?.— The above verft:s not niily furnidi ihu wovh relating to rule
62, but iilfo, to unite two ohjeil-ts in one, thry ;it the f.ime time
;iffbr(l a r|)eciinen of all the Horatiaii metre, whiih, td the clalfical
ihideiit, may prove ;i vifeful coniprnrliuui. It is, probahlv, onlv the
iVcoiut production ortlickiud in print. 'I'hc firli isquoud hy the
two editors ol Horace, Cruquius and Baxter, and, had its fuhjcdt
heen as eliv;ible as the <lc(ign, the jtrefcnt would have l)ecn fupcr-
fcdeti. For a definition ci the Huratian metres cumpofin;; this fpc-
cimen, the reader may confult Ljne's Latin Prinur, (edit. 4th)
page 24'^), or Vkhsification, in the ll-qur! of this work. 'Ihe
foUowinj;, however, are ilie Hor.ttlan metres, as cxemphfiud in the
above lines; 1. An Adonic; 2. A dadtvlic pcntheminier ; 3. A
I'herecratiaii tnpodia ; 4. A Glyconic churiambic ; 5. Dai^Khc tetra-
meter ; 6. An hexameter; 7. Iambic dimcterncephalous ; 8. Iam-
bic dinicLcr; 9 lamlile »limeter Iiypcrcntalct^tie ; 10. Iambic trimeter
eataleiltic ; II. Iambic trimeter; 12. An af^k-piad ; ij. A Sapphic
hendecoryllabic; 14. A great Alcaic ; 15. A fmall Alcaic ; 16. Alcaic
rhorianibic; 17. Cht^riambic dimeter ; 1 8. _J\pichoriami)ic tetrame-
ter; 19. Ionic aminori trimeter ; 20. Sapphic Ionic ; 2i. Ionic ;\ mi-
iicri tetrameter; 22. Dactylic hoptameter; 23. firft elegiambic Ar-
ciiilochian ; 24. Second elegiambic Archiluchiyn. 'Hil- remaining
wold^ allvided to by rule 62, are comprifed ijy tho following hexa-
meters.

■25. Ad mediam no6tcm srnim producere poffis ;

26. Datque "iirum tibi lac. iSop/rrhazsK/ior omncs.

27. Ac loboles petnhis, uti/'crn/c/ft'r, candem

a8. Dcdu<::lam vocaiem extendunt. Pcrque ntcare

29. /V?/Jc/cni prolclquc tibi dant. -/nv acutum

30. Defiotat ; .(rbnreui (/tcr vult ; attjui corripiuiitur

31. Ainborum foholes. /'n*fm'i', faciens /irocrrKTO, lit

32. Pro magn itibus ; et ceWoprocrrus. Et lubur

33. Ldl'i ; fed Labtfu6l(i labore ; laboro^ li/tare.
34- Rurfus, /^//(.Tci- uti riqncnnt tibi, difcere pollis

35. Ut liceat profurre, metalla Oquarc^ Ciquuremj

36. I.'iqai. ISitcam et in li'Ueo iiitu olefcere Ititum,

37. /(/t'm f(/(^'f/i,necnoii /f/rm,et in fe.xto ht cffd^-m.

38. ZJ^-rr^' uti lint vei6//6fcr/, iis nihil extat

Ti<). Utiliiis, quam ut fanifius IH-cr liifce irgimdiis

40. Sliy umc hh/''!n-t(Ucm /egal-h : ibidem

41. Ut 7Jidn!i mini poHiiit folunKjue falutem

42. rT^ternamque rjviruri ; qua, murii perniciofa

43. Valileeft; utque ita niori inurcnturifuc revera,

44. Dilcent. Dem'que ha?c, d'tco^ mentique Wicamla.

General Rule,

63, A vowel btft)i*c a fingle confonant, not afTecfti-d by
any preceding or following rule, is fhort ; as sapio, siltqvia,
gnlcilltas.

1. Attamenexcipias hxc pnucula, ceu, crocodilus,

2. Alea, fiiligo, piriita, abftf-mius, Olim,

3. Area, sOlennifquc vi'nr-ficus, ilicet, ico,

4. Hibernus mricutinufquc falirica, nCxius,

5. Clitellce, brila;naque, coram, lUia, gluten,

6. Maturus, Umax, capitOlium, anOnymus, ilia,

7. Adduntlir mdor, vendemia, Hagiio, vclox

8. Tibia, tibicenque acadr-mia, fibula, p.ila,

9. Grfidivus, Mrivors^-Saturrms, Jupiter, Iris,

10. Python, Idnlaethnica, ve! crepltacula. Rurfus

1 1. Ala, reprigul.i, seini, sC-mis, copia, filum,

12. Viburnum, contamino ct "ties crapula, talus,

13. Vitupcro, mausoleum, m&galla, rapum,

14. C"ilij;o, sngillo, mulus, mutuus, idus,

15. Metiri, brililVique, fi-lix, dOnuo, qualus,

16. Sohcitu, pridem, lie pri<tic,et simu, sepcs,

I 7. Li\mina, tt'mrtum, ijritare, monedula, mugil,

18. Rhinoceros, duduiu,nafus, prsvaricor, adde

19. Varicor; invito ceu vito, solea, donee,

20. Juuipervi/que. Nee otia danique negotia ; sulers

21. Kurl) us, grV^ua, ptnuria, pucida, rlu'da,

22. Oci^s Iliadcm, fili pcrdifce Homt-ri ;

23. Culeus, or vibex, imbfcillifciue. Dat hilum,

24. Prrceniemque nihil. Quam fa:pc,hcu ! ducere poITint

25. Nugices, nugas, iricafque. CanOpus, usilus,

26. Glutire ac vecors, socors, cx&iicus, Tier,
37. .\eria ac iio quoque iio ; vipera, crtiber,

28. Vapulo ', et audive atqiio Cb, obedlre ethciuntquc

29. Adduntur gnf-mon, v5gire, bon5.fus, Omafum,

30. Dlviderc, ac idiOtn, iiuftpis, irSgula, jugis ;

31. Corripiunturque hjc miceo, micer ; exprime prolem
J2. Mictto -. et iddc vOco, quodvOcpm, vOciferot^ue

^2> Vucalem varlat, {hrni;itqtie vocabula. l^ifico:

34. Placatus pb'iceo pl'icidu^, plrtcabilis, una
3J. No nivi natiim n'lto, uti notuin nOla, vido
y^. Atquc vudum, nubo una pronuba funt varianda.

37. Stc oblivifci r et pecuiia, iilus, ar-don,

38. Failidire haU-c, marsnpia, fabula, phrafis,

39. Sibiloanicrtum fquiltcre ct cphobus, iulus,

40. GlOcirc, occanus, pipire, facCti», tuber,

41. lit L'Olum. Iibum, conchylia, ftrajjula, tabum

42. Faux dat pnifOco, lie vcfpertilio, pupus,

43. Sr-culum et adduntur sufcs et sfria rfifis

44. Ravire ac udus mfv^ire ct baiia, napus

4 J. Brachia fr-ria; anotha ct ant'dyna gloria thorax

46. >'i(/('ra calnruni ron.'iW/'r^, opes mcliores

47. Terrcnis necnon (/r5/(/<Ta,omitte minora.

Note — I. To confine tiie preceding rules to limits as fiiort as pofliblc,
ill, the j'reccding rules and their exceptions relate only to words c^
jmre or Augultan Latin. 2. Some terms of very rare occurrence,
chiefly the names of plants, herbs, l^ones, foffils, &c. near 300 in
number, are omitted, as matters of ocrafional reference, rather than
of conllant attention or grammatical rule.
2. W'Q have now, after four confecutive analyfes of the language, for
the more complete information of the ftudcnt, accomplilheda taflc,
perhaps never achieved before, nor, fo far as we aic acquainted,
offered to the public, in any profodialfvftem. And we can venture to
affirm, that any perton well acquainted with common profody, and
the rules of this. fe<5^ion, ^ill not, within the precinrh of Augullari
J^atin, find a fingle word, except the few of rare and urifrequent oc-
currence mentioned above, whofe quantity is nut regulated or ac-
counted for by the rules now given.. 'I'hus, for the tjrlt time, we
have reduced that, the majority of Latin quantity, bv all preced-
ing profodians referred to a courfe of o!)fervation and practice alone,
to a regular claffifkation and fyftem. \\'"ould our limits permit, wc
would here, for the f^ke of exemplification, take the words com-
prifed by any letter of the alphabet, and account for the quantity of
each by ihe principles and criteria we have here confiderad.
3. I: is ahnolt necelTiiry here to add, that the quantities of fyllables
are marked with very frequent inaccuracy in moll of our common
diL^tionaries. The poets are the only fatisfai^tory teft.

Skction III On final Syllables.

I. A final, in words declined by cafes, is fhort ; as fam3j
regnii, lanipad.1.

Anchorif dc jirora j.icitur : ftnnt littore puppes.

Virs.

1. Except the ablative fingiilar of the firft dcclen-
fion ; as hac miifa, hoc ^nea.

2. The vocative fingular from Greek nouns in as ;
as O Palla, O Atla.

1. Profpiciens, ylimmu placidum caput extulit unda. Virg.

2. Non hoi-c, O Fallu^ dederas promida parenti. Virg.

2. A final, in words not declined by cafes, is long ; as
ania, ultra, prxterea.

I. Littus aiiid et l:evas ftringat fine palmula cautes. Virg.

3. Intcrcd magno milceri murmure pontum. Vug.

1. Except itil and eja Ihort, and pollca common.

2. Quia is generally fliort, but fuice Phardnis length-
ens it, we may pronounce it to be common.

3. Some profodians quote puta, with the a fhort, from
Perfius, 4. 9. Bat the bell editions have puto, a reading
evidently preferable, in point both of fenfe and grammar.

4. Though numerals in ghita are fometimes found
fhort, approved authors lengthen the ^7; yet it may
be well to recollect, that the Greek termination KONTA,
whence the Latin glnta h evidently borrowed, has the
final vowel fhort ; as

Toiff 0 kua. TiffffotPOL KON"TA fiiXat^Xi v»]e; f-rovru. Horn.
[See many other inliances in Iliad B.]
1. . . Ferret ad aurigerx caput arboris, c;a, per ipfum. Val. Flac

a. Turn fie affatur rcgem, atque ita turbidus infit. Virg.

3. Si au(ftoritnteni;)o//fa dcfugeris. Plaut.

4. Pojicti mirauar, cur non fine litibus efiet. ^ Ovid.

5. Hdud, (equidem credo,) quia fit tlivinilus illis. Virg.

6. Ego primam toHo, nominur ^uiillco. Phadr.

7. ScTas.inta tcras cun^ limina mane fcnatcr. Mart,
?. /"ri'^oifa toto mala funt cpigrammata Ubro. Mart.

3-E

QUANTITY.

doce,
and

Ovid.

Ovid.

Hor.

Lucret.

Hor.

Ovid.

Hoi.

Mart.

Ovid.

Piisdr.

I. E final is fliort ; as nate, patre, currg, nempe, ante.

Incipe, pane puer, rilu cognofccre matrem. Virg.

1. Except that final E in all cafes of the ' firll and
* fifth declenfion, is long ; as Calliope, Tydide, An-
chise, fide ; alfo " fame, originally of the fifth. Thus
alfo, re, die, and their ' compounds quare, hodie, pri-
die, poftridie, quotidie.

2. Alfo in ^ all nouns wanting the fingular ; ascete,
male, tempe, pelage, Greek neuters plural.

3. The fecond perfon fingular of the imperative of
the ' fecond conjugation, has the E long ; as
mone ; but ^ cave, ' vale, ' vide ", ' rcfponde ^
" falve'% have e common.

4. " Monofyllables ending in E are long ; as e, me,
te, si, n'e (leil or not) except '■ enclitics and fyllabic
adjedives ; as que, ne, -ve, pte, ce, te ; as nequfi, quo-
que, fuapte, hujufce, tute, &c.

5. '■' Adverbs in e coming from nouns of the fecond
declenfion are long ; as placidc, pulchre, valJe or va-
lide, &c. Except '* bene, male, ''fupernfi, '"inferne,
mage.

6. " Ferme, " fere, and '' ohe, have e long.

1. Hanc tua i^CTcZo/if lento tibi mittit, UlylTe.

2. Et quamquam fsevit pariter rahieqticfdmeiiue.

3. Quae mens eft hodie, cur eailem non puero fuit ?

4. Al pelage multa, et late fuftraia videmus.

5. VndSyVale^ cave ne titubes, mandataquefrangas.

6. Idque, quod ignoti faciunt, vale dicere faltem.

7. Refpondi^ quibus amiflas reparare queam res.

8. Si quando veuiet .' dicet; reffioiide, poSta.
g. Quid fis nata tiidc, nil! te quoque decipis ipfam.

10. f^ide, ne dolone collum compunjam tibi.

[See alfo Peri". I. 108.]

11. heBor faliie. Taces.diirimulafque ? Vale. Mart.
ti. So/ie, Paonize largitor nobilis undx. Claud.

13. Vera, inquit ; ncjac me Argolica rfe gente nejabo. Virg.

14. ./'r<»c?;»ue, cum jam hie trabibus contextus acernis. Virg.

15. Nil fene cum facias, faris attamen omnia belle. Mart.

16. Te&ifuperne timent : metuunt inferne cavernas. Lucret.

17. Mobilis et varia eft yerme natura malorum. Juveii.

18. Jamque/tTcficco, fubduiftie littorepuppes. Virg.

19. lmponunus,amat laudari? donee oAl.' jam. Hor.

4, I final is long ; as domini, clafsl, fieri, doceri, audi,
i, fill.

6Ui refpondit rex Alb'ai Longdi. Enn.

1. Except the i of Greek vocatives; as Alext,
AmaryllT, Theti, Pari, DaphnI ; but Simoi, or fuch
as belong to nouns having entos in the genitive, are
long.

2. Greek datives fingular of the third declenfion,
from nouns increafing, are varied. Minoidi and Te-
thyi in Catullus, and Palladi in Statius, are fhort.*
Thetidi in Catullus, and Paridi and Tyndaridi in Pro-
pertius, are long ; but Greek datives formed by con-
traftion are always long ; as Demoltheni, metamor-
phosi ; alfo thofe which come from the firft declenfion
in Greek ; as OreiU, Euripidi.

3. Neuters in i are alfo (hort ; as gummi, meli,
finapi.

4. Datives and ablatives plural of Greek nouns in J!
(^n before a vowel) are (hort; as heroisi, Troasi.

5. Mihi, tibi, fibi are common. Alfo ibi, nifi,
ubi and quafi ; but thefe laft are more frequently
fhort.

*Note, — Thefe may be loni; by poetic licence, or by pofition ; for the
I of Greek cafes is naturally Ihort. Orph^i may be confidered as a
daflyl in Virgil. Eil. 4. 57 ; and by fynarefis it is a fpondec in the
Georgics, 4- 535 a""* 553-

1. O crudelis /Ifeii, niiiil mea cariniua curas. Viij.

I. Pa/Wnitlorea celebrabat Scyros honorem. Stat.

3. 7Voa«m invideo, qua: fi lacrymofafuorum. Ovid.

4. Non unquam gravis ire domum mi'/ii dcxtra redibat. Vi^.

5. Extremum liunc, Artthuli, mih'i concede laburem. Virg.

5. O final is common ; as quando, Cato, ko, ambo, 0&.0,
amo, doceto.

Virg.
Mart.

X . Arma amens capio, iiec fat rationw in armia.
2. Non amo te, fabidi ; nee polTum dicere quare.

1. Except 'monofyllables, which are long; as 6.
pro, do, fto, and prOh, /; not being accounted as a
letter.

2. ' Greek feminines ending in 0 are long ; as Dido,
Sappho, Clio.

3. O final in ' datives and ablatives of the fecond
declenfion, is long ; as fomno ; to which add another
ablative, as crg5, for the fake of, ergo therefore be-
longing to the rule.

4. Alfo ' Greek cafes, written in the original with
omega ; as Androgeo, Atho.

5. ■• Adverbs formed from nouns have the final 0 long ;
as fubito, merito, multo ; > and illo, quo, eo, and their
compounds. Alfo citro, mtro, retro, ultro. But
the " following are fometimes found fliort, denuc5, idcir-
c6, ferd, profeAd, 'poftremd, the conjunftion " ver6,
" porro, to which fome add fedulo, crebro, and mutud.
'"Modo (ufed adverbially,) and its compounds are
fliort ; as quomodo, dummodd, poftmodd.

6. Though the final 0 of verbs, occafionally by
writers of a ' fecondary clafs, and more rarely by thofe
of the * Auguftan age, has been made fometimes fliort, /
yet its derivation from the Greek omega, and the more
general practice of the principal poets, make it long :
the 0 of fcio, '■ nefcio, puto, cito, and of the imperative
cedo, only, are generally fliort.

7. The gerund in do, in reality, being nothing elfe
than the dative or ablative of the fecond declenfion,
is, accordingly, by all authors of the Auguftan age,
made long : the ' exceptions to this rule are very few,
and only by writers of an inferior clafs.

8. " Ambo, duo, imo, iUico, ego, generally fliorten
o final.

I. Pr'"* molH viola, ^iry^rpurew narciflb. Virg.

a. Cliijqus, et Beroe foror, oceantides ambae. Virg.

3. In foribus latum .^ndro^eo .• turn pendere p<enas. Vir^.

4. Adde, quod ifte tuus, tarn raro pteelia pafTus. Ovid.

5. Ufque a./tvii^ times, quern tufacis ipfe timendum ? J_,ucret.

6. yrff/Vf^gemellum vocitaruntchoriambon. I'erent.

7. lUcirco certis dimenfum partibus orbem. Virg.

8. imperium tWnJlTii datum : victoria velox. Claud.

9. Et Scauros, et Fabncios; pojiremo feveros. Juven.

10. Quod petirnus : fin ier'"* pieces et di^a fuperbus. Val. Fhc.

1 1 . Vefter porru labor fecundior hiftoriarum. • Juven.

12. Hie inter denfas corylos niof/o namque gemellos, Virg.

13. Horiida Romuleum ctrtamina pan^o duellum. Enn.

14. f'raHt/co, ^^^'";, caiio, ludo, /af5, c^pn'", quiei*;o. Mart.

15. Z)/Jt'ro quid fi ftfrtejocoiius, hoc mihi juris. Hor.

16. Sic ubi m'fft'^ quis Lycia de gente vironjm. Ovid.

17. Qu^ nolti, Tnedttaiid'j veils inolefcere menti. Aufou.

18. Piaiterea (/«•/ r.ec tiitl mihi v.-)lle reperti. Virg.

6. U final is long ; as vultu, cornu, Panthu, diftu, diu-
Quo resfumma loco, Panthu ? qu.im prendimus arcem. Virg.

1. Except ' indii for in, and " nenQ for non, both
ufed by Lucretius, the former likewife by others, in
compofition, as indtiperator, have the u fliort.

2. Alfo the u before the elided .r ; as nunciti, plena,
for nuncius, plenus.

I. Indii

QUANTITY.

». Inila mami validas potis tft modennter li.ibenas. Lucret.

a. Nftiii qutunt rapidi contra conllare leoncs. JLucret.

3. V:cimus O focii, et magiiam ;)ugiia«im« pugnam. Eiiu.

7. Y final is (liort ; as Moly, Tipliy, Chely, Tcthy.

Afo//7 vocaiu fiipcri. Ovid.

Except when y is .1 contraftion, as in Tcthy, iii-
Jlead of Tethyi, the dative, it is long by the general
rule for crafis.

Quam Tc/liy lonjinqua dies, Glaucoquc rcpoftim. Val. Hac.

8, Latin words ending in B fhorten the preceding
vowel ; foreign words lengthen it, as ilb, Ob, Job, Jacob. '

Magnus iib integro fec'lorum naftitur ordo. Virg.

g. Final C lengt'hens the preceding vowel ; as ac, sic, hie,
(adverb), due, illuc, &c.

Stc oculos, si€ ille nianu-J, a'lc ora ferehat. Virg.

1. Except that nee and donee are {hort, as alio the
imperative fac*

2. Hie and hoc of the nominative and accufative,
are common.

• Two pafTagos quoted from incorreiSt copies of Ovid, to prove _/ac long,
in lietter editions appear facito and fctce ; lb that, according to the opinion
of Alvarez, it is fafer to confider fac as (hort.

1. Parve, net invideo, fine me, liber ibis in urbem. Ovid.

2. />iict' eris feliN, multosnumerabis amicus. Ovid.

3. Signa rarius, aut femel/i/c ilhid. Mart.

4. Hie vir, /uc eli, tibi quern promitti fxpius audis. Virg.

5. Hie yladio fidens, /lie acer et arduus halta. Virg.

10. Final D, in Latin words, Ihortens the preceding
vowel ; in foreign words it lengthens it ; as quid, ad, apild,
illad, scd, David.

Ipfe docet iju'id agam. Fas eft et '"6 ho^e doccri. Ovid.

11. Final L (hortens the preceding vowel: as mel, fcl,
pol, fimiil, femcl, nihil, consdl.

Innocui veniant : jirociii hinc, prociil impius efto. Ovid.

1. Except that Hebrew words are generally long;
as Daniel, Nabal, Saul.

2. Sal, fol, and nil, are long.

1. Non sttly oxyporumve cafeufve. .Stat.

2. Omnia fub pedibus, qua 5u/ utrumque recurrens. Virg.

3. iV^/ ojiis externcecupiens, ni/ iiidiga laudis. Claud.

12. Final M was, anciently, (hort, and was not, as now,
elided when followed by a vowel.

Infignita fcrt- turn miUia viilitum 0(£to. Enn.

It is fhort in c'lrcum, in compofition with words be-
ginning with a vowel, as ' circilmeo, '' circOmago.

1. Cujus non heder^ r;>rSm/iTe caput. Propert.

2. Quo te tirciimagos f qua? prima aut ultima ponas } Juven.

13. Final N lengthens the preceding vowel ; as en, fplen,
quin, noiv, sin, ren. Pan, Salamin, Orion, Titan.

Merfit et ardentes Oiim aureus ignes. Manil.

1. Except nouns ending in ' en, which have tnis, (liort,
in the genitive ; as carmen-inis, tegmen-inis.

2. Alfo nouns in ' on of the lingular number, from
the Greek 0 ^omicron), and which, in Latin, are of
the fecond declenfion ; as IHon, Pylon.

3. N is (hort in the accufatives of Greek nouns,
having the final fyllable of their nominative (hort ;
as Majiin, jEginin, Orphean, Alexin, Ibin, Chelyn,
Ityn.

Vol. XXIX.

4. Alfo Sn, Kn, forsSn, forfitSn, tam£n, attamSn,
veruntamfin, Tidcn', fatin', have n (hort.

1. Addunt et titulum ; titulus breve carmitji habebat. Ovid.

2. Lawdabunt alii claram lilwilon, aut iVlitjlenen. Hnr.
^, Tantaque nox animi eft, Itpn hue arcelfitc, dixit. Ovid.

4. Mittitc j/urjuK et hxc olim meminilTe jav.ibit. Virg.

5. ForJHiin et, I'riami fuerint qux fata, requiras. Virg.

6. Educct. f^iden' ut giimina: ftcnt vertice criftx. Virg.

14. Final R (liortens the preceding vowel ; as vIr, pufir,
ti-r, tim(3r, calcflr, Hamilciir, amamur, audiuntttr.

'I'um/ia/"Tomnipotens niifTo prrfregit Olynipum. OviJ.

1. Except ' Greek nouns, and ' iuch as have eris,
long, in the genitive ; as crater, (later, ver, Recimer,
' Iber-eris ; but " Celtiber', the compound of Iber, has
the penultimate common.

2. Alfo '' aer and aether, though they increafe
fhort in the genitive.

3. And 'far, " lar, 'nar, '°cur, "fur, and '^ par,
with its '^ compounds, compar, impar, difpar.

I . Crater auratis furjit criatus ab aftris. Manil.

a. ^cr erat .-etevnum, placidique tepcmibus auris. Ovid.

3. Si tibi durus ;;•(■)•, aut fi tihi terga deoiffet. Lucan.

4. Nunc Cdlilcr in CcUiHria terrS. Catul.

5. Ducitad aurifcrasquodme falo Cc/<iKr oras. Mart.

6. Inde mare, inde acr, iude leUiir ignifer ipfe. Lucret.

7. J^iir cr.it, et puri lucida mica Talis. Ovid.

8. Exagitant et Lur, et turba Diania fures. Ovid.

9. Sullurea A'iir albus aqui, fontefque Velini. Virg.

10. Multa quidem di.xi, t«r cxcufatus abirem. Hot.

11. Callidus eftraaa nummosy"")- auferet urea. Mart.

12. Ludere ;).«•, im;)(7r, equitare in arundine longa. Hor.

A'ote. — Cor long is attributed to Ovid, but the line in which it is faid
to be thus found, is read differently in corre<3ed editions; the
fame remark is applicable to vir; as

1. Molle meum levibufque cir eft violablle telis. Ovid.

2. De grege nunc tibi w>, nunc de gregc natushabendus. Ovid.

Thus correifted, lir is long merely by pofition.

15. Words ending in AS, lengthen the final fyllable ;
as mas, vas, eras, fas, amas, faras, pietas, Thomas, Mufas.

Has autem terras, Italique hanclittoris oram — Virg.

1. Greek nouns in as are (hort, which make the ge-
Hitive in^an'ox or adis, as Areas, Pallas, Lampas, Ilias:
to wliich add the noun Anils, and Latin nouns in as,
formed after the manner of Greek patronymics j as
Appias.

2. Alfo the final as of Greek accufatives plural
of the third declenfion is (hort ; as crateris, 1am-
pad;\s, Troas, Cyclopes, heroas, heroidas, HeClorSs,
&c.

I. Bellica Pa/W.'iadeft, etprotegitagidefratrem. Ovid,

a. Et pi6tis a7i«.!i enovata pennis. Petron.

3. .^/tjOiV/5 expreifis ;icra pullat aquis. Ovid.

4. iV«/r/«A his venam, qus nunquam arefccre pnlTet — Ovid,

16. Words ending in ES lengthen that fyllable ; as res,
fpes, vulpes, quies, hseres, efscs, Anchises, toties, lo-
cuples.

/"^K/^Jsadccnam diciturciconi.im. Phadr.

1. ' The nouns and vocatives plural of Greek nouns
increafing (not in so;) fliort in the fingular, are (liort ;
Ss Amazonc-s, Arcades, Delphines, Naiades, Gryph&,
Phryges.

2. To which may be added Greek vocatives fingu-
lar in es, coming from nominatives in es, not formed
fromea^ of the Doric dialect, and having their genitive
'n cos ; as Demolthenes, Socrates.

D d 3- £f>

QUANTITY.

«. * Es, in the prefent tenfe oi Jiim, and its "com-
pounds, is (hort ; as ades, abes, prod^s, potes, &c.;
and in the prepofition penes.

A. - Latin nouns of the third declenfion, in es, in-
creafing (hort in the genitive, arc fhort in the iinal fyl-
lable ; as hebCs, ales, pedes, hmfis, obs€s. ' But esjs
long in thefe following ; Ceres, paries, aries, abies,
pes, and its ■* compounds, as bipes, tripes, alipes, foni-
pes ; to which fome add prxpes, a derivative of praepeto.

1. TVuarfes; et patriafumantia tefiarelii|iiunt. Ovid.

2. Quifquis fSjamilTos hinc jam oblivifcercOraios. Virg.
1. Nunc adcs O cirptis, flava Minerva, mcis. Ovid.

4. Vivitur ex rapto ; non hfi/jies ab liofpite tutus. Ovid.

5. Flava CtTM alto pcquicquam ipecftat Olyuipo. Virg.

6. Creditur : ipfe aries cti.im nunc vellera fitcat. Virg.

7. Defuper Auriga; dexter ;« imminet aaro. Manil.

8. Sinjbniph, ct frsna ferox Ipumantia mandit. Virg.
♦Wo/t.— I. Th ugh rs, in the prefent tenfe of /urn and its compounds

is (iiort, it is not in any other tenfe, nor in the final fyllablc of
'#"■> (^^ ^^^ '"^^" alferted,) as

Pofses in tanto vivere flagitio ? f ropert.

EJses lonii tada puella maris. Propert.

a. Whenever paries, aries, and abies are found long, there happens to
be a carl'ura ; and perhaps Ceres and pes are long by diaftole : Au-
fonius (honcns bipes and tiiges ; and Probus obferves that alipps and
fonipesare likewife (liort ; though the contrary appears in Virgil,
Lucan, and Horace, yet fome of the abovc-meiitioned word.s could
not be introduced into heroic verfe without the influence of a figure
to lensthen their final fyllabie. Pra;pc5, wliich comes not from
pes, but from T^o^irhs, is.lhcrt in Virgil. (/F.n. 5. 254.) Tigres,
afcribed to Ovid, is, by the bed critics, rejefted.

17. IS final is (hort ; as bis, Is, quis, cis, magis, turrls,
militis, creditis, Thetis.

Tom l-h ad occafum, bis fe convertit ad ortum. Ovid.

1. Except plural cafes in is ; as nobis, vobis, (' quis
for quibns), musis ; the plural accufatives ' omnis,
'urbis, &c.

2. The nominative in is is long, when the * genitive
ends in Itis, mis, or ends long ; as lis, Samnis, Sa-
lamis, Simois.

3. Js is long in the adverbs 'gratis and foris ; in
the noun glis, and in vis, whether noun or ' verb.

4. All ' fecond perfons Angular in is are long ; when
the fecond perfons plural have Itis long ; as cis, fis,
sis, is, abis, alidis, velis, nolis, pofsis, &c.

5. '° Ris of the perfeft is commonly confidered fhort,
of the " future % common ; fo are the penultimates of
ausis and faxis : ris and ritis of ' ' ero and potero are
more frequently (hort.

1. Induccnda rota eft : das 11 tij/s utile munus Mart.

2. Quis ante or.i patnim Troj^ fub ma;nibus altis. Virg.

3. Non omnis arbufta juvant, humilefque myricae. Virg.

4. Adde tot egregias urbls^ optrumque laborem. Virg.
?. Sed Lis eft mi»ii de tribus capellis. Mart.

6. Nefiis, heu! nefcis doniinte faftidia Roms. Mart.

7. Ignea convex! vis et fine pondere co;li. Ovid.

8. Si tis elTe ahquis. Probitas-laudatur et alget. Juven.

3. •" Greek nominatives and vocatives of the fecond
declenfion have os (hort ; as Claris, Tenedtis, Le(b68,
AtropSs. But thofe nouns of the Attic dialeft, having
their genitrves in omega, are long, as Androgeos,
Athos : alfo nouns of^the lame dialeft, which have
changed laos (>.«??) into leos (a;»;), as Peneleos, Me-
neleos.

4. Greek, neuters in os are (hort ; as Argds, epris,
chaos, melos.

1. Alta jacet vafti fuper ora Ty/i/ioeS' jEtna. Ovid.

2. Infequvre, et voti poitmodo wiapos eris. Ovid.

3. Exfjs '.t uxfanguis tuinldos pL-rflufiuat anus. Lucret.

4. Turn, cum trillis erat, defcnfa ell //f'iiarmis. Ovid,
j. Quantus yi(yi'«, aut quantus Eryx,aut ipfe carufcis. Virg.
6. Et ChalJs ct Phlegcthow, loca aoAe filentia lati — Viiig.

ig. US final is (hort; as tentis, littils, penitiis, intOs,
Ambobiis, Moiitibiis, Amamds.

Incipe : pafcent»'s fervabit Titj/riis hxdo;. Virg.

1. Except ■ monofyllables in us ; as grus, plus, rus,
thus, jiis.

2. Alfo the • genitives of feminine nouns in o ; as
Cliiis, Sapphus, Mantus.

3. Genitives fingular, and nominatives, accufatives,
and vocatives plural of the fourth declenlion, ( all being
contradttd,) have us long ; as fruftus, manfls.

4. Alfo nouns increafing long in the genitive ; as
palus-udis, virtus-utis, tellus-uris, Opus-untis.

5. Us is long ui the * compounds of ■ttch.:, ( forming
the genitive in podis or podos,) asTripus, Melampus,
CEdipus, Polypus.

6. Alfo '' thofe nouns which have a in their voca-
tive ; as Panthijs, O Panthu.

7. Finally, ' Ijktou; has the final fyllabie long.

1. Rom:K 77i5 f'ptas, abfentem mfticusurbeni. Hor.

2. Didiis atque fuum mifceri fanguine I'anguen. Varro.

3. Pars fecreta (/o7*i(/5 ebore et teftudine ciiltos — Ovid.

4. Ridet ager ; neqxie adhuc virtils in froiidibus xilla eft. Ovid.

5. Hie (Edipfis ^Egea tranabit freta. Seneca.

6. Panthus Othryades, aicis I'ho^bique facerdos. Virg.

7. Et ciilo et terris venerandum nomen Jefus.

20. YS final is (hort ; as Capys, chelys, chlamys.
At Capys, et quorum melior fententia menti. Vir^.

Except nouns which form the nominative in yn alfo ;
as Gortys, Phorcys. To thefe add contracted plurals ;
as Erynnys, for Erinnyes, or Erinnyas.

21. Final T (hortens the preceding vowel; as capiit,
amat.

Venim hvtc tantum alias inter ; caput extuUt urbes. Virg.

Except when final / is long by crafis : as redit for
rediit or redivit.
Magnus civis obit et furmidatus Othoni. Juven.

22. Thelaft fyllabie of every verfe is confidered common;
that is, if the fyllabie be naturally long, it may be accounted
fhort; or, if it fuit the verfe, "uice tierfd.

9. Gratis anhelans, multa agendo, nil agens. Phjcdr.

10. Diaerh egregie notum fi caltida verbjm. Hor.

11. Quas gentes Italurn, aiit quas non oraufris urbes. Virg.

12. Da milii to platidum ; det/t'iis in carmine vires. Ovid.

13. Fortunate puer,tu nunc eris alter ab illo. Virg.

18. OS final is long ; as ros, vos, nos, mos, flos, tros,
%rb6s, honos, cuftos, nepos.

Os homini fublime dedit, calumque tucri. Ovid.

1. Except ' Greek genitives in os ; as Arcados, Te-
thy<56, Tcreds, Orphefis.

2. Alfo ' compos, impos, and ' os-oflis, with its
compounds exCs, have the final fyllabie fhort.

Gens inimica mihi Tyrrhenum navigat squvT.
Crefcit occulto velut arbor tsvo.

Virg.
Hor.

Note. — I. In the firft of thefe example!,(/r, naturally (hort, forms the fe-
cond fyllabie of a fpondee; in the laft,a Sapphic verfe, the word tcvo,
which is naturally a fpondee, forms a trochee.

a. " The grammarians that difpleafe Dr. Chrke, (fee Cbrke's Ho-
mer, Iliad A. v. 54.) by faying that the lail fyllabie of a verfe is
common, only mean, that the local quantity fuperfedes the natural
quautity of the fyllabie."

For the laft principal head of profody ; fee ViRsiFI-

CATION.

QUAN-TSOM, in Geography, a town of China, of the
third rank, in Pe-tche-li ; 32 miles S. of Chunte.

QUANTUM

QUA

QUANTUM Meruit, called alfo an njfumpjit, in Law,
an atlioii upon llic cafL-, grouiick'd upon a neceility to pay a
ma: for doing any thing fo much as it defcrvcs or merits.

This valuation of his trouble is fubmitted to the deter-
mination of a jury ; who will aflefs fuch a fum in damages
as they tliinic he really merited.

Quantum Vnlhat, or an implied affumpfit, is where
goods and wares fold, are delivered by a tradefman at no
certain price, or to be paid for them as much as they are
worth in general ; then quantum valebat, or an aftion on the
cafe, lies, and the plainlift is to aver them to be worth fo
much ; fo where the law obliges one to furnifh another with
goods or provifions, as an innkeeper his gueits, &c.

QUANTZ, JoiiN Joachim, in Biography, chamber
mulician to Frederic II. king of PrufTia, to whom he had
been flute-mafter before his accefiion to the crown. Quantz
was born at Oberfchedcn, a village in the eleftorate of
Hanover, in 1697. His father, who was a blackfmith,
obliged him to work at the anvil before he was nine years
old ; which muft have afforded him an early opportunity of
making the famous Pythagorean experiment, mentioned by
Jamblichus (de Vit. Pythag.), and by all the mufical writers
of antiquity. Indeed, the ear of our young Ardalus had
been already formed, in his excurfions with his brother, a
village mulician, who ufed to play about the country on
holydays and feflivals, whom he accompanied upon thefe
occafions, on the bafe-viol, when but eight years old, and
without knowing a note of mulic ; but this performance,
bad as it was, pleafed him ib much, that he determined to
choofe mufic for his profeHion ; though his father, who died
when he was only ten years of age, recommended to him,
on his death-bed, to continue in the honourable profeffion
of his anceftors.

Quantz, after loiing his father, had no other friends to
depend upon for counfcl and proteftion, than two uncles,
who lived at Merfeburg in Saxony ; and thefe, fending fur
him, gave him the choice of their feveral profeffions, the one
being a taylor, and the other a hmjlpfeifer, or town-wait.

Upon this occafion, the paflion for mufic in the young
Quantz overpowered all other confi derations, and, prefer-
ing the fiddle-ftick to the anvil or (hears, he bound himfelf
apprentice to his uncle, the mufician, for five years ; but
this uncle dying three months after, he was transferred to
his fon-in-law, Fleifchhack, who was of the fame profeilion ;
and it was under him that he firft pratlifed the violin, an
initrument to which his inclination at this time impelled liini,
preferably to any other.

Soon after this, however, he praftifed the hautbois, and
the trumpet, with which inftruments, and the violin, he
chiefly filled up the term of his apprenticefiiip ; but as a
true town mufician, in Germany, is expected to play upon
all kinds of inftruments, he had been obhged, occafi,onally,
to apply himfelf, during this period, to the fackbut, cornet,
bafe-viol, French horn, common flute, balloon, viol da
gamba, and the lord knows how many more. Thefe were
in the way of bufinefs, but for pleafure, he now and then
took leiions on the harpfichord, of the organift Kiefewetter,
who was likevvife his relation ; by which he laid the firft found-
ation of his knowledge in harmony, and love for compofition.

Luckily for Quantz, his mafter, Fleifchhack, was not,
like other country muficians, fond only of old, dry, ftiff,
and tallelefs compofitions, but had fufficient difceriiment to
choofe his pieces out of the neweft and beft produftions of
the times, by Telemann, Melchoir, Hofmann, and Heine-
ehen, which were publiflied at Leipfic ; from the perufal,
and praftice of which, our young performer derived great
advantage.

QUA

The duke of Merfeburg's band not being very numerouj,
the town-waits, at this time, were often called in, to aflift
at the mufical performances, both of court and chapel.
Here Quantz frequently heard foreigners play and fing, in
a manner far fuperior to any profeflora whom he had hitherto
met with, which excited in him a itroug delire to travel.
Drefden and Berlin were at this time the moft renowned
cities in Germany, for the cultivation of mufic, and the
number of able muficians. He eagerly wilhed to vifit one
of thofe cities, but was deftitute of the means. However,
he now began to feel his llrength, and trufting to his feet
and his fiddle, he boldly fet on for Drefden.

It was in the year 17 14 that he arrived in that city. His
firft entrance was not aufpicious, being wholly unable to
procure employment : on this account, he made an excurfion
to Radeburg, where a journeyman fiddler being wanting, he
entered into the fervice of the town mufician. Knoll; but
alas! he was fooii driven from this poll, by the fatal acci-
dent of the town being burnt down by lightning. Again
reduced to the ftate of a fugitive, and a wanderer, he levied
contributions round the country by the power of his violin,
which was now his principal inftrument, till he reached
Pirna.

Here, deftined ftill to be fervus fervorum, he could pro-
cure no other means of exercifing his profeilion, than by ac-
cepting the office of deputy to a fick journeyman mufician
of the town. It was during this time, that he firft faw
Vivaldi's concertos for the violin, which were fo congenial
to his own feelings and ideas of perfeftion, that he made
them his model as long as he continued to praClife that in-
ftrument.

Still regarding Drefden as his centre, he eagerly accepted
an offer that was made to him, of being temporary afliftant
there, to one of the town-waits, who was then ill ; an em-
ployment which he preferred, for the opportunities it af-
forded him of hearing good mufic and good muficiarts, to
the more honourable poft of being the beft of bad muficians
at Berenburg, where he might have been appointed firft
violin, with a good falary.

His fecond arrival at Drefden was in the year 1 716,
where he foon difcovei-ed that it was not fufficient for a
mufician to be able to execute the mere notes which a com-
pofer had fet on paper ; and it was now that he firft began
to be fenfible of the exiftence of tafte and expreflion.

Augullus II. was at this time king of Poland, and
eleftor of Saxony, and the orcheftra of this prince at Dref-
den was in a flouriftiing condition ; however, the ftyle which
had been introduced there, by the concert-mafter Volumier,
was French ; but Pifendel, who fucceeded him, introduced
a mixed tafte, partly French, and partly Italian, which he
afterwards brought to fuch perfection, that Quantz declares,
he never heard a better band in all his future travels.

No orcheftra in Europe could now boaft of fo many able
profeftbrs, as that of the eleftor of Saxony, among whom,
were Pifendel and Veracini, on the viofin ; Pantaleone He-
benftreit, on the pantaleone ; Weifs, on the lute ; Richter,
on the hautbois ; and Buffardin, on the German flute ; not
to mention feveral excellent performers on the violoncello,
bafl'oon, French horn, and double-bafe.

Upon hearing thefe great performers, Quantz was filled
with fuch wonder, and pofieiled of fuch a rage for improve-
ment, that he laboured inceffantly to render himfelf worthy
of a place among inch honourable aflbciates.

For, nowever prejudiced he may have been in favour of

his own reputable calling of kunftpfeifer, he began now juft

to think it poffible for him to be prevailed upon, to relin-

quifti that part of it, at leaft, which required Rim to play

D d 2 country

QUANTZ.

country dances, though in itfelf fo jovial, pleafant, and feilal
an employment.

He continued, however, to be the kunftpfeifer's dele-
gate in this city, till the death of Auguftiis II.'s motlier,
in 17 1 7, at which time, the general mourning profcribing
the ufe of every fpecies of convivial mufic, he again, in his
ufual mannei-, commenced traveller, and fiddled his way
through Silefia, Moravia, and Auftria, to Vienna ; and in
the month of Oftobcr, of the fame year, returned through
Prague to Drefden ; which journey, he thinks, contributed
more to his knowledge, in pradtical geography, than in any
other art. .

The jubilee of the reformation, brought about by Dr.
Luther, happening to be celebrated foon after his return,
he was called upon, among others, to perform a part upon
the trumpet, at church, where the chapel-mafter Schmidt
having heard him, offered to prevail on the king to have him
regularly taught that inftrument, in order to qualify him
for the place of court trumpeter ; but Quantz, however
ardently he might have wiflied for an office at court, de-
clined the acceptance of this, well knowing that the good
tafte to which he afpired, was not to be learned upon that
initrument, at lead as it was then played in Drefden.

In 1718, tlie Polirti or royal chapel was inftituted ; it was
to confift of twelve performers, eleven were already chofen,
and a hautbois player, only, was now wanting, to complete
the number. After undergoing the feveral trials, and giving
the requifite proofs of his abilities, he had the happinefs to
he jnvelled with that employnviyit, by the direAor, baron
Seyfcrtitz, with a falary of ijo dollars, and a lodging.

This was an important period in his life, and in the exer-
cife of his profeflion. The violin, which had hitherto been
his principal inftrument, was now laid afide for the hautbois,
upon which, however, he was prevented from diftinguifliing
himfelf, by the feniority of his brethren. Mortified at this
circumftance, he applied himfelf ferioudy to the German
flute, upon which he liad formerly made fome progrefs with-
out a mailer ; but his motive now for refuming it, was the
certainty of his having no rival, in the king's band, as
M. Friefe, the firft flute, had no great paffion for mufic,
and readily relinquiflied to him his place.

In order to work upon fure ground, Quantz took leflons
at this time of the famous Buffardin, with whom, however,
he only played quick movements, in which this celebrated
flute-player chiefly excelled. The fcarcity of pieces, com-
pofed exprefsly for the German flute, was fuch, at this
period, that the performers upon that inftrument were
obliged to adopt thofe of the hautbois, or violin, and by alter-
ing or tranfpofing, accommodate them to their purpofe, as
well as they could.

This ftimulaled Quantz to compofe for himfelf ; he had
not as yet ever received any regular inftruftions in counter-
point, fo that, after he had committed his tlioughts to paper,
he was obliged to have recourfe to others to correcl them.
Schmidt, the chapel-mafter, had promifed to teach him
compofition, but delayed keeping his word from time to
time, and Quantz was afraid of applying to Heinichen, his
colleague, for fear of offending Schmidt, as thefe mafters
were upon bad terms together. In the mean time, for want
of other affiftance, he diligently ftudied the fcores of great
mafters, and without ftealing from them, endeavoured to
imitate their manner of putting parts together, in trios, and
concertos.

About this time he had the good fortune to commence a
friendfliip with Pifendel, now appointed concert- mafter, in
the room of Volumier. Quantz is very warm in his praifes
of Pifendel, whom he calls a profound theorift, a great per-

I

former, and a truly honeft man. It was from this vrorthy
conccrt-mafter that he learned to perform an adagio, and to
compofe in many parts. Pifendel liad in his youth been
taught to fing by the famous Piftocciii, and had received
iuftruftions, on the violin, from Torelli ; however, having
travelled through France and Italy, where he had acquired
tlie peculiarities in the tafte of both countries, he fo blended
them together as to form a third genus, or mixed ityle of
writing and playing, which was half French and lialf Italian.
Influenced by his example, Quantz declares, that he always
preferred this compound ftyle, to that of Italy, France, or
tne national ftyle of his own country.

At the marriage of the prince royal of Poland, in 1719,
feveral Italian operas were performed at Drefden. Lotti,
the famous Venetian maeftro di capella, together with the
moft celebrated fingers of Italy, male and female, were
called thither upon this occafion ; thefe were the firft Italian
operas which Quantz had heard, and he confeft'es, that the
performance of them gave him a very favourable idea of the
genuine and found Italian mufic, from which he thinks later
times have too much deviated.

After defcribing the talents of the fingers who will have
their place in our alphabet, he informs us that this famous
opera at Drefden, was broken up by a quarrel between
Heinichen, the king of Poland's chapel-mafter, and Sene-
fino, wlio this fame year, 17 19, went to England for the
firft time.

Nothing very interefting occurs in the life of Quantz
from this period, till 1723, when he took a journey with
Weifs, the famous lutenift, and Graun, the compofer, to
Prague.

Quantz, not long after the coronation of Charles VI. at
Prague, went to Italy in the fuite of count Lagnafco, with
the coufent of his royal mafter, the king of Poland. He
left Drefden in May 1724, and, when he arrived at Rome,
he found that Vivoldi had juft introduced the Lombard ftyle
in that city, with which the citizens were fo captivated, that
they would hear no other.

During his refidence at Rome, he took leffons in compo-
fition of the famous Gafparini, who was at that time feventy-
two years of age ; and after ftudying counterpoint with
him, which he calls mufic for the eye, he v/cnt to work for
the ear, and compofed folos, duets, trios, and concertos ;
however, he confefles, that counterpoint had its ufe in
writing pieces of many parts ; though he was obliged to
unlearn many things, in praftice, which theory had taught
him, ill order to avoid that dry, and ftiff ftyle, which too
clofe an adherence to rules is apt to produce ; upon this
occafion, he very judicioufly obferves, that invention is the
firft requifite in a compofer, and that it behoves him to pre-
ferve a friendfliip between harmony and melody.

In 1725 he went to Naples, where he met with his
countryman Haffe, who then ftudied under Alef. Scarlatti.
Haffe had not, as yet, diftinguilhed himfelf by any com-
pofitions for the ftage ; however, it was at this tin-.e, that a
confiderable Neapolitan banker employed him to fet a fere-
iiata for two voices, which he did in the prefence of Quantz ;
the fingers who performed in it, were Farinelli and Tefi.
Haffe gained fo much reputation by this produftion, that
it paved the way to his future fuccefs, and he was foon after
appointed compofer of the great opera at the theatre roval.
Quantz intreated Haffe to introduce him to his mafter,
Scarlatti, to which he readily confented ; but upon men-
tioning him to the old compof.-r, he faid, " my fon, you
know I hate wind iaftruments, they are never in tune."
However, Haffe did not ceafe importuning him, till he ha"d
obtained the permiffion he required.

In

QUA

In the vifit which lie made to Scarlatti, M. QuSntz fays,
that he had an opportunity of hearing him play on tiie harp,
lichord, which he did in a very learned manner ; but oblerves,
that his abilities on that inftrument were not equal to thofe
of liis fon.

Before his departure from Naples, M. Quantz frequently
heard concerts at the dijke of Lichtenllein's, in which
Hade, Farinelli, Tefi, and Francifchello, were employed.

In 1726 he was at Venice, during the performance of
two rival operas, " Siface," compofed by Porpora, and
" Siroe," by Vinci ; the latter was moll applauded. The Cav.
Nicolini, a contralto. La Romanina, a deep foprano, and
the famous tenor, I'aita, were the principal fingers in thefe
dramas.

San Martini, the celebrated performer on the hautbois,
who afterwards eilabliflicd hinilelf in London, was now at
Venice, as was Vivaldi.

At Turin he met with Somis, under whom, Le Claire
was at that time a fcholar on the violin.

From Turin he went to Paris, wliich, with refpeft to mufic,
was going from one extreme to another.

His charafter of French linging 111 tlie former part of the
laft century, is very juft and charatleriltic.

" I was difpleafed with the French tafte now," fays
M. Quantz, " though I had heard it formerly with patience.
The old, worn-out, fecond-liand thoughts, and palTages ill-
exprelfcd, difgulled me now, as much as a Itale difh warmed
again. The relemblance between recitative and air, with
the affefted and unnatural howling ot the lingers, particu-
larly the women, ihocked my cars."

M. Quantz was the iirlt who applied an additional key
to the German flute, in order to ciirivft its imperfections ;
and it was in the courfe of this year, 1726, that he made
the difcovery.

In 1727 he arrived in LondoH, where he found the opera
in a very flonrifhing ilate, under the direftion of Handel.
The drama of " Admetus" was now in run, of which, he
fays, the mufic was grand and pompous. Senefino performed
the firll male part, and Cuzzoni and Fauttina were the prin-
cipal women.

He then gives a charafter of the fingers, Hate of the opera,
and of mufic in general in London, very con-eftly.

Upon his return to Drelden, he was ellablilhed in the
king's chapel, with an addition to his former falary of 250
dollars a-year. He now entirely quitted the hautbois, fup-
pofing it hurtful to the embouchure of the flute, which,
from this time, he made his iole ftudy.

In 172S he went to Berlin, with Ijaron Seyfertiz, in the
fuite of the king of Poland ; where he was obliged, at the
command of the queen of Pruffia, but with the permiffion
of his royal malter, to remain for fome months. Pifendel,
Weifs, and Buff^ardin, were, by the fame order, called thither.
After he had had the honour of playing before the queen
two or three times, he was offered a place and peiifion of
800 dollars a-year. He was very willing to accept of them,
but the king his mafter would not grant his confent : how-
ever, this prince gave him a general permiffion to go to
Berlin as often as he was defired.

This year, 1728, the prince royal of Pruffia delfermined
to learn the German flute, and M. Quantz had the honour
to teach him. Ou this account, he was obliged to go twice
a year to Berlin, Ruppin, or Reinlberg, the feveral refi-
■dences of his royal fcholar.

After the death of the king of Poland, in 1733, '"^ ^'-'"'
Auguftus III. not choofing to difmifs M. Quantz, raifed
his appoiutraent to 800 dollars, and confirmed the permiffion

QUA

which had been granted by his royal father, for his going
occafionally to Berlin.

In 1734 he publilhed his firll folos ; but he docs not ac-
knowledge the fonatas, which were printed under his name,
in Holland, about that time.

Ill 1739, M. Quantz finding a great fcarcity of German
flutes, undertook to bore them himfelf for the ufe of his
pupils ; an enterprife which, afterwards, he found to be
very lucrative.

In 1741 he was again invited to Berlin, in order to enter
into the fcrvice of his royal fcholar, then king of Pruffia,
with ofiers of an annual peiifion of 2000 dollars for life ; a
feparate payment for compofitions ; 100 ducats for every
flute he fhould deliver ; and an exemption from playing in
the orchellra, or any where elfe, but m the king's chamber,
as well as from dependance on any other commands than
thofe of his majefty ; which terms, as the king of Poland
was too gracious longer to refufe his difmiffion, M. Quantz
was unable to refill.

In 1752 he pubhfhed his "Art of Playing the German
Flute ;" and it was this year that he invented tlie new joint
for the upper-piece of the flute, by which means, without
drawing out the middle piece, and without hurting the tone,
the inftrument may be raifed or lowered half a note.

And now, having traced our induftrious mufician through
the troublefome mazes by which he arrived at the temple of
fortune, we had hopes that we fliould have left him to the
enjoyment of that reputable eafe, that olium cum dignitate,
to vi'hich every artift in years afpires ; but alas ! this emi-
nent mufician and worthy man died at Potzdam in lefs than
a year after we had feen, heard, and converfed with him in
that fummer refidence of his royal difciple and patron ! A
complete lift of his works is given in Gerber.

QUANUSE, in Geography, a town of America, in the
Tenneffce government. N. lat. 35° 12'. W. long. 84° 28'.

QUAPA, a town of Louifiana, at the conflux of the
Akanfas with the Miffifippi. N. lat. 33° 48'. W. long.
91° 23'.

QUAPACTOTOTL, in Ornithology, a name under
which Nieremberg has defcribed a bird, which, he fays, imi-
tates the human laugh. He fays its body is eight inches
long, and the tail as many ; the beak of a blueifli-black,
and bent and crooked ; the breaft grey, and the belly black ;
the tail of a brownifh-black ; and the wings, neck, and head,
of a yellowifh-brown.

This is the Cuculus ridibundus of Gmelin, the Cuculus
Mexicanus of Brilibn, and the Laugliing cuckow of Latham.
It is found in New Spain.

QUAPIZOTL, in Zoology, the name given by Her-
nandez to the Taja(;u of Marcgrave, the Pecari of Buffon,
and the Mexican hog of Pennant. See Sus Tajnjii.

QUAPOYA, in Botany, Aubl. Guian. v. 2. 897.
t. 343, 344, a barbarous Caribbean name. See Xanthe.

QUAR, in Agriculture, a term occafionally employed,
in a provincial manner, to fignify a fmall fort of quarry of
any kind, but more efpecially of the lime-ilone, free-ftone,
flag-ftone, or flate-ilone nature. It is much ufcd in fome
of the more northern diftrifls of the country. See
QuAKuy.

QUARANTAIN, in old Law Books, written Quaren-
tini-, and Quarentena, denotes the fpace of forty days.

" Quatuor carucatas terrse arabilis, continentes in longi-
tudiiie 8 quarentenas, & 8 quareutenas in latitudme."
Chart. Witiilafii Reg. Merc, apud Ingulf.

" Quarentena in London, ponetur pro refpeftu habend.
40 dies pofl fummouitionem per breve regis, ut confidant,
&c. fi fibi viderint expedire." MS. de Temp. Ed. III.

The

Q U A

The term is borrowed from the French quarentain ; and is
fometimcs ufcd for tlie time of Lent.

QuARANTAiy of the King, in France, denotes a truce of
forty days appointed by St. Louis, during which time it
was exprefsly forbidden to take any revenge of tlie relations
or friends of people who had fought, wounded, or aflronted
each other m words.

QUARANTAIN, or Qiiarc/itine, is more particularly ufed
for the ti-rm of forty days, which vellels, connng from
places fufpefted of contagion, are obliged to wait in cir
tain places appointed to air themfelves before they come
into port.

By the ftat. 26 Geo. IL cap. 6. explained and amended
by 29 Geo. IL cap. 8. tlie method of performing quaren-
tine, or forty days probation, by fhips coming from foreign
countries, is put in a much more regular and effeftual order
than formerly ; and matters of fhips coming from infefted
places, and difobeying the direftions there given, or having
the plague on board, and concealing it, are guilty of felony
without benefit of clergy. The fame penalty alfo attends
perfonsefcaping from the lazarettos, and officers and watch-
men neglefting their duty, and perfons conveying goods or
letters from fhipo performing quarantine. Se Plagle.

In cafts of infurance, before the rifle on a lliip can be faid
to be completely ended, flie mufl not only have been 24 hours
moored at anchor in her port of delfination, but fhe muft
have been during that time \n good fafety, in the fullefl fenfe
of thofe words. If, therefore, the fhip be obliged to per-
form quarantine, this does not end the voyage. The voyage
only ends when the fhip is arrived at her port of dellination,
and is there moored 24 hours in good fafety. Accordingly,
if the fhip, before the 24 hours are expired, be ordered to
the proper place for performing quarantine, the rifle con-
tinues, though fhe do not leave her moorings till long after
the 24 hours are expired. See Risk.

Quarantain alfo denotes certain duties impofed upon
{hips, for the purpofes of quarantine.

Quarantain, Quarantine, or Quarentine, Quarentena, in
Law, denotes a benefit allowed by the laws of England to
the widow of a man dying feifed of land ; by winch fhe may
challenge to contniue in his capital meiluage, or chief man-
fion-houfe (fo it be not a caflle], for the Ipace of 40 days
after his deceafe ; during which time her dower fliall be af-
figned. The particular lands to be held in dower m.ufl be
alligned by the heir of the hufband, or his guardian. Co.
Liit. 34, 35.

If the heir, or any other perfon, attempt to ejeft her,
(lie may have the writ de quaranlena halenda ; which lies for
a widow to enjoy her quarantain.

QuARAN'i'AiN is alfo ufed for a meafure or extent of land,
containing 40 perches.

QUARANTARIA, in Geography, a high mountain
between Jerufalem and Jericho ; which, as tradition fays,
is the mountain to which our bleffcd Saviour was taken by
the devil, when he tempted him with the vifionary fcene of
all the kingdoms and glories of the world. This is, as St.
Matthew Ityles it, an exceeding high mountain, and not
only dif-ficult, but dangerous, of al'cent. It has a fmall
chapel at the top, and another about half-way of its afcent,
founded upon a prominent part of the rock. Near this
latter are fevcral caves and holts in the fide of the mountain,
made ufe of anciently by hermits, and by fome in later
times, for places in which they kept their Lent ; in imitation
of that of our bleffed Saviour. In mofl of thefe grots
Maundrell found certain Arabs quartend with fire-arms,
who obflrufted his afcent, demanding 200 dollars for leave
to go up the mountain. He and his companions, fays the

10

QUA

traveller, departed without farther trouble, not a little glad
to have fo good an excufe for not climbing fo dangerous a
precipice. Maundrell's Journey, &c. p. 80.

QUARANTIA, in the Venetian Po/ily, a court of
judicature compoled of forty judges.

Ttie Venetians have an old civil quarantia, a new civil
quarantia, and a criminal quarantia.

The criminal quarantia takes cognizance of all crimes
except thofe- againll the Itate, whicii belongs to the council
cxf ten. The new civil quarantia judges of appeals made
from fcktences made by judges out ot the city. The old
civil quarantia takes cognizance of appeals from fenteiices
of fubaltern judges in tiiat city.

QUARARIBEA, iu Botany. See MvKomA.

QUARE c/aiifum /regit, in Law. See QliW^VM f regit.

Ql'ARE ejecit infra termimim, a writ which lieth, by the
ancient law, where the wrongdoer or ejeftor is not himfelf
in pofTefTion of the lands, but another who claims under
him. As where a man leafeth lands to another for years,
and, after, the lefTor or reverfioner entereth, and maketh a
feoffment in fee, or for life, ot the fame lands to a ftranger :
now the lefiee cannot bring a writ of ejeciione Jirma, or eject-
ment, again 11 the feoffee ; becaufe he did not eject him, but
the reverfioner : neither can he have any fuch aftion to re-
cover his tei-m againft the reverfioner, who did oult him ;
becaufe he is not now in pofTefTion. And upon that account
this writ was deviled, upon the equity of the ftatute
Weltm. 2. c. 24. as in a cafe where no adequate remedy
was already provided. And the aftion is brought againll
the feoffee for deforcing, or keeping out, the original lefTee
during the continuance of his term : and herein, as in the
ejeftment, the plaintiff fhall recover fo much of the term as
remains ; and alio fhall have adtual damages for that portion
of it, whereof he has been unjultly deprived. But fince the
introduction of fictitious ou Iters, whereby the title may be
tried againll any tenant in pofieffion, (by what means fo-
ever he acquired it,) and the fubfequent recovery of da-
mages by adlion of trefpafs for melne profits, this aCtion is
fallen into dilnfe. See Ejec'HONE Firmie.

Qua RE impedit, a writ which lies for him who has pur-
chafed an advowfun, againil him that dilturbs him in the
right of it, by prefenting a clerk to it when the church is
void.

It differs from the afTize of darrein prefentment, ultima
prxfentationis, which lies where a man, or his anceflors,
formerly prefented ; this other lying for liim who is the pur-
chafer himfelf. Where a man may have the alTife, he may
have this writ ; but not contranWife.

In conteiled prefentations, upon the firft delay or refufal
of the bifhop to admit his clerk, tlie patron ulually brings
his writ of quare impedit againil the bifhop, for the temporal
injury done to his property, in difturbmg him in his pre-
fentation. And if the delay arifes from the bifhop alone,
as upon pretence of incapacity, or the like, then he only is
named in the writ ; but if there be another prefentation fet
up, then the pretended patron and his clerk are alfo joined
in the a^^ion ; or it may be brought againll the patron and
clerk, leaving out the bifhop ; or againfl the patron only.
But it is moil advifeable to bring it againfl all three : for if
the bifhop be left out, and the fuit be not determined till
the fix months are pall, the bifhop is entitled to prefent by
lapfe ; for he is not party to the fuit : but, if he be named,
no lapfe can poffibly accrue till the right is determined. If
the patron be left out, and the writ be brought only againft
the bifliop and the clerk, the fuit is of no effeft, and the
writ fliall abate ; for the right of the patron is the principal
queftion in the caufe. If the clerk be left out, and has re-
ceived

QUA

ceived inftitution before the aftion brought, (as is fometimea
the caic,) the patron by this fuit may recover his right of
patronage, but not the prcfent turn ; for lie cannot have
judgment to remove tlie clerk, unlefs he be made a de-
fendant, and party to the fe.it, to hear what he can allege
againft it. For which rcafon it is the fafer way to nifcrt all
three in t\w writ.

The writ of gunre impedit commands tlie difturbcrs, the
bifhop, the pfeudo-patron, and his clerk, to permit the
plaintiff to prefeiit a proper perfon (without Ipecifying the
particular clerk) to fuch a vacant church, which pertains
to his patronage ; and which the defendants, as he alleges,
do oblliuft ; and unlefs they fo do, then that they appear
in conn to (hew the reafon why they hinder him.

Immediately on the fuing out of the quare impedit, if the
plaintiff fufp^ els that the bifhop will admit the defendant's
or any other clerk, pending the fnit, he may have a pro-
hibitory writ, called a ne admittas ; which recites the con-
tention begun in the king's courts, and forbids the bifhop
to admit any clerk whatfoever till fuch contention be deter-
mined. And if the bifhop doth, after the receipt of this
writ, admit any perfon, even though the patron's right may
have been found in -a jure patrnnatus, then the plaintiff, after
he has obtained judgment in the quare impedit, may remove
the incumbent, if the clerk of a Itranger, by writ oi fcire
facias : and fhall have a fpecial aftion againll the bifhop,
called a quare incumiravit ; to recover tlie prelentation, and
alfo fatisfaftion in damages for the injury done him by in-
cumbering the church with a clerk, pending the fuit, and
after the ne admittas received. But if the bifhop has incum-
bered the church by inflituting the clerk, before the ne ad-
mittas iffued, no quare incumbravit lies ; for the bifhop hath
no legal notice, till the writ of ne admittas is ferved upon
him. The patron is, therefore, left to his quare impedit
merely; which now lies (fince the (tatute of Weftm. 2.)
as well upon a recent ufurpation within fix monthb pafl, as
upon a diilurbai:ce without any ufurpation had.

In the proceedings upon a quare impedit, the plaintiff muft
fet out his title at length, and prove at leaft one prefenta-
tion in himfelf, his anceftors, or thofe under whom he
claims ; for he muft recover by the ftrength of his own
right, and not by the vveaknefs of the defendant's : and he
mult alfo fhew a dilfurbance before the aftion brought.
Upon this the billiop and the clerk ufually dilclaim all title :
fave only, the one as ordinary, to admit and inftiti-ite ; and
the other as prefentee of the patron, who is left to defend
his own right. And, upon failure of the plaintiff in making
out his own title, the defendant is put upon the proof of
his, in order to obtain judgment for himfelf, if needful.
But if the right be found for the plaintiff, on the trial, three
farther points are alfo to be inquired: i. If the church be
full ; and, if full, then of whole prefentation : for if it be
of the defendant's prefentation, then the clerk is removeable
by writ brought in due time. 2. Of what value the living
is : and this in order to affefs the damages which are directed
to be given by the ftatiiite of Weftm. 2. 3. In cafe of ple-
narty upon an ufurpation, whether fix calendar months have
paffed between the avoidance and the time of bringing the
aftion : for then it would not be within the ftatute, which
permits an ufurpation to be divefted by a quare impedit,
brought infra tempus femeflre. So that plenarty is itill a
fufficient bar in an aClion of quare impedit, brought above
fix months after the vacancy happens ; as it was univerfally
by the common law, however early the aftion vcas com-
menced.

If it be found that the plaintiff hath the right, and hath

QUA

commenced his aftion in due time, then he fhall have judg-
ment to recover th prefentation ; and, if the cliurch be full
by inftitution of any clerk, to remove him : unlefs it were
filled pendente lite by lapfe to the ordinary, he not being
party to the fuit ; in which cafe the plaintiff lofps his pre-
fentation pro hac -vice, but ftiall rec-over two years' f 11 value
of the church from the defendant, the pretended patron, as
a fatisfaftioii for the turn loft by his difturbance : or, jn cafe
of infolvency, the defendant fhall be imprifoi 1 d for two
years. But if the church remains Itiil void at the end of the
fuit, then whichever party the prefentation is found to be-
long to, whether plaintiff or defendai t, fhall have a writ
direfted to the bifhop ad admlltendum ckricum, reciting the
judgment of the court, and ordering him to admit and in-
ftitute the clerk of the prevailing party ; and, if upon this
order he does not admit him, the patron may fue the bifhop
in a writ of quare non admift, and recover ample fatisfaftion
in damages.

Befides thefe pofleffury aftions, there niay be alfo had
a writ of right of advoiufon, which refembles other writs
of right : the only dilUnguifliing advantage now attending
it being, that it is more conclufive than a quare impedit ;
fuice to an aftion of quare impedit a recovery had jn a writ
of right may be pleaded in bar.

There is no limitation with regard to the time within
which any aftions touching advowfons are to be brought ; at
leaft none later than the times of Richard I. and Henry III. :
for by ftatute i Mar. ft. 2. c. 5. the ftatute of limitations,
32 Hen. VIII. c. 2. is declared not to extend to any writ
of riglit of advowfon, quare impedit, or alTife of darrein pre-
fentment, or jus palronatus.

In a writ of quare impedit, which is almoft the only real
aftion that remains in common life, and alfo in the affife of
darrein prefeiitment, and writ of right, the patron only, and
not the clerk, is allowed to fue the difturber. But, by
virtue of feveral afts of parliament, there is one fpecies of
prefentations, in which a remedy, to be fued in the tem-
poral courts, is put into the hands of the clerks prefented,
as well as of the owners of the advowfon. We mean the
prefentation to fuch benefices, as belong to Roman Ca-
tholic patrons ; which, according to their feveral counties,
are vefted in and fecured to the two univerfities of this
kingdom. And particularly by the ftatute of 12 Ann.
ft. 2. c. 14. ^ 4. a new method of proceeding is provided;
•viz. that, befides the writs of quare impedit, which the uni-
verfities as patrons are entitled to bring, they, or their
clerks, may be at liberty to file a bill in equity againft any
perfon prefenting to fuch livings, and diflurbing their right
of patronage, or his cefluy que trufl, or any other perfon
whom they have caufe to fufpeft ; in order to compel a dif-
covery of any fecret trufts, for the benefit of Papitts, in
evafion of thofe laws whereby this right of advowfon is
vefted in thofe learned bodies: and alio (by the ftatute
II Geo. II. c. 17.) to compel a difcovery ivhether any
grant or conveyance, faid to be made of fuch advowfon,
were made bona fide to a Proteff ant purchafer, for the be-
nefit of Proteftants, and for a full confideration ; vrithout
which rcquifites, every fuch grant and conveyance of any ad-
vowfon or avoidance is abfolutely null and void. Blackft.
Com. b. iii.

Quare incumbravit, a writ whicli lies againft the bifhop,
who, within fix months after the vacancy of a benefice, con-
fers it on the clerk of any one, while two perfons are con-
tending at law for the right of prefenting. This writ lies
always depending the plea. See the preceding article,
Prfsemtation, Assise of darrein prefentment, &c.

Quare

QUA

QUA

OuARE ran admillt, a writ which lies againlt the bifliop, Quarrk les Tombts, in Giography, a town of France, in
for refufina: to admit his clerk, who has recovered in a plea the department of the Yonne, and chief place of a canton,
of advowlon, on pretence of lapfe, &c. See Quare im-

ped'tt.

Quake non perm'mit, is a writ that lies for one who has
a right to prefent for a turn againil the proprietary.

QuARE objlruxit, a writ that lies for him, who, having
right to pafs through his neighbour's grounds,, cannot enjoy
the fame, becaufe the owner has fenced it up.
QUARENTINE. See Quarantain.
QUARERA, or Quakatia. See Quarry.
QUARITZ, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of Glugau ; 8 miles W. of Gros-Glogau.

QUARKEN, or OuERKEN, a duller of fmall iflands,
in the gulf of Bothniarnear the eafl coait. N. lat. 63° 16'.
E. long. 21".

QUARLES, Fravcis, in Biography, an Englifli poet,
born in 1592, near Rumfoi-d, in Eflex, was fon of James
Quarles, efq. who held an office at the navy board in the
reio-n of queen Elizabeth. The fubjecl of this article was
educated at Chrill's college in Cambridge, and was after-
wards entered a ftudent in Lincoln's Inn. He obtained the
place of cup-bearer to the queen of Bohemia, daughter to
James I. ; and upon his return, he w.is appointed fccretary
to archbifhop Ulher in Ireland, from which country lie made
his efcape, on the breaking out of the rebellion in 1641, after
tiie lofs of his property. He had before dillinguifhcd himfelf
by fome works, chiefly on religious fubjefts, in confidera-
tion of which he had a penfion from Charles I. About this
time he had the poll of chronologer to the city of London.
On the commencement of the civil wars, he gave great of-
fence to the parliament by a work, entitled " The Loyal
Convert ;" and when he aftually jomed the king at Oxford,
he was plundered of his eftates, his books, and manulcripts.
Thefe loffes he did not long furvive. He died at the age
of 52, in 1644. Of his numerous writings, as well in profe
as in verfe, the moft celebrated, and indeed that by which
he is almoll entirely known, is his " Emblems," a fet of
defigns exhibited in prints, and elucidated by fome lines at-
tached to each. A confiderable part of the work is bor-
rowed from the " Emblems" of Hermannus Hugo, but h,s
verfcs are his own. For a confiderable time they excited a
large portion of public admiration in the religious world.
They then fell into contempt ; but we believe a new edition
has of late years been given to the world. Quarles is thus
charafterized by an able critic : " He is by no means with-
out his beauties ; and his vcrfes, which are generally fmooth,
afford occafional burfts of fancy, and ftrokes ot pathos,
which fhcw real genius, though overrun with falfe talle.
Mr. Jackfon of Exeter, in his " Letters on various Sub-
jefts," endeavoured to recall the public attention to this
neglefted poet, and pointed out with much feeling fome of
his brilliant paflages ; but though curiofity may be amufed
by hunting for his fcattered beauties, he can never regain a
place among the Englilh claflical poets."

QUARLESVILLE, in Geography, a pod-town of
America, in Brunfwick county, Virginia ; 204 miles from
Wartiingtoii.

QUARNAMELA, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Smaland ; 23 miles S. of Wexio.

QUARNERO, or Cornero, Gulf of, a part of the
Adriatic, between Iftria and Morlachia, anciently called
" Sinus Flanaticus." It is fubjeft to fudden ftorms and
hurricanes, which render its navigation dangerous.

QUA R RE', Fr. In old French mufic, B quarre was
the term for B t^. See Quadro.

in the diltrift of Avallon ; 6 miles S. of Avallon. The
plai-e contains 2007, and the canton 7287 inhabitants, on a
territory of 192^ kiliometres, and 9 communes.

(^UARRE'E, in the old French time-table, implied a
breve, or i'quarc note, equal to two femi-brcves. Sec-

TiME-TABI-E.

QUARREL, Querela, in Law. See Querf.la.
Quarrel fecms properly to relate to perfonal aftions, or
at moll to mixed ones, wherein the plaintiff is called
qtierens ; and in all declarations of trefpafs, it is laid, que-
rttur.

Yet if a man releafe all quarrels or querels, (a man's own
deed being taken moll llrongly agaiiiR himfelf,) quarrel in-
eludes all aftions ; and accordingly all aftions, both real
and perfonal, are hereby rcleafed.

Quarrels or affrays in a church or church-yard are
efteemed very heinous offences, as being indignities to him
to whofe fervice thofe places are conlecrated ; therefore
mere quarrelfome words, which are neither an affray nor
an offence in any other place, are penal here. See Af-
fray.

Quarrel between the French and Italian fingers at
Rome, in the time of Charlemagne ; for wliich we refer to
our article Ciiarlkmagne. See alfo Rouffeau's Dicl.

Quarrel, in Armoury, a bolt, or fquare-headed arrow,
to (hoot out of an arbaliil, or crois-bow.
Quarrel of Glafs. See Quarry.

The word is formed, by dimindtion, from the Latin
quadratum, or the French quarre, fquare ; or, perhaps, im-
mediately from the Italian quadrcllo, Ihtb fquare.

QUARRY, in ylgrkullure, the common name of an
opening, pit, drift, or fhaft, which is dug into the earth or
ground, and from which are to be raifed ores of various
kinds, different forts of ftones, dates, and other materials
of fimilar natures. It is remarked by the writer of the
work on " Landed property," that the more ufcful and ad-
vantageous materials and fubllances that have at different
times been dug and raifed out of quarries in this country,
are chiefly thofe of the iron ore kind, lime-done, and other
calcareous matters, materials for building, fuch as flates,
flags, ilones, and fubftances of other forls, matters for the
conilrudling and repainng of roads, as fancl, grave', and
others of the fame nature, earthy fubftances for the purpofes
of different manufactures, fnch as clays, &c. moulds and
vegetable earthy matters, and coals, with other articles for
ufe aa fuel. There are, however, occafionally raifed from
openings of this nature, a few other kinds of fubftances,
fuch as will be noticed below.

It has been farther fuppofed by the above writer, that the
fubftances which he has here mentioned, may with truth be
faid to be of more real ufe and value to mankind than all the
mines of precious m.etals in the world ; and that the eyes
of the managers of landed eftates (hould conftantly be turned
towards and fixed upon the difcovery of the hidden valuable
treafures and produdlions of this nature, wherever there is a
probability or likelihood of their being to be met with. It
is alfo fuggelled, that it would be highly beneficial and ad-
vantageous if mineralogifts, and thofe who are acquainted
with fuch fublfances, were to turn their attention towards
the appearances or accompaniments which point out fuch
ufeful concealed matters ; as it might greatly facilitate the
fearch for them, and frequently lead fortuitouily to their
difcovery. The methods which are praftifed in fearching
for and afcertaining the prefence of different forts of mate-
rials

1

QUARRY.

rials of this nature, are principally thofe of boring, by means
of an auger or boror made for the purpofe, into tlie earth,
and digging into it in other ways. In fcarching for mod
forts of mineral fubdances, coals, and fome other matters, the
ufe of the borer is conilantly iirll liad recourfe to, and not
that of finking a fiiaft, however favourable the appearances
of the place may be for the purpoie, and the fuccefs of tiie
Hndertaking. The. ground is iirft tried by this means, and
a certaiiity of fuccefs or failure gained, as well as that of
the mod proper lituation for finking the fliaft or making the
opening or pit, without much expcnce being incurred, in cafe
of the former. In trying for ochres, marles, and other
fimilar articles, the fame implement is alfo in comnion ufe.
But in raifing and providing lime-llone, free-itone, flags, and
dates, &c. in fome cafes, digging down into and opening the
ground, by fpades and other tools, is tiie mode employed in
the firll inllance, m confequence of fuch fubilances being
obvioufly prefent in fufficient quantities to be wrought with
advantage. See Bokek, Boking, and Auger.

The common methods of working and managing different
forts of quarries, are in general, in moil places, tolerably
well underftood and regulated, by fuch quarrymen as are
conilantly employed in the bufinefs ; but a circumllance
which they commonly negleft very much, or are in a great
degree inattentive to, in many cafes, is that of making good
the ground below, by means of the turf or foil which is call
off from the top, or upper parts ; and that of keeping the
mouths of the openings fufficicntly clear and free. Another
common difficulty incident to them, is that of draining, and
freeing their bottom parts from injurious water. This may
be effetled in various ways, as by the ufe of different forts
of macliinery worked by wind, water, and lleam, and by
fome other means. See Quarries, Pits, &c. Draining of.
In many of the more fouthern diftrifts of the kingdom,
and dill more in thofe towards the north, and in Wales,
there are quarries, from which fubdanccs of fome of the
following kinds are raifed and ufed in their neighbourhoods,
or fent away to a didance, in a very extenfive manner ; fuch,
for indance, as thofe of the dony kind, as iron-llone or
ore, lime-done, marble, chalk, granite, free-done, grit-llone,
flag-done, white, grey, purple, and blue flate-done, fand-
ftone, fand, gravel, clay-llone, fcythe-dones, tile-llones,
&c. ; different ochres, plumbago or black lead, calamine,
gypfum, marie, pipe-clay, alum-earth, fuUer's-earth, peat-
earth, culm, coal, cannel, falt-rock, &c. Thele quarries
and pits are wrought, and the materials got up from them,
in feveral different ways, according to circumdances and con-
venience, as well as the particular nature, kinds, qualities,
&c. of the different articles themfelves ; all of which are
modly well known, and capable of being performed by the
workmen of their refpedlive neighbourhoods, who are com-
monly employed in them, and very expert in their ma-
nagement.

Stonv fubftances which bear a great variefy of different
names, and which poffefs equal variety in their qualities and
iifeful properties, are met with, and dug up from quarries
and pits, in many different didrifts and fituations, in almoll all
parts of this ifland, in order to be converted to purpofes of im-
proveraent and utility in a variety of different ways and inten-
tions. Iron-dones and ores abound more in the northern parts,
though they are occafionally found in fome of the fouthern
ones. A confiderable quantity of highly rich iron-done is
got up and fent annually from the vicinity of Combemartin
in Devondiire, to the iron-works of Mr. Raby at Llenethy
in South Wales. A large portion of it is alfo found on the
borders of the Orchment river, and difperfed throughout the
whole didrift, as well as in other parts of the fame county.
Vol. XXIX.

Iron-done is likcwife met with in Suffex in large quantities,
imbedded witli lime-done and fand-done, that which rifes
near to the furface being the bed, the other having a coarfer
and more dull appearance, working heavier in tlie furnace.
The very bed is frequently interfefted with thin ftripes of
foft marly matter. Iron-done, to a great extent, exids on
the edates of lord Dudley, and many others in Stafforddiire,
and contributes much to the employment and profperity of
the inhabitants. But, in the northern pan of Lancafliire
in the didridt of Low Furneft, done and ore of this fort
are perhaps found in the larged quantity, of the bed kind
and in the mod general manner, of any where in the king-
dom. There are numbers of (hafts, quarries, and pits for
raifing them from, on Lindal Moor, Whittrig Moor, and
Crofs Gates, in the vicinity of Dalton, as well as in fome
other places. In the former, the working is ufually eff'efted
at the deptii of from twenty to forty-five feet, but it
has been done at lefs as well as greater depths. The whole
of their cavities are chambered with wood, and coll from a
guinea to twenty-five fhillings in finking each fathom, with-
out the wood. The ore runs in veins or feams between the
rocks on the north and fouth, being in breadth from about
forty to fixty yards. And it condantly dips towards the
fouth-ead at the rate of about a foot in five or fix. The bed
ore is that which has the mod greafy appearance, and it
is raifed with lefs difficulty, working lefs hard, requiring
lefs flux, and forming a more foft iron. It is raifed from the
fliafts or pits by machinery of the gin or windlafs kind, the
men employing picks, punches, and hammers in digging it
up. It was formerly got, in fome places, by driving levels
into the fides of the hills, and conveying it out on railways
in fmall waggons ; but now the other way is modly era-
ployed. Four men get about fourteen tons in the day, in
fome fituations ; but in others, double the number are re-
quired for getting the fame quantity. It is wheeled to didant
heaps, from which much of it is fent in fmall carts to the port
of Old Barrow, from whence it is diipped to different parts
of England, Wales, and Scotland, at the expence of from
fourteen to thirty diilHngs in freight ; and the red converted
into pig-iron by the furnaces in the neighbourhood. Iron-
dones and ores are alfo met with in fome other counties more
to the north of the kingdom, where there are pits and quar-
ries for raifing them from.

Lime-done is a very general fort of done raifed from
quarries and pits in many different parts of this country, ai
in Devonfliire, Suffex, Kent, &c. towards the fouth, where
it lies in vad beds, from which it is dug for ule ; in the more
midland counties, as in Gloucederdiire, Shropfhire, Derby-
ftiire, Stafforddiire, and others, where it exids and is em-
ployed to a dill greater extent ; but by far the mod exten-
fively in thofe farther to the north, as Lancadiire, Wed.
moreland, Yorkdiire, Cumberland, and fome didrifts of
Scotland. In many parts of the county of Lancader it is
dug and raifed from quarries, where it lies in a dratified
manner at no great depth from the furface, being got up
without much difficulty or trouble ; while in other places
it is forced from the folid rock, with great labour and ex-
pence. This is likewife the cafe in many other didrifts.
Wherever it is met with, it is almod conilantly a quarry-
material of great value, and which affords much employment
to labourers.

In the county of Kent, the banks of fome of the large
rivers are fcooped out into done quarries in a remarkable
manner, fome of them worn out and difufed, others in the
date of being wrought. It has been obferved, that this ii
the neareft done country into which water-carriage can pene-
trate from the metropolis ; and that the original London
E e was

QUARRY.

was built, as well as the modern one chiefly paved, hy
materials from this diilrict, fuch as the rag-ltone, and the
large pebbles gathered on the fea-lhorcs, before the Scoteh
granite came into ufe. In the neighbourhood of Maidflone
there are the appearances of many abandoned and neglected
quarries of this nature ; but the moit confiderable ones,
which were lately wrought in that vicinity, are thofe of
Farlcigh and Fant. In each of thefe, blocks of ftones, of
different kinds, and of every form and fize, are met with,
being feparated by feams, and large irregular mafles of
earth of various quahties : among the rell, brick-earth of
the beft quality. In fome places, the ftones are buried
feveral feet under thcfe earthy materials; in others, the
rock rifes to the furface. After this, tlie quarryinen worm
their way ; following it, with irregular wmdings, leaving
behind them rcfufe in greiter quantity than the ufeful
materials which they raife.

The ftony fubftances which are principally met with in
them, are of tH-o very diftinft kinds : the one hard, and of a
ftrono- contexture, provincially denominated rag, or Keiitifh
.rag ; the other of a loft crumbly nature, provincially termed
hajpjck. The quarrymen are in the praftice of dividing the
iirft fort into two kinds ; what they call the common rag,
and the cork-Jione, the latter being their principal objeft in
thefe immenfe works. It has in its general appearance
much refemblance to the Itrong grey lime-ltones which are
found in different parts of this country ; but when minutely
examined by means of a glafs, its fratture and contexture
have the ch'aradters of the Devonlhire marbles ; except that
the grain of this fort of Hone is fomewhat coarfer. In
colour, too, it differs from thefe marbles, having a greater
refemblance to the Yorklhire lime-ftones. It is ufed for
different purpofes ; much of it is fent to the neighbourhood
of London, where it is burnt into lime, for the ufe of the
fugar-bakers ; who, for fome reafon or other, chiefly em-
ploy lime, burnt from this material, or Itone, inftcad of that
of chalk. It IS likewife made ufe of as a building material ;
and, particularly in pedellals, for the polls of cattle-lheds
and other farm-offices. It is hewn with llone-mafons' axes,
working with tolerable freedom.

It is very durable, as fome part of the bafement of
Weftmintter Abbey appears to have been built with the
ftone from thcfe quarries. In this cafe, it feems to have
been dreffed fmooth ; and the furface ftill remains with
little alteration ; having withllood the attacks of time with
great firmnefs ; it being even now difficult to deteft a
loofened fphnter in the work.

The common rag- ftone comprehends all the different
kinds which are met with in thefe quarries, except that of
the above, and that which is of the liaffocky nature ; though
the true unmixed rag is a diftinift fort, having charafters
different from any of the others. In the colour, it inclines
more to the red or liver colour, than that of the cork-ftone,
but otherwife refembles it coniiderably. Viewed with a
glafs, its grain is finer, and the fraclure flint-like.

Its ufes are, however, but few. Some of the beft and moft
regularly-faced ftones are fometimes laid afide for paving
materials ; but the large pieces are moftly referved, in order
^o be fent by water to the diftrift of Romney Marfh, for
the purpofe of forming the hard materials of the embank-
ments and jetties, which are there made againll the fea.
The fmaller forts are, in general, converted to ufe as a road
material.

The haffocky ftone appears to the naked eye to be of a
foft, white, fandy quality ; and its frafture is the fame
But under the glafs, its grain is fine, its contexture uniform,
and fo thickly interfperfed with fmall feed-like granules.

of a dark or black colour, as to give it a grey appearance.
Sometimes bearing evident impreilions of fliells. Its tex-
ture is loofe and brittle ; crumbling eafily between the
fii.gers into a coarfe land-like powder. It will not burn
into good lime, although it is almoll wholly calcareous.

Its principal ufe is that of forming a loofe friable fort of
rubbly fub-foil, in fome places, which is admirably fuited
to the growth of faintfoin, and fome other crops of the
plant as well as the fruit-tree kinds.

The quarries in feveral other counties contain ftony mate-
rials of thefe dificrent kinds, which are wrought and ap-
plied to a variety of different ufes in thefe and other ways.

Quarries of marble are wrouglit in feveral diftricls in
different parts of the country, and afford great advantages
in various ways. In Suffex they have a marble, which,
when cut into flabs, is ufed for ornamenting chimney-pieces,
and many other purpoles. It is equal in quality and
beauty to moft forts when liighly polilhed. For fquare
building and paving it is alfo a material fcarcely to be
exceeded. By burning, it likewife affords a very valuable
manure, equal, and by fome thought fujjerior, to chalk,
being cheaper to thofe who are near the places from which
it is dug. It is found the moft perfecl about Kirdford, at
the depth of from ten to twenty feet underground, in flakes
nine or ten inches in thicknefs, and called the Petwortli
marble. It was much employed in building the cathedral
at Canterbury, the pillars, monuments, vaults, pavement,
&c. being formed of it. And the archbiftiop's chair is one
entire piece of it. Marble is gotten in fome of the counties
in the middle of the ifland, as Derbylhire, Nottinghamfhire,
&c. At Bcacon-hiU, near Newark, a blue ftone for hearths
is got, which approaches to marble, and is capable of burn-
ing into lime. And in the county of Derby much good
marble is raifed in different places. In Lancafliire there are
quarries of fine black marble, and of ftones, which approach
to, and take on the polirti of marbles. In many of the weftem
and northern parts of Yorkfliire, marble of various kinds is
found, fome much refembling, and others fuperior, in clofe-
nels of texture and diilinctnefs of colours, to tha: which is
wrought in Derbydiire. Alfo a ftone, which greatly re-
fembles the marble of that county, and which is capable of
receiving much fuch a polifli, and is nearly of the fame
colour, mixture, and appearance. On the fide of the river
Kent, near Kendall, a vein of beautiful marble has been lately
difcovered in the property of D. Wilfon, efq. of Dallam-
Tower ; and a main quarry opened UDon it. Marble has
alfo been met with on the oppofite bank.

In the county of Invernefs, likewife, marble of the greatell
variety of colours, and of the moft beautiful Ihades, has been
met with in Benevis, on the property of Mr. Camerton ; and
inexhauftible quarries of it lie untouched in the iflands which
belong to it.

Befides, this fort of material exifts in immenfe quantities »
in quarries, in many other parts of the kingdom.

Chalk is a material which is raifed from quarries and pits,
moftly in the fouthern parts of the country, as in Suffex,
Surrey, Kent, Effex, Berkfhire, Hertfordftiire, &c. It
exifts in vaft ranges and trades in moft of thefe diftrifks,
whence it is dug up from quarries, at different depths, ac-
cording to circumftances, expofed in fheds to dry, when
wet, and then converted into lime for various ufes, by means
of fire, or employed in its broken and powdery ftate, with-
out undergoing the above proceffes, by merely digging it
out of fuch places. In fome p.arts, as in Kent, and the
neighbouring diftrifts, it is often dug and raifed from con-
fiderable depths, from beds of very great thickneffes. And
near Reading, in Berkfliirc, there is a ftratum of this fub-

ftance.

QUARRY.

Itance, which is thirty feet in thickncfs. It is there iifed
and dug out for manure, and occafionally as a building
material, for the latter of which purpofes it is very durable.
The remains of the abbey of Hurley, and of the ancient
chapel, now the j)ari(h church, built wholly of chalk, in
the reign of William the Conqueror, are, it is remarked by
the writer of the correfted Agricultmal Survey of the
diftrift, IHll as fredi and found as if they had been the works
of the laft century. Chalk, when (nice indurated by the
air, has a remarkable property in reiilling the aftion of the
weather.

Granite is a ftony fubftance, which is found to exifl in
fome of the fouthern parts of the country, as well as in
thofe of the north, but it abounds much more in the latter.

In the welleru parts of Cornwall it is in great plenty in
the diftritts of Pcnwitli and Kirrier, prefenting itfelf in
large flabs on all the rocky hills or tors, as well as in the
walle moors and vallies ; and appearing in detached fpots,
even in the (helfy flaty trafts. It is of different colours and
textures, being adapted to a great variety of ufes and pur-
pofes, as thofe of building, and being wrought into columnar
inaffes, eight or ten feet in length, for fupporters to (beds,
out-houfes, &c. ; and as gate-pofts, and bridges over brooks,
rivulets, iS:c. ; as well as in the forming of rollers, malting,
faking, and pig troughs. It is alio an article of commerce
to different parts. It is fuppofed to be cxaftly of the
fame nature with the original granite ; and there are five
forts of it, which are diltniguifhed by their colours, the
white, the dulky, or dove-coloured, the yellow, the red,
and the black, moft of which are charged with a brown
and bright filvery matter.

The county of Invernels has a great deal of this fort of
Hone, and there are numerous quarries in it for railing and
working of it. The common granite abounds in all the dif-
ferent diftrifts of it. In many places the whole rocks are
compofed of this kind, which is uncommonly ufeful for all
ordinary purpofes. By natural fiffures, which run in ftraight
lines, and generally at right angles, it is formed into all
fized portions and fhapes, having uniformly a plain furface.
And, by means of cutters or tranfverfe lines, thefe ftones
are eafily quarried, and found in the greateft plenty every
where. They are remarkably beautiful, being almoft as
fmooth and regular as hewn (lone, and of courle well fuited
for tarious forts of building work. The bell l)uildings of
the county-town are of a dark kind of granite, which is
very hard and durable, but which has few or no fiffures. It
is generally found in large blocks, and in many of thefe
parts, there is no other material for building or adding or-
nament with. The manner of giving it the polifli it admits
of at the quarries, is by means of fmall picks, or pick-
axes, which are, in fatl, hammers with (harp points at each
end, in the manner of thofe employed by millers in preparing
their grinding ftones. It is a very heavy, compaft ftone.
There is a mixed fort, denominated peafy granite, which
confifts of white, black, and grey fpots, that fparkle beau,
tifully in the fun, and is very ornamental, as well as much
ufed for different purpofes, as flairs, doors, and windows.
Though this is very folid, and almoll without natural fiffures,
it fplits very flraight, by means of iron wedges, fet in a
line, and firuck alternately, with a hammer of great
power.

A great deal of this kind of ftone is imported into the
metropolis and other large towns, for paving the ftreets, &c.
It is on the whole a very advantageous fort of quarry mate-
rial in various parts of the kingdom.

Quarries of free-ftone are wrought in a great number of
different places. In the more fouthern parts is found the

Portland ftone, which is fo famous and ufeful in building.
A fort of this kind of ftone, which much approaches to it in
quahty, is alio met with in Cornwall. Some likewife exifts

ill Devonfhire and Gloncefterfhire. The Cotfwold quarries
in the latter, afford free-ftone of an excellent quality, parti-
cularly thofe at Painfwick, Lodbnry, Lockhampton-hill,
&c. It abounds more, however, in Chefliire, Lancaftiire,
Wellmoreland, Cumberland, and fome of the ftill more
northern diftricts. Several excellent quarries of free-ftone
are carried on in the firfl of thefe, as thofe at Runcorn,
Manley, &c. where much valuable ftone of this nature is
raifed. The fecond county alfo affords equally valuable
quarries in many different places, from which vaft quantities
of the ftone are raifed, and employed, or fent away to a
diftance. Thofe, about Ormfl<irk, Up-HoUand, and Wi-
gan, as well as thofe on all thceaftern fide, are in general of
a very good quality. And in the vicinity of Lancafter
there are fome excellent ones ; that on the moor or common,
clofe to the town, is very extenfive, and affords a free-ftone
that admits of a fine polifh. In this diftrift, this fort of
ftone is met with of a whitifti-brown, yellowifh, and rcddifh
caft, but the firfl is by much the moft eftcemed. In the
eaftern parts of Wellmoreland, as about Hutton Roofc,
and fome other places, a good fort of free-ftone is dug up
from pits and quarries formed for raifing it. This fort of
ftone exifts and is quarried almoll all over the counties of
Cumberland and Northumberland ; and prevails occafionally
in others, where it is wrought to advantage. A grit-ftone,
fomevvhat of this nature, is met with in fome dillrids, as in
Shropfliire, &c. which is raifed from quarries, and ufed as
a building material. And a fand-ftone exifts to confiderable
extent in others, as in Suffex, &c. that is fometimes dug
up, and made ufe of for common buildings, &c. In
Chefhire, on the hills near Macclesfield, about Kerridge, a
fort of fand-flone is met vi^ith, which is particularly well
fuited to the making of flags, and whetting tools, as wellas
fometimes to the forming of flates, for which it was formerly
much employed. Near Pott-Shrigley, alfo, a fine fand-
ftone is found, that admits of a good pohlli. The quarry
has not, however, been wrought for fome late years, as from
the extreme hardnefs of the ftone, theexpence of getting it
is very confiderable. There are feveral other quarries of
excellent free-flone wrought in the fame neighbourhood.

There has been great abundance of free-ftone wrought,
time immemorial, in the low parts of the county of Perth,
and quarries of a greater or fmaller grained ftone of this fort
appear almofl in every place, with the exception of the
carfes. In the lowlands, and near to the eaftern fea, the
pores and grain of it are greater ; but as the mountains are
approached, the pores are lefs, and the grain finer, by which
thefe ftones admit a fmoother polifh. The quarry of Tul-
lyalan parifh, called Long-annat, affords a ilone of a very
excellent quahty. It has a white colour, admits of a fmooth
polifh, and refills the influence of the weather. Some of
the principal houfes in that part of the country, as well as
fome of the moft magnificent public buildings in the capital
of Edinburgh, as thofe of the Exchange, the Infirmary, and
the Regifter-office, confiil partly of this ftone, and thofe
found at hand. And farther, in fome inftances it has been
carried to the continent. But the quarry of Kingoodie, in
the carfe of Gowrie, belonging to Mr. Mylnc, of Myln-
field, is unqueftionably the fineft of this kind of any in the
county. Attonifhing blocks in great number are raifed
there, fifty feet m length, fixteen feet in breadth, and three
feet in thicknefs. Such is the demand for this ftone, both
at home and abroad, that four veffels are employed in export-
ing it from thi;j quarry. The work is, however, on the de-
E e 2 cline.

QUARRY.

cliiie, occafioned by the ;i<S of 1794, which impofcd a duty
on (tones, which, although trifling in itielf, cauUs much
grievance, vexation, delay, and trouble, in procurnig coall-
difpatches, &c. .

Flag-lloncs and quarries for the working and preparmg ot
all forts of flags, are met with in all thoit- fituations where
free-ftone is found, and where it exifis in rather thick ilrata,
or layers of fome depth, which are capable of being fepa-
rated by hammers, wedges, or other means. In many places
in the fouthern jiarts of the iiland, the flags raifed from
fuch free-ftone quarries are of an extremely good quality,
being ufed in very large quantities for many different pur-
pofes. Thofe of Cornwall and Devonfliire alfo, in manv
cafes, aiford a good fort of flags. The fand-ltoiie quarries of
Shropfliire, as at Grmfell, near Shrewftury, about Bridg-
north, and at Conidon-hill, near Bilhop's-caiUe, as well as
in the Swinney mountain, &c. where alternate beds of
fine white and red ftone of this kind, of very luperior quality
and tliicknefs, exift ; that in the firft of thefe litualions, being
twenty yards thick, affords flags likewile, which are of a
very ufeful nature. Free-ftone flags too, of ufeful forts, are
met with in the quarries of fome of the midland counties.
And they abound much in many of the free-ftone quarries of
Lancafliire, Yorkfliirc, and fome of the other more northern
diftricts of the country.

The quarries of this kind become flate-ftone, and furiiifli
the white, grey, and brown flate, wherever the ftone lies in
thin layers, or ftrata, which are able to be raifed and fepa-
rated from each other with convenience and facility. They
exift in moft of the above trafts, and are plentiful in fome
of them, efpecially thofe towards the north. The Lan-
cafliire and Yorkfliire quarries, in many places, fupply the
white and grey forts in great abundance, and of good qua-
lities. Thofe of Weftmoreland, Cumberland, and North-
umberland, alfo afford them in many inftances of a valuable
nature. And they are equally good in the ftiU more northern
difl^rifts. There are numerous quarries of different colours
of them in Clydefdale, Perthfliire, Argylelhlre, and the
county of Invernefs, from wliich vaft fupplies are conftantly
raifed for home and other ufe. This fort of flate has, how-
ever, moftly the difadvantages of being very porous, heavy,
lefs durable, and of requiring more and ftronger timber to
fupport it, than fome other kinds ; being only fit for ex-
pofed climates and fituations.

The quarries of the lighter and thinner kinds of flate, of
the blue, green, purple, and other colours, formed from
other forts of ftone, only exift in fome particular diftrifts, as
thofe of Wales, the northern part of Lancafliire, and the
adjoining counties, and in a few places in Scotland. The flate
quarries of the Welfli diftrifts fupply feveral kinds and co-
lours in large quantities, and of good qualities, but the dark
and lighter purples are the moft prevalent forts in moft of
them. In Lancafliire the quarries of this kind are very nu-
merous in the part to the north of the fands, as about
Gothwaite-common, Kirby-moor, Coniftone-hills, and Til-
bcrtliwaite-fells, &c.; and from which very large fupplies of
the blue, green, and the dark purple forts of flate are raifed,
and font away for exportation, or confumed at home for dif-
ferent purpofes. They are wrought, and the flate prepared
in fomewhat different manners m different places. The
Gothwaite qnarries have the flate dug out from the fide of
the hill, and carried away. But in fome on K'rby-moor, a
level is driven through the ground from below, the metal
being conveyed away by fmall four-wheeled waggons on
iron rail-'.vays. Thofe about Coniftone are moftly worked
into the hills, and the metal raifed and carried out from
them. Some of the Tilberthwaite quarries are wrought

by blafting the flate-flonc, and collecting and carrying it
out of them on flantmg roads, in Imall carts or trucks con-
ftructed for the purpofe, the level;, being below the liills, but
not nearly fo low as the bottoms of the quarries. Others
are wrought by draught roads fr<,m the bottoms of them.
One man will raife eighteen or twenty hundred weight ot
flate in one day, where the metal rifes u-ell, but lefs in other
cafes. Ill fome it is dug out by one fi-t of men, Iplit bv
another, and form.ed into Hates by a third, for which pur-
pofes, flat crow-bars, (late-knives, and axes are employed.
The flate is divided 7nd diftingui(hed into three forts, as
firlls, feconds, and thirds, or London, country, and torn?.
In the firft, or Gothwaite quarries, the flate has a darkiili
purple, or black calt, and is worth from forty to forty-four
Itullings the ton. In the Coniftone quarries it has a fnie blce
and green appearance, and is mucli thinner and lighter than
tlrn other fort. The Tilberthwaite flate, in fome inftances,
fplits very fine, thin, and light, but does not cover fo far as
thofe of the Gothwaite and Kirbr quarries. This fort is
worth from forty-eight to fifty fliillings the ton. In fome
quarries a lort of rent is paid^cr ton, on the flate which is
raifed, as ten (hillings for the beft, eight (hillings for the
feconds, and lixpence for the thirds. In others a certaia
rent only is paid for the liberty of the royalty, and not a
tonnage duty. Thefe rents or duties on the workers of
thefe quarries, are probably higher than they will bear, and
have enabled the Welfli flate dealers to underfcll thofe of
this county.

Weftmoreland and Cumberland, in fome inftances, afford
good blue and green flates. In the latter, fome of an ex-
cellent quality are gotten in tlie quarries of Borrowdale, and
inferior forts in fome of the neighbouring mountains.

The county of Argyle, m Scotland, in fome parts abounds
with flatc-quarries, as the trafts about Efdale, from which
five millions of flates have for lome time been annually fold
at the rate of twenty-five (hillings the thoufand. Quarries
of the fame kind are alfo wrought in many other parts, with
great benefit to the inhabitants.

Slate-quarnes are formed in many parts of the highlands
of the county of Perth, but none in the low. The flates
in fome are of a purple colour, in others of an azure blue,
and in a few of a muddy, fandy, brown complexion along the
cutters. It IS well known where the different fcrts are quar-
ried. The veins of flate-rock feem to run from Drum-
lane, in the parifli of Aberfoil, in a north-eaft direction
toDunkeld; and m.ay be traced beyond the limits of the
county both vvays. The azure coloured are the beft metal,
and rife of a greater fize than any of the other kinds.
Many of the buildings in different places are flated with
this beautiful covering. Into the lower diftridls of the
county, flates are imported from Efdale, and the other quar»
ries on the weft coaft of the county of Argyle.

Quarries of grey flate exift in many different parts of the
county of Invernefs, in which the quality is very good, and
well fuited to the climate. In fome places thefe flates are
much preferred to blue ones, as the latter are more ex-
penfive in procuring, and though nailed on the roofs ever
fo firmly, are apt to be loofened by high winds, unlefs
bedded in hme, which circumftance renders repairs difficult.
There are numerous quarries of fand and gravel to be met
with in almofl every diltrift of the kingdom, which are
wrought either for the purpofe of fupplying dom>?lhc ufes,
or thofe of repairing roads, &c. Thofe of the former
fort, which contain the fine white, red, and yellow fands,
are by far the moft valuable, and wrought to the greated
extent, the materials being moftly dug out from the fides
of banks and other places, and but rarely got by finking

the

QUARRY.

the quarries into the more level parts ef the ground, though
this mjthod is foiiiL-timcs praftifcd. The mutters are com-
monly raifed iiniply by digging and fpades ; and thrown
into the carts, in many cafes, from the quarries and pits
themfelves. Numerous quarries and pits of this nature
exill and are wrought to a very grreat extent in the neigh-
bourhoods of the metropohs, and moil other large towns,
all over the kingdom, for the purpofe of falc for various
domeftic ufcs.

In the gravelly kinds, thofe quarries which abound with
the fliarp, coarfe, flinty, and pebbly forts, are the moll
proper and beneficial for the making and repairing of all
forts of roads and carriage-ways. They are occafionally
formed by working into banks and ileep places, but more
frequently by openings in the plain furtacc. Their depth
is fometimes coniiderable, the materials being raifed after
being fcreened, the work, of courfe, very laborious and
troublefome. In other cafes, the carts are filled from the
quarries or pits without much difficulty or trouble.

Quarries of clay-llone, llone-tiles, Icythe-llones, and fome
other forts, are found of good qualities in ditltrcnt dillrifts.
In Gloucellerlhire they have quarries of blue clay-ftone at
different depths, lying in beds of the fame coloured clay,
difpofed in layers of from four to ten inches in thicknefs.
The ilone in new quarries is eilimated by the effeAs which
the atmofphere has upon it from fome expofure. The
beft fort is a very ufeful material for feveral purpofes.
Quarries onione-tiles principally exill, and thofe articles are
raifed from them, in different part of the Cotfwolds. The
bell are prepared about Miferdine, Beverllone, Charlton, and
Hampton-field, the colour of which are yellow or grey ;
but another fort, which is red grit, is dug up about Iron
Afton, and fome other places, but which is Icfs valuable.

There are quarries of fcythe-ilones in many parts ot Lan-
cafhire, but the bell are obtained from thofe about Rain-
ford, where they are well wrought and prepared for ule.
In feveral other diftriiils, quarries of diflerenl kinds of
whetting-llones likewife exill, and are wrought to ad-
vantage.

Ochres of different kinds are met with in difF>.rent places
in quarries formed for the purpole of raifing them. In
the county of Devon, formerly large quantities of various
fhades between red and yellow, were railed and manufac-
tured in thofe about Eall-down. Umber, in the parilh of
Combemartin, exifls in a pretty large body. The work-
ing and preparing of thefe are, liowever, now much leis at-
tended to than heretofore.

In SufTex there are quarries of red ochre about Graff-
ham, and in various places contiguous to the fea, as near
Chidham, Sec, v\'here much is railed, prepared, and fent to
London. Ochre quarries alfo exill in many counties
more to the middle and north of the kingdom, from
which great quantities of this fubftance are procured and
prepared for ufe in different forts of arts and manufadlures.

Quarries of plumbago, or black lead, are likewife occa-
fionally found and wrought, in different fit nations, in dif-
ferent diHritls of the country. This fubilance has been
met with and raifed near the borders of the Bovey river,
in Devonlhire, in fome quantity, and prepared to be fent to
Exeter for fale. Quarries of black lead are alfo found and
wrought in Borrowdale, in Cumberland, near to the town
of Kefwick, to fome advantage. And they exill in lome
of the middle trafts of the ifland, affording great benefit
to the proprietors of them. In the county of Invernefs,
there are fome appearances of black or pencil lead about
Glengary, but they have not yet been turned to any ufeful
account.

In fome dillricln, in the middle parts of the country,
quarries of calamine, or lapis calaiii'tii'iris, are met wltli, and
much of this fubilance raifed from them to great profit.
It abounds in the Mendip-hilh;, in Somerf-tlh''e, about
Rovvbarrow, Shiph.-.ni, Wnifcomb, and on Broadlii Id-
down, &e. It is fometimes found within a yard of the
furface, and feldom wrought deep"r than thirty fathoms.
In iomc places its quality is excellent. It ig prefent in
other neighbouring mountainous trails, and raifed with equal
advantage.

Quarries of gypfum prefent themfelves in many different
])arts, and are wrought in fome with coiifiderable benefit .
Ill the county of Devon, it lies between flrata of red Ilone,
marie, and chalk rubble, about Salcombe, Branfcombe, and
Beer, being ufeful for various purpofes. Glouccllerlhire
and Derbylhire have quarries of this nature, where there
are fine beds of it. Tliofe of Aull Cliff in the former,
have it not fo good, however, as that which is met with
in the latter county. In Nottinghamfhire it is of an ex-
cellent quality, efpecially that got near Newark and at Red-
hill. Cheihire has lome, but not turned to much account.
Weftmoreland and Cumberland have good quarries of it,
in fome places, where a great deal is gotten up, and made
ufe of. And it abounds in different parts of the county ot
York, where it is raifed to advantage.

Marie is an article that is met with in pits and quarries in
a variety of different fituations, and of feveral different
kinds and qualities. It is found and dug up for ufe in many
places in Suifex, and the counties more to the centre of
the country ; but it prevails in the greatell plenty in the
county of L,ancaller and fome others, in which it is raifed
or worked out from large openings on the fides of hills,
high banks, or in the plain furface, and fet thickly upon
the land. The getting or digging of the material out of
fueh places, is ufually performed by means ot llrong iron
mattocks, crows, fpades, and wooden fpiles ; large pieces
being in iome cafes forced dovi n, not without danger to
tlie workmen, by driving in the fpiles or piles from above.
This method is called ya///«^. The work is extremely fe-
vere, and commonly done by the rod. The large clods thus
forced down, break into fmall pieces, and are then filled into
carts for the purpofe.

Shell-marle, though it is not much attended to in any part
of England, is frequently met with and dug up from va-
rious parts of Scotland, and employed on the land in great
quantities, with much fuccefs. The pits and quarries of this
fort are commonly wrought with much more facility than
thofe of the others.

Pipe, and other kinds of fine clays, are dug and raifed
from a fort of pits or quarries, in large quantities, in many
different counties. Near Wear Giffard, in Devonfhire, much
of the firll (brt is dug and fent coaftways, though not in
fueh quantities as formerly. Brown potter's-clay is alfo
raifed and fent away in great abundance from the neigh-
bouihood of Fremington. Thefe forts of clays are like-
wife found in much abundance in Berkfhire, and Hill more
fully in fome of the midland dillritls, where the pits of them
are wrought to a vail extent. They are articles of great
importance and utility in feveral forts of manufaftures, and
for which there is great demand in many inftances.

Alum earth is a kind of llratificd matter, which is met
with and raifed from pits and quarries in a number of differ-
ent fituations, and various parts of the kingdom. In fome
thev are wrought to very confiderable extents and advan-
tages, but in others iu far lefs degrees, and with much lefs
fuccefs.

The ftrata oi this earth are dug and got up in different

manners

QUARRY.

manners under diilcront cii-aimilaiices, but moiUy by meani
of ilrouK crows, picks, and other tools of a limilar kind,
beinff wrought in I'omcwhal the fame method as in the cafes
of marie. The bufmefs is ufually executed by common
labourers.

Fuller's-earth is another material of tliis nature, which in
dug out of the ground from pits and quarries at different
depths in feveral parts of the country. In fome it is very
abundant, and of a rich good quality, as in thofe of the

the profperity of the country fo greatly depends, is entitlc-d
to the guardian care of its government; to afcertain the
prefent expenditure, and the probable flock which is re-
maining. Let us not, it is remarked, play the fpendthrift,
and, by the follies of a day, entail centuries of want on gene-
rations to come, and the curfcs of millions on the memory of
the prefent times.

In endeavouring to find thefe forts of fubftances in parts
where pits of them have not yet been wrought, the fearch-

middle and more northern parts of the ifland, forming an ing, it is fuppofed by the fame writer, fliould, in general, be
article of great ufe and demand in feveral branches of done by the land proprietors of the particular places, in a

bufinefs. In others it is of a much lefs valuable nature,
being far lefs in requell. That which is found about Til-
lington, in Suilcx, is confumed in the neighbouring fulling
mills. The mills of thi;, fort in Yorklliire, and other parts
alfo, confume immcnfe quantities. The material is raifed
from the places in which it is found in much the fame way as
many other earthy fubftances, but it feldom requires fo
much diggnig, as it is a far lefs hard matter.

Fuller's-earth was formerly got up from pits and quarries
in the neighbourhood of Maidllone, in Kent, and much
ground wrought over ; but the beds of fand by which it is
covered are of fuch depths, as to render the works of little
▼alue or importance.

Quarries and pits of mineral peat-earth are found in fome
diftrifts, and much of the material dug up from them, and
made ufe of when prepared upon land. The vale of Kennet,
in Berkfliire, contains vail quantities of it, as well as iome
other parts. It is a ftratified fubftance which is dug from
under the furface at t'he depth of from one to fix feet, laying
below Ilrata of fmall (hells and calcareous matter. In
raifing it, a pecuhar kind of fpade is made ufe of, which
cuts it in long pains, fomething like foap, which, when
dry, are burnt into alhes and laid on the land. This fub-
ftance is feund to contain the oxyd of iron, gypfum, and

conjoint manner. There are, however, certain inllances, in
which individuals may profecute the fearch with propriety,
and in the moft beneficial manner. In doing which, the prin-
cipal things to be guarded againll are thofe of misjudgment
and inipofition. Hence the neceilary prudence of endea-
vouring to procure perfons of (Icill and integrity for making
fuch fearches ; which are, in the firft place, to be attempted
by a clofe invettigation of fuperficial appearances, and then
where thofe are favourable in their nature, by the ufe of the
boring rod or tool. It is fuppofed that, at prefent, there
are none who are equal to fuch undertakings, except thofe
who have been long converfant with the bufinefs of coal-
works ; men who have an intereft in the exiiling collieries or
works of that kind. On this account it is thought to be-
come a matter of common prudence, in a given fituation, to
endeavour to procure an undertaker or overlooker from a
diilant work ; or fuch a one as can have no counter-interefi.
to that of his employer ; and then, clofely to conneft and
bind them in one common intereft. After having had different
occafions for confidering the fubjeft, and for beftowing no
fmall thought upon it, the writer is of opinion that the mofl
eligible plan of proceeding, in fuch cafes, is that of agreeing
with an overlooker, or undertaker, to pay him reafonably,
but not extravagantly, for his time, and for his aftual ex-

the muriates of fnlphur and potafii, in the proportions of pences in profecuting the neceffary fearches ; and, further.

forty-eight, thirty-two, and twenty parts to that of one
hundred.

It is fuggefted by the writer of the work on " I^anded Pro-
perty," that in moll mountainous diftrifts, and many low
fenny counties, immenfe colleftions of vegetable mould or
peat -earth lie in a ftate of negleft ; even in places where
they might be converted to valuable purpofes ; not only as
fources of fuel merely, but as manure, either ufing the vege-
table matter in its raw ftate, or after being reduced to afiies.
In all thefe fituations it might be readily dug up from dif-
ferent places, and applied to different ufes in each of thefe

to agree to give him, in the event of fuccels, a reward fuffi-
cient to call forth his beft exertions ; fuch reward to be
payable, not on finding coal, but whenever th.> work, to be
ellabliftted in confequence of the difcovery, fhall have cleared
the amount. In this way the proprietor will feel himfelf
fecure, while the perfon employed has the moft powerful
llimulus to indulh-y, attention, and the accomplifhment of
the objeft of the undertaking.

Culm and coal have been met with and wrought in fome
degree, in Devonfhire, Suffex, and fome other of the fonthern
parts of the ifland ; but they exift much more plentifully in

ways, the pits or other fpots containing it vi'orking in a very the midland and more northern diftrifts, as well as in fome

eafy manner. The afhes of it are only employed on any
large fcale in the above county.

Culm, coal, and cannel, are articles of the fuel kind,
which are found in a vaft number of places, all over the
kingdom in pits, mines, or quarries, and which are of the
greateft importance in many of them. Speaking of coals,
the author of the work on " Landed Property," confiders
them as rifing in the minds of moft men, far fuperior to moft
other produftions and fubterraneous matters, whether they
are held in the light of agriculture, manufaftures, or national
defence. It is aflted, if it were not for the collieries of this
country, how many hundred thoufand acres of its land,
which are now appropriated to cultivation, would be re-
quired for the produftion of fuel ? How many maiiu-

places in Wales and Scotland. In Gloucefterfhire, coal
abounds in moft parts of the foreil of Dean, and its vicinities,
and probably to within a fmall diftance of the county-town, '
as at Newent and Pauntley, where pits are eftabhftied.
Thofe of the foreft trafts are very numerous, but not fully
wrought for want of fufficient draining. Pits of this kind
alfo exift in many places, in the lower vale part of the
county. In this diftrift, however, the coals are no where
of the beft quality.

In the counties of Salop and Somerfet, coals alfo prevail
very much, various pits of them in both, being wrought to
confiderable extent. Thofe in the northern part of the
latter diftrift, have ilrata of them which form an inclination
of the plane of about nine inches in the yard ; and are nine-

faftories, cfpecially thofe of iron, which are fo very valuable teen in number. They are feldom wrought where leTs than
to civilized lociety, would be cramped, retarded, and fifteen inches in thicknefs, but they vary from ten inches to
flopped, in their progrcfs and operations ? And how many upwards of three feet. The working is performed at con-
hardy feamcn vvould be wanting to its navy ? Surely, in fiderable depths, efpecially fince the eftablifhment of im-
^is opinion, an indigenous produftion and piaterial, on wliich proved machinery, and other means for r.iifing them. The

12 coal

QUARRY.

coal is of the firfl cjuality, being- pure and durable in burn-
ing, and from its iirmnefs, largencfs, and (Irength of grain,
capable of being conveyed to any diftancc without injury.
At prefent the quantity raifed in thefe pits, is from fifteen
liundrcd to two thoufand tons weekly, but much greater
fupplies could be afforded, if they were wanted. The works
are twenty-fix in number, feme of which afford a good
profit.

Ttie pits in the fouthern part are upon a more limited fcale
of work. In them the flrata of coal form an inclination of
the plane of from eighteen to thirty inches in the yard ; but
in fome it is deitroyed, and they defcend in a perpendicular
manner. There are, in number, twenty-five, wliich are in
thicknefs from fix inches to feven feet, being rarely wrought
under eighteen inches. The depth of working is middling,
but will be inereafcd. The quality of the coal not the belt,
but tolerably good. Tlie quantity now raifed from thefe
pits is from eight hundred to a thoufand tons in the week,
which might be eafily extended. The working profits are
by no means great. , There are pits in other parts, but they
arc not many, or much wrought.

Againft the apprehenfion of pits of this nature being ex-
haufted or worn out in thefe places, it is contended that
more than treble the prefent quantity is capable of being
raifed from the works already carried on, and that this in-
creafed quantity might be fupplied for feveral hundred years
to come.

The works and quantities of coals contained in the
counties of Stafford, Derby, and Nottingham, are likevvife
very great, and mofl:ly of good kinds ; pits of them bemg
carried on in many places to vafl extent.

Chefhire, too, is a coal dillrift, in which a great v.ariety
of works for raifing it are eltabhihed in different parts, and
much of it, which is of a very good quality, gotten up.
The ftrata of coal here in many cafes are feveral feet in
thicknefs ; about Wii-rall the feam is five or fix feet thick,
and the works extenfive under the channel of the Dee. In
fome works the beds of coal lie at the depth of from fcventy
to one hundred yards below the furface of the ground, and
are of different thicknefles to ten feet or more.

In Lancafhire, coal of good forts is moil abundant. The
beds of it run acrofs the county in fomewhat three different
parts, as towards the fouth, nearly in the middle, and on
the north-eaft part. Thofe in the two firfl arc of confi-
derable breadths and thicknelFes in different parts, but the
third is much lefs broad and very thin in many places. They
all run, in fome degree, from the north-eaft to the fouth-
weft, conftantly keeping fomewhat the fame direttion,
though occafionally branching out in a lateral manner to
fome extent. The works on each of thefe different lines of
coal ftrata, efpecially the two moll towards the fouth, are
very numerous, and, in different inilances, of very confi-
derable extent. There are fome alfo eilablifii.^d on the
northern Ime, but they are of a far more limited nature.
The layers or ftrata of the coals are of various widths, from
a few yards to a very great dillance, and their depths or
thickneffes from a few inches to fix or feven feet. They lie
at very different depths from the furface of the earth, ac-
cording to circumftances and fituation ; on the eallern fide
of the county they fometimes nearly appear on the top of
the ground, while in the middle, and towards the fouth-
weft, they are often a confiderable number of yards deep.
All about moft of the large towns in the fouthern parts of
the dillnft very extenfive works are ellabliflied, where im-
menfe quantities of coals are raifed for home ufe, as well as
being fent coaftways, and, in fome cafes, for exportation.
They are a fort of material which is of vaft importance to

the manufafturing ftate of the county, and which contri-
butes greatly to its profpcrity. The quantity is fo greatj
when confidered as a whole, that they would feem to be al-
moft inexhauftible.

The canncl coal, which is a fort that has fome refemblance
to fine black marble, is principally found and raifed in the
tradl about Haigh, near Wigan, which is not more than a
few miles fquare. It lies in pretty thick llrata, at the depth
of from five to feven or eight yards from the furface. It is
of a very fine, hard, inflammable quality, being got up by
fliarp picks, often with confiderable labour, and for which
there is much demand, for domeftic ufe, in the neighbour-
hood.

Coals alfo abound in the neighbouring counties of Cum-
berland and Northumberland, bring found in many parts of
the eallern mountains, and, with not many exceptions, all
along the tracl, which extends in different degrees of
breadth, from Sebergham to Whitehaven, and along the
coalt to Maryport, forming and comprehending a diftridl of
about one hundred fquare miles, in the former. And they are
met with in great plenty throughout the greateil part of the
latter county, particularly in the lower diftritt, of it; being
of the beft quality, and the moft numerous, and thickeft
feams, in the fouth-eaft quarter ; whence thofe vail quanti-
ties are exported which fupply the great confumption of the
London market, as well as the coalling and foreign trade.
A trade which is the foundation of the commerce of the,
country, and the principal fource of its wealth, as well as a
never failing nurfery for fom.e of the beft feamen of the
' Britilh navy. The former county has likewife works which
fupply prodigious quantities, both for home confumption
and the coaftways and export trade. Cannel coal is alfo
raifed in this diilrift in pretty large fupplies in the neigh-
bourhoods of Caldbeck and Bolton.

Large portions of this article are likewife raifed from the
works in the county of Durham, which in fome parts are
carried on with much fpirit and enterprize.

Coals are found, and raifed in full fupplies, in many-
places, in moft of the counties of Scotland, fo far as Perth-
Ihire ; but they have not been met with any farther towards
the north in any fufficient quantities. Where they exift, to
any extent, in thefe fituations, they are generally of good
kinds, and capable of being got up without any great dif-
ficulty, feldom lying at any very great depth below the
furface.

It has been contended by fome, that the coals in the
pits and other places, in this country, are inexhauftible,
while others maintain the contrary to be the cafe ; as the
matter relates to the county of Northumberland, we have
the following calculations, on the authority of the writers
of the Agricuhural Report of that diftrift. And they
may perhaps equally apply to others. It is fuppofed, that
towards elucidating this point, it may be of fome ufe to
eftimate what number of acres are wrought yearly in the
county to fupply the neceffary confumption. In order to
accomplilh this objeft, the thicknefs and number of work-
able feams of coal muft be firft afcertained ; for which pur-
pofe they have been favoured with fedliona, exhibiting the
thicknefs and depth of the various ftrata, in fome of the
deepeft pits in the county, one of which has a depth of two
hundred and feven yards, with fixteen feams of coals ; the
other a depth of two hundred and forty yards, with fifteen
feams ; confequently, if the medium be taken betwixt the
two, it will be nearly fix yards thick of workable coal ;
from which may be formed, it is thought, a calculation of
the quantity of coal in an acre of ground, fuppofing the ag-
gregate thicknefs of the various feams amount to fix yards.

An

QUARRY.

All sere of ground contains - 4S40 fquare yards,

■ ,\yliich, multiplied by the thicknofs 6 yards,

p.jyeg ... 29040 cubic yards in

From which deduft -i,^ for wafte and ^ an acre,

the p^rtsor pillars necefl'ary to be > 9680
loft in working - -J

there remains igs^ cubic yards to

. be vvronght.

And as three cubic yards of coal, when wrought, afford
a Newcaltle chaldron, therefore

19360 = gives 6453 Newcaule chal-
drons per acre,

divided by 3

The coals exported yearly from the rivers Tyne and
Wear, with Hartley and Blylli, amount to about 825,000
chaldrons, which, with the home-confumption of the two
counties of Northumberland and Durham, will make the
quantity of coals raifed yearly about 1,000,000 chaldrons.

And the chaldrons] ooq^qoo ^ gives 155 acres nearly
raifed yearly J ° , , ,■

divided by the chal-
drons per acre

per year, cleared of
coal fix yards thick.

'} '^^^^

And by ellimating the breadth occupied by the caking
coals to be on the average eight miles broad, and twenty-five
miles long in the two counties, it is found that there will be
about two hundred fquare miles, or 128,000 acres of coal
proper for exportation.

From Nt-wcaltle 510,000 chaldrons.
Sunderland 315,000 ditto.

In all 825,000
Then the whole area 128,000 = 825 years. The time

■ divided by the! before this fpace will

yearly confump- V 155 be wrought out.

tion - J

It is, however, fuggefted, that there are fome reafons to
fuppofe that a thicknefs of feam equal to fix yards will not
be obtained all over an extent of two hundred fquare miles,
probably not more, on an average, than four yards j in
which cafe the coal will be exhaulled in five hundred and
fifty years. And if the aggregate thicknefs of the feams
to be obtained Ihould prove only three yards, then little
more than four hundred will be the term of continuance ;
but it is probable, it is thought, that before the half of
that time be elapfed, the price to theconfumer will be con-
fiderably increafed from the increafed expence of obtaining
them, and the increafed length of carriage from the pits to
the rivers; this lait, it is prefumed, may be reduced in fome
fituations, by adopting canals inilead of waggon-ways,
which, it has often been wondered at, have never yet been
attempted. From this inveftigation, it is fuggefted, that
the apprehenfions of exhauftion are not fo chimerical as they
have been fuppofed and reprefented to be by lome perfons.
Wht..n, however, the vail extent of the worknig and un-
wrought trafis, in the different parts of the country, are
confidered, there cannot be any grounds for fear, in this
rcfpedl, for a vaft length of time yet to come.

Pits, fome what of the quarry kind, are wrought in one
diftrift of th.s country, that of Chefhire, for the raifing of
rock fait, in fome of which large quantities of this material
are procured, from different depths, and diff^erent thick-
neffes of the ftrata of it. In the getting of it diff'erent
means are employed, as thofe of blafting, picking with im-
plements, for the purpofe of roofing, the ufing of horfes,
and machinery wrought by fteam, for forcing up the fub-

flance, and fome others. The digging, raifing, and work-
ing of this article, employs a great number of labourers, and
it is of much importance to the county in many points of
view.

But though this fort of material is found in feveral dif.
ferent pai-ts of the county, pits, or fliafts of it, are at this
time only wrought in the vicinity of the town of North,
wich. Tiiis arifes from a great many different caufes, but
principally from that of the want of water-carriage for the
conveyance of the material from them. The number of
pits or fiiafts, which there are at this time in work, for
the purpofe of raifing this article, are aVjout a dozen. They
are by much the moil commonly made in fomething of the
fquare form, being fecurcd on the fides by m.eans of ftrong
timber, but they have occafionally a round form, and are
walled on the fides with bricks.

The beds of this material, that are to be raifed, are
wrought at various depths, the deepell being in general the
moft pure, and they vary equally in their thicknefs and
direftions, as iuggeited above. In fome cafes the beds are
of the greatell thicknefs, the more they approach the
north-eail, decreafing in a gradual manner, in their courfe
to the fouth-weil ; and in fome inllances thev inclme from
north-weft; to fouth-eaft, dipping at the rate of about three
feet in twenty-feven or thirty.

The ftrata, which are paffed through in getting at and
working the rock-falt, lie in a very regular manner, and
confift, in general, of a hard clayey fubftance and a fort
of gypfeous material in mixture in various ways and pro-
portions, that of the latter kind being the moft predomi-
nant as the pit or fiiaft approaches the rocky faline fub-
ftance. In working, the clayey matter is defignated by
the name of metal of the feveral different colours Ijelonging
to that fort of fubftance, and the other material by that
of plaifler. Tliefe ftrata are moilly of a fohd compaft:
nature, but occafionally broken in particular places, when
the metal is lermeA Jli/iggy by the workmen.

In the bufinefs of working the pits, and raifing the rock-
falt, the rocky beds are reduced into pieces of proper fizes
for the purpofe, by means of blowing them with gun-
powder, and thofe of fplitting and dividing them viath ham-
mers and proper wedges for fuch ufes ; a good fecure head-
way or roofing being conftantly provided in the firft place,
to the opening from which the falt-rock is to be taken,
which is eff^efted by the ufe of fmall (harp picks, carrying
on the work in a plain fimple chambering manner.

The workings are funk from thefe chamberings to dif-
ferent depths, as the nature of the beds of rock, and the
quantity of the purer kind of rock-falt, or Prufiian rock,
as the workmen term it, may direft ; but commonly about
fifteen feet. Occafionally the roofs or headways of the
pits or ftiafts are fupported by confiderable fquare pillars
difpofed in a fomewhat regular manner, but in other cafes
they are wrought out in a fort of long openings, accord-
ing as the workmen are inclined.

In getting the rock-falt, the workmen are paid by the
ton at the rate ufually of about two (hillings, they finding
the gunpowder and other tools.

In raifing the fait from the pits or (hafts, horfes were
formerly entirely made ufe of, but within thefe few years,
recourfe lias been had to the improved fteam-engine, as
already noticed, though it is not yet generally employed at
every pit. See RocK-SALT, Rock-salt Pits, Salt, and
Salt Brine Strings.

It is evident from the above account, that in whatever
way they are confidered, the quarries of different kinds
in tlus country are of very material importance to its

profperity

QUARRY.

profperity and convenience ; contributing largely to the
carrying on of different forts of works and improvements.
Without them much iifcful labour mull be Arholly at a Hand;
a variety of necefTary burinelles be incapable of being car-
ried on ; and the eflefts of it upon various arts and manu-
faftures, be much too ferious to be thought upon. In
fhort, the numerous fiibilances of different kinds, whicii are
taken from the bowels of tiie earth in this country, con-
ftitute one great fource of our national wealth and pro-
fperity.

Qi;.\RRIEs, Pits, &c. Draining of, the proper, mofl;
convenient, and appropriate means of rendering all fuch forts
of works dry, free from water, and in a fit flate to be
wrought with eafe and advantage. In the effedtual per-
formance of all kinds of undertakings of this nature, there
is occallon for the application of the fame principles, which
are fpoken of and explained in confidering the nature of
draining land in general, and the particular manner which
is necellary to be purfued in the praftice of fpring drain-
ing. See Draining of Land, and Si'RiHG-Draining.

There can be no doubt, indeed, but that the having re-
courfe to fuch principles, and the modes of praftice refult-
ing from them, will be equally expeditious, beneficial, and
fuccefsful, as well as in many fituations of very material
importance, in the various cafes of this fort, as in thofe which
have been mentioned ; by leading to and introducing the
moll ready and eafy means of diminifiiing the quantities
of water, which are frequently met with in the courfe of
working them, and which not unfrequently obllrutl and
hinder in a very high degree, but fometimes wholly put a
flop to the work which is carrymg on in them. Such, at
leall, is very often the cafe in quarries of the free-ilone,
lirae-ftone, flag-ftone, marie, and other kinds, as well as in
pits of the coal and other forts. The want of this fort of
knowledge, of courfe, is one great caufe why fuch a
number of quaiTies and works ol that kind, in different
parts, often lie altogether, or for a great length of time, in
an unwrought ftate ; which might otlierwife be wrought to
very great advantage.

As it is now well underftood, that mofl fprings and fub-
terraneous coUeclions of water are formed and fupplied
from fuch grounds or lands as lie higher than that of the
places where they are found or met with, which, on ac-
count of their being of an open or porous nature, jdmit
that of rain and other forts of moifture to filtrate and pafs
freely through them, which finking and defcending to very
great depths, through fuch open materials of the rocky,
Tandy, gravelly, and other loofe qualities, before it becomes
impeded and obllrudled by fome fort of impenetrable ilra-
tum or layer of an earthy or folid ftony na-ture, fuch for
inflance as thofe of pure iliff clay or compail rock ; it may
happen, that in many fuch cafes, in finking pits or (hafts
for ftone, coal, or any other kind of fubterraneous material
near the bottoms of hills or high grounds, beds of quick-
fand will be met with, and dug into, which are fo hill of
water, that to pafs through them becomes a mofl trouble-
fome, difficult, and expenfive piece of work, and fome-
times inipoffible to be performed, but which, from knowing
that the water proceeds from the porous ground that lies
above, it may often be prafticable to intercept and cut off
the greater part of the water, before it reaches fuch fand
beds iu the quarries, pits, and fliafts, by the means of
boring into and tapping the water at the tail of the banks
of this nature, provided that the ground naturally declines
lower than the place where the fand is found in the quar-
ries, pits, iic, and the whole or moft of the water be
(drawn off, and diverted from them at a coraparativelv

Vol. XXIX.

trifling expence to that which is employed as the commoa
remedy in fuch cafes and circumftances.

In order to accomplifli this intention, it will be necefTary,
in afcending from the quarry or pit, to carefully examine
and afcertain, if at any place higher on the declivity, any
porous ftratum, bed of rock, fand, or gravel, laiis out,
which may condudl and convey the water contained in it
to the fand bed, which is below in the works ; and where
any fuch bed is found, to cut or bore into it in fuch a
manner as to form a drain, that is capable of carrying away
the whole or the greatefl part of the water, and of
courfe to clear, or diminifli the quantity contained in the
quarry or pit, which would otherwifc have continued to
defcend through fuch porous fubflrata or beds, and have
continued to fill the fands, or quarries and pits.

But although this part of the bufinefs may have been ac-
complifhed, and the fupply of water from the higher ground
entirely cut off, a fufficient quantity to injure, hinder, and
inconvenience the working of the quarries or pits, may yet
continue to drain and ooze from the fides of the fand beids,
notwithflanding they fhould happen to dip towards the
lower ground, in which cafes, however, that water may
readily and with great eafe be commonly drawn uff at fome
particular point in it.

In order to effeft this, and thereby remove the incon-
venience of this filtrating water, in defcending from the
quarries or pits along the declivity, it (hould be endeavoured
to difcover and afcertain, at what particular point or place
in the low ground, the fand terminates or tails out, which
is moflly befl accompliflied by means of proper levelling ;
and if there fhould be there any appearance of the waters
having a natural outlet, it may, by means of making in it
a deep drain, be far more readily and efleftually drawn off
and removed ; as fprings, for the mofl part, naturally paf»
and flow through narrow, winding, convoluted openings,
or perforations ; of courfe, whenever the orifices or paflages
arc opened, enlarged, or made lower than before, the dif-
charge of water becomes greater and more expeditious.
Where, however, there happens to be a deep imper-
vious layer or covering of clay, or other matter of a
fimilar nature, placed alcove or upon the termination or tail
of the fand, the dram need only be cut down to it or a
little way into it, as by means of boring through it, or the
remaining portion of it, a ready and eafy outlet or pafTage
may be given to the whole of the water, that may be con-
tained in the fand-bed or other porous flratum.

This mode of draining quarries and pits may often be of
great utility, advantage, and convenience, as it will alfo,
in a great degree, remove, or at any rate relieve, the
trouble and difficulty that would afterwards have attended
the finking the quarry, pit, or fhaft ; as the water thus
drawn or cut off, mull of neceflity diminifh and reduce the
quantity, which would have been found at a greater depth,
the fame body of it probably palling downwards from one
ftratum to another, as far as they continue to be porous, or
capable of .idmitting it. Therefore, it is of very material im-
portance to drain and lay dry all fuch ground as is fltuated
higher, but contiguous to quarries, pits, or other deep fubter-
raneous works of the fame kind, for the above ftated reafons.
And it may, in general, be accomplifhed with but little
ti^uble, difficulty, or eiipence, by adopting the fame prin-

tlQl

cfl

c^les, and the fame means.

But in regard to the removal of the water found and con-
tained in the bottoms of fuch quarries, pits, or deep workt,
it mull be drained oft and got rid of in quite a different man-
ner, as the level of the ground may probably be, or declinCj
nowhere lower than the mouths or openings of fuch quarries,

F f ' pits,

QUARRY.

pits &c • as it is folely and particularly on tin' fuppofilion.and
111 fuch cafes as where the <lire6tion of tiie diftereiil llrata and
fand-beds have a ,/,>/./«^ pofitioii with the natural inclination
of the furfacc of the land, or he nearly horizontally, that
the method of proceeding which is Hated above is prafticable,
cr capable of being employed with any fort of advantage.
But fhould they, for inttance, lie in a reverfe or contrary di-
reftion, there is but little poffibility or chance of accom-
plifhing theobjeft, the removal of the water, unlcls by dif-
covering or hitting on their terminations, fomewhere on the
oppofite fides of the hills or elevations, which in fome cales
may very nearly or exadlly be found out, by alcertaining
the precife inclination or direftion of the materials of the
quarries, pits, &c. and by a careful and exad ufe of the
level. But this will be much better comprehended, ahd a
more" clear, full, and perfedt notion of its nature be afforded,
by the feftion figure in the plate on draining quarries, pits,
?/c. in agriculture, as given by Mr. Ellcington, in his work
on that fubjedt. , ,

This is the manner which is to he purlued in preventing the
eftefts of water, or cutting off that which is met with in
finking the quarries, pits, fliafts, or other fimilar works,
before reaching or arriving at the ftone, coal, or other fort
of material that may be wanted ; but that which is found in
the bottoms of thefe different kinds of undertakings, or
which proceeds from the rocks or their fides, or in other
ways, in the courfe of working them, is commonly got quit
of by means of fome fort of machinei7, as that of the en-
trine 'or other kind of pump, in order to afTill in w^orking of
which, the water gained by cutting the drains already noticed
may be particularly ufeful, efpecially where the ufual ftream
for that purpofe is infuflicient in faving the great expence
of Vvorking fuch machinery by the power of fteam. But
without tht» aid of a natural ilream, which is capable of being
converted to this purpofe, it is rarely poflible to find, by
means of drains, or in any other way, a quantity of water
fufficient to drive fuch weighty machinery, in a fituation of
proper heiglit, to have the full and neceflai-y command of it.
However, in many cafes it may be an acquifitior of great
utility and value. It is explained at/^. 2. in the fame plate.

In fome fituations, where a full and proper command of
water can be had, and where the entrance to the quarry,
pit, (liaft, &c. is alfo furtable for the purpofe, the ufe to
which it may be converted and applied is ilill more important
and advantageous, as the driving of machinery for bringing
out the various kinds of .materials, and at the fame time
working an engine-pump, in order to clear the works of the
fubterraneous water which flows from the cavities of the
rocks, which are met within working thefe forts of pits, &c.

It has been remarked in Mr. Elkington's work on drain-
ing, in thefe cafes, that the duke of Buccleugh's coal-works,
near Langholm, in the county of Dumfries, afford a linking
example of this, as well as of the fuperior powers of water and
machinery, when properly combined, where a command of
the former can be had, and when the latter is conftruc\ed on
proper principles, and condudfed with that care and ingenuity
which are requiiite m fuch difficult undertakings.

In working quarries of lime-ftone, free-ftone, and other
forts of materials, it not unfre<juently happens, that, at a
certain depth, part of the rock or other body, which con-
tains the water, is hit upon, by which they are foon fo filkd
with it, as completely to put a ifop to the work proceeding
any deeper, where the belt and often the greatell part of the
ftone IS fituated. In all fuch cafes, the moft ufual remedies
have been, either the ereftion of a wind-mill pump, to draw
out part of the water, as the whole cannot be taken away
by fuch means, or the opening of a new quarry or pit

contiguous to the other, which at the fame depth moltly
meets with a fimilar obllrudtion, or the bringing up of a very
deep cut, often at great expence, under the level of the
witer, from the neareft declivity or hollow that can be met
with. However, by the following method, all quarries of
hme-itone, free-Hone, marie, or other materials of the fame
nature, which are liable to inch fort of obllruCtion, may be
completely and cflectually cleared of the water at but little
expence ; while, at the lame tiifie, the drain which is made
may ferve the double purpofe of that, and the laying of the
wet ground, caufed by the fpring coiitaiued in the rock,
which is found contiguous to it, dry.

There commonly lies, immediately under the rock, a bed
of Itrong, lliff, retentive clay, which upholds all the water
received and retained by that rocky Itratum, and which be-
ing, at the fame time, bound round on each fide by a cover-
ing of the fame fort of clayey material, or ether ftiff earthy
fubllance, is not able to difcharge itfelf, and of courfe con-
llantly remains or Hands full in the rock, fo as to prevent the
working or taking out the Hone from the bottom.

In fuch cafes it is neccHary, in the firll place, to endeavour
to find to what fide the rock dips or inclines, which, in general,
may eafily be afcertaincd by the appearance of the furface, in
examining the furrounding ground, and the aid of a proper
level. When this has been difcovered and fully afcertained,
a fuitable drain muH be cut through the clayey covering to
the rock, by which the water will be drawn off, which, for
want of a proper outlet, formerly Hood pent up in the hol-
lows and cavities of the Hony rtratum or body. This is fur-
ther and more fully explained by Ji^s. 3 and 4, in the fame
plate.

But, in fome cafes, this fort of evil or inconvenience may
be removed and remedied in a different w ay. As it frequently
happens that a bed or body of the fame ftone, which has a
clofe, compaft nature or quality, is found lying under one
which has a more open porous texture, witii fidures and
cracks in it, that are admiflible of water, which obtlrudts
and keeps up the water in the upper bed or layer, in fuch a
manner, that not any of it can pafs or filtrate through it to
an inferior, or ftill deeper open Itratum or bed ; and on fink-
ing or cutting through this compadt bed of ftone, another
layer is met with, which is of fo open and porous a nature,
as to admit the reception of any water from the above one,
which may come upon it.

And fometimes a bed of gravel or fand is found under that
of the clofe ilone, which being ftill more capable of ab-
forbing or taking up any water that may be let down to it, is
far better and more properly fuited for the purpofe of clearing
the upper bed of ftone from water, than a Itratum of open
Hone Itfelf.

Therefore, when this is difcovered and afcertained to be
the cafe, and the water is icpi up by the fecund bed of ftone,
fo as to be injurious and hurtful to the working of the upper
bed, and which will be equally fo in working the fecond ;
the work may be greatly freed and relieved by boringthrough
the clofe bed of Hone, and letting down the water into the
more porous one below, or into a ftratum or body of dry
fand or gravel, fhould there be fuch a one underneath it.
But in place of boring, the finking of fmall pits through
the clofe ftone is a more efiedtual method of letting down the
water, though a much more difficult one in the execution.

The methods of digging and boring, even in the bottoms
of quarries, pits, and Ibaits, where pumps and other machinery
of the fame nature are made ufe ot, as has been noticed above,
may, in fome cafes, not only be pradlicable, but advantageous
for lettintj down the water which they contain iKto an infe-
rior open ftratum.

That

QUARRY.

That of boring has been praftil^d wilh complete fuecels
in the cafe of a colliery in the coiinly of York, which hud
been wrought many years, and in whicli the water was raifcd
about (ixty yards by a lleam-enjrine : tTie proprietors of
which, on boring down from the bottom of tlie pit next lo
the engine-pit, to the furtiier depth of about ten yards, in
order to afcertain the depth or thicknefs of a feam of coals,
which was fuppofed to lie below thofc then wrought ; the
workmen, on taking out the boring rods, found that the
water from the works, whicli ulually ran acrois the bottom
of this pit to the engine-pump, now ran down the holes they
had made. And that the fleam-engine pump, on being fet
to work, contained little or no water, it having elcaped
through tiicfe holes, and continued to run tlirougli the fame
ever afterwards, rendering the pump ufelefs. It is remarked,
that tiiis inflance of water at lo great a depth from the fur-
face, finding a pafiage at a further depth of ten yards, or
lefs, and immediately below, is extremely lingular and itriking
in its nature. Tiie iltuation was much higher than the neareft
contiguous vallies, or the level of the fea. Trials of this
fort can feldom be made, therefore the cafes are rare, tm-
common, and curious. But in extenfive trafls of level land,
where lakes or moralles have been formed, and which cannot
be laid dry by cutting open drains, or driving levels through
rocks, except at an expence for which the lands, when
drained, would never compenfatc, the above inflances war
rant the trial of experiments with boring rods, which, if not
attended with fucccfs, can be made at little expence.

In the county of Lancafter, about the town of Orm-
Jlcirk, as well as in forae other parts, ftone quarries are
cleared of water exaftly in the manner which has been al-
ready pointed out, but which_/?f. 5. in the plate will explain
much better.

Tlie fucccfs of the pradlice has likewife been farther
fhewn by the late T. Eccleflon, efq. of Scarrifbrick-hall,
an ingenious and extenfive proprietor of land in the fame
neighbourhood, who remarks, that in ilone quarries there-
abouts, wells or pits are ocealionally funk to the open bed,
which have proved ferviceable. This mode was pracliled
in a ftone delf near the above town in a very beneficial
manner. But in order to lay the delf more effecfually dry
to a greater deptli, Mr. Eikington, on viewing the fur-
rounding ground, marked out where he thought the rock
terminated, or tailed out, and at the lovveil level fet out a
drain to be cut and carried up to the rock, part of which
work has been executed, and a very confiderable flow of
water comes from it ; but on account of its great depth,
flxteen feet, the whole will not be finifhed before he liai
feen the work again. The drain he has thus laid out is
about ten feet lower than the bottom' of the ftone quarry,
and when completed, will lay the head or body of ftone dry
lower than the prefent floor. All rocks, for the moft part,
where they terminate, are fucceeded by broken loofe ftones
of the fame nature as the rock, and they are frequently, nay
almoll always, fucceeded by land, which, when in a thick
bed, and of a running nature, fuch us quickiand, often
caufe great expence in cutting through to the tail end of
any rock. This is more fully explained in fpeaking of the
manner of draining in hilly lands, and where the foils are
of a mixed nature. See SrRiNG-Z)/-flm;«^.

Therefore, in all fuch cafes as this, where there is any
danger of meeting a quickfand, boring or finking pits
through the bed of clofe ftone, is by much the moft ad-
vifeable, and at the fame time the leaft expenfive method
that can be purfued.

The fituations of marie pits are for the moft part fuch,
that they require very extenfive cuts to be made through

fome part? of the furrounding banks or fides of tiiem, m
order to carry or convey ofi' the iuperabundant quantity of
water wiiicii prevents their being dug or wrought to advan-
tage. This bufmefs might frequently be efleftcd in a mucli
lefs trouiilefomc and expenfive manner, by the method of
letting tile water down by means of finking pits or openings
through the retaining and upholding ftrutum underneath
the bed of marie, into fome abforbent porous body of mate-
rials lying ftill deeper, which is capable of receiving it.
Where the Ipace of ground that is occupied by the marlc is
of confiderable fize, fevcral pits will be required, in order to
efteitually carry off the water ; and where it is neceffary
that they lliould be fo deep as to be in danger of falling in,
they ought to be walled round the fides, or filled up to near
the top with loole ftones, through which the water can fettle
and find its way. And any fuch crofs drains or cuts as
may be ntcellary for the purpofe of coUefting the water
muft be fo formed and condudted as to lead into the pits.
But in many cafes the water may be removed and got rid of
in a ftill more eafy manner, efpecially where the fituation of
the ground is favourable and luited to the purpofe. In
inflances where the furrounding banks decline or fall on the
oppoiite fides loiuer than the 'Water, by cuttingdrainsinto them,
and boring with an horizontal auger into the tails of the
ftrata containing the water, it may be drawn off and brought
down to a level lower than that of the bed or body of marie.
And as this water is not unfrcquently fupplied by a fpring
which rifes in fome part of the higher ground, and defcends
into the place where the marie is found, it will be neceffary,
in all fuch cafes, to cut off the fource of it, and divert the
flow of water into fome other channel ; as by that means
the quantity of water below will be lefleiied, and more eafily
and readily carried off by the pits or drains which may have
been formed.

Mines and fhafts, for the purpofe of raifing different forts
of metals, are often much impeded, or wliolly prevented
from being wrought by the water which is brought into
them from a diftance, by various kinds of mineral ftrata.
In many fuch cafes, the water flowing in this way may be
intercepted, by making cuts up to the lowefl banks of them,
from fome neighbouring water-courfe, or other convenient
outlet, and then boring or digging pits in the bottoms of
fuch cuts, when the metals to fuch depths or levels will be
rendered free from water, and capable of being wrought.
This will, however, be more amply fhewn in confidering the
manner of draining, in fome cafes of wetnefs, caufed by
fprings arifing in this way. See SpRlNG-Z)/-rtin/'nj-.

In removing the water, or freeing the bottoms of quarries
and pits from it, where machinery is required, the writer of
the v\'ork on " Landed Property" has remarked, that in
cafes where Jliafi-draius are found to be iinpraiSlicable, ■wel/-
draitis and pumps become neceffary, and are the moft proper;
as they may be wrought by water, where ftreams can be
condudled to them ; or by wind in high expofed fituations ;
or in works of confequence, v\here fuel is moderately cheap,
by fmall fleam-engines. Howeyer, in inftances where large
bodies of water are requii"ed to be raifed and difcharged at
the height of a few feet only, marfh-mills, fuch as are made
ufe of in low marfli-land diftridls, are found the readieft and
moft ufeful kind of machinery for the purpofe.

In fome cafes of this nature, the bottoms of quarries, pits,
and mines, may be cleared from water, finiply by forming
openings into them from fome parts of the neighbouring
ground where it falls lower tiian the levels of them, at fufli.
ciently fliort diftances, without any other more expenfive
works being undertaken for the purpofe. This (hould
always be fully confidercd before any means are reforted to
F f 2 for

QUA

for laying them dry, as it mny occafionally be the faving
of much labour, trouble, and money.

Quarry, in Glnziery, n pane, or piece of glafs, cut in
a lozenge, or diamond-form.

The word feenis formed by corruption, fro* quarrel,

f which fee) ; imlefs we will fuppofe it to come immediately
rom the French quarre, fquare.

Quarries, or quarrels of ghifs, are of two kind? ; viz.
fquare and long, each of whicli is of dilTcrent fizes, cxprefTcd
by the number of pieces which make a foot of glafs ; -ui-z.
Rths, loths, I2ths, I5ths, iSths, and 20ths ; but all the
fizfs arc cut to the fame angle, the acute angle being 77"
19' in the fquare quarries, and 67° 22' in the long ones.

Quarry, in Falconry, is the game, or fowl, which the
hawk is in purfuit of, or has killed.

Quarry, among Hunters, is fometimes ufed for part of
the vifcera of the bcalt taken ; given by way of reward to
the hounds.

QuARRY-Ca/-/, a name commonly given to that fort of
cart which is principally employed in the work of quarries,
and which is generally of a low, compaft, llrong kind, in
its nature, form, and manner of conftruction, in order to
fultain heavy weights, and receive them without diflieulty,
or the danger of being dellroyed. Carts for this purpofe
(hould always be made of well-feafoned wood, be well put
together, and have fufficient ftrength of timber m thofe
parts where the main llrefs of the load is placed. See
Cart.

Some quarry counties have well-formed carts of this
nature, as many of thofe towards the northern boundaries
of the kingdom.

(^v !\.KV.\-lFnggon, or Truck, a fmall carriage of the low
truck kind, which is much employed in the bufinefs of
quarries, efpecially thofe of the flate kinds, for the purpofe
of holding and conveying the rough materials, which have
been blown from the large mafly rocks, or feparated in
other ways, out of or from the quarries and pits in which
they are fituated and contained, to the places where they
are to receive their different preparations and (hapes.

It is formed and conftrufted on a frame fomewhat fimilar
to that of the common barrow, and mounted on two low
light iron \vheels on the fore part, having two feet behind,
projefting from the frame, bent fomething in the manner of
the letter S, and of fufBcient length to let it ftand or reft
in a horizontal pofition while it is in the aft of being loaded.
Thefe feet are ufually made of iron, but they may be formed
of other materials. A fort of inclined plain is formed from
the bottoms of the quarries or pits, up which it i§ forced,
with great eafe and facihty, by the workmen, or fmall
animals of the horfe kind, after being filled with thefe
forts of heavy materials. It is a very ufeful and convenient
ftiachine in this application, being met with in moft of the
flate quarries in the northern part of Lancafhire, as well as
in thofe of many other diftrifts of the kingdom.

QUARRYING, the bufinefs of duefting and conduft-
ing the nature and management of finking the different
kinds of quarries, pits, and fhafts, as well as of the different
forts of work which are i-ieceffary to be undertaken, carried
on, and performed, in the feveral different defcriptions of
them ; fuch as thofe of feparating, gettnig up, and pre-
paring the various forts of materials for ufe in the arts, or
in other ways. It is a praftice which requires confiderable
knowledge and experience, to be fully mafter of it in all its
different bearings and intentions. See Quarry, and Quar-
rying Slates and Stones.

Almost every fort of quarrying-work requires a different
kind of management, not only in the opening and finking

QUA

the quarries and pits in the grounds at firft, but afterwards
in the methods and praftices of working them, and getting
up the various forts of materials from them, as well as in
tl i modes of preparing, trimming, and arranging them,
after ihey have been raifed. They are, however, inolUy
well known and familiar to the quarry-men and pit-men
who are ufually engaged in works of the feveral different
kinds.

QuAhRYlNG Slates and Sloues, the methods of preparing
and fitting them for their different ufes and applications at the
qtiarries and pits where they have been raifed. The former
of thefe articles, particularly thofe of the blue, green, and
purple or blackifh kinds, undergo feveral different forts of
preparation in the quarrying, according to the purpofes to
which they arc to be afterwards apphed. They are feparated
and divided into very thin pieces or flates, where light, neat
coverings are required, or in much demand ; but for more
llrong and heavy coverings, in expofed fituations, or other
places, they are fplit into much thicker fheets, layers, or
flates, and are, of courfe, more clumfy in their appearance.

Each fort m the bufinefs of quarrvinjr is wrought in a fe-
parate manner, and packt-d up by itfclf ; the different iorts
having appropriate names, as has been already feen.

The white or brown flates are never divided and prepared
in fo fine a way as the other kinds, but feparated into much
thicker flakes or laminvE, in this intention. The blue, green,
and purple or darkifh forts, are, for the mofl part, found
capable of being fplit into very thin lamina: or fheets ; but
thofe of the white, or brownifh fixe-ftone kinds, can ftldoni
be feparated or divided in any very thin manner, as the layers
of the large maffes of the Hones are of a much thicker na-
ture, they confequently form heavy, ftrong, thick coverings,
proper for buildings in expofed climates and fituations, and
of the more rough kinds, fuch as barns, flables, and other
forts of out-houfes.

In the different operations and procefTes of this fort of
quarrying, Date knives, axes, bars, and wedges are chiefly
made ufe of in the different intentions of fplitting and clean-
ing the flates, they being feparated into proper thickneffes
by the axe, bar, and wedge, and afterwards chipped into
their proper forms and fhapes by the knife. All the different
inequalities which may appear upon any part of them, arc
likewife rem.ovcd by this lall fort of implement.

In the quarrying of the latter fort=; of materials, or thofe
of flones, the work is ufually perforrried in fuch a manner
as to fuit the different ufes for which they are intended.
Where flags are to be formed, they are fplit or riven into fuit-
able thickneffes, and fquared to different fizes, fo as to be
adapted to different applications. Thefe operations are ex-
ecuted in rathor a rough way, as they are afterwards to be
finifned by the ftone-mafon. When for fteps, they have the
proper breadths and depths given to them in a fort of fquar-
ing manner, being left to be completed as they may be
wanted for particular ufes and applications. Gate-pofls are,
for the moil; part, quarried fo as to have from about a foot
to a foot and a halt or more in the fquare. Trougu-ftones
have the quan-ying performed fo as to be formed into va-
rious proper-fized fquares or other forms, in a rough manner,
beingr left in thefe ftates to be afterwards hewn and hollowed
out, in the intended parts, by the ttone-mafons.

Stones for building purpofes are ufually raifed and quar-
ried out roughly into fomething of the fquare fliape, being
left in that flate for the builders, who afterwards fit them fo
as to fuit their own purpofei; and intentions.

In the quarrying of ftones, the quarrymen commonly make
ufe of large hammers, with cutting ends on one fide, the
other being formed in a plain manner ; flrong, fharp, crow-
bars.

QUA

bars, and broad, (harp, iron vvt-dges ; by which means tliefc
matters are, from theconllant praftice of the men, fplit and
torn into fueli forms as are wanted with great eafe and facihty.
See Qlakkv.

QuAliUYiNG Tools, the diflerent forts of implements which
are employed or made ufe of in the different works of this
kind, as in the raifing and preparing tlie various forts of ma-
terials of this natnre. They are principally fuch as thofe
wliich have been noticed already, and different dcfcriptions
of picks, mattocks, and jumpers, or boring implements,
for the purpofe of blafting the various kinds of flone, and
other hard materials. Thefe tools are individually defcribed
under their particular heads. See each of them.

QuARRYiNGS, tlie fmall pieces which are broken or
chipped off from the different forts of materials which are
found and wrouglit in quarries, while they are undergoing
their different preparations for varions ufes. Thefe fub-
ftances, where they are of the hard kind, inch as thofe
of the blue and lime-flone, as well as fooie other forts, are
extremely well calculated for the purpofe of forming and
repairing roads, as they are nearly, if not quite, in a Hate fit
for immediate application in this way. Materials of thefe
kinds ought, therefore, where they can be conveniently had,
never to be neglefted by thofe who have the care and ma-
nagement of roads, as they will fave much expence and trouble,
in a great number of irdtances. See Roads.

QUART, q. li. fourth, in Muftc. See Quarte.

Quart is particularly ufed for a diminutive meafure, con-
taining one-fourth, or quarter, of fonie other meafure ; which
lee.

The Englifh quart is a fourth of a gallon, or two pints ;
the Roman quart, or quartarius, was the fourth part of their
congius.

The committee appointed for examining the flandards of
weights and meafures, and afccrtaining thofe that fhall be
ufed in this kingdom, delivered it as their opinion, in their
report to the houie of commons, A. D. 1 8 14, that the
gallon ought to contain 10 pounds of pure water, or 376.48
cubical inches ; that the quart, or fourth part of the gallon,
ought to contain 40 ounces of water, or 69. 1 2 cubical inches ;
and that the pint, or half of the quart, ought to contain 20
oimces of water, or 34-56 cubical inches.

The French, from whom we borrow the word, befides their
quart, or pot of two pints, have various other quarts, diftin-
guilhed by the whole of which they are quarters ; as quart
de mtt'td, and quart de loiffenu. See MuiD, and BlisHEL.

Quart of Butter, in Rural Economy, a name given to a
lump which contains the quantity of three pounds ; and
which is a mode of felling it th<.t is peculiar to feme diflridls,
it being carried in this flate to the markets.

Quart de Soupir, in Fr. Mujic, is a refl equal to a femi-
qiiaver. By a 4th part of a foupir is meant an equivalent to
a double croche, or two quavers in French, and one crotchet
in Enghfh. See Time-table, and Value c/" Notes.

Quart de Ton, Fr., a quarter of a tone, an interval
introduced into the enharmonic genus by Ariftoxenus. We
have neither ear nor harmonic calculations that can furnifh
us with the exaft interval or ratio of a quarter-tone ; and
when we confider what nice geometric operations are necef-
fary to fettle it on the monochord, we are very apt to fufpcdl
that this true quarter-tone never has been nor ever will be
produced exatflly in tune either vocally or iiillrumentally.
Muficians, however, call the diiTerence between A* and Bjj,
a quarter-tone, an interval which, though in nature, is anni.
hilated by t mperament.

This quarter-tone is pretended to be of two kinds ; the
enharmonic major, in the ratio of 57610 625, which is the

QUA

complement of two minor femitoncs to a tone major ; and
the enharmonic minor, in the ratio of 125 to 128, which is
the complement of the fame two minor femitoncs to the minor
tone. Roufleau.

QUARTAN, in Medicine, an ague or intermittent fever,
the paroxyfms of whicli recur every third day, leaving two
intervening days without fever. This is vulgarly called a
third-day ague ; but in medical language it \% termed quartan,
or fourth-day ague, becaufe if we reckon the day on which
the difeafe commences as one, then the fecond paroxyfm is
on the fourth day, which again becomes one in relation to
the fucceedingparoxyims. See Fever, Quartan, SlwAAcvz.
See alfo Tertian.

QUARTARIUS, a meafure among the ancients, being
the fourth part of afcxtary, and nearly equal to a quarter of
a pint of our wine-mcalure.

QUARTARO, in Commerce, a liquid meafure at Venice.
Tlie amphora, which is a wine-meafure, contains 4 bigoncio ;
a bigoncia 4 quartari, 16 feechie, or 2561b. Pefo groffo ;
but a bigoncia of brandy isonly 14 feechie, or 561b. Kelly's
Un. Cambift.

QUARTATION, in Metallurgy, is the feparation of
filver from gold by means of aqua fortis or nitric acid ; which
is an operation that has fomething fmgular in it.

If filver and gold are mixed together into a mafs, and the
gold is not lefs than one-third part of the mafs in weight, the
beff aqua fortis poured upon it is not at all capable. of dif-
folving the filver ; but if you add more filver to this mafs,
by melting it again in the fire, with fuch a iieceffary addition
of that metal alone as fhould bring the gold in the mafs to
the proportion of lefs than one-third of the whole, and fuf-
for it to cool, then aqua fortis poured on it will corrode the
filver from it : this is alfo by fo much the more flrongly
performed, as the quantity of gold is lefs than in the pro-
portion of one-third of the whole mafs ; but experience has
taught us, that aqua fortis diflblvet filver mixed with gold
quickly enough when the gold conflitutes but one, and the
filver three parts of a mixed mafs of them ; and in this cafe,
if the folution is not too impetuoufly performed, the gold
ufually remains in fuch a proportion, in the fame figure that
the whole mafs had before the feparation of the filver by
this menilruum ; fo that, in this cafe, there is no reafon to
apprehend tlie gold's being torn into minute particles, and
dillipated in fome meafure ; though this can hardly be pre-
vented when the filver exceeds the three-quarter proportion,
in regard to the gold in the mafs. The artificers, therefore,
always make it their fludy to obferve very exaftly this pro-
portion of the gold being one-fourth part of the mixture ;
and thence it is that the operation itfelf has been called
quartation.

In order to afcertain nearly the proportion of gold and
filver in a mafs, the affayers rub this mafs upon a touch-
ftoiie, fo as to leave a mark upon it ; and they then make
marks upon the flone with iome of thofe needles, called
touch-needles, the colour of which they think comes nearefl
to that of the mafs : by comparing the marks of thefe
needles with the mark of trie mafs, they difcover nearly the
proportion of the gold and filver in the mafs. The mafs of
gold and filver to be quartered ought previoufly to be granu-
lated, by melting it in a crucible, and pouring it into a large
veffel full of cold water, while at the fame time a rapid cir-
cular motion is given to the water by quickly ftirring it
round with a flick or broom. The veffels generally ufed for
this operation are called parting-glafies. The aqua fortis mull
be purified for this purpofe, and fhould be fo fbrong as to be
capable of acting fenfibly on filver when cold, but not fo
ftrong as to aft violently. If it be very flrong, and the veffels

well

remaining gold
are to receive

Q LI A

.vellclofed, a fmall quantity of the gold will be diflolved
alontr with the filver, which is to be guarded agamft. Little
heat ouo-ht to be applied at the beginning, the liquor being
apt to fwell and rife over the veffel ; but when the acid is
nearly faturated, the heat may be fafely increafed. When
the folution ceafes, which may be known by the dilcontnni-
ance of the effervefcence, or emiffion of air-bubbles, the liquor
is to be poured ofF. If any grains appear entire, more aqua
fortis mud be added, that all the lilver may be diffolved. It
the operation has been performed flowly, the rf
will have ftill the form of dillincl matfes, which
folid;ty and colour by putting them into a tell under a muffle,
and making them red-hot. If the operation has been per-
formed hallilv, the gold will have the appearance o{ a black,
mud or powder, which after five or fix walTiings with pure
water, muR be melted. The filver is ufually recovered by
precipitating it from the aqua fortis by means of copper
veffels, into which the liquor is poured, or of plates of cop-
per, which are thrown along with the liquor into glafs veffels.
A confiderable heat is required to accelerate this precipitation.
Dr. Lewis obferves, that when the aqua fortis has been per-
feftly faturated with lilver, no precipitation is occafioned by
plates of copper, till a drop or two of aqua fortis is added
to the liquor, and then the precipitation begins, and con-
tinues as ufual. The precipitated filver muft be well walhed
in boiling water, and fufed with fome nitre, the ufe of which
is to fcorify any cupreous particles which may adhere to the
filver.

Here we may add, that filver and gold may be parted
from one another by the vitriolic acid, as effeftually, though
not fo commodioufly, as by the nitrous. If the compound
be reduced into grains or thin plates, and boiled in about
twice its weight of oil of vitriol to drynefs, the filver will
be fo far corroded, as to be eafily walhed off by a little more
of the acid : or if the mafs, after the corrofion, be melted
in a crucible, the gold will feparate and fabfide,^ the filver
forming a fcoria above it. Gold may be purified^ in the
fame manner from fcveral other metallic bodies. M. Scheffer
fays, that this is the mod direA way of feparating tin from
gold. Lewis's Com. Phil. Techn. 95. 149, &c. See As-
saying, Depart, and Gold.

QUARTAUT, in Commercf, a wine meafure in fome
parts of France : thus, at Blois, 3.74. quartauts are equal
to 100 Enghlh gallons, and each of them contains 6183
cubic inches ; in Burgundy, 3.6S quartauts are equal to
100 Englifli gallons, and each contains 6275 cubic inches.
Kelly's Un. Cam.

QUARTE, Fr., Q^uarta, Ital, the 4.th in mufic, and
the third confonance in point of perfedlion, accordmg to
the order in which concords are generated.

The 4th is a perfeft concord ; its ratio is 3 to 4. It is
compofed of three diatonic degrees, formed of four founds ;
whence it has its name of fourth. Its interval is compofed
of two tones and a half: a tone major, a tone minor, and a
major femitone.

The 4th may be altered two feveral ways: ift, by di-
minifhing its interval a femitonc, and then it is called the
diminilhed or falfe 4th ; zdly, by augmenting it a femitone,
and then it is called a Iritoiius, or fuperfluous 4th. (See
Tritonus. ) But the diminilhed 4th is never ufed in har-
mony, and only touched now and then in melody as an ap-
poggiatura, or note of refinement.

The 4th in thorough-bafe is accompanied by the I, and
called by fome the chord of the l ith.

Another chord is called the fuperfluous 4th, or tritonus,
by the French ; which is what we call the chord of the I ,

QUA

or *, in which the difcord is in the bafc ; but it is not th<;
chord of the tritonus, unlefs the 4th is (liarp. See Ciioun,
and Accompaniment.

The fuccellion of two perfeft 4ths is allowed in compofi-
tion, even in fimilar motion, provided they are accompanied
by the 6th ; but thefe are palfages that mud not be abufed,
or pudied too far, as they are not authorized by the funda-
mental bafe. The Italians call a regular fuccefiion of chords
of the 6th /»//o bordone ; for which fee Fourth.

QUARTEEL, in Commerce, a meafure for train-oil at
Hamburgh : it contains 2 tonnes, or 64 ftubgen, and it
reckoned at 2 centners, or 224 lbs. net weight. Kelly.

QUARTELOIS, Cartelois, or Corluct, furtouti, or
upper garments, with coats of arms quartered on them, worn
by the ancient knights in their military expeditions.

QUARTER, the fourth part of a whole, or integer di-
vided into four equal portions.

In working of fradlions, the quarter is cxprefTed by 5 ;
three quarters by |.

Quarter, as a Weight, is a fourth part of the quintal,
or hundred-weight.

The quarter is 28 pounds avoirdupois.
Quarter is alfo a dry meafure, containing of corn eight
bufhels llriked, or two facks, being that by which corn is
generally fold in the London market, and in large quantities
in fome diftrifts of the country ; and the quarter of coals is
the fourth part of a chaldron, called a vat.

" Quarterium frumenti conftat ex ofto buffellis." Fleta,
lib. ii. This feems to have fignified originally the fourth
part of a ton in weight, or capacity. See Weight.

Quarter, in AJlronomy, the fourth part of the moon's
period, or lunation, which is divided into four ftages, or
quarters ; containing each from feven to eight days.

The firft quarter is from the new moon to the quadrature ;
the fecond thence to the fuli moon, &c.

Quarter, in Heraldry, is fometimes ufed for an efcut-
cheon, or coat of arms.

In this fenfe there are fixteen quarters required to prove
nobility, in companies, or orders, where none but nobles
are admitted.

The word quarters, required as a proof of nobility, is
derived hence, that they ufed anciently to put the coats of
arms of the father, mother, grandfather, and grandmother,
on the four corners of the tomb of the deceafed.

In Flanders and Germany we frequently fee tombs that
have eight, fixteen, and even thirty-two quarters.

Quarter is alfo applied to the parts or members of the
firft divifion of a coat that is quartered, or divided into four
quarters. See Quartering.

The king of Great Britain, in the firft quarter, beare
gules three lions pafTant or, &c. In the fecond quarter he
bears azure three fleurs-de-lis, &c.

Quarter, Franc, is a quarter fingle, or alone ; which
ii to poflefs one-fourth part of the field.

This makes one of the honourable ordinaries of a coat.
See Ordin.\ry.

Quarter, in Lww, Quartei-hm. jinni, is the fourth part
of a year.

Hence the days on which thofe quarters ilatedly com-
mence, are called quarter-days.

Quarter-days are the 25th of March, called Lady-day ;
the 24th of June, called Midfummer-day ; the 29th of Sep-
tember, called Michaelmas-day ; and the 25th of December,
or Chriftmas-day.

Quarter, Fr., in old counterpoint, was proceeding in

difcant by a fuccefiion of 4ths ; which was called, in bar-

7 barous

1

QUA

barous Latin, dutteffitrnnare ; of which wc have inftances in
the " Micrologus" of Giiido.

Quarter, in Nav'igaUan. A quarter tfF a point, wind,
or rhumb, is the fourth part of a cardinal point, wind, or
rhumb ; or of the dillancc between two cardinal ponits,
wind?, &c.

The quarter contanis an arc of 1 1 degrees 15 minutes.

The quarter is what Wolfius, with regard to the other
divifions, calls a fecondary point ot the fecond order.

Quarter of a Ship is that part of the fhip's fide which
lies towards the item ; or which is comprehended between
the aftmoil end of the main chains and the (ides of the Hern,
where it is terminated by the quarter-pieces. Although the
lines by which the quarter and bow of a (lup are determined,
with refpeft to iier lengtii, are only imaginary, yet ex-
perience appears fufficiently to have alccrtained their limits ;
fo that if we were to divide the fliip's fides into i\\t equal
portions, the names of each fpace would be readily enough
expreiied. Thus the firft, from the Hern, would be the
quarter; the fecond, abaft the midlhips ; the third, the
midfhips ; the fourth, before the midihips ; and the iifth,
the bow. Falconer.

Quarter, On the, in Sea Language, may be defined an
arc of the horizon, contained between the line prolonged
from the (hip's flern and any diftant objeft, as land, (hips,
&c. Thus if the fliip's keel lies on an ealt and weft line,
the flern being weilward, any diftant objeft, perceived in
the north-weft or fouth-well, is faid to be on the larboard
or ftarboard quarter.

Quarter is alfo ufed for a canton, or divifion of a city ;
confiiting of fcveral ranges of buddings, &c. feparated from
fome other quarter by a river, a great ftreet, or by fome
other boundary.

Such are the twenty quarters of the city of Paris. An-
cient Rome was divided levcral times, under its ieveral aug-
mentations, into quarters, which were called regions ; as
may be obfervcd in the topographies of Aurehus Viftor,
Onuphrius Panvinius, Marillan, Pyrro Ligorio, Boiffard,
and other antiquaries.

In many cities there are commiiraries of the quarter ap-
pointed to look to the policy of them. The prior of the
Caporions accounts himf'lf the chief and colonel of the
fourteen regions, or quarters, of Rome. Mulcarat, p. 134.

Quarters, Franchife of. See Franchise.

Quarter, in War, the place allotted to certain forces
to live, lodge, and encamp upon, during a fiege, or the
like. See Camp.

The general's quarter, called the head-quarters of an
army, is that where the general lodges and encamps in per-
fon. They ufed to make lines of communication, to join
the feveral quarters together.

Quarters at a Siege, are the encampments on the prin-
cipal paffes about a place ; ferving to flop the avenues, and
to prevent relic-f and convoys.

Quarter is alfo uled for any lodgment made in tlie
field, or champaign, out of a fiege. Thus they fay, the
general has extended his quarters a good way ; the enemy
comincr by, made him coutraft his quarters.

Quarters, Intrenched, denote a place fortified with a
ditch and parapet, to fecure a body of troops.

Quarters, Winter, the place allotted troops to ipals the
winter feafon in. Wherein thefe differ from garrifons, lee
Garrison.

Winter quarters, when cold or moift, are productive of
inflammatory diforders, particularly hard coughs, with in-
j flammations of the pleura or lungs. See Barrai Ks.

Quarters, Winter, are alfo uied for the time the troops

Q U A

continue in this lodgment ; and for the advantage the cap-
tains make of it.

In Spain they have alfo fummer quarters.

Qv ART Eli of y/femli/y, is the place of rendezvous, where
the troops are to meet and draw up, to march in a body.

Quarters of Refrefhment, denote foine well provided,
fertile fpot, to whicii troops, that have been much fatigued
and haraded, are fent to recover their itrength, or health ;
even during the feafon of the campaign.

There arc alfo quarters afligned for the huckilers, and
their equipage.

Quarter alio denote" the fafety and good treatment
promifed to perfons or troops that furrender, and lay down
their arms. Thus we fay, the enemy begged quarter.

The phrjfe took its rife from an agreement anciently
made between the Dutch and Spaniards, tliat the ranfom of
an officer, or foldier, fliould be a quarter of his pay. Hence,
to beg quarter was to offer a quarter of their pay for their
fafety ; and to refufe quarter was not to accept of that com-
poution for their ranfom.

On an enemy's fubmitting, and delivering up liis arms,
the victor cannot with juflice take away his life. In a
battle, quarter is to be given to thofe who lay down their
arm.s ; and at a fiege, a garrifon offering to capitulate are
never to be refufed their lives. If fonutimes, however, in
the heat of adtion, the foldier refufes to give quarter, it is
always contrary to the inclination of the officers, who
eagerly interpofe for faviiig the lives of fuch enemies as have
laid down their arms. Neverthelefs, there is one cafe, in
which life may be denied to an enemy who furrendert, and
alfo capitulation refufed to a place. This is when the
enemy has been guilty of fome enormous breach of the law
of nations, and particularly if it be at the fame time a viola-
tion of the laws of war. This denial of quarter is no na-
tural confequence of the war, but the punifliment of his
crime ; a punifhraent which the injured party has a right to
inflict : but that the punifliment may be juft, it muft fall on
the guilty. When the war is with a favage nation, which
obferves no rules, and never gives quarter, it may be chaf-
tifed in the perfons of any that are feized or taken, among
the guilty ; fo that by this rigour they may be brought to
conform to the laws of humanity. But wherever feverity is
not ablolutely neceffary, clemency is to be ufed. Corinth
was utterly deftroyed, for having violated the law of nations
towards the Roman ambafladors. However, that feverity
has been cenfured by Cicero, and other great men. He,
who has even the moft juft caufe to punifli a fovereign as his'
enemy, will always incur the reproach of cruelty, if he
fliould caufe the punifliment to fall on the innocent people.
There are other methods of chaUifing the fovereign ; as the
depriving him of fome of his rights, taking from him towns
and provinces. The evil which a whole nation fuffers is
the participation inevitable to the members of a political
fociety. The learned Vattel exprcffes his aftoniftiment that,
in a knovi'ing age, it could be conceived that it is lawful to
pumfli with death a governor who has defended his place to
the lalt extremity ; or who, in a weak place, has prefumed
to make a ftand againft a royal army. Yet, even in the
17th century, this notion was fo common as to make an ar-
ticle in the law of war ; and, at a later period, it is not
wholly exploded. What a thought ! to punifli a brave man
for having performed his duty. Very different were the
principles of Alexander the Great, when he gave orders for
fparing fome Miiefians, " on account of their courage and
fidelity." It is in vain to objeft, that an obflinate defence,
elpecially in a weak place, againft a royal army, only caufes
a great effufion of blood to no purpofe ; for this defence
may fave the ftate, by delaying the enemy fome days longer ;

and,

QUA

and, bcfidcs, courage fupplics the want of fortifications.
It is urged farther, tiiat by threatening a commander with
death, you may fliorten the bloody fiege, fparc your troops,
and gam a valuable opportunity. The anfwer is, fays
Vattel, that a brave man will defpife your menace, or,
provoked at fuch ignominious ufage, will fell his life at a
dear rate, make you pay for your injuilice, and bury him-
felf under the ruins of his fort. Beiides, the menace of an
unjult punilhment is unjud in itfelf ; it is an infult and an
injury. But to execute it, would be barbarous and hor-
rible ; and if it is not to take effeft, it mull be allowed to
be vain and ridiculous. Neverthelefs, jull and lawful means
may be ufed for inducing a governor not obltinately to re-
duce himfelf to the lall extremity ; and this is at prefent
done by all wife and humane generals. A governor is
fummoned to furronder, and in the progrcfs of the fiege an
honourable and advantageous capitulation is offered him,
with an intimation that if he ftays too long, he will be ad-
mitted only to furrender as a prifoner of war, and at difcre-
tion : if he perfills, and is at length forced to furrender at
difcretion, all the feverity of the law of war may be ufed,
both againll him and his troops. But this right never ex-
tends fo far as to deprive an enemy of life, who lays down
his arms, unlefs he has been guilty of fome proportionate
crime towards the conqueror. See Capitulation, Pri-
soners of War, and Reprisals.

Quarters, in BuiU'mg, thofe flight, upright pieces of
timber, placed between the punchions and polls ; ufed to
lath upon. They are of two kinds, fingle and double. The
fingle quarters are fawn to two inches thick, and four inches
broad ; the double are four inches fquare.

Quarters in a clock, are little bells, which found the
quarters of an hour.

Quarters, in Sea Language, the feveral flations of a
(hip's crew in the time of aftion. See Quartering the
Men.

Quarter, in the Manege, to work from quarter to
quarter, is to ride a horfe three times upon the firll of
the four lines of a fquare ; then changing your hand, to
ride him three times upon the fecond ; and fo to the
third and fourth, always changing hands and obferving the
fame order.

Quarters of a Saddle, the parts or pieces of leather, or
lluft", which are made fad to the lower part of the fides, and
which hang down below the faddle.

QvART^RH of a Horfe, and other jinimah, the four prin-
cipal parts of the animals ; the fore-quarters confill of the
fhoulders and the fore-legs ; tiie hind-quarters, of the hips
and the hind legs.

In the horfe, the fore-quarters or fhoulders (liould al-
ways fall in a neat manner backwards, where they join
with the bread, and the hind-quarters be fuitably long and
well fhaped towards the rump. Something of a finii-
larity of fhape (hould likewife prevail in the quarters of
neat cattle, flieep, and fwine, but they fliould be much more
flertiy downwards as they approach the thigh and leg parts.
See LiVE-5/of/-, Horse, Sheep, and Swine.

Quarters of the Foot, in horfes, are the fides of the
coffin, comprehended between the toe and the heel on botli
fides ; the inner quarters are thofe oppofite to one another,
facing from one foot to the other ; thofe are always weaker
than the outfide quarters, which lie on the external fides of
the coffin. A horfe is faid to have a falfe quarter, when
the hoof has a kind of cleft occafioned by the caftmg the
quarter and getting a new one, for then the horn becomes
uneven, and alfo fofter than the reft of the hoof; and the
foot fliould be fhod with fome nicety. But if the cleft be

I

QUA

confiderable, and take up a fourth of the hoof, the horle u
worth little afterwards for any purpofe.

Quartkr-6'(^, among horfes, is when for any difeafe i;.
tue coffin-bone or joint, one of the quarters of the hoof ii
caft off, and when thus cad, the reproduftion of a new
hoof or part takes place. It is a common occurrence among
fome horfes.

QuAHTr.R-£W, among domellic animals of the neat cattle
kinds, is an affeftion which fometimes takes place in the
glands of the udders, and fometimes in different parts of
the feet.

Quarters, in Gardening, the large divifions of garden
grounds, or thofe parts of them which are fituated be-
tween tiie different walks, at a diftance from the fmall, nar-
row portions on the fides ufually termed borders, and which
form or condituto the principal fpaces or compartments for
the cultivation and growth of the various forts of the more
ufeful culinary vegetables which are raifed in large quan-
tities ; fuch as peas, beans, cabbages, cauliflowers, broccoli,
early potatoes, and many others.

It is necefiary to have the quarters of garden grounds
formed and laid out in fuch a manner as to favour the
growth of early and late crops of the feveral different
forts, as much as pofliblc ; thofe for the former having
a fouthern, or fouth-wedern cxpofure, and thofe for the
latter, an eadern, or north-eaftcrn afpedl. By thefe means,
early crops are, in fome meafure, rendered more forward
and fine, and thofe of the more late kinds, in fome degree,
prevented from being injured or burnt up and deftroyed by
too full an expofure to the heat of the fun.

It is ufual during the winter feafon to have the large
quarters of garden grounds laid up in high ridges, in order
to be expofed to the influence and effefts of froft, by which
the earth may be rendered more light and mellow, and be
in a more fit date for fowing or planting in the fpring
months, on throwing them down and rendering them level
for the purpofe.

The large quarters of gardens fhould likewife be kept as
free and open as pofTible, not being inclofed and choaked
up, as is too frequently the cafe by planting fruit-trees and
fhrubs on their fides, either in the manner of efpaliers or
otherways, as by fuch means the growths of the plants are
much promoted, and they are prevented from being drawn
up in a weak manner. See G.'VRDEN.

All forms of garden grounds are found, except that of
the fquare, to derange the regularity of the quarters, and,
of courfe, to render them highly troublefome in digging
and cropping. Where they are ver)- large they may be
fubdivided into fuitable fizes, as one hundred feet in breadth,
S:c. ; but their length does not fignify, as it may be varied
in different ways, as by rows of trees, bufhes, or which, in,
many cafes, are preferable, by trodden walks and the modes
of cropping.

Quarters of a Garden, the feveral divifions into which
it is formed for the purpofe of cultivating the different
kinds of vegetables, fruits, &c. Thus, there are parts or
quarters dellined to the growth of kitchen vegetables, fruit,
and other trees, forcing, &c.

Quarters of a Field, or Farm, in Agriculture, are the
particular parts of them, which are under, fet apart, or
intended for any fort of crops, or peculiar modes of cul-
tivation and management. Farmers are frequently in the
praftice of dividing their lands or farm.s into different quar-
ters or parts, according to the different forts of hufbandry
which they are proper for, and the manner and fuccelfion
in which tiie various kinds of crops are to be grown upon
them, and the fame is often the cafe with large fields ; four,
five, fix, and more divifions or quarters, being common in fuch
, inflances.

QUA

iiiftances. This plan of proceeding is fuppofed to give cafe,
facility, and difpatcli, to the work which is afterwards car-
ried on, as well as to have fevcral other advantages and con-
veniences. See Farm.

QvARTmi-Bi//, in Sea Language, a roll or lift, containing
the different ftations, to whicli all the officers and crew of the
fhip are quartered, in the time of battle, and the names of all
the perfons appointed to thofe ftations.

QvARTER-Bu/li-t, a bullet quartered into four or eight
parts.

QvAHTEK-C/iorJ, in Mining, feven yards and a quarter,
which the miner hath crofs-ways of his vein on either fide,
for liberty to lay his earth, ftones, and rubbilh on, and to
wafli and drefs up his ore.

Quarters, Clo/e, in a SMp. See CLOSE-Quarlers.
QuARTZK-Cloths, are long pieces of painted canvas ex-
tended on the outfide of the quarter-netting from the
upper part of the gallei-y to the gang-way. They are
generally decorated with martial inftruments, or allegorical
figures.

QuARTER-Day. See Quarter.

QuARTEH-Z)fr/{ ef a ftiip, is that aloft the fteerage, reach-
ing to the round-houfe ; or that deck in (hips of war which
extends from the main-maft to the ftern, next above the
upper-deck.

Quarter, Fat, in a Ship, denotes the fame with hroad.
Thus, if the truffing in, or tuck of a ftiip's quarter under
Water be deep, they fay, (he hath z^fat quarter.

Quarter-G«//«_)/, a fort of fmall balcony, with or with-
out balluftrades, on the quarter of a (liip ; which generally
communicates with the gallery on the ftern, by means of a
door pafling from one to the other.
QuARTER-Gaan/. See Guard.

QuARTER-Gannfr, is an inferior officer under the direc-
tion of the gunner of a (hip of war, whom he is to affift in
every branch of his duty ; as keeping the guns and their car-
riages in proper order, and duly furnilhed with whatever is
nece(rary ; filling the powder into cartridges ; fcaling the
guns, and keeping them always in a condition ready for fer-
vice. The number of quarter-gunners in any (hip is always
in proportion to the number of her artillery; one quarter-
gunner being allowed to every four cannon.

QuARTER-A^f«i;;_f, is a fort of net-work, extended along
the rails on the upper part of a (hip's quarter. In a (hip of
war thefe are always double, being fupported by iron cranes,
placed at proper diftances. The interval is fometimes filled
with cork or old fails, but chiefly with the hammocks of the
failors, fo as to form a parapet to prevent the execution of the
enemy's fmall arms in an engagement.

QuARTEK-P/Wfj', fubftantial pieces of timber, moltly of
fir, that form the outboandary of the ftern, and conneft
the q\iarter-gallery to the ftern and toffarel.
QuARTER-Pow;/ of the Compafs. See Point.
QuARTER-/?ai7j, in a Ship, are narrow-moulded planks,
generally of fir, reaching from the top of the ftern to the
gang-way. They are fupported by ftanchions, and ferve as
a fence to the quarter-deck, to prevent the men from tum-
bling into the fea by the rolling of the (hip, particularly in
fmall velTels.

QuARTER-/?o«n(/, in ArchiteSure, is a term ufed by the
workmen for any projefting moulding in general, whofe con-
tour is a perfeft quadrant, or quarter of a circle, or which
approaches near that figure.

The architefts ufually call it ovolo ; and Vitruvius, the
echinus.

QuARTER-5£|^onx, General, Court of. See Court of
General Quarter-Sejpom, and Sessions.

QuARTER-.S/a^ a long ftaff, or pole, borne by forefters,
Vol. XXIX.

QUA

park-keepers, &c. as a badge of their office ; and occafioiially
ufed as a weapon.

QvAHTEU-lVheeling, or Quarter of Converfion, in the Mi-
litary yirt, is the motion by which the front of a body of me;i
is turned round to where the flank was ; this making tlie
quarter of a circle.

If it be done to the right, the man in the right-hand angle
keeps his ground, and faces about, while the reft wheel ; if to
the left, the left-hand man keeps his place, &c.

QuARTF.R-lVind, at Sea, is a lateral, or fide-wi'iid ; or a
wiiul which does not blow in Hern, but a little alide of it.

Properly, the quarter-wind is that which comes in abaft the
main-mafi: (hrouds, even with the quarter of the fliip.

The quarter-wind is the beft of all winds, as bearing into
all the fails ; whereas a wind blowing full in ftern, is kept ofl
by the (ails of the mizen.

QUARTERA, in Commerce, a corn-meafure in Spain,
containing i2cortanes: the falma contains 4 quarteras, or
48 cortanes ; the carga, 2^ quarteras, or 30 cortanes :
78;!: quarteras correfpond to 100 Caftilian fanegas ; and
100 quarteras Catalan to 128 Caftilian fanegas; 39 quar-
teras Catalan contain 10 Englifh quarters. The carga of
wine and brandy is divided into 16 cortanes, 32 quarteras,
or 128 quartillos.

At Barcelona 39.08 quarteras are equal to 10 Englifti
quarters, and a fingle quartera contains 4401 cubic inches.
Kelly's Un. Cambift.

QUARTERED, Counter. See Counter-quar-
tered.

QUARTERIDGE, money paid quarterly, or by the
quarter.

QUARTERING of Soldiers, in Military Languagt,
feems to have anciently differed very little from that novr
in ufe, except that they were indifcriminately quartered upon
all houfeholders, as was praftifed in England fo late as in
the rebellion of the year 1745. Rapin fays, that William the
Conqueror quartered almoft all his troeps upon the monaf-
teries, and obliged the monks to furnilh them with ne-
ceffaries ; by which means he maintained his army without
any charge, and had fpies in all their religious houfes, wha
watched the aftions of the monks ; thefe houfes were
long after charged with finding carts and horfes for the
carrying the baggage of the army ; and there are ftill ex-
tant many of the original returns from different monaf-
teries, ftating the number of each they were able to fur-
ni(h for that purpofe. About the time of Henry VII.
we meet with a regulation that bears fome reference ta
quarters : this is a coat and conduft-money ; the firft was a
fpecies of cloathing, probably for recruits ; the money for
which was advajiced by the county in which they were
raifed ; — conduft-money was an allowance for fubfiftence, to
and from the army, according to the number of days which
the foldiers had to march ; a day's march being eft imated fome-
times at 1 2 and fometimes at 1 5 miles. Both the coat and con-
duft-money were occafionaUy advanced by the different coun-
ties in which the troops were quartered, under the promife
of being repaid by government. Towards the latter end
of the reign of king James II. and even after the acceffion
of king William III. foldiers ufed to oblige the inhabitants
of the towns in which they were quartered, not only to
furnifh them with diet and lodging, but alfo to advance
them their daily fubfiftence. After the revolution, by the
mutiny-aft, pafTed the 23d day of December, in the year
1689, other laws and regulations refpefting quarters we^e
enafted.

By the petition of right in the third of Charles I. it
is enafted and declared, that the people of the land
are not by the lavvs to be burthened with the fojouming

Gg .f

QUA

of foldiers againft their wills ; it is alfo enafted by the
a I Car. II. c. i. that no officer, military or civil, nor any
ether perlon whatfoever, (hall prefume to place, quarter, or
billet any foldier on any fubjeft or inhabitant of this realm,
of any degree, quality, or profefhon whatfoever, without
his confenl ; and every fuch fubjcft or inhabitant may re-
fufe to fojourn or quarter any foldier, notwithflandingany
command, order, warrant, or billeting whatever. The prcfcnt
mode of quartering our troops is fettled by the Mutiny A&,
renewed annually, with little or no alteration. Accord-
ingly by the mutmy aft, 49 Geo. III. c. 12. f. 41. the
conftables and other chief officers and magillrates of ci-
ties, towns, villages, and other places, and in their default
or abfence, any one juilice inhabiting in or near fuch place,
and no other, (hall and may, during the continuance of
this aft, quarter and billet officers and foldiers in inns, li-
very ftables, alehoufes, viftualling houfes, and the houfes of
fellers of wine by retail to be drank in their own houfes or
places thereunto belonging, (other than perfon's canteens
held under the authority of the commiffioners for the affairs
of barracks, and other than perfons who keep taverns only,
being free of the vintners' company in London,) and all
houfes of perfons felling brandy, ftrong waters, cyder, or
metheglin, by retail to be drank in houfes, (other than
the houfes of diftillers who keep places of diililling brandy
and ftrong waters, and of fhopkeepers whofe principal deal-
ings fhall be more in other goods than in brandy and ftrong
waters, and who do not permit tipling in their houfes,)
and no other, and in no private houfes whatfoever ; nor
fliall any more billets be ordered than there are effeftive
foldiers ; which billets when made out fhall be dehvered to
the commandmg officer prefent : and if any conftable, or
fuch like officer or magiftrate as aforefaid, (hall prefume
to billet any fuch officer or foldier in any private houfe
without the confent of the owner or occupier, fuch owner
or occupier (hall have his remedy at law againft fuch ma-
giftrate or officer, for damages ; and if any military officer
fhall take upon him to quarter foldiers otherwife than by
this aft, or (hall o(fer any menace or compulfion to any
mayor, or other civil officer before-mentioned, tending to
difcourage any of them from doing their duty, he (hall on
conviftion before any two juftices by the oath of two wit-
nefl'es be ipfofaSo calhiered and difabled to hold any mili-
tary employment ; provided the conviftion be affirmed at
the next quarter feffions, and a certilicate thereof be tranf-
mitted to the judge advocate, who (hall certify the fame to
the next court martial. And if any perfon (hall be aggrieved
by having more foldiers billeted than in proportion to his
neighbours, on complaint thereof to one juftice of the di-
vifion, &c. where quartered, or if the perfon fo billeting
them be a juftice, then on complaint to two juftices they
may relieve him.

i\!^ote. — The claufe above recited, relating to (hopkeepers,
might as well be now omitted out of the aft ; for that by
the 17 Geo. II. c. 17. no (hopkeepers, as fuch, are al-
lowed to retail any fpirituous liquors, but only thofe who
keep taverns, viftualling houfes, inns, cofFee-houfes, or ale-
houfes.

By f. 43. No juftice, having any military command,
fhall be concerned in quartering foldiers under his imme-
diate command ; but all things done by him therein (hall
be void.

By f. 50. of this aft, an officer taking money for ex-
tufing the quartering, (hall be ca(hiered.

By f. 51. If any high conftable or other officer or any
perfon whatfoever (hall negleft to quarter any officers or
foldiers, provided fufficient notice be given him before their
arrival, or if he receive or agree for any reward in order to

enre-monev.

QUA

cxcufe any perfon from receiving fuch officer or foldier, of
if any viftualler, &c. having any officer, l(c. billeted U|)on
him, refufe to receive him, er refufe to lurni(h him as herein 1
nrovided by this aft, and (liall be thereof convifted by one 1
juftice of the county, &c. where fuch o(rcnce was committed, *
on confeffion of the oath of one witnefs, he ftiall forfeit not
more than 5/. nor Icfs than 40J. to be levied by dillrefs ;
which fum (hall be applied tirll to fatisfy fuch foldier for
the expeiice thereby occafioned to him, and the remainder
to the ovcrfecrs of the poor of the pari(h where the offence
was committed.

By f. 56. If any officer, military or civil, (hall quarter
any of the wives, children, or fcrvants of officer or fol-
dier, in any houfe, againft the confent of the owner ; if
he be an officer, he (hall on proof made thereof to the
commander in chief of the army or judge advocate, be
ij>/o faSo ca(hiered ; and if a civil officer, he (hall forfeit
to the party grieved 20s. on proof thereof to the next juf-
tice by diftrefs.

^y ^* 53* Officers and foldiers, billeted as aforefaid,
(hall be received and furni(hed with diet and fmall beer, pay-
ing for the fame as hereafter mentioned, out of their fubllft-

By f. 54. If any perfon fhall choofe rather to furnifh
non-commiffioned officers or private men, with candles, vi-
negar, and fait, gratis, and allow them the ufe of fire and
the neceftary utenlils for dreffing and eating their meat, I
and (hall give notice thereof to the commanding officer,
and (hall fiirni(h the fame accordingly ; in fuch cafe they
(hall provide their own viftuals and fmall beer, and the
officer who receives their pay (hall pay the fums after
mentioned out of the fubfiftence-money for diet and fmall
beer to them, and not to the perfons on whom they are
quartered.

By f. 55. Every officer receiving the pay or fubfiftence-
money, either for a regiment, or particular troops and com-
panies, or otherwife, (hall immediately, upon each receipt of
each fum, give public notice thereof to all on whom officers
or foldiers are quartered ; and (hall alfo appoint fuch perfons
to repair to their quarters, at fuch times as they (hall appoint,
for the payment of the faid pay or fubfiftence-mosey to the
officers or foldiers, which ffiall be within four days at the
fartheft after the receipt of the fame, as aforefaid ; and fuch
perfons (hall then and there acquaint fuch officer with the
accounts or debts between them and the officers and foldiers
quartered ; which accounts the faid officer is to accept of,
and immediately pay the fame, before any part of the pay
or fubfiftence be dillributed : provided the faid accounts ex-
ceed not, for a commiffion officer of horfe being under the
degree of a captain, for fuch officer's diet and fmall beer,
per diem, 2s. ; nor for one comrmffion officer of dragoons,
being under the degree of a captain, for fuch officer's diet
and fmall beer, per diem, is. ; nor for one commiffion officer
of foot, under the degree of a captain, for fuch officer's diet
and fmall heer, per diem. Is.; nor for each horfe quartered
under this aft, for hay and Hrzw, per diem, 6d, ; nor for one
light horfeman's diet and fmall beer, per diem, 'jd. ; and hay
and ftraw for his horfe, per diem, 6d. ; nor for one dragoon's
diet and fmall beer, per diem, yd. ; and hay and ftraw for
his horfe, per diem, 6d. ; nor for one foot foldier's diet and
fmall beer, per diem, ^d. : and if fuch officer (hall not fo
give notice and (hall not immediately upon producing fuch
account ftated fatisfy the fame ; upon complaint on oath
by two witneffes, at the next quarter feffions for the county
or city where fuch quarters were, the paymafter of the
guards, garrifons, and marines, are authorized (upon cer-
tificate of the faid juftices before whom fuch oath wa»
made, of the fum due upon fuch accounts and the per-

6 foB»

QUA

QUA

fons to whom the fame is owing) to pay the faid fums out
of the arrears due to the faid officer, upon pain of fuch
paymaiter forfeiting his place, and being incapacitated from
holding it again. The adt tlien itates what courfe is to be
purfued if there be no arrears due, or no fubfiUcnce-money
remitted, and is diredlory of the courfe to be purfued by
the pavmafter.

By i. 49. The commanding officer may exchange any
men or liorfes quartered in any place with another man or
horfe quartered in the fame place, provided the number of
men and horfes do not exceed the number at that time bd-
leted on fuch houfe.

By f. 47. And where any horfe or dragoon (hall be
quartered upon any perfon who hnth no ftables, upon his
complaint to two juttices of the divifion, &c. and his making
fuch allowance as fuch jultices (hall think reafonable, they
may order the men and their horfes, or the horfes only, as the
cafe may be, to be removed and quartered upon fome other
perfon who hath ftables, and may order and fettle a proper
allowance to be made by the perfon having no ftables, in
lien of his quartering fuch horfe or dragoons, and order pay-
ment thereof to the perfon to whom the removal is made,
for or to be applied for the furnifhing of quarters for fuch
men and their horfes.

By 49 Geo. III. c. 37. It is enafted that every non-com-
miffioned officer and private foldier who ftiall be furniftied
with diet and fmall beer by the perfons on whom they
are quartered, fliall pay for the fame is. /^d. per day, in
like manner as by the firft adl is enafted as to the 7^/.
per day.

By f. 2. Where the innholder, &c. furnifties certain
articles in lieu of diet and fmall beer, as in the former aft
mentioned, he ftiall have one halfpenny /i<t day for each non-
commiffioned officer, &c.

Byf. 3. IS. 3</. per diy is to be paid for each horfe, in-
ilead of 6{/. per day.

By f. 4. The provifions in the former aft relating to
the dieting on a march or recruiting are repealed.

By f. 5. All non-commiffioned officei-s and foldiers
fhall receive their diet and fmall beer at the above rates while
on the march and on the day of arrival at the place of their
final deftination, and on the two fubfequent days, unlefs
either of the two be a market day for the place where
billeted, or within two miles thereof ; in which cafe the
innkeeper, &c. ftiall difcontinue on and from fuch market-
day the diet and fmall beer, and furnifti in lieu thereof the ar-
ticles in the faid former aft fpecified, and at the rate in this
aft prefcribed.

By f. 6. If any perfon liable to have foldiers quartered
on liim ftiall pay any fum to any non-commiffioned officer or
foldier on the march in heu of the diet and fmall beer, he
may be proceeded againft and fined as if he had refufed
to furnifti according to the former aft the things to be
furniftied to non-commiffioned officers and foldiers fo quar-
tered as aforefaid.

By f. 7. The provifions of f.5. are extended to halting on
a march.

By f. 8. But if the halt be for longer than one day,
and the day after the arrival be market-day as aforefaid,
there is to be no difcontinuance of diet and fmall beer.

By f. 9. Non-commiflioned officers and private men em-
ployed in recruiting, and the recruits by them raifed, ftiall,
while on the march, and for two days after the day of their
arrival at any recruiting ftation, be entitled to the fame bene-
fits as before provided for troops on the march ; but no re-
cruit enlifted after the two days fubfequent to the arrival of
the party at their recruiting ftation, ffiall be entitled to be
fupplied with diet and fmall beer at the rate hercin-before

prefcribed, except at the option of the party where quartered.
Provided that in cale any recruiting party, with the recruit,
by tlvm raifed, fhall remove from their Itation, and after a
time (hall return to the fame place, they and the recruits
(hall not be agair entitled to the diet and fmall beer for two
days, unlefs the time of abfence exceeded 20 days. Tliii
aft to continue to 25th March 18 10.

Byf. 52. Anyjuftice within his county, ccc. may com-
mand any conftable or other officer who ftiall billet any fol-
diers, to give an account in writing to him of the number of
officers and foldiers billeted by them, and the names of the
perlons on whom quartered, and an account of the place
where they dwell, and of their (igns, if any. See Mak-
TiAL La-w, and Soldiers.

But by the jo G. III. c. 96. f. I. it is enafted, that after
the 25th of June i8io, every non-commiffioned officer and
private foldier who ffiall be furniffied with diet and fmall
beer within the parts of the united kingdom mentioned in
the 50 G. III. c. 28. by the innholders or other perfons oa
whom fuch non-commiffioned officers or private lbldier»
ffiall be quartered and billetted by virtue of the faid aft,
fliall pay and allow for the fame, the fum of eight -pence
per diem inftead of one ffiilliug and four-pence per diem, as in
the faid aft fpecilied ; and that for fuch allowance of eight-
pence, the innkeeper or other perfon ffiall furniffi one meal ;
videlicet, a hot dinner if required in each day to each non-
commiflioned officer, trumpeter, drummer, and private
foldier quartered and billetted on him, to confift of fuch
quantities of diet and fmall beer as fliall be fpecified and fixed
in and by any regulations made or to be made from time to
time by his majefty in that behalf, but not to exceed one
pound and a quarter of meat previous to being drefled, one
pound of bread, one pound of potatoes or other vegetables
previous to being cooked, and two pints of fmall beer, and
vinegar, fait, and pepper.

And by f. 2. of the fame aft, the mutiny aft, and the faid
50 G. III. c. 28. ffiall be applied for the enforcing fuch re-
gulations as to the diet of foldiers and the payment of and
accounting for the allowances for the fame.

Quartering of Traitors, in Law. See Tjieason.

Quartering, in the Sea Language. When a ffiip under
fail goes at large, neither by a wind nor before a wind, but,
as it were, betwixt both, ffie is faid to go quartering.

The term is alfo uled when a ffiip fails with quarter-winds.

Quartering the Men, the difpofing of the ffiip's com-
pany at the time of an engagement in fuch a manner, that
each may readily know where his ftation is, and what he is
to do : as, fome to the mafter, for the management of the
fails ; fome to affift the gunners to traverfe the ordnance ;
fome for plying the enemy with fmall ffiot ; fome to fill pow.
der in the powder-room ; others to carry it from thence to
the gunners in cartridges, &c.

The number of men appointed to manage the artillery is
always in proportion to the nature of the guns, and the num.
ber and condition of the ffiip's crew. They are in general
as follow, when the ffiip is well manned, fo as to fight both
fides at once occafionally :

To a 42-

pounder

-

15 men

32.

-

13

24

-

II

18

•

9

12

r

7

9

■^

6

6

9

■ J

4

•

4

y

-

3

This

Number of Men.

150
120
100

80

70

60

50
40

30

QUA

This number, to which is often added a boy to bring pow-
der to every gun, may be occafionally reduced, and the guns
aeverthelefs well managed. .,,,,, , ,

The number of men appomted to the fmall arms, on board
his majeily's Ihips and floops of war by order of the admi-
ralty, are,

Rate of the Ship.

ift
2d

3d of 80 guns

— of 70 g^ms
4th of 60 guns

— of 50 guns
5th
6th
Hoops of war

The lieutenants are ufually ftationed to command the dif-
ferent batteries, and dired their efforts againft the enemy.
The mafter fuperintends the movements of the fhip, and
•whatever relates to the fails. The boatfwain and a fufficient
number of men are ftationed to repair the damaged rigging :
and the gunner and carpenter whatever may be found ne-
ceffary, according to their refpedive offices. The marines
are generally quartered on the poop and forecaflle, or gang-
way, under the direftion of their officers : although, on
fome occafions, they affift at the great guns, particularly m
diftant cannonading. Falconer. See Eng.igement.

Quartering, in Gunnery, is when a piece of ordnance is
fo traverfed, that it will flioot on the fame line, or on the
fame point of the compafs, as the (hip's quarter bears.

Quartering, in Heraldry, the aft of dividing a coat
into four or more quarters, or quarterings, by parting,
couping, &c. i. e. by perpendicular and horizontal lines,
&c. See Quarter and Quarterly.

The king of Great Britain quarters with Great Britain,
France, Ireland, Brunfwick, &c.

Colombiere reckons twelve forts of quartering ; but other
authors give us more — wz. party per pale, dividing the
efcutcheons from top to bottom. See Pale. — Party per
crofs, dividing it from fide to lide. See Cros.s. — Party of
fix pieces, when the efcutcheon is divided into fix parts, or
quarters. — Party of ten ; of twelve ; of fixteen ; of twenty ;
and of thirty-two ; when there are fo many partitions re-
fpeiftively.

Others give the divifions in another manner : as — Party
per crofs — per pale — per chief — per pale inclave— per bend

jiexter per bend finifter — per chevron — barry bendy of

eighty pieces — paleways of fix pieces — barry of fix pieces

barry of eight pieces — bendy of fix— cheeky — fufilly, or

lozengy — pale bendy, or bendy lozengy — barry bendy lo-
aengy, or bend lozengy — gyronny — barry lozengy counter-
changed — waved of fix pieces — barry nebule of fix pieces —
party per fallier — and party per pale in point. See farther
under their refpedive articles.

Counter-quartering a coat, is when the quarters are quartered
over again, or fubdividcd each into four. See Counter-

iiUARTERED.

There are counter- quartered coats which have twenty or
twenty-five quarters.

Quartering is alfo applied to the partitions or compart-
nients themfelves, that is, the feveral coats borne on an
efcutcheon, or the feveral divifions made in it, when the arms
of feveral families are to be placed on the fame fhield, on ac-
count of intermarriages, or the like.

Colombiere obferves, that thirty-two is the greateft number

QUA

ufed in France ; but that the Englifh and Germans fome
times extend to forty : as a teilimoiiy ot the truth of which'
he fays he faw the efcutcheon of the earl of Leiccller, am-
balfador txtraordmary in France in the year 1639, divided
into the number of forty : and fome, he affirms, do go on to
fixty-four feveral coats.

But a multitude of quarters make a confufion ; and, ac-
cordingly, all the writers of armoury exclaim againft it as
an abufe. The firil inftance of quartering, ot which we have
any account, is faid to be in the arms ot Renatus, king of
Sicily, &c. in the year 1435, who quartered the arms or
Sicily, Arragon, Jerufalem, &c.

William Wickly obferves, that fiich quarterings are much
more proper for a pedigree, to be looked up in a cheft, and
occafionally produced as au evidence tor the clearing or afcer-
taining of alliances of families, and titles to lands, &c. than
to be borne as a cognizance.

In blazoning, when the quartering is performed per crofs,
the two quarters a-top are numbered the firfl and iecond ;
and tliofe at the bottom the third and fourth ; beginnmg to
tell on the right fide. When the quartering is by a fattier,
&c.the chief and point are the firll and fecond quarters, the
right fide the third, the left the iourth.

Quartering is fometimes alfo ufed for the diftinguifhing
of younger brothers from elder. See DiFi erenck.

QUARTERIZATION, Quartering, part of the
puniihment of a traitor, by dividing his body into four
quarters.

" Walfingham, in Ric. II. Auditum et confefl'um tur-
pitTima fcelera traftationi, fufpendio, decollationi, exentera-
tioni, et quarterizationi adjudicavit."

QUARTERLY, m Heraldry, a perfon is faid to bear
quarterly, when he bears arms quartered.

The king of Great Britain bears quarterly of four ; in
the firii quarter gules, &c. Great Britain ; in the fecond,
azure, &c. Ireland, &c.

QUARTER-MASTER, an officer in the army, whofe
bufinefs it ia to look after the quarters of the foldiers ; their
clothing, bread, ammunition, firing, &c. Every regiment
of foot and artillery has a quarter-maller, and every troop
of horfe one, who are only warrant-officers, except in the
blues. Whereof there are feveral kinds ; -viz. the

Quarter-master General, whole bufinefs is to provide
good quarters for the whole army.

Quarter-m.^ster of Foot, he who is to provide quarters
for a regiment of foot.

Quarter-master of Horfe, he who is to provide quar-
ters for a troop of horfe.

Quarter-master, in a Ship, is an inferior officer, ap-
pointed by the mafter of a ftiip of war to aiiift the mates in
their feveral duties ; as ftowing the ballaft and provifions in
the hold, coifing the cables on their platforms, overlooking
the fteerage of the (hip, and keeping the time by the watch-
glaffes.

QUARTERN, Quarteron, a diminutive of quart,
fignifying a quarter of a pint, as a quart does a quarter of a
gallon.

QUARTIER, in Commerce, a liquid meafure in Ger-
many, which, according to a regulation of 17 13, made in
Hanover, muft hold alb. of fpring water, and the contents of
which are 49 French, or J94- Enghfh cubic inches. A fuder
of wine contains 4 exhofts, 6 ahnis, or 15 eimers ; an
ahm, 4 ankers, 40 ftubgens, 80 kanncs, 160 quartiers, or
320 nolTels. Hence 36 (lubgens, or 144 quartiers, = 37
Englifti wine gallons. A fafs ot beer at Lubec contains
42 ftubgens, or 168 quartiers. Kelly's Un. Cambift.

QUARTILE, an afpetl of the planets when they are
three figns, or 90 degrees diftant from each other.

The

QUA

The quartile afpeft is marked thus D . See Aspect.
QUARTILLO, in Cominerce, a liquid moafiire in
Spain. At Barcelona, Ii8 quartillosarc equal to 32 quar-
teras. (See Quaktera.) A moyo of wine contains i 6 ar-
robas ; an arroba 8 a7.\inibrcs, or 2 quartillos. The ar-
roba of wine contains 341b. of river water (Caitilian weight),
and meafures 1237^ Spanifh, or 981 Englidi cubic inches ;
hence four fuch arrobas are cqu,-.l to 17 Englifh wine gallons.
The arroba of oil meafures 9664 Spanilh, or 771 Englifti
cubic inches ; io that three fuch arrobas correipond to 10
Englifh gallons : this arroba is divided into 4 quartillos, or
100 quarterones, or panillas. A Spanifh botta contains 30
arrobas of wine, or 38^ of oil ; a pipe is 27 arrobas of
wine, or 34^ of oil; thus thebottais=: 127^ Englifh gal-
lons, andthepipe = 1144. Kelly
Measures.

QUARTO, or 4^5. a book whereof four leaves, or eight
pages, make a fheet.

Quarto, in Commerce, a money of account in Spain.
See Reat,.

Quarto Dell Torn, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Capitanata ; 12 miles W. of Salpe.

Quarto die pojl, in Lain, denotes the fourth day inclu-
five beyond the return of a writ, in which thofe that are
fummoned are allowed to make their appearance. See
EssoiGN i/av of term.

QUARTO-DECIMANS, Quarto-decimani, in Ec-
clefiaflical Hijhry, an ancient feft in the church, who main-
tained, that Eailer was always to be celebrated, conformably
to the cuiloni of the Jews, on the fourteenth day of the
moon in tlie month of March, whenfoever that day fell out.
And hence their name Quarto-decimani, q. d. Four-
teenthers.

The Afiatics were mightily attached to this opinion, pre

QUA

whatever forms or colours they may prefent, whether maffive
or cryllallized.

QiKirtz has moft commonly a conchoidal frafture, but
fometimes the fradlurc is undulated, foliated, or fphntery.
The luflre is vitreous. Quartz ha-! various degrees of
tranfparency ; from a perfectly pellucid colourlefs flate, it
pafleb by different gradations to opacity : but all tfie varieties,
except fmople, admit light through the very minute frag-
... 'pijg colours are various, owing to the impregnation

or intermixture with foreign fubflances. The fpecific gra-
vity of quartz is from z.58 to 2.65. It yields a phofpho-
refccnt light when rubbed, and is not foluble in any of the
acids except the fluoric. According to Vauquelin, pow-
dered quartz gives a green colour to tinfture of violets.
See Tab. XXXII. of Cryflallized quartz prefents the phenomenon of double re-
fraftion, when an object is feen through one fide of the py-
ramid that terminates the cryftals, and the oppofite fide of
the hexagonal prifm on which it is placed, in the mofl com-
mon variety of the fecondary forms of thefe cryflals.

The fubflances found imbedded in quartz are, ores of ti-
tanium, antimony, gold, filvcr, copper, and lead, arfenic,
and micaceous iron ore, with chlorite, hornblende, felfpar,
garnet, and fluat of lime. It is alfo penetrated by fibres of
afbeflus, and by minute lamin:E of mica and epidote : the
latter fubflance is fometimes fo intimately diffufed through
quartz as to give it an homogeneous green colour. This va-
riety of quartz is called prafe.

Quartz cryitallizes diltinftly : fomc of the cryftals are of
confiderable flze.

In the imperial cabinet of Vienna, tliere is faid to be a
cryftal of quartz feven feet in length. The forms of cryf-
talline quartz are various ; they have been reduced by modern
mineralogifls to fix or feven principal varieties. The moil
common is a fix-fided prifm, terminated by a fix-fided py.
tending that it was built on the authority of St. John, who ramid, or two fix-fided pyramids joined at their bafes. The
was their apoftle ; and pope Vittor could never bring them fides of thefe pyramids are ifofceles triangles, having the
to obedience in this article, though he was upon the point of vertical angle 40'', and each of the angles at the bafe 70°

excommunicating them : but it is more probable he contented
himfelf with menaces. See Easter.

QUARTUM^ar conjlr'mgens, in Anatomy, a name given
by Spigelius and fome others to the mufcle called by Albi-
nus and Riolanus orbicularis oris ; and by Cowper and fome
others, conflriclor labiorum.

QUARTUS hyo'idis mufculus, a name given by Vefahus,
Fabricius, and many other anatomifls, to a mufcle now ge-
nerally called the coracohyoidsus.

Tlie fides of the upper and lower pyramids are inclined to
each other at an angle of 104°. According to Haiiy, the
primitive form of the cryftal is a rhomboid, varying little from
the cube, the angles being 94° and 86''. The primitive
rhomboid is rarely found in nature ; it occurs fometimes in
red hematite, coated with that mineral, and in chalcedony.

Bubbles containing air, water, and bitumen, are fome-
times feen in quartz cryftals, and have given rife to much
fpeculation refpefting their formation. Siliceous earth, of

QuARTUS oculum moveiis, a name given by Vefalius to one which thefe cryftals are compofed, is infoluble in water, by
of the mufcles of the eye, called by fome reftus inferior, and artificial means ; but in the great laboratory of nature, its

by others humilis.

It is the deprefTor oculi of Albinus, being one of the
quatuor refti oculi of that author.

QUARTZ, in Mineralogy. No fubftance in the mineral
kingdom is more abundantly diftributed than quartz.
Grains of quartz generally compofe a confiderable part of
the fands on the fea-lhore, and of the fand-lloncs of the le-
condnry flrata. Rolled pieces of quartz, or pebbles and
boulders, are widely fcatterred over alluvial diftrifts. Quartz
is dilfeminated through granite, gneifs, mica-flate, and other
compound rocks which conftitute the loftiefl mountains on

folution is efFedled probably by the effefl of heat and com-
preffion, as filex exifts in the boiling fountains of Iceland
and the Azores, and in the hot fprings of Bath, Italy, and
various parts of the world. It has Ijeen fuppofed that the
filiceous earth was held in folution by foda ; but Klaproth,
wlio nnalyfed the waters from the Reikum, in Iceland, thinks
the quantity of alkali too fmall to have diffolved the filex.
One hundred cubic inches contained nine grains of filex, three
of carbonate of foda, eight of common fait, and five of
fulphate of foda. If rock cryftals were formed in an aqueous
folution greatly heated and comprefled, it would not be

the globe ; it alfo forms veins of vaft extent interfering thefe difficult to conceive how volatile matter might be involved in

mountains, and fometimes entire fimple rocks are compofed
of this mineral. Quartz has a confiderable degree of hard-
nefs, always ftriking fire with fteel when the fragments have
fnfficient folidity to refill the fhock. Powdered quartz feels
harlh, and, when rubbed on polifhed fteel, or on glaf?,
fcratchcs the furface. Quartz is infufible by the common
blowpipe. Thefe two qualities, hardnefs and infufibility,
arc the elfential cliarafters of all the varieties of quartz,

12

the fubftance of the cryftal during its formation ; but our
knowledge of the fubterranean operations of nature is at
prefent too limited to enable us to afcertain, or even to form
any rational conjefture in what manner fome of her more
myfterious proccii'es are efifefted. Thofe who have frequent
opportunities of exploring mines, will not be difpofed to
deny that filiceous ftalaftites, and cryftals, are now forming
at the coutmon temperature of the earth, as they are ob-

ferved

QUARTZ.

ffrvtd on the roofs and fides of artificial excavalions, and
pad'ages which have been undiRurbcd for feme years. Ac-
cordino-toGhaptal, aquartzofeorafihceouspaiteisformedby
tranfudation on ferruginous rocks at Chamillat, near Planches
les Mines, in tranche Compte, and where this is wafhed and
depofited by water, rock cryftals are formed. Sihceous
ftalaftites have not unfrequently been feen coating the wood
which has been left in mines.

Pfcudomorphous cryltals of quartz, or falfe cryilals of
this mineral, are frequently found in mines ; they are tar-
nifiied and opaque, and their edges are blunted. They
alTume the forms of cubic cryftals of fluor, and the pyra-
midal and other forms of calcareous and other cryftals.
Thefe falfe cryltals are evidently moulded in the cavities
which the former have once occupied. Quartz alio occurs
fiUing up the cavities of (hells in a fimilar manner, and the
pores of wood and other organic fubftances.

Celluhr quartz with polyhedral cavities, appears to have
been formed round cryftals of other minerals which are fub-
fequently decompofcd. The internal cryftals are fre-
quently thofe of the metallic fulphurets. Brongniart fays
this conclufion is founded on direft obfervation, as the re-
mains found in thefe cavities are fulphur, native gold, and
oxyd of iron, all fubftances which originally formed part of
the decompofed fulphurets. Such is the cellular quartz at
Schemnitz in Hungary, and Joachimfthal in Bohemia. The
cellular quartz at Berezof, in Siberia, is fo porous that it is
lighter than pumice.

Roch cryfial, or Mountain cryjlal, is the pureft variety of
quartz, differing from common quartz by its tranfparency,
and the more reguUar form of its cryftals ; the frafture is
alfo more perfectly conchoidal. According to fome analyfes,
rock cryllal contains 98 parts of filex, with 2 parts of
water. Bergman found in one fpecimcn only

Silex - 93
Alumina 6
Lime - I

Amethyjl is a purple variety of rock cryftal. See Ame..

THYST.

Catrngorumjlonis are rock cryftals, from the mountains
of Cairngorum, in Scotland. They are valued by jewellers
on account of their purity and colour. Clove-brown quartz
cryftals are known by the name of the fmoke topaz. Ac-
cording to Karften, the fpecific gravity of this variety is
2.88. Coloured rock cryftals lofe their colour, when care-
fully cxpofed to a gentle heat, but retain their tranfparency.
The yellow and orange-yellow varieties are the moll
efteemed.

Milk quartz, called by fome mineralogifts rofe quartz,
and by others the Bohemian ruby, as it is frequently of a
beautiful rofe-red colour, which it derives from manganefe.
By expofure to the light the intenfity of its colour is dimi-
niftied. It is ufed in jewellery, and takes a good poHfli ; it
is fometimes fold for the ruby, but is lefs hard, nor has it
the tranfparency and brilliancy of that gem. Rofe quartz
is found at Rabenftein, in Bavaria, in confiderable maftes,
and in a vein of manganefe which traverfes a coarfe-grained
granite. It occurs alfo in Sweden, Greenland, Saxony, in
the ifland of Coll, one of the Hebrides, and in Ireland.
Some varieties are of a milk-white colour, others pearl-grey.

Iridefcent quartz, Quar% hyalin irife, prefents on its fur-
face, or in its interior, the various colours of the rainbow :
it fometimes derives this property from a thin pellicle of me-
tallic oxyd which covers the furface, and fometimes from
minute filTures in the fubftance of the cryftal. Thefe colours
may be given to quartz by heating it and expofing it fud-
denly to a cold temperature.

ytvanturini quartz (fee AvAKTuniNE) owes its brilliancy
to miimte particles of mica difl'cminalcd through it, and
fometimes to minute fraftures. Avanlurines may be formed
ai tificially, in fome varieties of quartz, by heat.

Blue quartz, Qtiarz hyalin faphaln, has been found in
Spain, Bohemia, and Bavaria.

Black quartz is found, mixed with carbonate of lime, iit
the department of Here in France, in Bohemia, and at
Cappe Nuova, on the road to Sienna. Brongiriart Mine-
ralogie.

Cat's-eye, Quarz hyalin chatoyant, fo called becaufe it re-
fle£ls a pearly variety of colours, according as the light falls
upon it in difterent direftions : this property is owing to the
fibrous texture of this mineral, which may be obferved in
the bell charatlcrized fpecimens. It contains 95 parts of
filex, and according to Brongniart is a variety of quartz, and
ought not to be clafled with felfpar. The geological fitu-
ation of this Itone is not known. The cut and polifhed
fpecimens feen in cabinets come from Malabar and Ceylon.
It is faid, alfo, to occur in Egypt and Arabia.

Green quartz, Prafe, Quarz hyalin ttcrd obfcur. The colour
is a leek green ; it is feldom cryftallized ; the form of the
cryftals are thofe of common quartz. Prafe has been faid
to owe its colour to an intimate intermixture with aClyno-
lite, but Klaproth is of opinion that this is not well afcer-
tained.

Sinople is clatFed, by fome mineralogifts, with quartz. It
is of a deep blood-red colour, and perfectly opaque, or
barely tranfmits light on the edges. It refembles red jafper,
but has a vitreous luftre, and conchoidal frafture, and is
fometimes cryftallized.

Ferruginous quartz confifts of fmall cryftals, or of granu-
lar quartz, intimately mixed with oxyd of iron, and has a
brown ochre-yellow, or red colour. From the iron which
it contains it becomes magnetic when heated. It is harder
than pure quartz.

Certain properties, befide colour, have given names to
fome varieties of quartz.

Fat quartz is fo called becaufe it has a greafy appearance,
as if the furface had been rubbed with oil.

Fetid quartz differs from common quartz, by emitting an
odour, when rubbed, hke that of fulphuretted Hydrogen
gas. When this foflil is heated below a red heat, it lofes
its fetid odour on cooling, and when plunged into water be-
comes tranfparent. When fetid it is nearly opaque. It is
found in the vicinity of Nantes and Chantiloub, in the de-
partment of Haute Vienne, forming a conftituent part of
the granitic mountains of that diftrift. It occurs alfo in the
ifland of Elba.

Elajlic quartz is a filiceous fand-ftone, found in the Bra-
zils, compofed of oblong lamina of quartz, arranged in
one direftion, and fo interlocked together as to form a kind
of hinge with each other, from whence it poileffes a certain
degree of pliability, hke that of a ftiff piece of leather. In
appearance, elaftic quartz refembles fome of the flaty fand-
ftones in the northern counties of England. According to
Klaproth its conftituent parts are

Silex - • 96.50

Alumine - - 2.50

Oxyd of iron and lofs i

The ufe of quartz in the arts is principally confined to
the manufaftures of glafs, enamels, porcelain, and earthen-
ware. The finer cryftaUizations are employed by the jewel,
lers, and before the difcovery of glafs, ornaments and veflels
of great value were made by the ancients from rock cryftal.
Stones in which quartz forms the principal ingredient, are
beft fitted for purpofes of durable architefture, and in the

economy

QUA

economy of nature this mineral gives ftability to the folid
fabric of the globe, enabling thofe rocks and mountains in
which it abounds to refill the decompofnig effefts of air and
moifture, and to brave for ages the impetuous fury of the
ocean. For the properties of filex, of which quartz is
compofed, fee SiLnx.

Quartz Roct, in Geology. Entire rocks and even moun-
tains are compofed of quartz in various parts of the world,
in the vicinity of granitic dillrifts. Tiic (juartz is granular,
and fometimes intermixed with a fmall portion of mica.
Werner clafles quartz rock as a dillinS order of primary
rocks, but it would be perhaps more confonant with a na-
tural arrangement, to confider this rock as a conllituent of
granite on a large fcale, certain caufes having feparated the
quartz, mica, and felfpar into diftinft maffes. Entire moun-
tains of thefe three fnbftances are faid to occur in the Ura-
lian chain, prefenting the materials of granite on a large
fcale. Quartz rocks arc met with in Scotland. In the
highlands the fummits of fome of the mountains arc formed
of white quartz, and appear as if covered with fnow. The
two beautiful conical mountains, called the Sugar-loafs, in the
vicinity of Dublin, are compofed of granular quartz, of a
fimilar kind to what forms veins in the gneifs and mica ftate
of the furrounding mountains nearer Dublin.

QUARTZOSE, in Mineralogy, a term applied to
thole rocks or minerals which are principally compofed of
quartz.

QUASHING, in Laiv, the overthrowing and annulling
a thing. Thus, pleas in abatement (which fee), when the
fuit is by original, conclude to the writ or declaration ; by
praying "judgment of the writ, or declaration, and that
the fame may be quafhed," cajfetur, made void or abated;
but if the aftion be by bill, the plea rauil pray "judgment
of the bill," and not of the declaration ; the bill being licre
the original, and the dfclaration only a copy of the bill.
See Plea, Dilatory Pleas, and Certiorari.

QUASI-CONTRACT, in the Civil Law, an aft which
has not the ftrift form of a contraft, but yet has the force
©f it.

In a contraft there mull be the mutual confent of both
parties ; whereas, in a quafi-contraft, one party may be
bound or obhgated to the other, without having given his
confent to the aft by which he is obliged.

For an example : I have done your bufmefs in your ab-
fence, without your procuration ; and it has fucceeded to
your advantage ; I have then an aftion againit you for the
recovery of what I have dilburfed ; and you an aftion againft
me, to make me give an account of my adminiftration ;
which amounts to a quafi-contraft. See Contract.

QUASI-CRIME, or Quasi-delict, the aftion of a
perfon who does damage, or evil, involuntarily.

The reparation of quafi-crimes confifts in making good
the damages, with intereft.

QUASI-MODO Sunday, Loiu Eapr-Sunday, or the
next funday after Eafter ; thus called from the initial words
of the introit of the mafs for the day, Quafi modo geniti in-
fantes.

In the ancient deeds thefe words are fignified by q. m. g.

QUASS, the name of a liquor in Ruflia, which ferves.the
natives not only for drink, but alfo for fauce to a number of
difhes ; and is the bafis of the favourite cold foup of the
North, which is made by adding cold meat cut in pieces,
with cucumbers faked after a peculiar manner, or with
onions, or garlick, to a bowl of this fubacid liquor. The
common Ruflian quafs is prepared by putting into a large
pot full of cold water as much rye-flower as will make a
thin dough ; this is then placed in an oven moderately heated,
for three hours, and afterwards taken out and thrown into

QUA

a tub of cold water ; the mixture is worked with a machine
like a chocolate mill till it froths. To this liquor arc added
two bafons of the grounds of old quafs, leaven, or a piece
of their four bread ; and the tub is covered with a cloth, and
laid by till the liquor has acquired a fourilh taile, which
marks its being ready for ufe.

There is a better fort of cjuafs, which is prepared as
follows. Take a chetverik (about 35 pounds Ruli. or 3c
pounds Engl.) of barley-malt, two or three handfuls of
rye-malt, and a like quantity of unbolted rye-meal ; mix
them all together in earthen pots, then pour boiling water
upon it, and itir the whole till it acquires the coniiltcnce
of a thin pap. The pots mufl be full to within an iiicli of
the brim. Upon this mixture mull now be poured about an
inch in height of the huf]<s of oats, from whicii groats are
made. Set tlie pots in a heated oven, in which fome glow-
ing coals are ftill remaining, which mutl be heaped about the
pots. This done, clofe the oven, and leave the pots in it
four-and-twenty hours. This time being clapfed, take them
out ; again pour boiling water in till they are brimfull, and
iUr all well together. Now pour it all into a wooden
veffel or tub, provided with a fpiggot and foflet, firll cover- '
ing the bottom with a layer ot ilraw, as is ufually done
in brewing beer ; then add warm water, more or lefs, ac-
cording to the quantity of quafs you want ; let it (land an
hour, and afterwards draw it off into velfels. In every
vedel a flice of coarfe rye bread muil be put, in order to
make it ferment. Set the veffels in a cellar, and after four-
and-twenty hours the quafs is fit for drinking.

In making quafs, barley-malt alone may be ufed. The
rye-malt is added only from neceffity, when the former, by
itfelf, would be too poor, and not be fufficiently fweet.
But the rye-meal is abfolutely neceflary.

From the quantity of malt and meal above ftated, is ob-
tained about fix or feven kilderkins, or two ankers of quafs.
The Ruflians in the fummer feafon put the veflels of quafs
immediately in the cellar, but in the winter they let them iland
a whole night in a warm room, for the quafs to ferment.

QUASSE, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Benin.
N. lat. 6° 20'. E. long. 3° 30'.

QUASSIA, in Botany, received that name from Lin-
nasus. He called it fo in honour of Qualli, a negro at
Surinam, who difcovered the virtues of the wood of this
tree, in curing the malignant fevers of that country, to
which fo many Europeans fell a facrifice, and who commu-
nicated this valuable difcovery to his patron governor Dahl-
berg. Hence it became known in Europe ; particularly by
means of a diflertation printed in the Amoenitates Acade-
mics, firft publifhed in 1763. — Linn. Gen. 212. Schreb.
288. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 567. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 42. Juff. 282. Lamarck Illuftr.
t. 343. Gxrtn. t. 70. — Clafs and order, Decandria Mono-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Magnoliis affiiie, JulF.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, very (hort, of five ovate,
permanent leaves. Cor. Petals five, fcffile, equal, lanceo-
late, elongated, oblique, converging. NcCtary of five
ovate villous fcales, attached to the infide of the filaments at
the bafe. Stam. Filaments ten, thread-ihaped, equal, the
length of the corolla ; anthers oblong, incumbent. Pifl.
Receptacle flefhy, elevated, orbicular, broader than the
germen. Germen ovate, compofed of five fcparate ones ;
ityle thread-fhaped, with five furrows, the length of the
llamens ; ftigma with five angles. Peric. Drupas five,
diftant, horizontal, ovate, obtufe, fplitting into two parts,
all (landing on a flefhy pentagonal receptacle. Seeds foli-
tary, globofe or oval.

Obf. Some flowers have abortive germens, others im-
perfeft anthers. ,

EfT. Ch.

QUASSIA.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals five. Neftary of
five fcalcs. Drupas five, diftant, two-valvcd, fingle-feeded,
placed on a flefliy receptacle.

1. Q. amara. Bitter Quaffia. Linn. Sp. PI. 553.
Siippl. 235. Amoen. Acad. v. 6. 416. t. at page 429.
WiUd. II. I. Ait. n. I. Curt. Mag. t. 497. Woodv.

Med. Bot. t. 77 Flowers all perfeft. Leaves pinnate ;

leaflets oppofite, feffile ; common llalk jointed, wmged.
Flowers racemofe. — Native of Surinam. Introduced in
1790, by Mr. Alexander Anderfon, to the (loves at Kew,
where it flowers in June and July. Afirub rather than a
tree, whofe wood is intenfely bitter. Leaves altern.itc ; of
two pair of leaflets, \vith an odd one, all elliptic-lanceolate,
pointed, entire, veiny, very fmooth, two or three inches in
length, on a linear winged ilalk, abrupt and jointed at
the infertion of each pair. C/uJers \ong, drooping one
way. Flowers numerous, above an inch long, not much
expanded, of a rich fcarlet, as well as their llalks. The
younger Linnaeus errs in faying, in the Supplement, tliat
the branch figured in Am. Acad, does not belong to tlie
flowers.

This is the true original Quaffia, whofe wood is more
powerful than that of the other fpecies ; but being very
rare, and of fmall bulk, its place is faid to be ufually fup-
plied by Q. excel/a hereafter defcribed.

2. Q. Simaruba. Wing-leaved Quaffia. Linn. Suppl.
234. Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Woodv. Med. Bot.
t. 76. (Simarouba amara ; Aubl. Guian. v. 2. 859. t. 33 I,
332.) — Flowers monoecious. Leaves pinnate ; leaflets
alternate, not quite feffile ; common ftalk naked. Clufters
panicled. — Native of varioiA parts of the Weft Indies, in a
fandy foil, flowering in November and December. It was
fentto Kew in 1787, by Mr. Alexander Anderfon, but has
not bloflbmed there. This is a tall and ftout tree, whofe
wood is hard, white, without any peculiar flavour. Leaves
alternate, with fix, feven, or eight alternate obovate, rather
narrow, entire, ftalked leaflets, two inches long, whitiflt be-
neath ; their common ftalk fimple, roundifh. Flowers yel-
lowilh-white, much fmaller than the preceding, either mo-
noecious, or, as fome fay, dioecious, in branched or panicled
clufters. The bark of the root is bitter, and much cele-
brated as a cure for the dyfentery. Dr. Wright has given
a full hiftory of the plant, with a plate, in the Tranfaftions
of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. ii. It is known
in Jamaica by the name of Mountain Damfon, Bitter Dam-
fon, and Stave-wood. In that ifland, according to Dr.
Wright, the male flowers are never found on the fame tree
with the female.

3. Q. excel/a. Lofty Quaffia. Swartz in Stockh.
Tranf. for 1788. 302. t. 8. Ind. Occ. v. 2. 742. Willd.
n. 3. — Flowers polygamous. Stamens five. Leaves pin-
nate ; leaflets oppoiite, ftalked ; common ftalk naked

Native of rather mountainous woods, in Jamaica and the
Caribbean iflands. The Englifti commonly call it bitter
wood, or bitter afli. The tree is lofty, with a very ilraight
trunk ; the wood whitifti, moderately clofe-grained, very
bitter ; frequently fold by the druggifts for the true Quajfm
amara, and found ufefiil in intermittent fevers, debility of
the ftomach, worms, dropiy, and chlorofis. It is alfo ufed
for making cabinets, for preferving infefts, or other natural
curiofities ; this wood being fuppofed inacceffible to worms.
The leaves are larger than the laft, and compofed of from
four to fix pair'of oppofite, elliptical, pointed, firm, en-
tire, fmooth leaflets, on ftiort partial ihdks. Clujhrs pa-
nicled, bearing very numerous, fmall, pale Jlowers, ferae
male, the reft hermaphrodite, in the fame clufter. Swartz
defcribes the neSary, of five minute villous fcales, contrary
to the remark of Willdenow, under his Zivingera, Sp. PI.

V. 2. 569, where it is faid to be wanting in this fpcciet of
Quajfia. The Jlamens are moftly five, rarely four or fix.
Cermens from two to tour.

Quassia ylmar'a, bitter quaffia, in the Materia Medica.
The root, bark, and wood of this tree are all comprehended
in the catalogues of the Materia Medica ; and it is obferved
that the leaves, flowers, See. pofl'efs fimilar qualities. The
roots, being perfeftly ligneous, may be medically confi.
dered in the fame light with the wood, which is now moft
generally employed, and feems to ditier fmm the bark i|,
being lefs intenfely bitter ; fo that the latter is thought to
be a more powerful medicine. The w'ood is fent to this
country from Jamaica and the Caribbean iflands in billets .
and is reduced to chips, or rafped by the druggifts. Quaffia
has no fenfible odour ; its tafte is that of a pure bitter, more
intenfe and durable than that of any other fubllance. It
imparts its virtues more completely to watery than to fpi.
rituous menftrua, and its infufions are not blackened by the
addition of martial vitriol. When the infufion is evaporated
to drynefs, it leaves a brownifli-yellow, fomewhat tranf-
parcnt, brittle extraft, which has been regarded as a vege-
table conftituenty;«^<'nfr/j-, and named the bitter principle.
(Edinb. Phil. Tranf. iii. 207.) The infufion is rendered
muddy by nitrate of filvcr, and a foft, flaky, yellow preci-
pitate is formed ; acetate of lead occafions a copious white
precipitate ; and hence it has been inferred that thefe falts
are incompatible in formula with it. The watery exfraft is
from a fixth to a ninth of the weight of the wood ; the
fpirituous about a twenty-fourth.

Quaffia derived its name, as has been already obferved,
from a negro named Quaffi (by Fermin written Coiffi,
and by Rolander, Quafs), who employed it with uncom-
mon fuccefs as a fecret remedy in the malignant, en-
demic fevers, which frequently prevailed at Surinam. In
confequence of a valuable confideration, this fecret was
difclofed to Daniel Rolander, a Swede, who brought
fpecimens of the quaffia-wood to Stockholm in the year
1756; and fince that time the effects of this drug have
been very generally tried in Europe, and numerous tefti-
monies of its efficacy publiflied by many refpedtable authors.
Its antifeptic powers have been fubmitted to various trials,
from which it has been concluded, that it has confiderable
influence in retarding the tendency to putrefaftion ; which, in
profefTor Murray's opinion, cannot be attributed to its fen-
fible qualities, as it pofleffes no aftringency whatever, nor to
its bitternefs, as gentian is much more bitter, but lefs anti-
feptic. The medicinal virtues afcribed to quaffia are thofe
of a tonic, ftomachic, antifeptic, and febrifuge : it has been
found very effectual in reftoring the tone of the ftomach,
producing appetite for food, affifting digeftion, expelling
flatulency, and removing habitual coftivenefs, produced
from debility of the inteftines, and common to a fedentary
life. Dr. Lettfom obferves, that in hyfterical atony, to
which the female fex is fo prone, the quaffia affords more
vigour and relief to the fyftem than the Peruvian bark, efpe-
cially when united with the vitriolum album, and ftill more
with the aid of fome abforbent. In dyfpepfia, arifing from
hard drinking, and alfo in diarrhoeas, he exhibited the quaffia
with great fuccefs. Although he does not concur in opinion
with Linnxus, who fays, " me quidem judice chinchinam
longe fuperat ;" yet he has met with feveral inftances of low
remittent and nervous fevers, the fymptoms of which the
bark uniformly aggravated, though adminiftered in inter-
miffions the moft favourable to its fuccefs, in which quaffia,
or fnake-root, was fuccefsfully fubftituted. In fuch cafes,
he moftly obferved that there was great congeftion in the he-
patic fyftem, and the debility at the fame time difcouraged
copious evacuations. And in many fevers, without evident

remiffions

Q U A

remifTions to warrant the ufe of the bark, whilft, at tlic
fame time, incrcafiiijj; debility began to threaten the hfe of
the patient, the doftor found that quafTia, or fnake-root,
fingly or combined, upheld the vital powers, and promoted a
critical intermillion of fever, by which an opportunity was
offered for the bark to effeft a cure. Dr. Cullen fays,
(Mat. Med. vol. ii. p. 174.) " I believe qualfia to be an ex-
cellent bitter, and that it will do all that any pure and fimple
bitter can do ; but our experience of it in this country docs
not lead us to think it will do more ; and the extraordinary
commendations given of it are to be afcribed to the par-
tiality fo often (hewn to new medicines." It is faid to have
been given, combined with nitric acid, with evident benefit
in typhus, and alfo in flnor albus. It may be given in in-
fiifion, whicli is the belt form of adminiilering it ; or in pills
made from the watery extraft. It may alfo be given in fub-
ftance in doles of from grs. x to 3j tliree or four times a day.
The officmal preparations are the "infufum quaflix" of
the London Pharmacopeia, and the " tinftura quaffis" of
that of Dubhn. The infufion is prepared by macerating
for two hours in a lightly covered vedel a fcruple of quaflia-
wood, chipped, in half a pint of boiling water, and draining.
In hyl'ieria, this may be combined with purgatives and
tin&ure of valerian ; in atonic gout, with aromatics ; and
in dyfpeptic affeftions, with chalybeates, fulphate of zinc, or
mineral acids. The dofe is from f 5J to f ^iij, given twice or
thrice a day. The tintiure is prepared by digeiling for
feven days an ounce of chips of quaffia-wood in two pints
of proof fpirit ; and then ftraining. This may be ufed in
the fame cafes as the infufion.

It is afl'erted that the brewers have, of late jtrars, ufed
quaflia-wood inftead of hops. Beer made with it certainly
doec not keep, fays Thomfon, but foon becomes muddy and
flat, has a mawkifii tafte, and runs into the acetous fer-
mentation. It is confequently lefs nutritious and wholefome
than that which is properly hopped. Wood. Mat. Med.
Thomfon's Lond. Difp.

Quassia Simnrubn. See Simauuba.
QUATCHEOU, in Geography, a town of Afia, in the
country of Hami ; 30 miles E. of Tche-tcheou. N. lat.
40° 28'. E. long. 94° 27'.

QUATER-COUSINS, Quatue-Cousins, fourth cou-
fins, or the lait degree of kindred.

Hence, when perfons are at variance, it is faid they are
not quater, or cater-coufins.

QUATERNA Folia, among Botamjls. See Leaf.
QUATO, in Zoology. See SiMlA Panifcus.
OUATO'RZIEME, Fr., the 14th, or double odave
of the 7th. It is called the 14th, beeaufe 14 founds muft
be formed to pafs diatonically from one of its terms to the
other.

QUATOTOMOMI, in Ornithology, the name of an
American bird of the wood pecker kind, having a red craft
on its head, and two white lines running down the fides of
the neck to the breaft. Jt is called by Nieremberg Picus
imbrifstus ; which fee. ■>

QUATOZTT.I. See Tanagra Leucocephal:
QUATRE/ Facardins, Les, in Geography, four fmall
iflands in the South Pacific ocean, fo named by M. Bou-
gainville, in the year 1766. S. lat. 18° 40'. W. long.

'40° 30'-

QUATREFOIL, a decoration refembling a rofe with
four leaves, which conftantly occurs in pointed architec-
ture.

qUATRE-NATIONS, 9. d. Four Nations, the de-
nomination of a college founded in 1661, by cardinal Ma-
zarin, for the education and maintenance of fixty children,

Vw.. XXIX.

QUA

natives of the four countries conquered by Lewis XIV.,
•viz. fifteen for Pigncrol and Italy, fifteen for Alfatia,
twenty for Flanders, and ten for RoulFillon.

QUATRICHROMA, in the Italian Mufic, is what
we call a demi-femi-quaver, thirty-two of which make a bar
in common time. See Time, and Triple.

QUATRO CASE, in Geography, a town of Italy, in
the department of the Mincio ; 1 7 miles S.E. of Mantua.

QUATROL, a fmall ifiand in the gulf of Siam, near
the coaft of Camboja. N. lat. 10° 13'. E. long. 103° 25'.

QUATROS, CoRONADOS, Los, an ifland in the Pacific
ocean, difcovered by Quires in 1606. S. lat. 18" 40.

QUATTRINO, in Commerce, a copper coin at Flo-
rence ; alfo a money of account, 60 quattrini being equal
to 12 crazie, i| paoli, or 2 lira. At Rome, the kudo is
divided into 3;^ telloni, 500 quattrini, or 1 000 mezzi quat-
trini ; fo that 5 quattrini make I paolo, and 3 paoli i tef-
tone. See ScuDO.

QUATUOR, Lat., a name given to any mufical com-
pofition, vocal or inftrumental, in four parts, and in dia-
logue, or a parte equak, when each have folo parts alter-
nately. The Italians foraetimes call a quatuor quartello, but
more frequently quartto, and the Englith quartet.

A vocal quartet, fays RoulTeau, is more difficult for the
poet to write, as well as for the compofer to fet, than a trio
or chorus,

In the vocal quartet of a mufical drama, four diftindl
charafters fhould be fupported both in the words and mufic,
according to the fituation and Itate of mind of the feveral
perfonages who have petitions or complaints to make, or
anfwers to give.

The inttrumental quartets of Haydn have been the de-
light of all that have performed, or heard them performed,
for full 30 years, and bid fair to continue to afford delight
for at leaft 30 years more.

Quatuor Principalia Jlrlis Mufuie, the title of a MS.
in the Bodleian library at Oxford (Digby 90.), which ha8
been afcribed to feveral authors. Anthony Wood gives it
to Tewkefbury, to whom it is likewife afcribed in the
Oxford Catalogue of MSS., with very little foundation.
Bifhop Tanner has honoured Dr. John Hambois with this
produdlion, a writer on mufic, who flourifhed more than a
century after this MS. was finilhed, as appears from the tef-
timony of the fcribe himfelf.

There is, however, at Oxford, among the, MSS. another
volume of Mufical Tradts (Bodl. 515.), which had not
been fufficiently examined by any of the catalographers who
have mentioned it : for, on a careful perufal and collation,
we found in it, befides two other trafts by Simon Tunftede,
or Tuftede, a duplicate of the Quatuor Principalia ; and as
no doubt has been thrown upon Tunftede having been the
author of the two firll tracts in the volume, it feems as if
we might venture, without doubt or hefitation, to aflign to
him this ample, and, for the time when it was written, ex-
cellent treatife. That Simon Tunftede was a man of
fcience, and an able mufician, as well as a doftor of divinity,
appears at the end of MS. Digby 90. After faying that
the book was finilhed in 1351, we have the following paf-
fage : " Ille autem anno regens erat inter minores Qxonia:
fratres, Simon de Tunftede, dodor facras theologia:, qui in
mufica pollebat, et eciam in feptem liberalibus artibus."
Pits, Bale, Tanner, and all our biographical writers, fpeak
of him as a learned mufician ; and Pits enumerates the
Quatuor Principaha among his writings. (De illuft. Angl,
Script.) Simon Tunftede, a Francifcan friar, born at Nor-
wich, was in fuch favour for his learning ivd piety, as tft
H h t>',

QUA

be unanimoufly chofen provincial mafter of all England.
He died at Bruzard, in Sufi'olk, in 1369.

The title of the trafts in tlie Oxford Catalogue of MSS.
has occafioned the great diverfity of opinions about the
writer of the Quatuor PrincipaUa ; for N° 515 is entitled
" De Mufica continua et difcreta, cum Diagrammatibns,
per Simonem Tunltede, A.D. 1351." However, in the
beginning of the volume, the author propofes to treat " De
quatuor Principalibus in quibus tocius Mufica radices con-
fiftunt," &c. which exaaiy agrees with the other MS. ;
and there is no difference from the beginning to the end, ex-
cept in the omiflion of a kind of prologue, or argument to
the work, which appears in the traft afcribed to Tewkef-
bury (Digby 90.), beginning " Quemadmodum inter Tri-
ticum," and is omitted in that to which the name of Tun-
flede is prefixed. Bodl. 515.

What the author calls the " Four Principals of Mufic,"
will beft appear from his own manner of dividing the work.
In the firll part or principal, confifting of nineteen chap-
ters, he treats of mufic in general, its conftitucnt parts and
divisions. II. Of its invention, intervals, and proportions,
twenty-four chapters. HI. Of plain chant, and the eccle-
fiailical modes, fifty-eight chapters. IV. Of meafured
mufic, or time ; of difcant, and their feveral divifions. This
laft principal is divided into two feclions, of which the firll
contains forty-one chapters, and the fecond forty-nine.
The whole treatife fills a hundred and twenty-four folio
pages ; the diagrams, which are very numerous, are beauti-
fully written, and illuminated with different coloured inks ;
and it feems to be in all refpefts the moil ample and com-
plete work of the kind which the fourteenth century can
boaft.

Quatuor Hom'mis Prepofiti. See Prepositi.
QuATUOR-ViR, in Anliquity, frequently written nil. VIR,
a Roman i.iagiftrate, who had three colleagues joined with
him in the fame adminiftration.

To the quatuor-vir was committed the charge of con-
dufting and fettling the colonies fent into the provinces.

Upon unlucky accidents, and other dangerous affairs, it
was ufual to create quatuor-viri, with commiflSon to take
care ne quid detrimenti refpublka caperet, that the republic ivere
not prejudiced.

There were alfo quatuor-viri appointed to infpeft and
take care of repairs, &c.

QUAUCHOCHOPITLI, in Ornithology. See Picus
Tricolor.

QUAVER, in Mnf.c, a meafure of time, equal to one-
half of the crotchet, or one-eighth of the femi-breve.

The quaver is marked by the charafter -A

The Englifh quaver makes what the French C2!\ crochue,
■ crotchet, becaufe of the hook at bottom. See Crotchet.

The quaver is divided into two femiquavcrs, noted M

and four demifemiquavers, marked S. See Characters.

QUAVERING, the aft of trilling, or ihaking ; or the
running a divifion with the voice.

QUAUHAYOHUATLI, in Botany, a name by which
fome authors have called the tree, whofc fruit is the caffia
fiftula of the (hops. Hern. p. 87.

QUAUHCILUI, in Ornithology. See I^Ierops Ci-
nereus.

QUAUHIOYAMATL, in Zoology. See Sus 7a-
jajfu.

QUE

QUAUHTECALLOTLQUAPACHTLI. Sec
Sci URL'S f^iiriei;alu}.
QUAUHTECHALOTT-THLITTIC. See- Sci-

VAVS Niger.

OUAUHTLA-COYMATL. See Sv^ Tajafu.
QUAUHTZONECOLIN, in Ornithology, the Ame-
rican name for a bird called by moil a quail, but efteemed by
NiL-rcmberg a Ipecies of partridge.

It is of the fize of the European partridge, and of a
brownifli colour, and ornamented with a creft upon its
head.

There are alfo in America two otlier fpecies of partridge
much allie<' to this : the one with a yellow body, and black
and white head ; the other fmall and brown, and without a
creft. See Tetuao Cri/lalus.

QUAUHYAC OcuiLENsiuM, in Botany, the name of
a very large Indian tree, bearing leaves rcfembling thofe of
the citron. The bark is aftringent, licating, drying, and
of a ftrong fmell : it reitraius a diarrhoea, and excites a
fweat. The juice, fnufTed up the nofe, caufcs fneezing,
purges the head, and thus removes fevers, and pains in the
head: for which reafons, it is preferved in families as a
popular remedy. Nieremberg.

QUAVITL, a name given by fome authors to the cocoa-
tree. Hern. p. 79.

QUAUTOTOPOTLI, in Ornithology. See Picus
Canadenfis.

QUAY, Kav, a fpace of ground paved on the fhore of
a river, or port, deftined for the loading and unloading of
merchandize. See Kay and Wharf.

QUEAGA, in Geography, a town of Pegu, on the Ava ;
18 miles S. of Lundfey.

QUEBEC, a city of America, the capital of the lower
province of Canada, as Niagara is of the upper, was
founded by the French in the year 1608, and is fituattd on
a very lofty point of land, on the N.W. fide of the rivtr St.
Lawrence, at its confluence with the river St. Charles,
about 320 miles from the lea. Nearly facing it, on the op-
pofite fhore, there is another point ; and between the two
the river is contrafted to the breadth of ihree-quarttrs of a
mile ; but after pafling through this ftrait, it expands to the
breadth of five or fix miles, taking a great fweep behiiid
that point on which Quebec Hands. The city derives its
name from the word Quebec, or Quebeio, which, in the
Algonquin tongue, fignilies a fudden contraftion of a river.
The wide part of the river, immediately before the town,
is called " the Bafon," and it is fufhciently deep and fpa-
cious to float upwards of 100 fail of the line. Quebec is
divided into two parts, called the upper and the lower
towns. The upper town is lituated on a rock of lime-
ftone, on the top ot the point ; and the lower town, built
round the bottom of the point, clofe to the water, on land
which has been gradually gained from the river. The rock
on which the upper town flands rifes, in fome places towards
tlie water, nearly perpendicularly, fo as to be totally inac-
ceffible ; in other places it is not fo ftcep as to prevent a
communication between the two towns, by means of llreets
winding up the fide of it ; though here the afcent is fo
great, that there are long flights at one fide of the ftreets,
for the accommodation of foot-pafTengers. The lower town
lies very much expoled to an enemy, being defended merely
by a fmall battery towards the bafon, which, at the time of
high tides, is nearly on a level with the water ; and by bar-
riers towards the river, in which guns may be planted, when
there is any danger of an attack.

The upper town is a place of imm.enfe ftrength. To-
wards the water it is fo itrongly guarded bv nature, that

flight

QUEBEC.

flight walU are a fufficient defence ; and in fome places,
where the rock is inacceffiblc, no walls are necelTary. Heie,
however, are feveral redoubts and batteries. The principal
battery, which points towards the balon, confifts of twenty-
two 24-pounders, two French 36-pounders, and two large
iron mortars : this battery is flanked by another of fix guns,
that commands the pailes from the lower town. On the
land fide the fortifications are ftupendous. When general
Wolfe attacked this place, he thought it a vain attempt to
make an aflault on the fide of the town which lies towards
the water, where the rock is fo fteep, and fo eafily de-
fended. In order to carry on the attack on the land fide,
he firil attempted to land his troops fome miles below the
town, near the Falls of Montmorenci ; but here he was re-
pulfed by a large divifion of the French forces with lofs.
Foiled in his firll attempt to get on (liore, the brave Wolfe
formed the bold defign of afcending to the top of the banks
above Quebec, commonly called the Heights of Abraham.
After previous preparation, the foldiers clambered up the
heights with great difficulty, and the guns' were hauled up
by means of ropes and puUies fixed round the trees, with
which the banks are covered from top to bottom. At the
top the plain commences, and extends clofe under the walls
of the city. Here the memorable battle was fought, in
which the much lamented general fell, at the moment when
all his noble exertions were about to be crowned with the
fuccefs which they fo eminently merited. The fpot where
the illuftrious hero breathed his lall is mai'kcd with a large
floiie, on which a true meridional line is drawn. Although
the great Wolfe found it fo difficult a taflc to gain polTeffion
of Quebec, and it has been rendered much ftronger fince his
time, the people of the United States imagine, that, in cafe
of a rupture with Great Britain, it might be eafily taken ;
and yet at the clofe of the year 1775, and the commence-
ment of 17-76, an attempt was made by American troops,
under the command of Arnold and Montgomery, without
fuccefs. On this occafion Montgomery fell, and Arnold's
attempt, on the prafticability and fuccefs of which he had
previoufly boalled, proved fruitlefs. St. John's gate, which
he endeavoured to force, and the adjoining walls, are ftu-
pendous ; and the mere fight of them may convince any per-
fon, that an attempt to itorm them muft be altogether in-
effeftual, without the aid of heavy artillery, with which the
Americans were not provided.

Independently of its fortifications, and fituation on the
fummit of a rock, Quebec owes much of its ftrength and
fecurity to the long duration and extreme feverity of the
winter ; as in that feafon it is wholly imprafticable for a
belieging army either to carry on any works, or to blockade
the town. Mr. Weld fays, that 5000 foldiers are neceflary
to man the works at Quebec completely. A large garrifon
is always kept in it, and abundance of ftores of every de-
fcription. The troops are lodged partly in barracks,
partly in block-houfes near Cape Diamond, which is the
moft elevated part of the point, and is reckoned to be up-
wards of I ceo feet above the level of the river. The Cape
is ftrongly fortified, and may be confidered as the citadel of
Quebec : it commands the town in every direftion, and alfo
the plains on the outfide of the walls. The evening and
morning guns, and all falutes and fignals, are fired from
hence. Notwithftanding the great height of the rock above
the river, water may be readily obtained even at the very
top of it, by linking wells of a moderate depth ; and in fome
particular places, at the fides of the rock, it guflies out in
large ftreams ; and the water is of a very good quality. It
13 fuppofed, fays Mr. Weld, that including the upper and

lower towns and fuburbs, there are at lead 2000 dwellings ;
and the number of inhabitants, allowing fix to a houfe, may-
be cilimated at 12,000. Mr. Heriot fays, that, in 1806,
the number of inhabitants amounted to 15,000; and if this
ilatement be correct, the incrcafe muft have been very rapid,
for, in the year 1784, Quebec contained only 6472 in-
habitants. About two-thirds of the inhabitants are of
French extraftion. The fociety is agreeable, and very ex-
tenfivc for a place of its fize, which is owing to its being
the capital of the lower province, and therefore the refi-
dence of the governor, different civil officers, principal law-
yers, &c. The large garrifon always maintained in it con-
tributes to make it gay and lively.

The lower town is moftly inhabited by the traders who
are concerned with the (hipping, and it is a very difagree-
able place. Tiie ftreets are narrow and dirty, and, on ac-
count of the height of the houfes in moft of them, the air
is much confined ; and in the ftreets next the water, there
is an intolerable ftench from the ftiore when the tide is out.
The upper town, on the contrary, is extremely agreeable ;
from its elevated fituation, the air is very pure, and the inha-
bitants are never opprelied with heat in fummer ; it is, how-
ever, far from being well laid out, the ftreets being narrow
and very irregular. The houfes are generally built of ftone,
and, except fome few, built of late years, fmall and incon-
venient. The chateau, in which the governor refides, is a
plain building of common ftone, fituated in an open place,
the haufcs round which form three fides of an oblong fquare.
It confifts of two parts. The old and the new are feparated
from each other by a fpacious court. The former Hands
juft on the verge of an inaccelTible part of the rock ; behind
"it, on the outfide, there is a long gallery, from whence, if a
pebble were let drop, it would fall at leaft fixty feet per-
pendicularly. This old part is chiefly taken up with the
public offices, and all the apartments in it are fmall and
ill contrived ; but in the new part, which ftands in front of
the other, facing the fquare, they are fpacious, and tolerably-
well finifhed, but none of them can be called elegant. Thi«
part is inhabited by the governor's family. The chateau i»
Ijuilt without any regularity of defign, neither the old nor the
new part having even an uniform front. It is not a place of
ftrength, as commonly reprefented. In the garden adjoin-
ing to it IS merely a parapet wall along the edge of the
rock, with embrafures, in which a few fmall guns are
planted, commanding a part of the lower town. Every
evening during fummer, when the weather is fine, one of the
regiments of the garrifon parades in the open place before
the chateau, and the band plays for an hour or two, at
which time the place becomes the refort of numbers of the
moft genteel people of the town, and has a very gay ap-
pearance.

Oppofite to the chateau there is a monaftery belonging
to the Recollets, or Francifcan friars ; a very few only of
the order are now left. Contiguous to this building is the
college belonging to the Jefuits, whofe numbers have dimi-
niflied even ftill fafter than that of the Recollets.

The nunneries are three in number, and as there is no
reftriftion upon the female religious orders, they are all.
well filled. The largeft of them, called L'Hofpital Gene-
ral, ftands in the fuburbs, outfide of the walls ; another,
of the order of St. Urfule, is not far diftant from the
chateau.

The engineer's drawing-room, in which is kept a variety

of models, together with plans of the fortifications of

Quebec and other fortrefi'es in Canada, is an old building,

near the principal battery. Adjoining to it ftands the

Hh 2 " houfc

QUE

QUE

houfe where the legiflative council and affembly of repre-
ientatives meet, which is alfo an old building, that has
been plainly fitted up to accommodate the legiflature.

The armoury is fituated near the artillery barrack, in
another part of the town. About ten thoufand (land of
arms are kept in it, arranged in a fimilar manner with the
arms in the Tower of London, but, if poflible, with greater
neatnefs and more fancy.

The artillery barracks are capable of containing about
five hundred men, but the principal barracks are calculated
to contain a much larger number ; they Hand in the market-
place, not far diftant from the fquare in which the chateau
is fituated, but more in the heart of the town.

The market of Quebec is extremely well fnpplied with
provilions of every kind, which may be purchafed at a much
more moderate price than in any town vifited by Mr. Weld
in the United States. It is a matter of curioGty to a
Itranger to fee the number of dogs yoked in little carts,
that are brought into this market by the people who at-
tend it. The Canadian dogs are found extremely ufeful in
drawing burthens, and there is fcarcely a family in Quebec
or Montreal, that does not' keep one or more of them for
that purpofe. They are fomewhat fimilar to the New-
foundland breed, but broader acrofs the loins, and have
fhorter and thicker legs ; in general they are handfome,
and wonderfully docile and fagacious ; their itrength is
prodigious. A fingle dog will draw a man for a confider-
able diftance, that could not weigh lefs than ten ftone.
People, during the winter feafon, frequently perform long
journeys on the fnow with half a dozen or more of thefe
animals yoked in a cariole or fledge.

An attempt was made in 17 ii by the Englifh and Ame-
ricans, under the command of brigadier Hill, to furprife
Quebec ; but it proved abortive. In 1759 it was taken
by the Englifh, under the command of the valiant Wolfe,
who facrificed his life in the engagement ; and by the peace,
in 1763, it was ceded, with the reft of Canada, to the con-
querors, in whofs poU'eflion it has fince continued.

The fcenery that is exhibited to the view from various
parts of the upper town of Quebec, furpafl'es for grandeur,
beauty, and diverfity, any other, as Mr. Weld fays, that he
has feen, either in America, or in any other part of the
globe. In the variegated expanfe that is laid open before
you, llupendous rocks, immenfe rivers, tracklefs forefts, and
cultivated plains, mountains, lakes, towns, and villages,
in turn ftrike the attention, and the fenfes are almoft be-
wildered in contemplating the vaftnefs of the fcene. Nature
16 here feen on the grandeit fcale ; and it is fcarcely poflible
for the imagination to paint to itfelf any thing more fub-
lime than are the feveral profpefts prefented to the fight
of the delighted fpeftator. From cape Diamond, fituated
one thoufand feet above the level of the river, and the
loftieft part of the rock on which the city is built, the
prolpeft is confidered by many as fuperior to that of
any other fpot. A greater extent of country opens upon
you, and the eye is here enabled to take in more at once,
than at any other place ; but it appeared to Mr. Weld, that
the view from the cape is by no means fo fine as that, for in-
ftance, from the battery ; for in furveying the different
objefts below you from fuch a ftupendous height, their mag-
nitude is in a great meafure loft, and it feems as if you were
looking at a draft of the country, more than at the
country itfelf. It is the upper battery that Mr. Weld
alludes to, facing the bafon, and is about three hundred feet
above the level of the water. Here, if you ftand but a
few yards from the edge of the precipice, you may look

down at once upon the river, the veffels upon which, as the-,
fail up to the wharfs before the lower town, appear as it
they were coming under your very feet. The river itfelf,
which is between five and fix miles wide, and vifible as far as
the diftant end of the iflaiid of Orleans, where it lofes itfclt
amidft the mountains that bound it on each fide, is one ol
the moft beautiful objeils in nature, and on a fine Hill
fummer's evening it otten wears the appearance of a vatt
mirror, where the varied rich tints of the Iky, as well as the
images of the different objefts of the banks, are feen re-
flefted with inconceivable luftre. The fouthern bank of
the river, indented fancifully with bays and promontories,
remains nearly in a ftate of nature, cloathed with lofty trees ;
but the oppofite fhore is thickly covered with houfes, ex-
tending as along other parts of the river already mentioned,
in one uninterrupted village, feemingly, as far as the eye
can reach. On this fide the profpect is terminated by an
extcniive range of mountains, the Hat lands fituated between
and the villages on the banks not being vifible to a fpedtator
at Quebec, it feems as if the mountains rofe direftly out of
the water, and the houfes were built on their fteep and
rugged fides.

Beautiful as the environs of the city appear when feen at
a diftance, they do not appear lefs fo on a more clofe in-
fpeftion ; and in pafling through them the eye is enter-
tained with a moft pleafing variety of fine landfcapes, whilft.
the mind is equally gratified with the appearance of content
and happinefs that reigns in the countenances of the in-
habitants. Indeed, if a country as fruitful as it is pic-
turefque, a genial and healthy chmate, and a tolerable
fhare of civil and religious liberty, can make people happy,
none ought to appear more fo than the Canadians. There
are, however, in the vicinity of Canada two fcenes, more
particularly deferving of attention than any others : thefe are
the falls or cataradls of the rivers Chauiliere and Mont-
morency; which fee refpeftively. N. lat. 46°4S' 38". W.
long. 71° 5' 29". Weld's Travels, vol. i.

QUEBITEA, in Botany, a name which feems to have
been whimfically extradted by Aublet, from the Caribbean
appellation of this plant, Daquejoab'ite. Aubl. Guian. v. 2.
838. t. 327. This has many creeping roots, and a twifted,
decumbent, hairy Jlem, with alternate, elliptical, broad,
entire, hairy leaves, three or four inches long, on hairy
footjlalks. Floivers minute, in (hort, denfe, axillary, ftalked
/piles, with a fmall fcale at the bafe of the ftalks. Aublet
did not inveftigate the ftrufture of thefe flowers, but he
fufpefts the plant to be nearly akin to Dratontlum, under
which genus it is accordingly noticed by Juflieu. The
roots, when chewed, are very acrid. The bruifed herb is
ufed externally, to cure the bite of ferpents. It grows on
the banks of rivulets in Guiana.

QUEBRANTAHUESSOS, in Ornithology. See Pro-
CELLARIA Gigantea.

QUECALA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the pro-
vince of Mechoacan; 105 miles S.S.E. of St. Luisde Potofi.

QUECHUA, in Literary Hiftory. See Peru.

QUEDA, a fea-port city on the W.coaft of the peninfula
of Malacca, the capital of a kingdom, tributary to Siam,
with a good harbour at the mouth of a river that will ad-
mi*, a veflel drawing 12 or 14 feet water on the fprings
over the bar, which is gravel and mud. The town con-
tains about 400 houfes, inhabited by Chinefe and Malays.
The environs are agreeable and fertile ; the woods abound
in elephants and other animals, ar.d in fome places are mines
of lead, which fupply large quantities of thofe metals for
exportation to Hindooihin, Arabia, and Perfia. The go-
1 1 vernment

QUE

vernment is monavcliical, under a Malay Maliomedan prince,
who, like many other Malay princes, engrofleb alnioli; the
whole foreign trade of the port, excepting that of an annual
Chincfejunk, which pays a certain fum only as duty, and
then has leave to trade freely with the inhabitants. This
junk imports immenfe quantities of coarfc China-ware, thin
iron pans, and many other articles from that country, and
exports biche dc mer, called fwallow, (harks' ilns, edible
bird's nefts, rattans, tin, rice, dammer, tortoife-fhell, deer's
(kins and finews, bullocks and buffaloes' hides and horns,
jerked beef, and many other coarfe articles. At Queda
there is great plenty of rice, bullocks, bulfalos, and poul-
try ; but not fuch abundance of fruit and vegetables as at
Acheen. The territory of Queda is a flat country, fa-
vourable for the cultivation of rice ; a hill north of the
town and inland, called the Elephant, favours the naviga-
tor's approach; alfo the fmall iflands called Peers, 20 miles
weft of the bar, covered with trees, and good regular mud
foundings, a great way off, even by night, indicate the
diftance to the mariner ; 300 miles E.N.E of Acheen. N.
lat. e'^ao'. E. long. 100^ 18'.

QUEDENAU,"atown of Pruflia, in Samland ; three
miles N. of Konigfberg.

QUEDLINBURG, a town of Wedphalia, in the
principality of Halberftadt, on the Boda, which divides it
into the Old and New Towns. It has feveral churches, a
hofpital, and a college. Near this town is a princely abbey,
fituated on a hill : it was founded by king Henry I. be-
tween the years 932 and 936, and fince enriched by va-
rious endowments. In 1539 it embraced Lutheranifm, and
obliged itfelf, by folemn oaths, to maintain that form of
religion. It lately coniifted of four dignitaries, to'z. of the
lady abbefs and three others, dillinguKhed by the titles of
provoll, dean, and canon. In 1802, the abbey and its re-
venues were voted to the king of Pruffia, as an indemnity ;
and by the treaty of Tilfit, transferred to the kingdom of
Weftphalia. The tovim of Quedhnburg is feven miles S.S.E.
of Halberftadt. N. lat. 5 1 -■ 48'. E. long. 1 1° 20'.

QUEDLITZ, a town of PrufTia, in the province of
Ermeland ; four miles S. of Wartenburg.

QUEECE, in ylgricultui-i', a term fometimes provincially
applied to the wood-pigeon, or birds of that kind.

QUEECHY, in Geography, a river of Vermont, which
runs into the Connecticut at Hartland.

' QUEEN, Regina, a woman who holds the crown of a
realm (ingly, and by right of blood.

The word queen is derived from the Saxon ctven, uxor,
the loife of any one, but applied, by way of excellency, to
the wife of the king only ; whence fhe was anciently called
the king's queen ; the Weft Saxons having no other name
for a queen but the iing's wife. (After de Alfred, re-
bus, &c.) She was alfo called lady, in Saxon -wLrfi/ig ;
juft as madame, mademolfelle, were ufed in France, for the
wife and daughter of the duke of Orleans.

The name queen is alfo given, by way of courtefy, to
her that is married to the king ; called, by way of diftinftion,
queen confort. In refpett of whom the former is called queen
regnant, or regent.

The widow of a king is alfo called queen, but with the
addition of dovager.

In the firit fenfe, queen is, in all conftruction, the fame
with king ; and has the fame powers, prerogatives, riglits,
dignities, and duties that the king has. This is exprefslv
declared by (tatute i Mar. I. ft. 3. c. i.

The queen corfort is inferior, and a perfon diftinft from,
and a fubjeft of, the king. In England, though fhe be
a feme-covert, yet »iay (he liic, and be fued, in her own

QUE

name ; and may make leafes, and grants, &c. as a ferno
fole.

She has feveral other prerogatives. Though an alien,
fhe may purchafe lands in fee-fimple, without either natura-
lization, or denization ; (he may prefent to a benefice ; nor
is plenarty a bar againft her more than againft the king. She
is alfo capable of taking a grant from the king, which no
other wife can do from her hufband ; and fhe may have a fe-
parato property in goods as well as lands, and h-is a right to
difpofe of them by will. S lie pays no toll, and (hall not be
amerced, if (he be nonfuited in any adtion ; and may not be
impleaded till lirft petitioned.

To conipire her death, or violate her chaftity, is high
treafon. She has an ancient peculiar revenue, called queen-
gold ; befides a very large dower, with a royal court, and
officers, diftmtt from the king's ; and her attorney and io-
licitor-general are entitled to a place within the bar of his
majelty's courts, together with the king's counfel.

Another ancient perquifite belonging to the queen confort,
mentioned by all our old writers, and, on this account only,
worthy of notice, is this, that on the taking of a whale ou
the coafts, which is a royal fidi, it (hall be divided between
the king and queen ; the head only being the king's pro-
pe^'ty, and the tail of it the queen's. One reafoii of this
whimfical divifion, as alligned by our ancient records, was
to furnidi the queen's wardrobe with whalebone.

The queen dowager, as the widow of the king, enjoys
moft of the privileges belonging to her as queen confort.
But it is not high treafon to confpire her death ; or to
violate her chaftity, becaufe the fuccefTion to the crown is
not thereby endangered. Yet ftill, pro d'tgmtate regall, no
man can marry a queen dowager without fpecial licence
from the king, on pain of forfeiting his lands and goods.
She has alfo this particular, that fhe lofes not her dignity,
though Hie marry a private gentleman ; as peereffes dow-
ager do their peerage, when they marry commoners. Thus
queen Catherine, widow of Henry V. being married to Owen
ap Tudor, efq. maintained an aftion as queen of England.
Much lefs does a queen regnant follow her hufband's con-
dition, or is fubjeft to other queens ; but fhe is fovereign to
her own hufband, as queen Mary was to king Philip, and
queen Anne to prince George of Denmark ; unlefs it be
otherwifc appointed by parliament. The hufband may be
guilty of high treafon againft her ; but in the inftance of
conjugal infideUty, he is not fubjeft to the fame penal re-
ftriAions. For which the reafon feems to be, that if a
queen confort is unfaithful to the royal bed, this may debafe
or baftardize the heirs to the crown ; but no fuch danger
can be confequest in the infidelity of a hufband to a queen
regnant.

QuEE.v C.-VROLINE, in Biography, when princefs of
Wales, is told in the dedication of the opera of Julius
Cxfar to her royal highnefs, that the firft mufical founds
which her highnefs heard, were thofe produced by the
voice of the celebrated Piftocio, the father of good tafte,
then in the fervice of his illuftrious (ire, at the court of
Anfpach.

Mufic doubtlefs was a ferious part of her majefty's edu-
cation, as it is, and has ever been, of all the princes and
princelTes of Germany ; who have likewifc frequent oppor-
tunities of hearing great performers and fplendid perform-
ances ; yet we do not recoUeft having heard that her
majefty was a performer herfelf, or even an admirer or
patronefs of the art. This princefs died in November

'737- . . ^

Queen Mary. (See Mary.) During the fhort reign of

this bigoted and intolerant princefs, ecclefiaitical mufic was

again

QUE

again transferred to Latin words and the mafs, both of
which had been excommunicated during the reign of her
brother, Edward VI. But metrical pfalmody had not yet
been generally received in our parochial churches. Mary
was herfelf a performer on the virginal and lute, as appears
by a letter fent to her by her mother, queen Katherine,
after her fcparation from the king, in which " fhe encourages
her to fuffer chearfuUy, to trull to God, and keep her
heart clean. She charged her in all things to obey the
king's commands, except in matters of religion. She fent
her two Latin books, the one ' De Vita Chriiti,' and the
other the ' Epiftles of St. Jerom ;' in them, ifays the
queen,) I truft you (hall fee good things. And fometimee,
for your recreation, ufe your virginals or lute, if you have
any."

Fuller tells us, that " eight weeks and upwards pafTed
between the proclaiming of queen Mary and her affembling
the parliament ; during which time two rehgions were
together fet on foot, Proteflantifme and Poperie ; the former
hoping to be continued, the latter labouring to be reftored;
— and during this interim the churches and chapels in Eng-
land had a mongrel celebration of their divine fervices be-
twixt reformation and fuperllition. For the obfequies for
king Edward were held by the queen in the Tower,
Auguil 7th, 1553, with the dirige fung in Latin, and on
the morrow a mafl'e of requiem, and on the fame day his
corps were buried at Weftminfter with a fermon ferrice,
and communion in Englifh."

In Oilober following the laws of her predeceffor, Ed-
ward, concerning religion, were all repealed. And in
November 1554, bifliop Bonner " fet up the old worfhip
at Paul's, on St. Katherine's day ; and it being the cuftom,
that on fome holydays, the quire went up to the Iteeple to
fing the anthems, that fell on that night : — and the next
day, being St. Andrew's, he did officiate himfelf, and had
a folemn procefiion."

After this period, during the fubfequent years of Mary's
reign, the public fervice was every where performed in the
Roman Catholic manner, throughout the kingdom ; and
we may imagine that the numerous compofitions to Latin
words, which have been preferved of Dr. Tyt, White, TaUis,
Bird, and the reft of our moft eminent liarmonifts, were
produced and performed at this time, while the Romi/h
religion had the afcendant. And indeed it appears by a
record, now in the poffedion of the Antiquarian Society,
that the lift of Mary's chapel eftabliftiment contains nearly
the fame names as that of her brother Edward.

Queen Elizabeth. (,See Elizabeth.) In fpeaking of
mufic during the long and profperous reign of queen
Elizabeth, our nation's honour feems to require a more dif-
fufe detail than at any other time : for perhaps we never had
fo juft aclaim to equality with the reil of Europe, where
mufic was the moft fuccefsfuUy cultivated, as at this period ;
when indeed there was but little melody any where. Yet,
with refpeft to harmony, canon, fugue, and fuch laboured
and learned contrivances as were then chiefly ftudied and
admired, we can produce fuch proofs of great abilities in
the compofitions of our countrymen, as candid judges of
their merit muft allow to abound in every kind of excel-
lence that was then known or expefled.

Elizabeth, as well as the rtft^ or Henry VIII. 's children,
and indeed all the princes of Europe at that time, had been
taught mufic early in hfe. For Camden, in giving an ac-
count of her ftudies, fays, that " ftie underftood well the
Latin, French, and Italian tongues, and was) indiff'erencly
well feen in the Greek. Neither did ihe uegleft muficke,

QUE

fo far forthe as might become a princed'e, being able to fmg-

and play on the lute prettily and fweetly."

There is reafon to coiulude, that (he continued to amufe
h.'rfelt with mufic many years after (he alceaded the throne.
Sir James Melvil gives an account of a curious converfation
which he had with this princcfs, to whom he was fent on
an embafly by Mary, queen gf Scots, in 1564. After her
majefty had allied him how his queen dreiled ? What was
the colour of her hair ? Whether that or her's was bed ?
Which of them two was faireft ? And which of them was
higheft in ftature ? " Then (lie aflced, what kind of ex-
ercifes (he ufed I" I anfwered, fays Melvil, " that when
I received my difpatch, the queen was lately come from the
Highland hunting : that when her more ferious aflTairs per-
mitted, file was taken up with reading of hiftories : that
fometimes flie recreated herfelf in playing upon the lute and
virginals. She afl^'ed if (he played well ? I faid, reafon-
ably for a queen."

" The fame day, after dinner, ray lord of Hunfden drew
me up to a quiet gallery, that I might hear fome mulic,
(but he faid, that he duril not avow it,) where I might
hear the queen play upon her virginals. After I had
hearkened a while, I took by the tapell. y that hung before
the door of the chamber, and feeing her back was toward
the door, I entered within the chamber, and (lood a pretty
fpace hearing her play excellently well. But (he left otf
immediately, fo foon as- (he turned about and faw me. She
appaared to be furprifed to fee roe, and came forward,
feeming to ftrike me with her hand ; alleging, (he uled
not to play before men, but when (he was folitary, to (hun
melancholy. She afked how I came there ? I anfwered,
as I was walking with my lord Hunfden, as we paffed by
the chamber door, I heard fuch a melody as ravi{hed me,
whereby I was drawn in ere I knew how ; cxcufing my
fault of homelinefs, as being brought up in the court of
France, where fuch freedom was allowed ; declaring myfclf
willing to endure what kind of puni(hment her majefty
(hould be pleafed to inflicl upon me for fo great offence.
Then (he fate down low upon a cu(hion, and I upon my
knees by her ; but with her own hand (he gave me a cu(hion,
to lay under my knee ; which at iirft I refufed, but (he
compelled me to take it. She enquired whether my queen
or (he played bell. In that I found myfelf obliged to
give her the praife."

If her majefty was ever able to execute any of the pieces
that are preferved in a MS. which goes under the name of
" Queen Elizabeth's Virginal Book," fhe mull have been
a very great player: as fome of thefe pieces, which were
compofed by Tallis, Bird, Giles, Farnaby, Dr. Bull, and
others, are fo difficult, that it would be hardly poffible to
find a mailer in Europe, who would undertake to play one
of them at the end of a month's pradtice.

Lefides the lute and virginals, Elizabeth was a performer
on the violin, and on an iiiftrument fomething like a lute,
but ftrung with wire, and called the poliphant. A violin
of a fingular conftrudlion, with the arms of England, and
the crelt of Dudley, earl of Leiceller, tliis queen's favourite,
engraved upon it, was purchafed at the fale of the late
duke of Dorfet's effefts. The date of its make, 1578. It
is very curioufty carved ; but the feveral parts are (o thick
and loaded with ornaments, that it has not more tone than
a mute, or violin with a fordine ; and the neck, which is
too tliick for the gTafp of the hand, has a hole cut in it
for the thumb of the player, by which the hand is fo con-
fined, as to be rendered incapable of (hifting, fo that no-
thing can be performed upan this inftrument, but what lies
within the reach of the hand in its tirft pofition. Playford
I - tells

QUE

tells us, that " Queen Elizabeth was not only a lover of
this divine fciencc (mufic), but a good profKicnt tliert-in ;
and I have been informed, i fays he, ; by an ancient mufician,
and her fervant, that Ihe did often recreate herfelf on an
excellent inllrument, called the poliphnnt, not much unlike
a lute, but ftrung with wire."

Among the Sloane MSS. inthe Britifh Mufeum, No 15ZO,
there is a lift of the officers of the court of revenue in
this reign ; in which is included the mufical eftablilhment
of her majefty's hoiifehold, about the year 1587.

^ Mujy/yons.

£

s.

J.

The fervant

Fee

24

6

<5

Trompeters fixtecn. Fee to every

of them

24

6

8

Lull's, harps, aiulfi/igers.

Chief Inter

Fee

40

0

0

Chief harper

-

20

0

0

Rell of the luters

.

19

0

0

The other of the harps

-

9

0

0

And

-

8

0

0

Bagpiper

Minilrels fline, whereof feven at

Fee

12
18

13
5

4
0

every of them ; one at

.

24

6

0

and thother at

-

66

0

8

Six children to fing

Rebeck two

Fee

28

6

6

Sackbutt fix, whereof five having

-

24

6

8

by the year, and one at

-

36

10

0

Vialls eight, whereof fix at

.

30

8

4

one at -

-

20

0

0

and thother at

-

10

0

0

Players on the virginalls three, one
and thother two at

at

-

50
30

0
0

0
0

a piece.

Mufitions ftraungers feven, whereof

fix

have

30

la

0

and one

-

38

0

0

Drumfleds three, every of them

-

18

5

0

Players on the flute two, at

-

18

5

0

a piece.
Makers of inftruments : Regall-makers

20

0

0

Players of enterludes eight, every of the

m p. ann.

66

0

8

Organ-maker

-

20

0

0

•Her majefty's chapel eftablilhment was nearly the fame,
in number and lalaries, as that of her brother and fifter,
Edward and Mary. Indeed, it feems as if the religious
fcruples of muficians had been confiderably diminiflied by
the feverity with which Teftwood had been treated in the
time of Henry VIII., and the peril into whicliMarbeck's zeal
for reformation had involved him. For in comparing the
chapel eftabliftiments of Edward, Mary, and Elizabeth, we
find, that however the creeds of thefe monarchs differed,
their muficians had conrtantly tuned their confciences to the
court pitch: /'. e. in perl. ft unifon with the orders of
their fovereign, the fupreme head of the church.

Camden fays, that " the Rymifli religion remained a full
moneth and more after the death of queen Mary, in the
fame ftate as before." For Elizabeth, who began her
reign November 17th, 1558, had a folemn fervice performed
for her fifter Mary at Weftminfter, December ^th, and
another December 20th, for the emperor Chai'les V. ; and
thefe, as well as her own coronation, were celebrated in the
Romifh manner.

Burnet fays, that " Elizabeth had been bred up from
ber infancy with a liatred of the Papacy, and a love to the

QUE

Reformation ; but yet as her firft impredions in her father's
reign were in favour of fuch old rites as he had ft 11 re-
tained ; fo in her own nature (lie loved ftate, ai.d fome
magnificence, in religion as well as in every thing elfe."

We have no other mufic printed exprefsly for the cathe-
dral fervice to Englifti words during the reign of Ed-
ward VI. than that of Marh ck, which was mere canto
fermo, without counterpoint ; but the year after the pub-
lication of the Eiiglifli Liturgy by queen Elizabeth, tha
following choral work appeared : " litcttainc notce fct (oui)
in foure ana tfjrre pattca, to fac fono at tijp 3©onunc ?iOmmu=
nion, mX) (ttbenina IPtfiut, bcrp lucEaTatic for tbc Cljurcljcof
liTJ^alle to be frctiucutct) auB ufrti : anU unco tt)tm be a'D'att
Bitjjrs iSot)Ip If raina anti ildfalmca, in tf)f li6e foimc, to tijr
fjonout ant) praife of iSoti. Jmpiim:!! at ILontion, olier aiticrfs
sate, bfnratb Sr. QSattins, bp Tlohn Dap, 1560." The
authors of thefe compofitions were Tallis, Cawfton, John-
fon, Oakland, Shepherd, and Taverner.

In 1565, our ecclefiaftical compofers, encouraged pro-
bably by the reception of the former publication, and
favour of the queen, printed another coUeftion of offices,
with mufical notes, under the following title : " ii(x!oniinB
anB (Ebrmiig i^tagct anB tiiommumon, fct foctbc in fourc pattcc,
to be fong in <3t)unt}cs, bott) for S&cn anB SbilBren, taitn Bjjbrrs
otI;er iSoBIp lyrapctd anB antfjcms, of funBtp H^tna Bopnea."

The muficians who contributed to this colleftion were
Thomas Cawfton, Heath, Robert Hafleton Knight, John-
fon, Tallis, Oakland, and Shepherd.

Thefe two publications by John Day, fixed, for near a
century, the ftyle of our choral mufic ; of which the move-
ment was grave, the harmony grateful, and the contrivance
frequently ingenious.

The great muficians of queen Elizabeth's reign were
Dr. Tye, John White, Thomas Tallis, William Bird,
Dr. Bull, and Thomas Morley. And thefe, as ecclefiafti-
cal compofers, were perhaps equal in learning and genius
to the greateft contemporary contrapuntifls on the conti-
nent of Europe.

We muft not , terminate our account of the cultivation
and progrefs of mufic by queen Elizabeth and lier fubjefts,
witliout making honourable mention of her majefty's " Vir-
ginal Book," and referring for a fummary account of its
contents to Bird, William. In all our enquiries after
mufical curioi'ities throughout Europe, we have met with no
pieces fo elaborate and difficult for the harpfichord, as thofe
by our ingenious countrymen.

This book, equally valuable for its antiquity and con-
tents, was purchafed by Bremner at Dr. Pepufch's fale,
1762, whofe property it was to the time of his death.
After which it pafled into the hands of vifcount Fitzwilliams,
in whofe pofleffion, we believe, it ftill continues. _

It is a magnificent folio MS. curioufly bound in red
Morocco, with gilt leaves. Tliere are nearly 70 pieces by
Dr. Bull in this volume. The writing is fmall, but uncom-
monly neat, upon fix lines. The compofitions are in gene-
ral extremely elaborate and difficult ; particularly thofe by
Bird, Dr. Bull, and Giles Farnabie, who have all contri-
buted largely to the furnifhing of this volume, which con-
tains near three hundi'ed pieces. The firft movement in
the book is an old Englifh tune, called " Walfingham,"
beginning in C natural, and ending in A major, which Dr.
Bull has varied in a molt: full and complicated ftyle, thirty
different ways. Signora Margarita, the wife of Dr. Pe-
pufch, when (lie quitted the Opera ftage, applied clofely
to the pra^ftice of the harpfichord ; upon which inftrument
file became a great proficient. However, with all her own
diligence and talents, affifted by the fcieuce and experience

of

QUE

of her luidiaiid, Cne was never able to vanquKh the difficul-
ties of this piece, by Dr. Bull. And fevcral of Dr. Pc-
pufch's friends and pupils, wiio went frequently to his apart-
ments at the Charter-houfe, have allured us, that though
this manufcHpt was conftantly open upon her harpfichord
deflv, (he never advanced to the end of the variations ; as
feems likewife manifeft from the colour, as well as wear
and tear, of the leaves, which are much more clean and
entire in every other part of the book, than at the firli;
ftrains of this compofition. ,

Queen Mary II. joint fovereign with William III.,
feems to have done little more for muiic, than patronife
Mrs. Arabella Hunt, and the old Scots tune of « Cold
and raw the wind doth blow." See Mary.

Queen Anne, in Geography, a poll-town of America,
in Prince George county, Maryland, lituated on the W. fide
of Patuxent river, acrofs which is a wooden bridge. This
fmall town is laid out on a regular plan, at the foot of a
hill. It contains a few ftores, and warehoufes tor the infpec-
tion of tobacco ; 25 miles E.N.E. of Wafliington.

Queen Anne's, a county of Maryland, bounded W. by
Chefapeak bay, and N. by Kent county ; containing 16,648
inhabitants. Its chief town is Centerville. Belonging to
this county is Kent ifland, 14 miles long from N. to S. and
6i broad from E. to W. It is low, but the land is fertile,
and its eaftern fide is bordered with fait marfh.

Queen Catherine' j- Fonland, the northernmoft point
of Terra del Fuego, at the eaft entrance into the ftraits of
Magellan, difcovered by Frobiflier in 1576.

Queen Charlotte'j- Foreland, the S.E. extremity of
New Caledonia. N. lat. 22° 15'. E. long. 167° 14'. —
Alfo, the S.W. point of New Hanover, in the Eaft Indian
fea, fo called in 1767 by Capt. Carteret. The land about it
is remarkable for a number of little liummocke, or hills. S.
lat. 2° 29'. E. long. 148° 27'.

Queen Charlotte'j' JJland, an ifland in the Pacific
ocean, about fix miles long, and one broad, difcovered in
the year 1767, by captain WalUs. It is defcribed as fandy
and level, full of trees, without underwood, and abounding
with fcurvy-grafs. The canoes of tliis ifland appeared to be
about 30 feet long, 4 feet broad, and ji deep. The inha-
bitants were of a middle ftature, and dark complexion, with
long black hair, hanging loofe over their fhoulders. The
■ men were well made, and the women handfome. Their gar-
ments were a kind of coarfe matting, faftened about their
middle, and capable of being brought round their fhoulders.
The men who landed faw no appearance of any kind of
metal, but oblerved feveral tools made of fhells and ftones,
(harpened and fitted into handles, like adzes, chiflels, and
awls. They faw feveral repofitories of the dead, in which
bodies were left to putrefy, under canopies, and not depo-
fitedin the ground. The ifland was taken pofleflion of by
captain Wallis and his crew, in the name of liis Britannic ma-
jelly. They alfo left fome hatchets, nails, glafs bottles, beads,
/hillings, fixpences, and halfpence, as prefents to the natives.
S.lat. l(f 18'. W. long. 138° 4'.

Queen Charlotte'j IJlands, a group of iflands, difco-
vered in 1767 by Capt. Carteret, confiding of Egmont's
ifland or New Guernfey, Lord Howe's ifland or New Jer-
fey, and feveral others. A quarrel having occurred in confe-
quence of the imprudent conduft of the mafier of Capt.
Carteret's fliip, between the crew and the natives, feveral of
the latter were killed, and four of the former died in confe-
quence of their wounds. This unfortunate event prevented
any intcrcourfe with the inhabitants of thefe iflands. Egmont
ifland, fays Capt. Carteret, who called it by this name in
honour of the earl, is the fame with the Santa Cruz of the

QUE

Spaniards ; and the place in which the fliip had lain he called
Siualloiu bay ; about ten miles W. from this bay is a fmall
ifland, near the coafl, called Portland's ifland ; and to the bay
fi.rther wefi., where the (hip's cutter iiad been attacked by
tlie Indians, he gave the name of Bloody lay. In this bay,
is a fmall rivulet of frefh water, and here were feen many
houfes, and near the water-fide, one much longer than any
of the reft, which feemed to be a kind of common hall, or
council-houfe, and was neatly built and thatched. The fides
and tile floor of this edifice were covered with a kind of fine
matting, and bundles of arrows were hung up in it ready for
ufc. At this place there were alfo many fine gardens and
plantations, inclofed by a fence of ftone, and planted with
cocoa-nut trees, bananas, plantains, yams, and other vege-
tables. About three miles W. of this town was another of
coiifiderable extent, in the front of which, near the water,
was a breall-work of ftone, about four feet fix inches high,
angularly formed like a fortification ; from which, and
from other circumftances, there is reafon to believe that the
natives have frequent wars among themfelves. At the
diftance of two or three miles farther weftward was found a
fmall bight, receiving a river, which was called Granville's
river, and weflward of it is a point, to which was given the
name of Ferrar's point. From this point the land forms a
large bay, near which is a town of great extent, and appa-
rently very populous. About feven m.iles W. of Ferrar's
point is another, that was called Carteret's point, from which
a reef of rocks, that appears above water, runs out to the
diftance of about a cable's length. To the W. of this was
another large town, fronted like the laft, and the people who
thronged to the beach while the fhip was palling, performed
the fame kind of circular dance with thofe of the former
place. They were furniflied with a number of canoes of dif-
ferent fizes. ■ The inhabitants of Egmont ifland are ex-
tremely nimble, vigorous, and aftive, and feem as well qua-
lified to live on the water as on the land, for they were in
and out of their canoes almoft every minute. With their bows
and arrows they do execution at an incredible diftance. Tlieir
arrows were pointed with flint, nor was there feen among
t' em any appearance of metal. The country, in general,
is woody and mountainous, intermixed with many vallies ;
feveral fmall rivers flow from the interior part of the country
into the fea, and uppn the coaft there are many harbours.
S. lat. 9° 50' to 11° 20'. E. long. 163' 30' to 165° 10'.
Hawkelworth's Voyages, vol. i. p. 349, &c.

Queen Charlotte'j IJlandf, called by Capt. Gray, of
the United States, who vifited them in 1789, and by Ame-
rican navigators, " Wafhin^ton iflands," a group of iflands
on the N.W. coaft of America. See Queen Charlotte'j
IJland.

Queen Charlotte'j Sound. See Queen Charlotte'j-
Sound. Mr. Anderfon, who vifited this found four times,
has made the following remarks on the country near it. The
land is every where uncommonly mountainous, rifing imme-
diately from the fea into large hills, with blunted tops. At
confiderable diftances are valhes, or rather impreffions on the
fides of the hills, which are not deep, each terminating towards
the fea in a fmall cove, with a pebbly or fandy beach, be-
hind which are fmall flats, where the natives generally build
their huts, at the fame time landing their canoes upon the
beaches. The bafes of thefe mountains, at leafl towards the
fliore, are conftituted of a brittle, yellowifli fand-ftone, which
acquires a blueifh call, where the fea wafhes it. It runs, in
fome places, in horizontal, and, at other places, in oblique
ftrata ; being frequently divided, at fmall diftances, by thin
veins of coarfe quartz. The mould, or foil, which covers
this, i» of a yeUowifh call, not unUke marie, and is com-
monly

QUE

monly from a foot to two or more in tliickiiefs. The qua-
lity of this foil is beft indicated by the luxuriant jrrowth of
its produftions : tlie hills being one continued forell of trees,
owing the flrength of their vegetation partly to the foil, and
partly alfo to the agreeable temperature of the climate. In
February, correfponding to our Auguil, the thermometer
was not higher tlian 66" ; and in June, correfponding to
our December, the mercury never fell lower than 48". The
weather is, in general, good ; but fometimes windy, with
heavy rain, which, however, never laits above a day ; nor
is it ever exceffive. Among the trees, which covered the
hills, and which are of two forts, one fupplied the place of
fpruce in maknigbecr, for which purpofe a llrong decoftion
of its leaves was fermented with treacle or iugar. Tke otlier
fort of tree refembled a maple, and its wood ferved for fuel.
On the fmall flat fpots behind there is a great variety of trees.
Among other plants that were ufefu!, may be reckoned the
wild celery, which grows plentifully almoft in every cove,
and one that was called fcurvy-grafs, though very different
from the plant to which we give that name. Both forts were
boiled every morning, with wheat ground in a mill, and with
portable foup for the people's breakfaft, and amongfl their
peafe-foup for dinner. Sometimes they were ufed as fallad,
or dreffed as greens. There is another plant, which pro-
duces a fine filky flax, of which the natives make their gar-
ments. A fpecies of long pepper is alfo found in great
plenty. The birds are almoft entirely peculiar to the place.
The principal fifh caught with the feine were mullets and ele-
phant-fifh, with a few foles and flounders ; but thofe which
the natives moflly fupplied were a fort of fea-bream, of a
filver colour, with a black fpot on the neck, large conger-
eels, and a fifh in fhape like the bream, but fo large as to
weigh five, fix, or feven pounds, and called " Mogge" by
the natives. Of all the forts of fifh, which are here
numerous, the mogge, fmall falmon, and colour fifh, as
the feamen called it, though different from ours, are fu-
perior to the reft. The rocks furnifh a great variety of
fhell-fifh. Infefts are very rare. In this extenfive land there
are not even traces of any quadruped, excepting only a few
rats, and a fort of fox-dog, which is a domeftic animal with
the natives. Neither is there any mineral worth notice, but
a green jafper or ferpent-ftone, of which the New Zealanders
make their tools and ornaments.

The natives do not exceed the common ftature of Euro-
peans, and, in general, are not fo well made. Their colour
is of different cafts, from a deep black to a yellowifh or
olive tinge ; and their features are alfo various, (ome refem-
bling Europeans. But in general their faces are round, with
their lips full, and alfo their nofes towards the point ; though
the firft are not uncommonly thick, nor the lafl flat. Their
teeth are generally broad, wiiite, and well fet ; and their eyes
large, with a very free motion, which feems the efieft of
habit ; their hair is black, ftraiglit, and ftrong ; commonly
cut fhort on the hind part, with the reft tied on the crown of
the head ; but fome have it curling, and of a brown colour.
In the young, the countenance is generally free or open ;
but in many of the men it has a ferious caft, and fometimes
afullennefsorreferve, efpecially if they are ftrangers. The
women are in general fmaller than the men ; but have few
peculiar graces. The drefs of both fexes is alike ; and con-
fifts of an oblong garment, about five feet long and four
broad, and made of the filky flax before mentioned. This
feems to be their moft material and complex manufacture,
and is executed by knotting ; and their work is often orna-
mented with pieces of dog-fl<m, or checquered at the cor-
ners. They bring two corners of this garment over their
fhoulders, and fallen it on the brgaft, with the other part
Vol. XXIX.

QUE

which corers the body ; and about the belly a is again tied
with a girdle made of mat. Sometimes they cover it with
large feathers of birds, (which feem to be wrought into the
piece of cloth when it is made,) or with dog-fldn ; and that
alone fometimes worn as a covering. Over this garment
many of them wear mats, which reach from their fhoulders
to their heels. But the moft common outer covering
is a quantity of fedge-plant, badly dreffed, wliich they
faften on a ftring to a confiderable length, and throwing it
about the flioulders, let it fall down on all fides, as far as
the middle of the thighs. By way of ornament, they fix in
their heads feathers, or combs of bone or wood, adorned
with pearl-fliell, or the thin inner fl<in of fome leaf; and in
the ears both of men and vcomen, which arc pierced, or ra-
ther flit, are hung fmall pieces of jafper, bits of cloth, 01
beads, when they can get them. A few alfo have the feptum
of tlie nofe bored in the lower part. They wear long beards,
but are fond of having them fliaved. Some are punAured
or ftained in the face, with curious fpiral and other figures, of
a black or deep blue colour ; but it is doubtful whether this
be ornamental, or intended as a mark of peculiar diftinftion :
and the women who are marked fo, have the punfture only
on their lips, or a fmall fpot on their chins. Both fexes
often befmear their faces and heads with a red paint, which
feems to be a martial ochre, mixed with greafe ; and the
women fometimes wear necklaces of fliark's teeth, or bunches
of long beads, which feem to be made of the leg-bones of
fmall birds, or a particular fliell. They live in fmall coves,
in companies of forty or fifty, or more ; and fometimes in
fingle families, buildmg their huts contiguous to each other ;
which are in general miferable lodging places. The beft was
about thirty feet long, fixteen broad, and fix high ; built
exaftly in the manner of an Enghfli barn. They feemed to
have no other furniture than a {ew fmall bafkcts or bags, in
which they put their fifliing-hooks and other trifles. They
five chiefly by fifliing, making ufe either of nets of different
kinds, or of wooden fifh-hooks, pointed with bone ; but fo
oddly made, that a ftranger would be at a lofs to know how
they can anfwer fuch a purpofe. Their boats are well built
of planks, raifed upon each other, and faftencd with ftrong
withes, wliich alfo bind a long narrow piece on the outfde
of the feams, to prevent their leaking. Some are fifty feet
long, and fo broad as to be able to fail without an outrigger ;
but the fmaller fort commonly have one ; and they often,
faften two together by rafters, forming a double canoe. They
carry from five to thirty men, or moi-e ; and often have a
large head, ingenioufly carved, and painted with a figure at
the point, which feems intended to reprefent a man with his
features diftorted by rage. Their paddles are about four or
five feet long, narrow, and pointed ; with which, when they
keep time, the boat is puflied along pretty fuiftly. Their
fail, which is feldom ufed, is made of a mat of a triangular
fhape, having the broadeft part above. Their method of
feeding correfponds with the naftincfs of their perfons, which
often fmell difagreeably, from the quantity of greafe about
them, and their clothes never being waflied. We have feen
them eat the vermin with which their heads are plentifully
ftocked. They alfo ufed to devour with the greateft eager-
nefs large quantities of ftinking train oil, and blubber of
feals, which we were melting at the tent, and had kept near
two months ; and on board the fhips they were not fatisfied
with emptying the lamps, but adually fwallowed the cotton
and fragrant wick with equal voracity. Thele people mani-
fell as much ingenuity, both in invention and execution, as
any uncivihzed nations under fimilar circumftances. For,
without the ufe of any metal tools, they make every thing b)
which they procure their fubfiftence, elothing, and warlike
I i weapon's,

QUE

weapons, with a degree of neatiiefs, ftrength, and conve-
nience for accomplilliing their feveral piirpofes. Their cliief
mechanical tool is formed exaftly after thu manner of our
adzes, and is made, as are alio the chifFel and goudge, of the
jafper already mentioned, or of a black, fmooth, and very
foHd (lone. But their mailer-piece feems to be carving,
which they ufe for various purpofes, even the moil trivial.
Their fubilitute for a knife is a ihell, a bit of flint or jafper :
and as an auger, they fix a (liark's tooth in the end of a
fmall piece of wood. Tiicy have alfo a fmall faw made of
fome jagged fiQies' teeth, iixed on the convex edge of a
piece of wood, nicely carved : but this, they fay, is only
ufed to cut up tlie bodies of their enemies whom they kill
in battle. No people have a quicker fenfe of injury done to
them, and none arc more ready to refent it. Their temper is
fufpicious and mlilrullful ; and they are fo difhoneft, that they
Ileal every thing upon which they can lay their hands. Sucli
conduA may be expected, where little fubordination exifls,
and where no man's authority feems to extend further than his
own family. Their public contentions are frequent, or rather
perpetual, and it appears, from their number of weapons,
and dexterity in ufing them, that war is their principal pro-
feffion. Thefe weapons are fpears, patoos, and halberts, or
fometimes Hones. The firll are made of hard wood, pointed,
from five to twenty, or even thirty feet in length. The
fhort ones are uf;d for throwing as darts. The " pa-
too," or " emeete," is of an elliptical fhape, about eighteen
inches long, with a handle made of wood, ilone, the bones
of fome fea animal, or green jafper, and feems to be their
principal dependence in battle. The halbert, or long club,
is about five or fix feet long, tapering at one end with a
carved head, and at the other broad or flat, with fltarp
edges. Before they begin t'he onfet, they join in a war-fong,
to which they all keep the exatleil time, and fome raife
their paflion to a degree of frantic fury, attended with the
moll horrid dillortion of thier eyes, mouths, and tongues,
to Itrike terror into their enemies : which, to thofe who
have not been accultoniedto fuch a pratlice, makes them ap-
pear moi-e like demons tlian men, and would almoft cliill the
boldefl: with fear. To this fucceeds a circumftance, almofl;
foretold in their fierce demeanour, horrid, cruel, and dif-
graceful to human nature ; whicli is, cutting in pieces, even
before they are perfectly dead, the bodies of their enemies,
and, after dreffing them on a fire, devouring tiie flefb, not
only without reluctance, but with peculiar fatisfaftion.
And yet ';hefe favages lament the lofs of their friends, with a
' violence of expreflion, which indicates the moft tender re-
membrance of them. The children are initiated, at a very-
early age, into all the praftices, good and bad, of their fa-
thers. They not only join in the war-fong, but they like-
wife fing, with fome degree of melody, the traditions of their
forefathers, their aftions in war, and other indifferent fub-
jecls ; of all which they are immoderately fond, and fpend
much of their time in thefe amufements, and in playing on a
fort of flute. Their language is far from being harfli or dif-
agreeable, though the pronunciation is frequently guttural ;
and whatever qualities are rcquifite in any other language to
make it mufical, certainly obtain to a confiderable degree
here, if we may judge from the melody of fome forts of
their fongs. It is alfo fufficieutly comprehenfive, though,
in many refpt-fts, defic-.-nt, if compared witli our European
languages, wliich owe their perfedtion to long improvement.
Mr. Anderfon has given a fpecimea of it. (Cook's Third
Voyag,-, vol. i. ) Li tlie year 1770 Capt. Cook left among
the inhabitants a boar and two lows, witii fome vegetables for
cultivation. In 1773 he faw one of the fows, and under-
ftood that the otiier and the boar were both living. The

Q U E

(heep and goats did nut fucceed ; the latter having been
killed by one of the natives, and the ram having ran into the
fea.

Queen's, the middle county of Long ifland. New York,
about 30 miles long, and 12 broad, containing fix towiv
(hips, and 19,336 iniiabitants. Jamaica, Newtown, Hamp-
ftead, in which is a handfome court-lioufe, and Oyller bay,
are the principal towns in this county.

Queen's, a county of Nova Scotia, comprehending a
part of the lands on the cape, on the S. fide of the bay of
Fundy. Tlie fettlements are as follow ; wz. Argyle, on
the S. fide of the bay of Fundy, where a few Scots and
Arcadiaas refide : next to this is Yarmouth, fettled chiefly
by emigrants from New England ; Barrington, within the
ifland, called cape Sable, fettled originally by Quakers from
Nantucket. Befides thefe are Port Raifoir, fo called by the
French, and originally fettled by the North Iri(h ; Liverpool
and Rofeway, fettled and inhabited by emigrants from New
England.

QaEEN-'j Courtly, a county of Ireland, ellablifhed in the
reign of the firll Mary, which comprehended the old dif-
trift of Leix. Botli the county and chief town, Mary-
borough, received their names in compliment to the fove-
reign. It is fituated on the S.W. of Kildare, from which
it IS partly divided by the river Barrow, and is of a very
compaft form, being 25 Irifh (nearly 32 Englifli) miles in
length, and as many in breadth. Tlie fuperficial contents
are about 235,300 acres, or 367 fquare miles, equal to
378,023 acres, or about 590 fquare miles Engli(h. There
are 50 parifhes, 26 only of which have churches, and a po-
pulation of 82,000 according to Dr. Beaufort, and about
90,000 as the medium of various calculations. The high
and deep mountains of Sliebh-bloom (called alfo Ard-na-
Erin, which in the Irifh language fignifies the height of
Ireland) form fo impraclicable a birrier between the King's
and Queen's counties, that in a range of fourteen miles they
afford but one, and that a very difficult and narrow pafs into
the King's county, called tlie " Gap of Glandine." In
this great ridge are the fources of the Barrow and the
Nore ; the Barrow running N.E. to Monaftierevan, where
it changes its direction to the S., and the Nore croffing the
Queen's county by a fouthern courfe into Kilkenny. The
Dyfart hills in the eaftern divifion are confpicuous and pic-
turefque. Handing rather fingly than connefted. From thefe
eminences, through the villas formed by their particular
fituation, is commanded the view of a fine and beautiful
country, higiily adorned with rich plantations and magni-
ficent demefnes. The rell of the county is rather flat, but
lies high. The whole is watered with rivers and numerous
mountain dreams, and according to fir Charles Coote, its fu-
perficial appropriations may be thus eftimated.

Acr«^s.

Arable lands, paflure, and meadow 210,000

Woods and plantations - 1,300

Water . - . i,cco

Bog, mountain, and wade - 21,000

Roads . . - 2,000

235,300

The map belonging to the grand jury, reckons 244,938
acres, and of thefe 60,000 bog and mountain.

Almod every d.fcription of loil is found in this county, and
it varies from a very diff clay to a fandy loam, which, though
light, is yet fertile ; a ilrong gravelly foil, very favourable
to corn, is alio prevalent. Lime-ftone is fo common, that
there are rich quarries of it in almoll every townland. The

foil

QUE

foil of the SliVbh-bloom inountains is variable, the furface
inclining to a black and alternately yellow flilT clay, of un-
equal deplbs, covering; a loofc, rotten rock, or a gritty
gravel, with occ;.fionally a little appearance of lime-ftone.
The wcftern fide, more generally, inclines to a ftrong red
clay, not unlike the nature of the foil in (omc of th
northern counties in Irtjji.d, where oats and potatoes only
»re fown ; but it generally is, throughout, ij ongy, wet,
and boggy to the lummit, and very rocky. Through the
whole of the county, except in the fouiheaflern corner,
near Carlow, where tlie collieries are cxtrr,five, bog is well
interfperfed, and is the general fuel. The depth of tliefe
bogs is various, and in fome parts undifcovered, the beft
fuel lying in fome a few fpadcs depth below the furface, in
others very deep. The moors are a (hallow bog, with a
flratum of gravel or clay, under one or two fpades depth ;
this particular kind is eafily reclaimed, and becomes the bell
and lureft land in the county, and the coit is here but
trilling, indeed often repaid in one year, having all the ma-
terials within themfelves.

Amongll tlie mineral productions of this county, fir
Charles Cootc, the author of the Statiftical Survey, enume-
rates " coal, iron, copper, manganefe, mica, lime-ftone,
marble, free-llone, ochre, marie, fuller's-earth, and a great
variety of clays valuable in every branch of pottery."
Such an enumeration is of little ufe ; being recommended
neither "by detail of fafts and places, nor by accuracy of
information. The coal diftridl is in another part of the
fame work more fully noticed ; but the reader who wilhes
for information, is more likely to find it in the report of
Mr. Griffith, mining engineer of the Dublin Society, which
is fhortly to be publiflied. The coal is of that defcription
called j'Zonf coal, the glance-coal ot Jamefon, and beft known
by the name of Kilkenny coal. The Queen's county col-
lieries feem to have laboured under many difadvantages, from
want of capital or of proper exertion ; but a profpeft is
opening upon us of more attention to this fourcc of wealth.
There is a very fmall quantity of old timber in the Queen's
county. There are, indeed, leafes ftill in exiilence, by which
the tenant was obliged to cut, burn, or deftroy fo many
acres of wood, to clear the land for the plough ; a fyftem
which, if neceflary to the eftabliihment of order in the
county, was the caufe of reducing it to the bare ftate with
refpeft to timber, with which the Englifh traveller is fo
often ftruck. The Barrow and the Nore are the principal
rivers which water this county. Tiie latter ie not navigable,
though, being a fine deep and fpacious river, it might be
eafily rendered fo, by levelling the numerous weirs, that are
of great detriment to the adjoining lands, and throw up a
confiderable quantity of backwater.

The Barrow is navigable throughout from Portarlington,
near which it beautifully expands and v?inds through exten-
five and fertile banks. Tliere are no lakes which deferve
notice. Maryborough is the county town, near which, as
well as Mountmelich and Monntrath, there was a confider-
able woollen mani'.fadlure of ftuffs, &c. which has declined.
For any particulars refpefting the towns, the reader is re-
ferred to the refpeftive articles. Befides thofe mentioned,
Portarlington is a place of fome importance, and Stradbelly
a neat town. The county is reprefented in parliament by
two knights of the lliire, and by one member for the bo-
rough of Portarlington. Maryborough and Ballynekill
were disfranchifed at the union. Sir C. Coote's Statiftic?.!
Survey. Beaufort's Memoir.

Queen'j- Creek, a river of America, in North Carolina,
which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 34° 37'. W. long.
77° 28'.

QUE

Queen's River, a river of the ifland of Dominica, which
runs into the fea near Rofeau.

Qvf.Kti-Bee, a term given by late writers to what ufed to
be called tho. king-bee, or king of the bees ; a large and long-
bodied bee, of which kind there is only one found in every
fwarm, and which is always treated willi the greateft refptft
by the rell.

It is well known that the generation and whole economy
of bees principally depend upon this female fovcreign, and
that her prefei.ce is ablolutely ncceffary to the profperity and
fafety of the whole conimuuity ; infomuch that the lols of
the queen proves the certain and total deftniftion of the
fwarm or hive, unlefs the owner fupplies them in time with
another ruler. Without her prefence and direftion, the
other bees will do no manner of work ; they will gatiier
neither wax, nor honey, nor any other materials ; nor can
they breed and propagate their kind without her. A ftock
deprived of its queen, would yield to robbers, or elfe Ian-
guifh and pine away, fo tiiat the whole fociety would pcridi.
But as foon as a languidiing ilock is fupplied with a queen,
pleafure and aftivity are apparent through the whole hive ;
the prL-fenc'.' of the fovercign reftores vigour and exertion,
and her voice commands univerfal refpeft and obedience : of
fuch importance is the queen to the exiltence and profperity
of the other members of this community. As the parent and
fovereign of every fwarm is a female, the whole government
is vefted in one ; fo that where there happen to be more, as
there fometimes are, and efpecially in fwarms that are united,
confufion and difcord prevail, until all, except one, are ex-
pelled and flain.

As in forming artificial fwarms, and for other purpofes,
it will be neceflary to dillinguifli the queen from the other
bees, we (hall obferve, that fhe may be known by her fize,
which is much larger than that of the common working-bees,
and longer than that of the drones ; by the form and fhape
of her body, efpecially of the hinder part of it, which is
more taper, and terminates in a much fharper point tlian
the bodies of the other bees, in order the more readily to
reacli the bottom of the cells, where the eggs are depofited
for the propagation of the fpecies (fee Generation o/'Bees):
and alfo by her colour ; her upper parts being fcarcely at
all different in this refpeft from the honeybees, but her belly
and legs are of a very deep yellow, refembling the purefl and
the richeft gold. It is faid that fhe may alfo be diftin-
guifhed by the note of her voice, which is an oftave ; and by
her being one of the laft which falls with her belly up-
wards, when the bees of a fingle ftock are dropped into
an empty hive, in order to be united with thofe of another
ftock.

Naturalifts have obferved, that the queen-bees are pro-
duced in a manner peculiar to themfelves, and different from
the drones and working-bees. Some have fuppofed that the
eggs laid by the queen in a hive, and deftined for the pro-
duction of queen-bees, are of a peculiar kind ; but though
this is not the cafe, as M. Schiracii has lately difcovered,
yet there are particular cells appropriated for this purpofe.
Thefe cells are generally near the edges, and at the bottom of
the combs, and fometimes on the fides of a honey-comb ;
they are of an oblong orbicular form, and very ftrong ; and
are more or lefs numerous in different hives, as occafion feems
to require. It has been alfo fuppofed, that the matter with
which they are nourifhed is of a different kind and quality
from that employed for the nourifhment of the other bees ;
that which has been collected out of the royal cells being
of a gummy glutinous nature, of a deep tranfparent
red, and diflblving in the fire rather than crumbling to
powder.

1 1 2 It

QUE

It has been generally fiippofed, that the queen-bee is the
only fomale contained in the hive ; that the drones are the
males by which (he is fecundated ; and that the working-
bees are neutral, or of neither fex. But M. Schiracli has
lately eftablifhed a different doftrine, which has been alfo
confirmed by the later obfervations of Mr. Debraw. Ac-
cording to this writer, all the working or common bees arc
females in difguife ; and the queen-bee lays only two kinds
of eggs, -viz. thofe which are to produce the drones, and
thofe from which the working-bees are to proceed ; and
from any one or more of thefe, one or more queens may be
produced ; fo that every worm of the latter or common
kind, which has been hatched about three days, is capable,
under certain circumflances, of becoming the queen, or mother
of a hive. In proof of this dodtrine, new and fingular as
it may feem, he alleges a number of fatisfaftory and decifive
experiments, which have been fince verified by thofe of Mr.
Debraw. For the proof of this doftrine by Schirach and
Debraw, and the objeftions of Mr. Hunter, we refer to the
article Generat'wtt of Bees.

From this dottrine we may juftly infer, that the kingdom
of the bees is not, if the expreffion may be ufed, a jure
divino, or hereditary monarchy, but an eleftive kingdom ;
in which the choice of their future ruler is made by the
body of the people, while fhe is yet in the cradle, or in
embryo ; and who are determined by motives of preference
which will perhaps for ever elude the penetration of the
moft fagacious naturalilfs.

The conclufions drawn by M. Schirach, from experi-
ments of the preceding kind, very often repeated by him-
felf and others with the fame fuccefs, are, that all the
common or working bees were originally of the female fex ;
but that when they have undergone their lalt metamorphofis,
they are condemned to a flate of perpetual virginity, and the
organsof generation are obhtcrated ; merely becaufe they have
not been lodged, fed, and brought up in a particular manner,
while they were in the worm ftate. He fuppofes, that the
worm defigned by the community to be a queen, or mother,
owes its metamorphofis into a queen, partly to the extra-
ordinary fize of its cell, and its pecuhar pofition in it ; but
principally to a certain appropriate nourifhment found there
and carefully adminiftered to it by the working bees, while
it was in the worm ftate ; by which, and poffibly other means
unknown, the devoloperaent andextenfion of the germ of the
female organs, previoufiy exifting in the embryo, is effedled ;
and thofe differences in its form and fize are produced,
which afterwards fo remarkably diftinguifh it from the com-
mon working bees. Schirach's Hiftoire Nat. de la Reine
des Abeilles, &c. 8vo. 1772. Or, for an abftraft. Monthly
Review, vol. xlviii. p. 564, &c. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii.
part i. p. 29, &c. See Generation and Sex of Bees.

This difcovery is capable of being applied towards form-
ing artificial fvvarms, or new colonies of bees, by which
means the number of thefe ufeful infefts might be increafed,
and their produce in honey and wax proportionably aug-
mented. M. Schirach, as well as M. Haftorff, feem, how-
ever, to have been miftaken, when they atfert, that the
artificial queens, formed and reared in a community confifl-
ing only of working bees, proceed almoft immediately to
lay eggs, and to people the hive, without having had any
communications with tlie drones, and at a time when, us
they fuppofe, there were no drones in being. It is not
neceffary to admit the idea of tlie prolific quality of a
virgin queen-bee ; as nature has provided drones of different
iizes, for the purpofe of impregnating the eggs laid by the
fomale, and continuing the fpccies, adapted to different
occafio.is aixl circmnllances. Sec Droxe.

QUE

Quhhn'^ Bench. See KlN'oV Bench, &c.

Queen'/ Gilli/loiver, or l^'wlet, in Botany. See He«-

PEHI.S.

Queen Gold, aurum rcginn, an ancient royal revenue, be-
longing to the queen of England, during her marriage to
the king; and payable by divers pcrfons (upon feveral
grants of the king 1 by way of oblation out of fines, amount-
uig to ten marks, or upwards ; w'z. one full tenth part
above the entire fine, or ten po\inds for every hundred
pounds fine, on pardons and contrafts or agreements.

This becomes a real debt to the queen, by the name of
aurum regint, upon the party's bare agreement with the
king for a fine, and recording it without any farther pco-
mife, or contract, for this tenth part extraordinary.
Queen nf the Meadows, in Botany. See SpiRJEA.
Queen'j IVare. Sec Pottery.

Queen'j Theatre in the Haymarket, now the Opera-
houfe, was built in queen Anne's time by fir John Van-
burgh, and not finifhed till the fummer of 1705, at which
time there were only two theatres open ; Drury Lane, and
Lincoln's-Inn-Fields. Betterton, who was at the head of
the I^incoln's-lnn-Fields company, removed to the new
theatre in the Haymarket, April 9th, 1 705 ; when it
was opened with a new prologue, written by fir Samuel
Garth, and fpoken by Mrs. Bracegirdle. The play
was Dryden's " Tndian Emperor," with finging by the
Italian boy. April 23d, " The Merry Wives of Wind-
for," Falltaff by Betterton, with dancing by Mad. de
la Val. And on the 24th, a new farce called " The
Confultation ;" after which was performed an Indian
pafloral, called the " Loves of Ergafto," fet to mufic by
Giacomo Greber, the German mufician, \\ho had brought
over from Italy Margarita dc I'Epine; the part of Licoris
by the Italian boy. And this was the iiril attempt at
dramatic mufic in the Opera-houfe. The company con-
tinued ailing plays here till the end of June, when there
were three reprefentations of " Love for Love," a£led all
by women. July 20th, according to the Daily Courant,
Betterton and his company returned to the theatre in Lin-
coln's-Inn-Fields, where they continued to aft till the
Queen's theatre was entirely finifhed. We are the more
minute about the perfoi-mances in this theatre, as Gibber's
account, which has been generally followed by others, is
very inaccurate. Oftober 3Cth, Betterton and his com-
pany quilted Lincoln's-Inn-Fields a fecond time, and re-
turning to the Haymarket, opened that theatre, not with
an opera, but with fir John Vanburgh's comedy of the
" Confederacy," which was now afted for the firft time.
This excellent comedy, though the parts were very Itrongly
caft (Leigh, Dogget, and Booth, being among the men,
and Mrs. Barry, Mrs. Porter, and Mrs. Bracegirdle, among
the women,) ran but fix nights fucceffively, though the
performance of M. des Barques, a dancer jutt arrived from
France, was added to the entertainment. It was, indeed,
repeated once in November, and twice in December, this
year ; but it was generally found neceffary, even in a new
theatre, and with fo ftrong a compan)', to fortify the beft
plays with dances or mufic, and often with both. Some-
tim.s there was finging in Italian and Enghfh, by fignora
Maria, as lately taught by fignor N. Haym : and iome-
times mufic compofed by fignor Bononcini, and fongs by
fignora Lovicini, &c. Daily Courant.

QUEENBO ROUGH, in Geography, a borough and
market-town in the liberty oftheifle of Shepey, lathe of Scray,
and county of Kent, England, is fituated about three miles
fouth from Sheernefs, and forty-five eafl by fouth from
London. It was anciently called Cyningburgh, from be-
longing

i

QUE

longing to the Saxon kings, who had a caftle here, near the
welleni entrance of the Swale, which, after the conqueft, was
denominated the caftle of Siiepey. This fortrefs being totally
demolifhed in the reign of Edward III., that monarch com-
menced, in 1360, a more extenfive and magnificent one,
which was finifhed in the period of fix years, under the fu-
perintendance of the celebrated William of Wykeham, after-
wards biftiop of Winchefter. When the caftle was com-
pleted, Edward came and refided in it (evcral days, during
which time he conltituted the then village a free borough,
and ordered it to be called Queenborough, in honour of his
confort Philippa of Hainault. By the charter of incorpo-
ration, which bears date in 1366, he conferred fundry privi-
leges upon the burgeffes, and empowered them to eleft a
mayor, two bailiffs, four jurats, a town ferjeant, and a water
bailiff, who were to take their oath of allegiance before the
conilable of the caftle, and to aft as juftices of the peace
within the liberty of the corporation. This charter was con-
firmed, with additional privileges, by king Charles I.

Queenborough confifts chiefly of one ftreet, which is
very wide, and is formed moftly of modern buildings.
According to the parliamentary returns of 181 1, the
borough, which coincides in extent with the parifh, contains
163 houfes and 805 inhabitants, who are principally fiflicr-
men and oyfter dredgers. The market days are Monday and
Thurfday weekly, and there is a well-attended fair on the
5th of Augufl. This town fends two members to parlia-
ment, who are elefted by the mayor, jurats, bailiffs, and
burgelles, about 150 in number, though by the laft decifion
of the houfe of commons in 1729, the eleftive franchifewas
declared to refide only in the mayor, jurats, and common
council. The mayor is the returning officer, and the pa-
tronage is in the admiralty and board of ordnance.

Of the caftle built by king Edward, no traces remain
except the moat by which it was furrounded, and a well, by
which it was fupplied with water, as the town Hill is.
Though a large and mafiive ftrufture, and erefted, as the
letters patent exprefs it, " for the ftrength of the realm,
and for the refuge of the inhabitants of this ifle," it does
not appear to have ever been of any particular ufe, at leaft
it is never mentioned in hiftory as having been befieged, or
occupied as an important military port. It was neverthe-
lefs feveral times repaired ; firft by Richard II., and again
in the time of Henry VIII. Queen Elizabeth alfo feems
to have contributed to its prefervation and embellilhmcnt,
as her arms were difplayed on the cieling of tlie great
hall, furrounded by thofe of the nobility, and principal
gentry of the county, with the date 1593, affixed to fome
panegyrical veries in honour of that princefs. The church
here was originally built as a chapel to Minfter, a village
fituated about two miles from the town, and deriving its
name from the minllre, or nunnery founded there by Sex-
burga, widow of Ercombert, king of Kent, about the year
6^3. That princefs placed feventy-feven nuns in her new
inftitution, and took upon herfelf the office of abbefs ;
which file afterwards refigned to her daughter Ermenilda,
and retired to Ely, where her fifter Etheldred prefided.
During the incurfions of the Danes, this nunnery was
deferted and nearly deftroyed ; but when their invafions ceafed,
it was again tenanted by a few nuns, and continued to exitt,
though in a very mean ftate, till the year 1 130, when the
buildings were re-edified by Corbel, archbifhop of Canter-
bury, and filled with nuns of the order of St. Benedift.
At the diffolution their number was limited to a priorefs
and ten nuns, whofe eftates were eftimated at 1 29/. yj. lo^il.
annual rent. Thefe, with the fcite of the fupprefled monaf-
tery, were then granted to fir Thomas Cheyney, lord warden

QUE

and treafurer of the houfehold to king Henry VIII. Of
the buildings, a gate-houfc, and part of the church, are the
only remains. 1'he latter confifts of two aifles, a chancel,
and a neat chapel, with tlic h)wcr divifion of a fquarc tower
at the weft end. In conformity with the date of its ercftion,
fome of the arches are femicircular in form, but moft of
them are in the early pointed ftyle. In the fouth wall of
the chancel, under a range of ciiiquefoil arches, is the effigy
of a knight templar, faid to reprefent and commemorate fir
Robert de Shnrlaiid, lord of .Shurland, who was created a
knight banneret by Edward I., for his gallant conduft at the
fiege of Carlaverock, in Scotland. Beliind the figure, towards
the back of the recefs, is the reprcfentation of a horfe's head
in the aft of i wimming, which has given rife to much enquiry
among antiquaries, and to many fabulous and luperftitious
ftories among the vulgar. On the pavement are feveral brafTes
of knights and their ladies ; and under the arch feparating the
chancel from the chapel, is a gorgeous altar-tomb in honour
ot fir Thomas Cheyney, above-mentioned. Another altar-
tomb, near it, bears the recumbent figure of a Spanifh ge-
neral, or admiral taken prifoner by fir Francis Drake, on the
defeat of the " Invincible Armada." From an entry in
the parilh regifter, he appears to have died on board a fhip
at the Nore in 1 59 1. Beauties of England and Wales,
vol. vii. by E. W. Brayley.

QUEENSBURY, atownftiipof America, in Waftiing-
ton county, New York, bounded eafterly by Weftfield and
Kingfbury ; 35 miles N.E. of Albany.

QUEENSFERRY, South, a royal burgh and fea-port
town in the county of Linlithgow, Scotland, is fituated on
the fouthern Ihore of the Frith of Forth, at the diftance of
nine miles W.N.W. from Edinburgh, on the great road to
the north. It is firft mentioned in the charters of king Mal-
colm IV. by the dcfignation of " PafTagium Reginje," as is
generally fuppofed from the frequent ufe of the ferry here
by his great grandmother Margaret, queen to Malcolm Can-
more, a princefs highly celebrated in Scottilh hiftory for her
charitable and beneficent qualities. At that period, how-
ever, it was only a village and port, endowed with fome tri-
fling privileges : indeed, its conilitution as a royal burgh did
not take place till about the year 1556, when its elevation
to that rank wasftrenuoufly oppofed by the corporation of
Linlithgow. It is now governed by a provofl, one land
baillie, two fea baillies, a dean of guild, and a town coun-
cil, who, like moft other counfellors in royal boroughs, are
felf-elefted. Formerly this port enjoyed a confiderable trade,
and even fo late as the year 1640, it was frequented by above
twenty (hips belonging to refident owners ; but its traffic is
at prefent confined to the importation of coal, for the con-
fumption of the inhabitants, and of the , materials ufed in
the manufaftuie of brown foap, whicli, with the fifhery
and the bufinefs of the ferry, conftitute the chief fupport of
the town. The hai'bour is in good repair, and ii= frequently
reforted to as a place of retreat in hard gales, by the fmaller
veffels navigating the Forth. The paffage here does not
exceed two miles in breadth, and, except in very boifterous
weather, may be crolTed at all times with fafety and expedi-
tion. Much obfcurity prevails relative to the founding of this
ferry. The right of it is private property, and feems origi-
nally to have been attached to the lands of Murie Hall, which
lie in the vicinity of the town, and are traditionally faid to
have been appropriated for " upholding the paffage." The
prefent proprietors are feveral gentlemen poffeffing land on
either fide of the Forth, who let the paffage yearly by
public auftion. As all the northern mails, and moft car-
riage travellers, pafs at this ferry, the intcrcourfe between
its fhores is conftant and regular. Cattle alfo are tranf-

ported

QUE

ported over in great numbers, as well as carts and waggons;
bill tin- ditficulty and dang'-r of efTcfting thi-fe objctts, have
induced cattle drivers and carriers to go round by the bridge

at Stirling.

The parifli of Queensferry is of fmall extent, being con-
fin'-d entirely to the royalty. In ecclefiaflical matters it
forms part of the pr.-fb'ytery of. Linlithgow, and fynod
of Lothian and Tweedale ; and, according to tiie popu-
lation returns of 1811, contains 77 houfes and 558 inha-
bitants.

On the fummit of the ridge rifing from the fhorc here,
Hands Hopetoun-hoiife, the feat of the earl of Hopetoun,
which is perhaps equal in magnificence of afpeS to any
palace or refidence in Great Britain. The manfion is feated
on a noble lawn, forming a kind of terrace along the Forth
for more than a mile in front, and only terminated by the
Frith, which winds round it, and appears like a wide and
extenfive lake, interfperfird with iflands and enlivened with
a variety of (hipping. Behind the lioufe the ground is more
various, breaking into hills, vallies, and promontories, which
flioot into the Forth. All the grounds, to a confiderable
diftance, are planted and adorned ; and the houfe is judici-
oufly flanked with a thick wood, to proteft it againit the
violence of the northern winds. On this lide the Forth
affumes, at different points, different appearances, fometimes
putting on the femblance of a lake, and fometimes that of
a river. The houfe is a very noble difplay of architeftural
magniticence. It was begun by the celebrated architect fir
William Bruce, and finiftied by Mr. Adam, who is believed
to have added the wings. It is much to be regretted, that
the interior of this princely manfion does not correfpond
with the grand fcale of the exterior, in the fize and decora-
tions of the apartments. Beauties of Scotland by Robert
Forfyth, vol. iii. Carlifle's Topographical Diftionary of
Scotland, 4to. 1813.

QuEENbFEKRY, North, a fmall fea-port town in the dif-
trift and parifh of Dunfermline, Scotland, is fituated on the
northern fhore of the Frith of Forth, oppofite to the royal
burgh of South Queensferry, defcribed in the preceding
article. The principal export is whin-ftone for paving,
which is found i)i vaft abundance in the extenfive " whin-
ftone quarries" adjoining. Of that material a large pro-
portion is conveyed to London, and many towns on the
eaftern coaft of England. A hamlet, called St. Margaret,
between this village and the head-land, which forms the
weftern boundary of Inverkiething bay, is noted as the
landing place of prince Edgar Atheling, and his filler Mar-
garet, afterwards queen of Scotland, when they fled from
England to avoid the effedls of the conqueror's jealoufy of
Edgar's claim to the Englifti crown. By an aft of parlia-
ment, lately pafled, the ferry has been placed under excel-
lent regulations; and the harbour lOn each fide, but parti-
cularly on the north fide, has been much enlarged and im-
proved. A fignal houfe here contains apartments for the
accommodation of the truftees, the fuperintcndant, and boat-
men. Carhfle's Topographical Diftionary of Scotland, 410.
1813.

QUEEN'S-HOPE, or East-hope, a town in the parifli
of Eftyn, or Hope, cwmwd of Mertfordd, cantref of Uwch,
Nant, (now called the hundred of Mold,) and county of
Flint, North Wales, is fituaud near the river Alun, at the dif-
tance of fix miles N.W. from Wrexham. Together with the
adjoining caille and hamlet of Cacr-Gwrle, it conftitutes a
burgh, both by prescription, and in virtue of a charter
granred by Edward the Black Prince in 1351. That deed
orders that the conftable of the cattle fhall be mavor, ex
officio, and fliall nominate two bailiffs, to govern under him,

10

QUE

from among the burgeflbs. This place obtained the appel-
lation of Qucen's-Hope, after the year 1282, from the cir-
cumllance of its having been then bellowed by Edward I.
o ; his beloved and heroic confort Eleanor ; or, as fome affirm,
from her majtlly having lodged here, when on her way to
Caernarvon to give the Welfli • ruler born within their own
territories. The etymology of its ancient name, " Caer-
gawr-Ue," (the camp of the gigantic legion,) feems to in-
dicate that it was once occu;)icd by the Romans ; and in
confirmation of this conjefture we may obferve, that a
Roman hypocauft has lately been difcovered here, fome of
the tiles ufed in the conllruftion of which were infcribed
" Legio XX." Pennant fuppofes that it was an outpoft
to the grand ftation Deva, and notices the remains of two
roads. The ruins of the cattle of Caergwrle are feated on a
lofty rock ilolated from the furrounding land, and, on one
fide, extremely precipitous. At what time, or by whom it
was originally built, is unknown ; but in the reign of Owen
Gwyniiedd, it formed part of the pofleflions of^ a chieftain
named GryfTydd Maelor. Edward I. made a grant of it to
prince David, and afterwards, as above-mentioned, to queen
Eleanor, at whofe death both cattle and manor were given
to John de Cromwell, on condition that he repaired the
former, which had been fet fire to, andconfiderably damaged,
as was fuppoled by defign, while the king and queen were
rcfident in it. All that remains of this once magnificent for-
trefs, are a circular tower, and a few fragments of walls,
together with the deep folfe, by which it was defended.
This foife is excavated from the folid rock, which is com-
pofed of brefcia, or an exceflively coarfe grit.

The conjoint borough of Queen's-Hope and CaergTvrle,
is contributary with the town of Flint in the eleftion of a
reprefentative to the Britifli parliament. It formerly had
the privileges of a market and fairs, but thefe are now dif-
continued. The parifh is divided into two diftrifts, called
Hope and Kinnerton, and contains, according to the parlia-
mentary returns of 181 1, 547 houfes and 2617 inhabitants.
Of thefe a large proportion refide in the town, which con-
fitts of three broad parallel ftreets, interfefted at right angles
by three others of lefs breadth, the whole placed on the fide
of a rifing ground, gently (loping to the river. The prin-
cipal building is tlie church, which contains two mural
monuments, one decorated with kneeling figures, but with-
out any infcription ; and the other commemorating fir John
Trevor, knt. fecretary to the earl of Nottingham, the con-
queror of the boafted invincible armada.

Some objefts in the vicinity of the place claim notice.
On a hill, oppofite to that of Caergwrle, is the Britifli en-
campment of Caer-Eftyn, which is formed by a fingle ditch
and rampart. The adjacent fummits confift chiefly of lime-
ftone, and diiplay on their furface numerous organic examples
of the folfil remains called entrochi and altroites. The
uncommon fpecies of the latter, ufually denominated the
arborefcent fea-llar, has been found here. At Rhyddyn are
two fprings ftrongly impregnated with muriate of loda, the
waters of which are found highly ferviceable in fuch chronic
diforders as elephantiafis and fcrophula. At this place is
a fine old bridge over the river Alun. On the road to
Mould, about two miles from Queen's-Hope, is Plas-Teg,
the leat of the Trevor family. The houfe is a very noble
building, and is generally believed to have been the work of
Inigo Jones. Beyond this is Harts-Heath Hall, the pro-
perty of GuUlwn Lloyd Wardle, efq. It is a large modern
manfion, forming a fquare, with three fronts, and is fur- i
rounded by fine plantations. Carhfle's Topographical I
Diftionary of Wales, 4to. 181 2. Pennant's Tour in
Wales.

QUEEN-

QUE

QUEENSTADT, a town of Weftphalia, in the prin-
cipality of Halberitadt ; three nniles N.E. of Halberlladt.

QUEENSTOWN, a poll-town of America, in Queen
Anne's county, Maryland, on the E. fide of Cliefter river;
fix miles S.W. of Centerville, and 65 from Walhington.

QuEENsTOWN, a town or village of Upper Canada, which
lies on the W. fide of tlie (traits of Niagara, near fort Nia-
gara, and feven miles below the Falls. It is at the head of
navigation for fiiips ; and the portage occafioned by the
Falls of Niagara commences here. From the fiidden change
in the face of the country in the neighbourhood of Queenf-
town, and the equally fudden change in the river with refpeft
to its breadth, depth, and current, it has been conjedlured,
that the great falls of the river mult originally have been
fituated at the fpot where the waves are fo abruptly con-
tradled between the hills ; and moreover it is a fadt well
afcertained, that the falls have receded very confiderably
fince they were firft vifited by Europeans, and that they are
ftill receding every year. See Weld's Travels, vol. ii.
p. 130.

QUEE-SAN Islands. See Chusan.

QUE ESTATE, in Laiv, a plea whereby a man en-
titling himfelf to land, &c. faith, that the fame ellate which
another had, he now has from him.

Thus, e. gr. the plaintiff alleges that fuch four perfons
were feifed of lands whereunto the advowfon in quellion
belonged in fee, and who did prefent it ; and that afterwards
the church was vacant ; que ejlate, i. e. luhich eflate he now
has ; and, by virtue thereof, he prefents, &c. See Pre-
scription.

QUE EST MEME, a term ufed m adions of trefpafs,
&c. for a direft jultification of the very aft complained of
by the plaintiff as a wrong.

Thus, in an aftion upon the cafe, the plaintiff faying the
lord threatened his tenants at will in fuch fort, as he forced
them to give up their lands ; the loi;d in his defence pleads,
that he faicj to them if they would not depart, he would
fue them at law. Qiie ejl meme, i. e. this being the fame
threatening that he uled, the defence is good.

QUEGASCA Hakbouu, in Geography, a bay on the
S. coaft of Labrador. N. lat. 50° 7'. W. long. 61'^ 22'.

QUEI, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by the Chinefe
to a peculiar earth found in many parts of the Eaft.

It is of the nature of an mdurated clay, and in fome de-
gree approaches to the talcs, as our fleatites and the ga-
laftites do. It is very white and ablterfive, ufed by the
women of China, to take off fpots from the f]<in, and render
it foft and fmooth, as the Italian ladies ufe talc of Venice.
They fonietimes ufe the fine powder of this (tone dry, rub-
bing it on the hands and face after vvafhing ; fometimes they
mix it with pomatum.

QUEICH, in Geography, a river of France, which paffes
by Landau, and runs into the Rhine, near Germcrfheim.

QUEl-CHUN, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
the province of Quang-fi. N. lat. 23° 22'. E. long. 106"
44'.

QUEIGE, a town of France, in the department of Mont
Blanc ; four miles N.E. of Conflans.

QUEIGNE, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Bambouk.

QUEI-LING, a city of China, and capita! of the pro-
vince of Quang-fi, derives its name from a flower called
" quei," which grows on a tree refembling a laurel ; it ex-
hales fo fweet and agreeable an odour, that the whole coun-
try around is perfumed with it. This city is fituated on the
banks of a river, which throws itfelf into the Ta-ho ; but
it flows with fuch rapidity, and amidil narrow vallies, that

Q U E

it is neither navigable nor of any utility to commerce.
Quei-ling is a large city, and the whole of it is built almoll
after the model of our ancient fortrell'es ; but it is mucli in-
ferior to mod of the capitals of the other provinces. Birds
are found in great numbers in the territories belonging to it,
the colours of which are fo bright and variegated, that the
artifts of this country, in order to give additional liillre to
their filks, interweave with them fome of their feathers,
which have a iplendour and beauty that cannot be imitated.
Quei-ling has under its jurifdiftion two cities of the fecond
clafs, and feven of the third. N. lat. 25° 12'. E. long.
109° 51'.

QUEIOS, a river of Spain, in Navarre, which runs into
the Ebro, near Tudella.

QUEIRA, a town of Africa, in Ludamar ; eight miles
S. of Benowm.

QUEIS, a river of Silefia, which rifes in the principality
of Jauer, pafles by Friedberg, Grieffenberg, &c. and joins
the Bober, between Sprottau and Sagan.

QUEI-TE, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Quang-fi. N. lat. 23° 18'. E. long. 107° 4'.

QUELAINES, a town of France, in the department
of the Mayeiine ; eight miles S. of Laval.

QUELEA, in Ornithology, ^ [pecies o{ £mieriz,a; which
fee.

QUELINES, in Geography, mountains of Mexico, be-
tween the provinces of Guaxaca and Chiapa.

QUELLINUS, Erasmus, in Biography, called the Old,
born at Antwerp in 1607, was a pupil of Rubens, and be-
came a painter of hiltory of very confiderable reputation.
He lived to the age of 71, and left a fon John Erafmus
Quelhnus, who alfo became a painter, but who left the
Flemifh for the Venetian ftyle of art, which he praftifed at
Antwerp, his native city, till he arrived at the advanced age
of 85, having been born in 1630.

QUELPAERT, in Geography, an ifland in the fea of
Corea, on which a Dutch vefi'el, called the Sparrow-hawk,
was wrecked in the year 1635, then fubjeft to the king of
Corea. No ifland prefents a finer afpeft ; the middle of the
ifland is occupied by a peak of about 800 toifes, vifible at
the diftance of about 18 or 20 leagues, and the land gra-
dually flopes towards the fea, fo tliat the habitations re-
femble an amphitheatre. The foil to a great height feems
to be well cultivated. It belongs, however, to a people
who are forbidden to hold any intercourfe with flrangers,
and who detain in flavery unfortunate perfons who are
wrecked on the coalls. Some Dutchmen of the Sparrow-
hawk, after a captivity of eighteen years, during which they
received many baftinadoes, found means to take away a
bark, and to crofs to Japan, from which they arrived at
Batavia. N. lat. of the fouth point 33^ 14'. E. long.
126^ 35'.

QUELUSIA, in Botany, a name given by Vandelli to
the beautiful Fuchfia coccinea, now fo common in gardens.
The author fuppofed it a new genus, and meant thus to
honour a royal villa near Lifbon, called Quelus, where he
firft faw this plant m bloom.

QUEM reddhum reddlt, in Law, an old writ which lay
where a rent-charcre, or other rent, which was not rent-
fervice, was granted by fine holding of the grantor. If the
tenant would not attorn, then the grantee might have had
this writ.

QUEMARY, in Geography, a town of Bootan ; 20
miles E. of Beyhar.

QUEMENES, a finall ifland in the Englifh channel,
near the coalt of France. N. lat. 48^ 22'. W. long. 4° 48'.

QUEMI,

QUE

QUEMI, in Botany, a name ufcd by fome authors for
the nigella, or gith.

QUEMIGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Cote d'Or ; nine miles S.W. of Dijon.

QUENDAL Bay, a bay at tlie S. extremity of the
ifland of Shetland. N. lat. 59° 49'. W. long, x" 40'.

QUENDON IVater-Barroiv, in Rural Economy, a con-
trivance of the bariow kind, much employed in the neigh-
bourhood of the little village of Ouendon, in Edex, and
from which it takes itj name, for the purpofe of conveying
water, wa(h, and other liquid matters, to live (lock of dif-
ferent kinds, as fattening cattle, hogs, horfes, and other
animals, as well as for fome other ufes. It is a fimple and
excellent invention for all fuch intentions, as very great faci-
lity is given to its motion by means of the wheels, and it is,
on the whole, very compaft in its general formation, which
gives it a fupcriority over many other contrivances of a
bmilar nature, as being capable of being put m motion,
when full, without any great difficulty. Or the application
of any extraordinary power or force.

It is reprefented at Jigs. 6 and 7, in Plate yfgricullure,
fliewing the method:; of clearing quarries, pits, &c.
from water. Fig. 6. explains the plan, in which ab, ab,
are the wheels, that fallen on to the fide-beams cd, c d,
which are about four feet in length, and have their ends c, c,
formed in fuch a manner as to ferve for handles. E is an
oval tub about thirty inches in depth, twenty-four in length,
and eighteen in breadth, which is fupported on the beams
by two gudgeons, which play in femicircular boxes fixed
near the ends of the beams : a crofs piece connefts the two
beams at ff, as does another at gg, to which two little-
curved pieces come, parallel to the form of the tub. The
wheels are about four feet in height, and cari-y the tub fuf-
pended between them ; for the gudgeons play almoll over
the two (hort axles, which fquare into the beams. Two
flight legs are fixed underneath the barrow at ; /', to keep
it in an upright pofition, but they are not at all eflential, for
the tub would remain in a ilate of equipoife between the
wheels even without fuch aid. It mud be noticed, that the
tub is funk rather more than one-half below the gudgeons.
Fig. 7. difplays the profile of the vehicle; the dotted line
ihews the fize and place of the tub, which is made oval, for
the purpofe of confining the breadth between the wheels,
fo as to pafs in at narrow door-ways, &c.

It is probable that it might be fomewhat improved by
having the axles hooked within, fo as to bear upon two
loops in one of the iron hoops, and by this means render the
ufe of gudgeons and boxes wholly unneceffary. The tub
would lift off and on, as eafily as at prefent, while it would
hang in a more precife and perfectly centrical manner. And
ftill further, it would be a great convenience, if the upper
part of the tub were furnilhed with a proper fpout in the
front, in order to pour water or other liquid materials
through between the pales, &c. for the fupplying of cattle,
&c. This would be more eafily accomplilhed, if the tub
were allowed to fwing in a free manner, as it might in that
cafe be tilted up with great facility, fo as to favour its being
done, as fhewn by the dotted line in Jig. 2. About the
little town noticed above, it is a great deal employed in
carrying water for houfe ufe as well as that of farms. It
is defcribed in the Agricultural Magazine. Many other
forms of water-barrows are made ufe of in different places.
See WATER-^flrrow.

QUENEG, or QuENENA, in Geography, a dillrift of
Africa, in the country of Sugulmeffa, near mount Atlas.

QUENOY, Le, a town of France, in the department
of the North ; five miles N.N.W. of Lille.

II

Q U E

QUENTIN, in Commerce, a fmall weight ufed in
Germany ; the ounce contains two lochs, or eight quen-
tins.

Ql'entin, St., in Geography. See St. Quintin.
QUEPO, a town of Mexico, in the province of Coita
Rica, on the Ellrella ; 70 miles S S.W. of Carthage.

QUERA, a town of Italy, ill the Trevifan ; 15 mile»
W. of Ceneda.

QUERALOS, a tov.-n of Spain, in Catalonia ; 24 miles
E. of Urgel.

QUERCERA, in Medicine. See Ei'lALOS.
QUERCETO, \n Geography, a town of Etrurla ; nine
miles S. S.W. of Volterra.

QUERCUS, in Botany, X.\k Oak, an ancient Latin name,
whofe etymology has been confidered as very uncertain, if
not quite inexplicable. So it well might feem to thofe who
looked no further than the Greek or Latin languages ; for
though fome have deduced the word from j^oifo,-, a pig, be-
caufe pigs feed on aconis, this explanation has not proved
fatisfaftory. De Theis, on the authority of Lepelletier,
has found a much better etymology for Quercus, in the Celtic
quer, fine, and cue-z,, a tree ; and this appellation is fuppofed to
have been appropriated to the oak, not only for the beauty of
the tree, but becaufe it bore the facrcd plant, mifeltoe. This
tree was alfo called in the Celtic tongue deritv, whence came
the word druid, or pried of the oak, and even the Greek
l^vi, an oak, vulgarly fuppofed the original of druid. (See
Druids.) — Linn. Gen. 495. Schieb. 646. Willd. Sp.
PI. v. 4. 423. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 1025.
Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 287. Jull'. 410. Tourn. t. 349.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 779. Gaertn. t. 37. (Ilex ; Tourn.
t. 350. Subcr ; ejufd.) — Clafs and order, Monoecia Poly-
andria. Nat. Ord. Amentace£, Linn. Juff.

Gen. Ch. Male, in a loofe catkin, Cal. Perianth of one
kaf, bell fiiaped, membranous, with about five fmall, fharp,
often cloven fegments. Cor. none. Slam. Filaments from
four to ten, capillary, (hort ; anthers large, of two round
lobes.

Female, from a bud ufually on the fame tree, Cal.
Perianth of one leaf, inferior, coriaceous, hemifpherical,
rough, entire, very fmall in the flower, permanent. Cor.
none. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, ovate, very fmall ; llyle
fimple, divided above into from two to five fegments,
langer than the calyx : lligmas fimple, permanent. Peric.
none. Seed an oval or roundi(h coriaceous nut, of one valve,
fmooth, attached by its fcarred bafe to the bottom of the
(hortidi, hardened, permanent, cup-like calyx.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx bell-(haped, membranous, lobed.
Corolla none. Stamens from five to ten.

Female, Calyx bell-fhaped, coriaceous, entire, rough.
Corolla none. Style one. Stigmas from two to five. Nut
coriaceous, embraced at the bafe by the hardened calyx.

This genus, fo dillinft in its botanical charafters, andfo
valuable for its economical ufes, confills, in the Species Plan-
tarum of Linnseus, of no more than thirteen fpecies. The
difcoveries of Thunberg, but efpecially thofe of American
travellers, aided by the more accurate enquiries of botanilts,
have fo greatly enriched the fubjeft, that Willdenow, who
has ftudied it well, enumerates feventy-fix kinds of Quercus,
and even thefe are not all that we have to defcribe. The
importance of many fpecies requires that they (hould all be
particularized. Two or three of the Eaft Indian ones, now
for the firll time defcribed, offer fome exceptions to the ge-
neric charafter of the calyx.

Seflion l. — Adult leaves undivided and entire
I. Q. Phellos. Deciduous Willow-leaved Oak. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1412. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. I. Purlhn. i. Sm.

. in

QUERCUS.

in Abbot's Infefts of Georgia, v. 2. l8i. t. 91. Michaux
Querc. n. 7. t. 12. (Q. virgiiiiana, falicls loiigiore folio,
fruftu miiiimo ; Pliik. y^malth. 180. t. 441. f. 7.) — Leaves
membranaceous, linear-lanceolate, tapering at each end, en-
tire, fmootli, with a fmall ponit. Nut rouiidifh. — Native of
North America ; in low fwaiiipy forells, near the fea-coall,
from New Jerley to Florida, flowering in May. Purjh.
It is faid by Mr. Aiton, on tiie authority of Knovvlton's
MSS., to have been cultivated in England by Mr. Fairchild,
before the year 1723 ; and indeed, by the collection at Bul-
ftrode, this tree appears to have been planted there much
earlier, among thofe introduced by the firll earl of Portland.
It rifes in its native country, as well as in England, to the
height of fifty or fixty feet. The bark is fmooth ; the luood
is good, and much in ufe, but of flow growth. Leaves
fcattered, on fliort ftalks, four or five inches long, and not
an inch wide, fmooth, thin and pliant, of a fine green, with
a willow-like afpeft, deciduous, their edges (lightly wavy.
Acorns in pairs, roundilh, fcarcely above half an inch long,
with a thin, tuberculated, or tefFellated cup. The lea-ves of
the young plant are fomewhat angular, or toothed at each
fide. There is faid to be a dwarf ftraggling variety, with
fhorter /(-i/iifj-. which Catelby has figured in his vol. i. t. 22.
Michaux has two fuppofed varieties, which other botanills
efteem diftinft fpecies ; fee the two following. The fpeci-
fic name, choien by Linnxus, is not a good one, (^iKKoi being
the cork-tree.

2. Q. marithna. Ever-green Willow-leaved Oak. Willd.
n. 2. Pur(hu. 2. (Q. Phellos maritima ; Michaux Querc.
n. 7. var. 2. t. 13. f. 3.) — Leaves coriaceous, elliptic-lan-
ceolate, entire, fmooth, with a fmall point. Nut roundifh.
— Found on the iea-coaft of Virginia and Carolina, flowering
in May and June. This differs from the foregoing in its low
ftirubby habit, and firm evergreen leaves, which are more
elliptical in ftiape, and not above two inches long. The
whole plant is from three to eight feet only in height. It
appears by the accounts of authors to be diftiinft from the
above-mentioned variety of Phellos.

3. Q. fericea. Silky Willow-leaved Oak. Willd. n. 3.
Purih n. 3. (Q. Phellos ; Sm. in Abb. Inf. v. 2. 101. t. 51.
Q. Phellos pumila ; Michaux Querc. n. 7. var. 3. t. 13.
f. I, 2.) — Leaves lanceolate-oblong, fomewhat wavy; ob-
tufe at the bafe ; rather dilated upwards ; filky beneath.
Nut almoft globular. — Native of the fea-coaft, from Caro-
lina to Florida, flowering in May. It is perhaps the moft
humble of the whole genus, fcarcely ever exceeding two
feet in height, and throwing out creeping fcyons, whence it
has obtained the name of the Running Oak. The filkinefs
of the leaves beneath gives them a glaucous appearance.

4. Q. myrtlfolia. Myrtle-leaved Oak. Willd. n. 4.
Purfli n. 4. — " Leaves coriaceous, oblong, entire, fmooth,
acute at each end." — Native of Carolina, according to Will-
denow, who alone has noticed this fpecies, and from whom
Purfh has admitted it into his work. The branches are round,
brown. Leaves an inch, or rather more, in length, coria-
ceous, evergreen, oblong, fomewhat acute at the bafe ; en-
tire and flightly revolute at the margin ; fhining above ;
opaque, but fmooth, beneath ; on fliort footjlalks. The
form of the leaves is much like the common broad-leaved
myrtle. The ^owe/v and y>-a/V are unknown. Willd.

5. Q. virens. Live Oak. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. I. v. 3.
356. cd. 2. n. 2. Willd. n. 5. Purfli n. 5. Michaux
Querc. n. 6. t. 10, 11. (Q. Phellos /3 ; Linn. Sp. 1412. Q.
fempervirens ; Walt. Card. 234.) — Leaves coriaceous, el-
liptic-oblong, revolute, entire, pointlefs ; obtufe at the bafe ;
clothed with flarry down beneath. Fruit ilalked. Nut
pblong. — Found near the fea-coaft of North America, in a

Vol. XXIX.

foil of fand upon clay, from Virginia to Florida and MifTi-
fippi, flowering in May. Miller cultivated it at Chelfea in
1739' but we know not that this fpecies is ilill preferved, or,
at Icall, diilinguiflned from Q. Ilex, in our gardens or planta-
tions. It is one of the moll valuable American trees,
growing to the height of forty or fifty feet, and extending
its branches, in open fituations, to a great extent • whence
it fervcs, by its dcnle evergreen leaves, to flicker cattle from
the fummer's heat and winter's cold. The tvood is the fincll
and moft; durable fliip timber. It is felled towards the
end of autumn, and kept three months before it is ufed.
Michaux recommends this tree to the notice of the French
and Spaniards, as likely to thrive well on the fandy coafts of
the Mediterranean, and of the weftern ocean. By his account
it fncceeds beft where there is a bafis of clay under the fand,
to fix the larger roots. The afpeft of the leaves is not un-
like our European Q. Ilex, but they are, except when
very young, more unitormlv entire, and more fliining ; their
under fide lefs denfely pubefcent ; and their fhort footjlalks,
as well as the mid-rib, reddifli. The foliage of feedling
plants, and of vigorous young flioots, is, indeed, ftrongly
toothed. The adult leaves are fcarcely more than two inches
long, fomewhat oval, or obovate and bluntifli, without any
terminal briftle ; filky in the fpring ; fubfequently of a dark
but fliining green, and downy, with ftarry pubefcencc, be-
neath. Tlie_/?am«u are but four or five, i'/ij/^x of the fruit
an inch long, jicorn cylindrical, an inch long, with a tefl'el-
lated, but not rugged or tuberculated, cup. The acorns
are faid to be greedily devoured by hogs, and feveral wild
animals ; and to aff'ord an oil, which the favages of Florida
mix with their food.

6. Q. cinerea. Afli-coloured Silky-leaved Oak. Willd.
n. 6. Ait. n. 3. Purfli n. 6. Michaux Querc. n. 8. t. 14.
(Q. humilis; Wah. Carol. 234. Q. Phellos /3, fericea;
Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. I. v. 3. 354. Q. Phellos y ; Linn.
Sp. PL 141 2.) — Leaves coriaceous, elliptic-lanceolate, re-
volute, entire, bluntifli with a fmall point ; clothed with

ftarry down beneath. Fruit feflile. Nut nearly globofe.

Native of dry barren fituations, and pine forefts, from Vir-
ginia to Georgia, flowering in May. Michaux fays it fprings
up chiefly on land that, after having been cultivated, be-
comes abandoned on account of the bad quality of the foil.
The form of the /;w is unfightly, and its fize very variable,
from four to twenty feet in height. The wood is of no ufe
but for firing. Leaves longer than in the preceding ; the
young ones dilated at the top, with three points. Fruit
nearly or quite feffile, almoft globular, and not much above
half an inch long.

7. Q. microphylla. Small-leaved Dwarf Oak. Willd.
n. 7. Nee in Annal. Scient. Nat. v. 3. 264. Fifch. Mifc.
Hifp. V. I. 99. Willd. — " Leaves lanceolate, pointed, en-
tire, villous ; downy beneath. Calyx of the fruit villous.
Nut roundifli." — Found by Louis Nee, on the hills of
Arambaro, in New Spain. KJhrub, from three to five feet
high, with a rough afti-coloured bark. Leaves on fliort
ftalks, fcattered, numerous, from four to fix lines long,
fcarcely two lines broad, veiny, revolute, wavy, pointed,
reddifli-grey ; villous above ; denfely downy beneath ; thofe
about the extremities of the branches oppofite. Stipulas
awl-fliaped, falling ofi" at the clofe of fummer. Acorns in
axillary pairs, about the ends of the branches, ovate, the
fize of a large pea, half covered by the villous cup, which ig
invefted with unequal fcales. Nee.

8. Q. falicifolm. Mexican Willow Oak. Willd. n. 8.
Nee in Annal. Scient. Nat. v. 3. 265. Fifch. Mifc. Hifp. v. i.
loi. ^;7W. -" Leaves oblong-lanceolate, entire, fmooth ;
the forks of the veins villous and brown beneath. Nut ob-

K k long."

QUERCUS.

Ion?." Found by Lewis Nee, in the kingdom of Mexico,

near Acapiilco. A tree twenty-tight feet high, with alter-
nate branches ; the young ones fomewhat furrowed, and
clothed with brownifh-red hairs. Leaves from five to fcven
inches long, an inch wide, fcaltered, on (liort (talks, rather
coriaceous, fmootli, veiny, entire, wavy, pointed ; reticu-
lated and green above ; yellowifh beneath, with tufts of
hairs, as big as a pin's head, in the forks of the veins.
Acorns nearly feffile, in axillary pairs, the fize of a hazel-
nut, downy, half covered by the hemifphcrical, greyilh,
villous cup, befet with very thin fcales. Ncc.

g. Q. glabra. Smooth-leaved Japan Oak. Thunb. Jap.
175. Willd. n. 9. — " Leaves lanceolate-oblong, pointed,
fmooth, with parallel veins." — Gathered by Thunberg in
Japan. A tree, whofe branches grow two or three togetlier,
flightly fpreading, rugged and knotty. Leaves alternate,
ftalked, lanceolate-oblong, entire, pointed, with parallel ribs
(veins) ; tapering at the bafe ; fmooth on both fides ;
fhining above, yellowifti beneath. Spikes of flowers either
folitary, or two or three together, downy. Thunberg.

10. Q. concentrica. Concentric-furrowed Oak. Loureir.
Cochinch. 572. Willd. n. 10. — " Leaves lanceolate-ovate,
pointed, incurved, entire. Calyx lax, very fhort, fur-
rowed concentrically." — Native of the lofty forefts of Co-
chinchina. A large tree, whofe wood is ferviceable for
various ufes. Branches afcending. Leaves fcattered,
ftalked, fmooth on both fides. Acorns ftalked, oblong-
ovate, fmooth, red, pointed, their cups ftiort and lax, ex-
ternally marked with five parallel circular furrows ; fee
n. 27.

11. Q. molucca. Molucca Oak. Linn. Sp. PI. I412.
Willd. n. II. Rumph. Amboin. v. :;. 85. t. 56. — Leaves
elliptic-lanceolate, entire, acute at each end, fmooth. Nut
roundifh, furrowed. — Native of the Molucca ifles. A large
and lofty tree, whofe wood is hard and heavy, lafting long
under water. Leaves fix or eight inches long and three
broad, on (hort italks, with eight or ten irregular lateral
veins. Acorns fhort and roundifh, furrowed in their upper
part ; the cup fhort, warty. By Rumphius's account,
there feem to be more fpecies than one comprehended under
the chapter above cited, but he does not give us fufficient
marks to define them fpecifically.

12. Q. fpicata. Clufter-fruitcd Oak. — Leaves elliptic-
lanceolate, taper-pointed, entire, fmooth. Spikes axillary,
folitary, dioecious. Fruit fpikcd, aggregate, ovate. — Ga-
thered by Dr. Francis Buchanan, in woods at Suembu, in
Upper Ncpaul, flowering in May, 1802. This is a /r« of
vaft dmienfions, whofe wood is ufeful, though inferior in
quality to that of Q. annulata, n. 22. The younger ^raHc/ifj
are angulir, clothed with very minute green pubefcence.
Leaves alternate, ftalked, of a broad lanceolate, or ellipti-
cal figure, with a taper point, entire throughout, fix or
feven inches long, and two and a half wide ; bright green,
fmooth and fhining above ; paler, opaque, but fcarcely
pubefcent, beneath ; furniflicd with numerous, parallel, tranf-
verfe veins. Footjlalls not an inch long, deprefl'ed. Stipulas
deciduous. Fhiuers in long, linear, downy, pale, ftraight,
folitary, axillary yjliit'j ; the males with about <A'^\Xjlamens,
much longer than the calyx, and a roundifh rudiment of a ger-
men in the centre ; females on a feparate tree, crowded three
together in feffile groups in each fpike. Acorns eatable, but
not very good, the fize and ftiape of a large filberd, even,
pointed, dark brown ; their cups fhort, fcaly. The origi-
nal natives of Nepaul, or Nawars, know this tree by the
name of Guey Sajhi, or Pacujhingal't : their Hindu con-
querors, the Parbutties, call it Arcaula.

'3- Q- tribukides. Caltrop.fruited Oak. — Leaves ovato-

lanceolate, taper-pointed, entire, fmooth. Spikci aggrcr-
gate. Calyx of the fruit fpinous, covering tiie nut. — Dif-
covered by the fame able botanili as the preceding, in the
fv refts of Upper Nepaul, flowering and fruiting at various
feafoHS. A tree with fmooth branches. Leaves on fhort
Calks, lanceolate, more or lefs ovate, fomewhat unequal at
the bafe, about four inches long, and one and a half broad,
rigid and rather coriaceous, with irregular, diftant, flightly
curved veins ; the upper furface pohflied ; the under paler
and opaque. Flowers monoecious, in flender, downy, cluf-
tered, axillary or terminal, pendulous fpikes, the male fpikes
mod numerous. Stamens about eight, with a dotted central
diflc. Acorns fpiked, fcattered, ovate, fmooth, obliquely
pointed, about half an inch long, entirely concealed in the
greatly enlarged calyx, which is downy, globofe, and armed
with very numerous, rigid, prominent, fliarp thorns, a
quarter of an inch, or more, in length, fpreading in every di-
reftion. This fpecies is called Cattum, or Cattunge, in the
Parbutty language ; Sh'ingnli, or Catu Shingali, by the Na-
wars. Its great peculiarity conillls in the acorns, which are
eatable, being entirely enclofed in a ftrongly muricated i-a/yx,
or globofe cup, which approaches the nature of thechefiiut,
Fagus Cajlanea, and in fome of our fpecimens feems even to
fplit into two or three valves. The flowers, however, agree
with Chierctis, to which genus Dr. Buchanan referred this re-
markable plant. On one tree he obfervcd the Jloiuers to be
all female.

14. Q. laurtfolia. Laurel-leaved Oak. Willd. n. 12.
Ait. n. 4. Purfli n. 8. Michaux Querc. v.. 10. t. 17, 18..
— Leaves obovate, entire, imooth, nearly feflile ; tapering
at the bafe. Nut roundifli, even. — Native of fhady forefts,
and the fea-coaft, in Georgia «nd South Carolina, flowering
in May. This is fometimes called the Swamp Willow, and
was firil brought alive to England, by the late Mr. Frafer,
in 1786. It rifes to the height of fifty or fixty feet. Mi-
chaux fpeaks of the wood as of a good quality, but inferior
on the whole to that of our fifth fpecies, {J_. virens. The
leaves are crowded about the ends of the branches, deciduous,
about four inches long, ufually acute, but fometimes, as in
Michaux's t. 1 8, remarkably abtufe. Acorns folitary, nearly
fcflilc, almoft globofe, with a fcaly cup.

15. O. imbricaria. Shingle Oak. Willd. n. 13. Ait.
n. 5. Purfli n. 7. Michaux Querc. n. 9. t. 15, 16. —
Leaves elliptic-oblong, acute at each end, entire, almoft fef-
file ; downy beneath. Nut nearly globofe Native of the

banks of rivers among the Allegany mountains, and in the
countries to the welt, rarely to the eait of thofe mountains,
flowering in May and June. Brought to England in 1786,
by Mr. Frafer. The leaves are twice the fize of the laft,
acute, but not contracted, at their bafe, and downy on the
under fide. Acorns much Hke the lail-defcribed. This tree
is forty or fifty feet high. Its wood is chiefly ufed, by the
French fettlers m the lUinois countiy, for making boards to
cover houfes, whence the appellation of Q. imbricaria in
Michaux, and of Sbingxe Oak among the Englifh Ameri-
cans. For although the fcales of the cup are rather larger
than thofe of Q- laurifolia, the fpecilic name does not allude
to that circumftance.

16. Q. clUpiica. OvaUeaved Mexican Oak. Willd.
n. 14. Nee in Annal. Scient. Nat. v. 3. 278. Fifch.
Mifc. Hifp. v. I. 117. — " Leaves elliptical, entire, coria-
ceous, nearly feflile ; rounded at each end ; roughifh be-
neath. Gathered by Louis Nee, but without flowers or
fruit, in the kingdom of Mexico, by the road from Ixnii-
quilpan to Cimapan, as well as between Tixtala and the
river Azul. The trunk is thick, twelve feet high, with a
grey bark. Branches horizontal : the fmaller flioots ereft ;

all

QUERCUS.

all very leafy. Leaves tlirce inches long, and one and a
half broad, (lightly revolute ; finooth above ; roughi(h and
veiny beneath, the veins forked. Fooljlalks thick and very
fhort. Ncc.

17. Q. acuta. Pointed-leaved Japan Oak. Thunb. Jap.
i"!^. Willd. n. 15. — " Leaves oblong, pointed, entire,
with parallel veins ; rounded at tiie bafe ; downy when
young." — Obfcrved by Thunbcrg in Japan. The tranches
are knotty, afli-coloured, dotted witii white, Imootli downy
at the fummit. Leaves alternate, (talked, fniooth, when
full-grown ; covered at the baak, when young, with rufty
down. Spiies axillary, clothed with (imilar pubefcence.
Thunlierg.

18. Q. magnollxfo/ia. Magnolia-leaved Oak. Willd.
n. 16. Nee in Annal. Scient. Nat. v. 3. 268. Fifch. MiCc.
Hifp. V. I. 103. — " Leaves ovate-oblong, coriaceous, entire,
iiiining ; downy beneath ; lomewhat emarginate at the bafe.
Fruit racemofe." — Found by Louis Nee, in the kingdom
of Mexico, between Chilpancingo and Tixtala, and about
the river Azul. This is an elegant tree, twenty feet, or
more, in height. Trunk thick, with a dark-coloured bark
full of filFures. Branches horizontal ; younger ones fur-
rowed, and dotted with white. Leaves fix or eight inches
long, and three broad, ovate, rigid ; fonietimes emarginate
at the bafe ; green and (liining above ; downy beneath, with
the larger veins prominent, and the fmaller reticulated.
Footjlalis thick, a line in length. Slipulas crifped, downy,
deciduous. Female clujlers fohtary, axillary, two inches
loag ; the lower ones alternate, upper oppodte. Acorns
ovate, half covered by their hemifpherical cup, which is the
fize of the feed of Cicer arieiinum, its fcales fcarcely at all
imbricaied. Nee.

19. Q. luiea. Yellow-leaved Mexican Oak. Willd.
n. 17. Nee in Anml. Scient. Nat. v. 3. 269. Fifch. Mifc.
Hifp. V. I. 105. — " Leaves obovate, entire, fhining ; fome-
what heart-fhaped at the bafe ; downy and yellow beneath."
— Found in Mexico by the fame celebrated traveller and
botanilt. This agrees with the preceding in its mode of
growth, and frudlification, infomuch that it may be thought
a variety ; yet the leaves are very different. They are ot a
larger fize, broader towards the end, and contrafled to-
wards the Jootjlalk, as well as more deeply emarginate at
the bafe ; and their under fide is clothed witii ochrey yellow
pubefcence.

20. <^. femeearpifolia. Marking-nut-lcaved Oak — Leaves
obovate, obtufe, coriaceous, entire ; heart-(haped at the
bafe ; downy beneath ; the young ones with fpinous teeth.
— Gathered by Dr. F. Buchanan, on the banks of torrents
in Upper Nepaul, where its Parbuttie appellation is Co/fur,
and its Nawar name Ghirfi. This is a middle-fized tree, with
angJilar branches, clothed when young with fcaly down.
Leaves evergreen, alternate, on (hort thic^^flalks, oborate-
oblong, four or five inches in length, and two in breadth ;
more or lefs heart-(haped at the bafe ; their upper furface
fmooth and (hining ; the under opaque, clothed with rufty
down, and furni(hed with numerous, irregular, rather dif-
tant, tranfverfe, prominent veins ; their margin entire, (liglitly
wavy. The extremity is ufually rounded and obtufe, fome-
times abrupt, fometiines tipped with a little fpine. On young
branches the leaves are ferrated with ftrong fpines, or even
finuated, and clothed on both fides with rufty down. Stipulas
in pairs, awl-(haped, ereft, permanent, as long as the foot-
■ftalks. Dr. Buchanan did not obferve thejiowers or fruit.
The afpeft of the adult leaves is much like thofe of Semecarpus
Anacardium, or fome of the entire-leaved fpecies of Ficus.

Seftion 2. — Leaves more or lefs toothed or ferrated,

21' Q- gfauca. Glaucous-leaved Oak. Thunb. Jap.

175. Banks Ic. Kaempf. t. 17. Willd. n. 11. (Kasnokis
Kacmpf. Amoen. 816.) — Leaves obovate, pointed ; ferrated
towards the extremity ; glaucous beneath. Nut roundi(h.
— Gathered near Nagafaki,in Japan, by profedorThunberg,
to whom we are obliged for a ipecimen. He defcribes it as
a very large tree, whofe branchis are fomewhat umbellate,
crcft, round, purple, fmooth, except fome prominent
white points. The leaves are cdternate, about three inches
long, and near two broad, vvitli a blunt projefting point ; their
upper furface (mooth and polilhed ; the under covered with
a fine glaucous mealinefs, and marked with prominent,
(Iraight, parallel, but rather dillant, obliquely tranfverfe
veins ; the margin diftantly ferrated upwards. Foolflalks
about half an inch long, purple. Flowers axilljry. Acorns,
by Ksmpfer's figure, axillary, often in pairs, of a roundidi
tumid (liape, pointed, not an inch long, their cups (liort,
feemiiigly marked with concentric lines j \\\m Jlalhs fimple,
(hort and thick.

22. Q. annulata. Ring-cupped Oak. — Leaves obovate,
pointed ; ferrated in their upper half ; fomewhat glaucous
and downy beneath. Fruit fpiked. Nut oblong. Calyx fur-
rowed concentrically. — Gathered by Dr. Buchanan, at va-
rious places in Upper Nepaul, bearing fruit, in December
1802. A very large tree, whofe wood is excellent ; the
branches two or three together, fmooth. Leaves evergreen,
rigid, exaftly like thofe of the laft fpecies, but fomewhat
filky beneath, and lefs glaucous ; the young ones very filky.
Stipulas linear, hairy, longer than the footftalks, deciduous.
Male flowers in pendulous, hairy, yellowiih, (hortifh fpikes,
fpringing from buds below the leaves, whofe fcales are im-
bricated in five row.s : female from three to fix, in folitary,
axillary, upright, ftalked, fniooth fpikes, about the length
of the footftalks. Calyx of the female flowers globofe,
fmaller than hempfeed, compofed of ieveral concentric im-
bricated layers, of which the outermoft is fmooth and
notched, the reft downy and entire. Germen globofe. Style
very (hort and thick. Stigmas three, obtufe. Acorns
quite feifile on the common flower-ftalk. Cup rather fmaller
than that of our Britilh oaks, entire and even at the edge,
compofed of feven or eight concentric, annular, imbricated,
crenate fcales, externally filky. Nut ovate, acute, fmooth
and even, twice as long as the cup. The Parbuttie* call this
tree Phullaat ; the Nawars Guflii, or Pacajlringali.

We find great realon to think that it may be, as Dr. Bu-
chanan fufpedled, the fame fpecies with Thunberg's glauea
laft defcribed. The leaves of his fpecimen (hew a flight
degree of pubefcence about the veins, but have not the mi-
nute filkinefs of our's. The greateft and moft effential dif-
ference, if Kxmpfer be as correal as ufual, confifts in the
female inflorefcence. He delineates the acorns of glauea on
iliort, fimple, at^Wzxyflalks, either folitary or in pairs ; and
Thunberg defcribes the flowers as axillary. In our plant
the female flowers are indeed axillary, but they compofe a
ftalked fptke, and neither they nor the acorns have any par-
tial llalks. Such differences are found between other fpe-
cies of Oaks, and pr»ve eflential and invariable. We there-
fore cannot but, for the prefent at leaft, rely on Kasmpfer's
known fidelity, and propofe our g. annulata as a diiUnft
fpecies.

23. Q. lamellofa. Many-cupped Oak. — Leaves elliptic-
oblong, pointed, ferrated, many-veined ; glaucous and fome-
what downy beneath. Calyx of many concentric entu'e
layers, as long as the nut. — Difcovered by Dr. Buchanan,
in the more remote woods of Nepaul, bearing fruit in De-
cember 1 802. In the Nawar language it is called TuppafuJhL
The tree is lofty, with fmooth bluntly-angular branches.
Ltaves alternate, fix inches in length and two in breadth,

K k 2 elliptic-

QUERCUS.

elliptic-oblong, rigid, taper-pointed, fliarply ferrated ;
fmooth and green above ; glaucous and often Ancly downy
beneath, with innumerable, prominent, crowded, ftraight,
parallel, moftiy oppofite, obliquely tranfverfe veins : the
afpeA and fize of the leaves much refembling DilUnia indka.
Footjialis an inch and half long, t\imid at the bafe. Sti-
pulas deciduous. Female fonvers in (hort axillary fpikes.
jicorns ovate, pointed, the fize of clicfnuta, each completely
enveloped and concealed by the large, globular, downy aip,
which is as big as a fmall apple, and confifts of eight or nine
diftin<a, concentric, cntin-, imbricated layers, much more
deeply feparatcd than the rings of Q. annulata. An ap-
proach towards the genus Fagus, or Cqftanea of fome autliors,
may be obferved, as Dr. Buchanan fuggefts, in this fpecies,
which is neverthelcfs a genuine Quercus, and far lefs doubt-
ful than our tribuloida, n. 13. It proves however that the
mere elongation of the acorn, beyond the cup, is not an
indifpenfable charafter of the prefent genus. See alfo to-
meniafa, n. 42.

24. Q. cufpidata. Pointed Japan Oak. Thunb. Jap. 176.
Willd. n. 19. (Sui, vulgo Sfi no ki ; Ksmpf. Amoen. 816.)
" Leaves ovate, pointed, ferrated, fmooth. Calyx prickly."
— Native of Japan, about Nagafaki. A tree, with Itriated,
fmooth, fpreading branches. Leaves alternate, ilalked, an
inch long, ovate, rounded at the bafe, pointed, fmooth on
both fides, with parallel veins ; their upper half ferrated.
Female Jloiuers fcattered over the young branches, folitary,
nearly feflile. Cup of the acorn prickly, the fize of a hazel-
nut. Thunb. This fpecies, hke n. 13, appears, by its
prickly cup, allied to Fagus ; efpecially as Ksempfer, who
calls it Fagus folio fraxlni, defcribes the dry cup as fphtting
into three, four, or five parts. The nut is eaten by the
Japanefe, either raw or cooked.

25. Q. /errata. Saw-leaved Japan Oak. Thunb.

Jap. 176. Willd. n. 20 " Leaves oblong, ferrated,

villous and downy, with parallel veins." — Native of Japan,
flowering in May and June. A tree, with alternate, fmooth,
a(h-coloured, knotty, fpreading branches, befprinkled with
white tubercles. Leaves alternate, pointed, all acutely and
equally ferrated, furnifhed with ftraight parallel veins ; green
above and very filky when young ; paler beneath, filky and
downy at firlt, but fubfequently more flightly villous ; their
length from one to three inches. Male Jleivers in hairy,
drooping, long-ftalked fpikes, each an inch long. Our
fpecimen is in an early ftate of foliage, nor have we any ac-
count of X^as fruit, or female ^owe/j-.

26. Q. dentata. Tooth-leaved Japan Oak. Thunb.
Jap. 177. Willd. n. 69. (Koku; Krempf. Amoen. 816.)
— " Leaves obovate-oblong, obtufe, deeply toothed ; downy
beneath." — Native of hills in Japan, flowering in April and
May. A tree, with thick, ereft, rugged, furrowed branches,
befprinkled with dots and tubercles ; downy at the fummits.
Leaves crowded about the extremities, on very (hort ftalks,
obovate-oblong, obtufe, with deep teeth deftitute of fpines ;
villous above ; downy beneath ; pliant, two inches long ;
their veins parallel. Thunb. Kosmpfer fays the wood is
white.

27. Q. lanata. Woolly-leaved Nepaul Oak. — Leaves
elliptic-oblong, fharply ferrated, coriaceous ; denfely woolly
beneatli. Fruit in axillary folitary fpikes. Calyx fcaly,
without prickles. Native of the mountains of Upper Ne-
paul, flowering in April. Buchanan. The Parbutties call
it Ban%a, or Banja; the Nawars So/hi Shingali. This is a
tree of vaft dimenfions, with a fcaly bark, and rigid, brown,
warty branches, clothed, when young, with der.fe white
down. Leaves altctnate, fomewhat two-ranked, (talked,
elliptic-oblong, fometimes rather obovate, pointed, from

three to five inches in length, and two or more in breadth
itrongly and fharply l*rrated, except at the very bafe, whicli
is more or lc(s rounded, and occafionally unequal; the upper
lurface green, (hining, and naked, (except when young),
but not quite fmooth to the touch ; the under clothed with
(ine, denfe, uniform, white, woolly pubefcence, and marked
with prominent, parallel, but not very crowded, obliquely-
tranfverfe veins. Foot/lalis ftout, downy, fcarcely an inch
long. Stipulas ovate, membranous, deciduous. Vi-Avjlo'wers
ill fhort, denle, hmy fpikes, at the bafe of the young fhoots,
as they protrude from, the bud. Calyx with five or fix teeth.
yinlhers about fix, feflile. Female Jloiuers, as far as Dr.
Buchanan could obferve, on a feparate tree, iR very (hort,
folitary, axillar}^ fpikes. Acorns either folitary, or feveral
crowded together, fmall, ovate, hairy, half covered by their
fcaly unarmed cups.

28. Q. diverfifolia. Various-leaved Mexican Oak. Willd.
n. 21. Nee in Annal. Scient. Nat. v. 3. 270. Fifch. Mifc .
Hifp. V. I. 107. Willd. — Leaves ovate, undivided or
deeply toothed ; yellow and downy beneath. Fruit fpiked,
globofe. — Found by Louis Nee, between the villages of
Chalraa and Santa Rofa in New Spain. A Jhrub, from
ten to fourteen feet high ; its trunk feldom itraight ; the
bark cracked, dark-coloured; the branches alternate. Leaves
either an inch and half long, and undivided, or two inches
and a half, and deeply toothed ; fmooth and fhining above ;
downy, and dull yellow, beneath. Fooljlalks hardly a line
in length. Stipulas oblong, reddi(h, membranous, COB-
trafted at the bafe, deciduous. Acorns four or five, fefTile,
OH a thread-fhaped axillary ftalk, two inches long. Cup the
fize and (hape of a pea, covered with fcales. Nuts fcarcely
projefting above a line beyond the cup. Nee. The fruit,
being felfile, is evidently fpiked, not, as the authors quoted
term it, racemofe.

29. Q. agrifolia. Holly-leaved American Oak. Willd.
n. 22. Nee in Annal. Scient. Nat. v. 3. 271. Fifch. Mifc.
Hifp. V. I. 108. Willd. Purfh n. 9. — Leaves roundifh-
ovate, fomewhat heart-ihaped, fmooth on both fides, with
fpinous teeth. Fruit axillary, feflile. Scales of the calyx
lax. Nut ovate. — Native of the weft (not eaft) coaft of
North America, near Monterey, and Nootka found. Nee.
Branches fmooth, afh-coloured. Leaves about two inches
long, and almoft as wide, fmooth, veiny, nearly heart-
fliaped, bordered with diftant fpinous teeth. Spikes of
male Jloiuers an inch long. Calyx fhorter than the ftamens-
Anthers five, two-celled. Female Jloivers axillary, felTile,
moftiy two together. Calyx hemifpherical, befet with lax
yellow fcales. Nut thrice as long as the calyx, meafuring
eight lines, ovate, acute. Nee.

Plukenet's t. 196. f. 3, cited with doubt by Willdenow
and Pur(h, appears to belong, as Linnseus thought, to his
own Hippomane fpinofa. The (hape of the leaves certainly
does not agree with the above defcription, though perfeftly
anfwerable to Plumier's figure of this Hippomane, which is
Sapium ilicifoUum of Willdenow, Sp. PI. v. 4. 573, wlio
there copies the fame fynonym from Linnaeus, without any
mark of uncertainty.

30. Q. gramuntia. Holly-leaved Montpellier Oak.
Linn. Sp. PI. 1413. Willd. n. 23. Ait. n. 6. (Ilex foliie
rotundioribus et fpinofis, e luco gramuntio ; Magn. Monfp.
140.) — Leaves roundi(h-eUiptical, nearly feflile, undulated,
with deep fpinous divaricated teeth ; denfely downy beneath;
fomewhat heart-fhaped at the bafe. — Native of the wood of
Gramont, near Montpellier, and of Spain. Cultivated in
England in 1730. It blolToms in June. This is rather a
fmall ftraggling tree, with numerous round grey branches,
downy when young. Leaves evergreen, fcarcely an inch

01 l*ng,

QUERCUS.

long, rigid, broadly elliptical, often nearly orbicular, very
much undulated at the margin, tlicir deep broad fpmous
teeth pointing every way ; the upper furface dark green,
rather glaucous, befprinkled with minute Harry hairs ; the
wnder denfely clotlied with white entanirled down. We
have feen neither Jlozuers nor fruit. Willdenow appears
millaken in difcarding the fynonym of Magiiol, which
anfvvers extremely well to ihc Liiinaean fpecimens, though
indeed the author fpeaks of his plant as a variety of Q. Ilex.
It is, neverthelefs, true that Linnaeus confounded herewith
a plant from Magnol's herbarium, which is not diftinft from
g. Ilex.

31. Q. Ballota. Sweet-acorn Oak. Desfont. Atlant.
V. 2. 350. Willd. n. 24. (Ilex major; Cluf. Hift. v. i.
23 ?) — Leaves elliptical, coriaceous ; entire or ferratcd ;
very downy beneath. Bark even. Nut cyhndrical, elon-
gated.— Native of feveral places in the neighbourhood of
mount Athos, according to profeflbr Destontaines, from
whom we have a wild ipecimen. It flowers in May. Tiiis
is a large and handfome evergreen tree, whofe trunk is from
twenty to thirty feet high ; the luood hard, compafi, and
very ufeful ; tlie bark even, not corky, though full of iif-
fures ; branches downy. Footjlalks a quarter of an inch
long, downy. Leaves various in (hape, but more or lefs
elliptical, an inch or inch and half long ; either quite entire,
or ferrated with fmall fpinous teeth ; their upper furface, at
leaft when young, befprinkled with minute Harry hairs ; the
under always very white and denfely downy. Male Jlo'wers
in copious, long, lax, pendulous /pikes, with uiually feven

fiamens; female on the fame tree, axillary, folitary or aggre-
gate. Acorns cylindrical, an inch and half or two inches
long, half an inch in diameter, eatable and very palatable,
either raw or roafled. Cup h(;mifpherical, covered with
numerous, obtufe, downy, clofely imbricated fcales.

32. Q. Ilex. Common Evergreen Oak, or Holm Oak.
Linn. Sp. PI. 141 2. Willd. n. 25. Ait. n. 7. — Leaves
ovate-oblong, acute, coriaceous ; entire or ferrated ; hoary
beneath. Bark even. Nut ovate. The varieties are; x,
with lanceolate entire leaves ; Smilax Dalech ; Bauh. Hilt.
V. I. part 2. loi. Snber fecuudus ; Matth. Valgr. v. i.
188, as to the figure: /=, with lanceolate ferrated leaves;
Ilex; Matth. Valgr. v. i. 186. Duham. Arb. v. i. t. 123:
y, with rounder, lefs rigid, and more or lefs ferrated leaves ;
Phellodrys ; Matth. Valgr. v i. 189, as to the figure.
Ilex n. 3 ; Duham. Arb. v. i. t. 124. This fpecies occurs
in various parts of the fouth of Europe, and north of
Africa, and is hardy, as well as evergreen, with us, thriving
particularly near the fea, though of flow growth, flowering
in May and June. It ufually forms a large buftiy tree, but
occafionally rifes with a rtraight naked trunk, and round
head, to a great height. The worjil is hard and heavy,
valuable for many purpofes. The French ufe it for puUies
in the navy. The bark is hard and even, not ctjrky. Leaves
various in fliape and fize ; dark green, convex, and quite
fmooth, above; hoary or downy beneath; their edges either
revolute and entire, or irregularly notched and ferrated.
Footjlalks half an inch long, downy. Acorns ufually two,
en an axillary downy ilalk which is longer than the foot-
ftalk, ovate, hardly an inch long, with a fcaly downy cup.
They are eaten by hogs, but are very different in Ihape and
quality from thofe of the laft-defcribed fpecies. So many
varieties, or fpecies, nearly correfponding with thefe two,
are mentioned by authors, that it is difficult to underftand
them. The fubjeft requires, and well defcrves, a praftical
inveltigation. Lamarck, under the article Chene, in his
diftionary, mentions feveral kinds, which he knew but im-
perfeftly, and which we have no means of elucidating further.

fo that we dare not adopt, or attempt to reduce them to
order.

33. Q. Suber. Cork Tree. Linn. Sp. PI. 1413.
Wilid. 11. 26. Ait. u. 8. Hunter's Evel. Sylv. 362, with
a plate. (Suber; Camer. Epit. 115. S. primus; Matth.
Valgr. V, I. 187. S. latitolium, perpeluo vireiia ; Duham.
Arb. V. 2. 291. t. 80. S. latifoliurn ; Ger. Em. 1347, the
middle figure only.) — Leaves ovate-oblong, bhintilh, coria-
ceous ; entire or fharply lerrated ; downy beneath. Bark
cracked, fungous. — Native of the louth of Europe, and
north of Africa. Duhamel fays it can hardly bear the cli-
mate of the north of France. It lives however in our
Eughfh gardens, where it has been kept more than a cen-
tury. The bark is remarkable for a thick fpongy coat,
yielding the well-known fubflance called cork. The leaves
much refemble the broad variety of Q_. Ilex, nor do the
acorns greatly differ from thofe of that tree. We h»ve not
been able to alcertain what autliors mean by th ir Suber
angujifolium non ferratum, the figure of which, Matth. Valgr.
V. 1. 188. Duham. Arb. v. 2. t. 8l, we have cited as our
firlt variety of Ilex. We fliould fufpect the Suber itfelf to
be altogether a variety of Ilex, differing'only in the bark ;
and tliat tliere might be a broad and a narrow-leaved variety
of each ; were not the dwaif tufted Humpy habit of the
Cork Tree, on the fandy plains of Italy, Spain, &c. fo
peculiar. Yet this pofTibly may, as well as the nature of
the bark, be owing to the foil, for in ilrong ground the
cork, according to Duhamel, degenerates. Willdenow fays
" the leaves of Q. Suber are a little elongated at the bale,
running down into the footjlalk, which is not the cafe with
Ilex ;" but this charafter ieems fcarcely permanent.

34. Q. coccifera. Kermes Oak. Linn. Sp. PI. 1413.
Willd. n. 27. Ait. n. 9. {Ilex coccifera; Camer. Epit.
774. I. aculeata cocciglandifera ; Garid. Aix. 245. t. 53.
Nillole in Mem. de I'Acad. des Sciences for 17 14. 435.
t. 17, 18. I. coccigera ; Ger. Em. 1342.) — Leaves ellip-
tic-oblong, rigid, fmooth on both fides, with fpreading,
briflly, fpinous teeth. Nut ovate. Calyx with fpreading
pointed fcales. — Native of the fouth of Europe, and the
Levant, flowering in the fpring. This is a bufhy evergreen

Jbrub, celebrated for producing the kermes, a valuable article
of dyeing, before the introduction of cochineal, and which
afforded the color kermejimis, or crimfon. The kermes is an
infeft, of the genus Coccus, which flicks to the branches,
in the form of a red ball, the fize of a pea. It is now out
of ufe among dyers, and is only ufed by French apotheca-
ries. The leaves of this fhrub are, at moll, but half the
fize of the laft, though they vary much in magnitude as
well as figure. They are diftinguifhed by their rigidity,
fmoothnefs on both fides, and their prominent needle-hke
marginal prickles. The fcales of the mature calyx are alfo
much more elongated and prominent than in Ilex or Suber,
and of an angular awl-fltaped figure.

35. Q. Pfeudo-coccifera. Batlard Kermes Oak. Des-
font. Atlant. V. 2. 349. Willd. n. 28. — Leaves eUiptic-
oblong, rigid, fmooth on both fides, with fpinous ferra-
tures. Nut ovate. Calyx with flat, (lightly fpreading,

fcales Obferved by Desfontaines at Algiers and about

mount Athos. At Tunis it is called the " meal-bearing
oak," probably from the ufe of the acorns as food. This
is a tree, from fifteen to twenty feet high, with round
branches, clothed with rulty down when young. The leaves
are twice or thrice as large as thofe of Q. coccifera, thicker
and lefs wavy, with much fmaller and fhorter fpinous ferra-
tures, rather than teeth. Calyx clothed with numerous,
flat, fhort, flightly fpreading fcales. Nut ovate, pointed.
Willdenow, not having feen a fpecimen, has mifunderltood

the

QUERCUS.

the nature of tlie calyx, and has in other refpeAs altered
Desfoiitaincs' fpecific charadlcr for the uorfe.

^6. Q. rigida. Rigid-leaved Oak. Willd. n. 29. —
(liex aculeata cocciglaiidifera, glandc maxima, nunc cylin-
dracea, nunc fubrotunda, cupula echinata; Tourn. Cor. 40?

" Leaves oblong, undivided, with fpinous ferratures,

fmooth ; glaucous beneath ; heart- fhapcd at the bafe. Foot-
ftalk.8 bearded at the fummit. Scales of the calyx of the
fruit rigid, fpreading." — Native of the coall of Caramania.
IVilldenow. A pretty fpecies, fufficiently diftincl from its
allies. Branches pale brown, dotted. Leaves oblong, an
inch or rather more in length, rigid, with fpinous ferratures;
deep green and fhining above ; glaucous beneath ; cordate
at the bafe. Footjlalks very rtiort, fmooth, except at the
top, where a line of brownifh hairs, on each fide, runs up
the midrib. Calyx of the fruit fefliie, befet with rigid,
woody, lanceolate, fpreading fcales. Willd.

A fpecimen before us, gathered by the late Dr. Brouifo-
net at Algiers, anfwers precifely to this defcription, efpe-
cially in the curious charafter of the hairy lines, running a
little way up the midrib of the leaf ; but the foliage is
equally green and fhining on both fides. The calyx re-
femblcs that of cocci/era, but its inner fcales are longer, and
more fpreading.

37. Q. rotundifoUa. Round-leaved Spanilh Oak. La-
rnarck Difl. v. i. 723. Willd. n. 30. — " Leaves obovate-
oblong, abrupt, with fpinous teeth ; heart-(haped at the
bafe; fmoothifh above; downy beneath." — Native of Spain.
Seen by Lamarck, in a young ftate, in the garden of Monf.
Cels, and by WiUdenow dry without fruftification. The
Branches are round and downy. Leaves ftalked, an inch or
more in length ; glaucous-grey, and not quite fmooth, above ;
white and cottony beneath. The acorns are faid to be large
and long, eatable like chefnuts. This defcription is not in-
applicable, on the whole, to our n. 31, Q. Ballota.

38. Q. huinilis. Dwarf Portuguefe Oak. Lamarck
DiA. V. I. 719. Willd. n.31. Ger. Em. 1340. (Q.
pedem vix fuperans ; Bauh. Pin. 420. Robur 7 ; Cluf.
Hift. V. I. 19.) — Leaves obovate, with fpinous lerratures ;
heart-fhaped at the bafe ; downy beneath. Calyx of the
fruit flattened. Nut oblong. — Found by Clufuis in barren
fandy ground near Lifbon, very abundantly. The whole
plant is rarely more than a foot high when wild ; though
Lamarck fays it becomes twice or thrice as tall by culture.
The young branches are downy. Leaves an inch, or inch
and half long, on Ihort footjlalks; fmooth and fhining
above ; downy and hoary benc.^th ; their larger veins ftraight
and parallel. The acorns are defcribed as more bitter than
our common oak, their form oblong, their cups remarkably
(hort and flattened.

39. Q. lujitanica. Portuguefe Gall Oak. Lamarck
Dift. v. I. 719. Willd. n. 32. (Q. valentina ; Cavan.
Ic. v. 2. 25. t. 129? Robur 4; Cluf. Hift. v. 1. 18, and
R. 5 ; ibid. 19. Galla five Robur majus; Ger. Em. 1 348,
and G. minor; ibid. 1349.) — "Leaves elliptical, with deep
pointed ferratures; downy beneath. Fruit racemofe. Calyx
hemifpherical. Nut oblong." — Native of Portugal, and
perhaps Spain. Lamarck fays this fpecies confifts of feveral
varieties, all very low Jlirubs, fubjeft to bear galls ; their
branches copious and fleider ; their leaves fmall, internifdiate
in form between the evergreen and the ordinary oaks of
purope. Willdenow defcribes the leaves an inch in length,
oblong, obtufe, rigid ; their ferratures fomewhat pointed ;
the upper furface pohftied and fmooth ; the under hoary
with flender, ibrry, crowded hairs. Footjlalks fliort. Fruit
racemofe, or rather, as we fhould imagine, fpiked. He
pdtls that the figure of Cavanilles fcarcely anfwers to the

plant in quellioii ; and indeed that author defcribes his as a
lofty tree, taller than (). Ilex, witii deciduous leaves, and
large, folitary acorns. We have feen no fpecimen.

40. Q. infecloria. Oriental Gall Oak. Olivier's Travels,
Englilh edition, v. 2. 42. t. 14, i j. Willd. p.. 33. — Lenvej
ovate-oblong, very fmooth on both fides, deeply toothed,
fomewhat finuated, deciduous. Fruit fefliie. Calyx tefftl-
lated. Nut elongated, nearly cylindrical. — This oak, ac-
cording to Olivier, is fcattered throughout all Afia minor,
from the Bofphorus as far as Syria, and from the coalls of
the Archipelago, as far as the frontiers of Perfia. It fel-
dom attains the height of fix feet, and the Jlem is crooked,
with tlie habit of a Jhruh rather than a tret. The leaves
are an inch or inch and half long, deciduous, bright green,
fmooth on both fides, but paler beneath ; their ferratures
deep and broad, not acutely pointed. Fruit folitary, nearly
feflile. Cup (lightly downy, its fcales not very diilinft.
Acorn two or three times longer than the cup, fmooth,
nearly cylindrical. The galls produced on the young
branches of this oak, from the pundlure of a fpecies ot
Diplolepis, are preferred to all others for dyeing, and are a
great article of the Levant trade. (See Galls.) Olivier
obferves that the plant bears a number of differeut galls,
befides the above, which are neglefted, as ufelefs.

41. Q. mucronata. Pointed-toothed Mexican Oak.
Willd. n. 34. (Q. caftanea ; Nee in Annal. Scient. Nat.
V. 3. 276. Fifch. Mifc. Hifp. v. I. 114. Willd.) — "Leaves
oblong-lanceolate, with pointed awned ferratures ; poliflied
above ; downy beneath; heart -fliaped at the bafe." — Found
by Louis Nee, without flowers or fruit, in New Spain, be-
tween Ixmiquilpan and Cimapan. The tree is twelve feet
high, with a ftraight trunk, covered with a brittle dark-
coloured bark. Branches ereft, alternate, fmooth, much
fub-divided. Leaves three inches long, and one broad,
acute ; abrupt and heart-fliaped at the bafe, their ferratures
awned ; the upper furface green and fmooth ; the under
clothed with fine yellow down. Footjlalks two lines long.
Stipulas none. Nee.

42. Q. tomentoja. Downy Mexican Oak. Willd. n. 35.
(Q. peduncularis ; Nee in Annal. Scient. Nat. v. 3, 270.
Fifch. Mifc. Hifp. V. I. 106. Willd.) — "Leaves oblong-
ovate, with tooth-like notches ; denfely downy beneath.
Fruit racemofe. Nut globofe, nearly covered by the calvx."
— Native of New Spain, in the road from Mexico to Aca-
pulco, beyond the river Mefcala. A tree, twenty feet high,
with an upright trunk, and grey brittle bark. Branches
numerous, alternate, clothed with denfe reddifli wool.
Leaves five inches long, hardly two wide, cr-wded ; obtufe
at the bafe ; pointed at the end ; bordered with tooth-like
notches ; green and fmoothifh above ; downy, with promi-
nent veins, beneath. Footjlalks downy, very fliort. Fe-
malejloivers on an axillary folitary ftalk, three or four inches
long. Acorns but little bigger than pepper-corns, each al-
moll entirely concealed in its fcaly, downy, reddifh cup.
Nee. This fpecies agrees with our thirteenth, iribuloides,
in having its acorn concealed by the cup. The fruit is
defcribed, by the authors we are obliged to copy, as race-
mofe. We have feen no fpecimens, but analogy would
induce us to fuppofe it TM.\\er fpiked.

43. Q. circinata. Round-toothed Mexican Oak. Willd.
n. 36. Nee in Annal. Scient. Nat. v. 3. 272. Fifch.
Mifc. Hifp. v. I. 109. Willd. — " Leaves ovate, crenate,
undulated ; acute at each end ; downy beneath. Nut
fcarcely longer than the calyx."— Native of New Spain,
between Tixtala and Chilpancingo. A tree twentv pr
twenty-five feet high. Trunk ereft. Bark brittle, a(h-
coloured. Branches horizontal; the young ones ereft, fur-

rowed.

QUERCU.S.

rowtd, villous. Leaves alternate, from five to feven inches
long, and three broad ; green and fliining above ; more or
lefs downy, and flcfh-coloured, or reddirti-brown, beneath ;
the margin undulated and crenate, the notches rounded,
their edges turned towards the point of the leaf. Fruit
fupported by a very fliort common (talk. Calyx licmifphe-
rical, the fize of Chick peas, Cicer arielinum ; its Icales
acute at the point. Niit but little larger than the calyx.
Plukenet's t. 54. f. 3, in fome meafure refcmbles the fpccies
before us, but is faid to have a large fruit, and is cited by
authors as Q. Prinus. Nee.

44. Q. fplendens. Silky-le.ived Mexican Oak. Willd.
n. 37. Nee in Annal. Scient. Nat. v. 3. ^75. Fifch. Mifc.
Hifp. V. I. 113. Willd.) — "Leaves oblong-ovate, bluntly
toothed; fiightly downy .above ; denfcly filky beneath." —
Native of New Spain, near Taxala. Trunk ereft, much
branched, fifteen feet high. Branches partly horizontal,
partly eredl, clotlied with red fhining down. Leaves fcat-
tered, crowded, three inches long, and an inch and half
broad ; green, with a thin downy coat, above ; thickly
clothed beneath with fhining pubefccnce, the midrib only
being prominent ; their edges bluntly and unequally toothed.
Footjlalks very flaort, with an awl-lhaped villous Jlipula at
each fide. Flowers and fruit not obferved. Nee.

45. Q. rugofa. Rugged Mexican Oak. Willd. n. 38.
Nee in Annal. Scient. Nat. v. 3. 275. Filch. Mifc. Hifp.
T. I. 112. Willd. — "Leaves ovate-oblong, coriaceous, ru-
gcfe ; toothed towards the end ; heart -fhapcd at the bafe ;
downy and rufty beneath." — Native of the woods of Huif-
quiluca and Ocuila, in the way from Mexico to Santo
Chriflo de Chalma. A middle-iised tree, having numerous,
alternate,, round, grey branches, rough with minute promi-
nent points. Leaves three inches in length, hardly two in
breadth, thick and coriaceous ; rugged, green and fliining
on the upper fide ; brown and downy at the back ; hcart-
(haped at the bafe ; the margin toothed from the middle to
the extremity. Footjlalks two lines long, thickened at their
bafe. Female Jloiuers in fcaly axillary chillers. Nee.

46. Q. macrophylla. Large-leaved Mexican Oak. Willd.
n. 39. Nee in Annal. Scient. Nat. v. 3. 274. Fifch.
Miic. Hifp. v. I. III. Willd. — "Leaves obovate, crenate;
tapering and heart. Ihaped at the bafe ; downy beneath.
Fruit fpiked." — Found by Louis Nee, the difcoverer like-
wife of the five preceding fpecies, in the diltrifts of Chil-
pancingo and La Curva, and on the mountains of Quirapu,
in New Spain. This is a tree, thirty feet high, with a ftout
upright trunk, and denfe head. The principal branches are
horizontal; the reft upright, furrowed when young. Leaves
a foot long, and feven or eight inches broad ; roundad at
the end ; gradually tapering down to the cmarginate, or
lieart-fhaped, bafe, where they meafure only tour lines
acrofs ; their upper furface green and fliining ; the under
yellowidi, clothed with very minute down ; the margin cre-
nate and wavy. Footjlalks very Ihort and tliick. Female
fleiuers felTile on a common llalk, and encompalTed with
downy bradeas. Nee. ,

47. Q. Prinus. Chefnut-leaved White Oak. Linn.
Sp. PI- 1413- Willd. n. 40. Ait. n. 10. Purfli n. 30.
(Q. Prinus, var. 1, palullris ; Michaux Querc. n. 5. t. 6.
Q. cattancae fohis, procera ai'bor virginiana ; Pluk. Almag.
309. Phyt. t. 54. f. 3- Catefb. Carol, v. i. t. 18.) —
Leaves on longifh ftalks, obovate, acute ; fomewhat downy
beneath ; with nearly equal, dilated, callous-tipped, tooth-
like ferratures. Calyx of the fruit contrafted at the bafe.
Nut ovate. — Foimd in low fhady moift weods, and on the
banks of rivers, from Pennfylvania to Florida, flowering in
May. It appears to have been known in England in 1730.

8

This is one of the tailed trees produced in the fouthern parts
of the United State.-:, and remarkable for the beauty of its
form, as well as the large fize of its acorns, which are plon-
ti.''ul and fweet, a delicious and beneficial food for hogs and
other wild animals. The -wood is excellent, much ufed for
making wheel-carriages, and yet fo readily fplit as to ferve
for bafl<ct-work and brooms. The leaves are fix inches, or
more, in length, and three broad ; filky in the fpring ;
fmooth and glaucous in fummer ; fometimes very downy on
old trees. Footjlalks an inch long. Stamens iive to ten.
Acorns an inch and half long, ovate ; their cups fliallow,
covered with numerous clofely-imbricated fcales. Michaux
fays the bark is whitifh, peeling off in long Itrips.

48. Q. Chinquapin. Chinquapin, or Dwarf Chefnut
Oak. Purfh n. 34. (Q. prmoides ; Willd. n. 41. Q.
Prinus, var. 4, pumila ; Michaux Querc. n. 5. t. 9. f. i.
Q. Prinus Chinquapin; Michaux Arb. v. 2. 65. t. 10, good.
Purjh.') — Leaveson fhort ftalks, obovate, fmooth; glaucous
beneath ; tapering at the bafe ; with nearly equal, dilated,
acute, callous-tipped, tooth-like ferratures. Calyx of the
fruit hemiipherical. Nut ovate. — Found on dry moun-
tainous lands, from Pennfylvania to Carolina, flowering in
May, when, according to Mr. Purih, it is highly ornamental.
This is a humble Jlirub, not above three or four feet high.
The young leaves are whitifh and downy beneath ; the adult
ones Imooth and glaucous, fcarcely above one-third the fize
of the preceding. Female Jloivers, according to Michaux,
fmall, two or three together, on a fhort, folitary, axillary

Jlalk. Acorns of a middling fize, with a thin, nearly he-
mifpherical, cup.

49. Q. montana. Rock Chefnut Oak> Willd. n. 42.
Purlh n. 32. (Q. Prinus; Sm. in Abbot's Inf. v. 2. 163.
t. 82. Q. Prinus, var. 2, raonticola; Michaux Querc. n. y.
t. 7.) — Leaves on fhortifh ftalks, obovate, acute; downy
and white beneath: with nearly equal, dilated, fliort, blunt,
callous-tipped tooth-like ferratures. Fruit in pairs, on
fhort ftalks. Calyx hemifpherical, with rugged fcales.
Nut oblong-ovate. — Found abundantly, in rocky fituations,
on the mountains of North America, from New England to
Carolina, flowering in May. Michaux fuggefts that this
fpecies would be well worth cultivating in Europe. The
tree rifes to the height of fixty feet ; the •wood is tough and
very ufeful, the bark excellent for tanning. It difters from
Q. Prinus, n. 47, with which it has been confounded, in
the conftant white downinefs of the under fide of the leaves,
which are much fmaller and lefs dilated upward. The acorns
moreover are but half the fize of that fpecies, and more ob-
long, two together on a very fhort ftalk.

50. Q. bicolor. Swamp White Oak. Willd. n. 43.
Purfh n. 31. (Q. Prinus, var. 5, tomentofa ; Michaux
Querc. n. 5. t. 9. f. 2. Q. Prinus difcolor ; Michaux Arb.
v. 2. 46. t. 6. Purjlj. \ — Leaves nearly fefTile, obovate ;
downy and white beneath ; with very broad, unequal, ob-
tufe, callous-tipped, lobe-hke teeth. Fruit in pairs, on
long briftle -pointed ftalks. Calyx hemiipherical. Nut ob-
long-ovate.— Native of low wet woods, from Pennfylvania
to Carolina, flowering in May. PurJh. It grows to a very
large tree. The leaves have extremely broad Ihallow teeth,
or, as they might be called, lobes, approaching to the figure
of our common Engliih Oak leaves ; their under fide white
and very downy. The acorns are fweet and eatable, like
moll of the Prinus tribe. Wiildenow fays the teeth are
occafionally variable in fize, one or two of them being
fometimes remarkably elongated ; and that the bafe of the
leafh more entire than in the foregoing.

SI. Q. Cajlanea. Yellow Oak. Willd. n. 44. Purflj
n, 33. (Q. Prinus, v. 3, acuminata ; Michaux Querc. n. 5.

t.8.)

QUERCUS.

t. 8.) Leaves on long footttalks, oblong-lanccolatc,

pointed ; fomewhat downy beneath ; with numerous, nearly
equal, dilated, acute, callous-tipped, tooth-like ferratures.
Calyx hemifpherical. Nut roundifli-ovate. — Found in the
Allegany mountains, and on the banks of the Delaware,
flowering in May. Purjlj. Michaux fays it occurs in all
ihe fertile countries to the well of thofe mountains ; and as
the temperature of that climate agrees with the north of
Europe, the tree in quettion would be well worth trying
here. The luood is excellent ; hark very ferviceable in tan-
ning ; and the acorns fwect. The tree is large and hand-
fome, feventy or eighty feet high. Leaves much like thofe
of our Sweet Chelnut in form, but glaucous and often
downy beneath. Jcorns much rounder than in any of the
four preceding, and fhorter in proportion to the cup.
Thefe Chefnut Oaks, Pr'mus and its aUies, feem not to
have as yet attrafted the notice of European cultivators,
perhaps from their having been improperly confounded by
botaniits. The above accounts of their dillinftions, and
their valuable qualities, it is hoped, may caufe them to be
fought out, and introduced into this country. Their dif-
ferent acorns might furely be cafily imported.
Seftion 3. — Leaves lohed at the extremity.
52. Q. aqiiatica. Water Oak. Soland. in Ait. Hort.
Kew. ed. I. v. 3. 357. ed. 2. n. 11. Willd. n.45. Pur(h
n. II. Michaux Querc. n. 11. t. 19. t. 20. f. i, 3, 4, 5,
and t. 21. (Q. foliis cuneiformibus, obfolete trilobis, in-
termedio produdliore ; Gron. Virg. 149. Q. folio non
ferrato, in fummitate quafi triangulate ; Catefb. Carol, v. I.
t. 20. Herb. Linn.) — Leaves wedge-fliaped, fmooth ;
tapering at the bafe ; dilated and obfcurely three-lobed at
the end, the middle lobe largeft. Calyx nearly hemifphe-
rical. Nut roundifh. — Native of fwamps in North Ame-
rica, from iVIaryland to Florida, bloffoming in May. Miller
is faid to have cultivated this fpecies in 1748, but it is little
known in England. The tree is forty feet high ; its wood,
according to Purfli and Michaux, is little efteemed ; but the
latter is of opinion that it might prove more valuable if felled
in winter ; he mentions alio that the tree is not peculiar to
fwamps, or inundated meadows, but occurs fometimes in
dry fandy ground, as on plains near the fea-coaft of Florida.
Few trees vary fo much in the fliape of their leaves, according
to age or fituation, as this. The proper form of its foliage
is wedge-fliaped, much elongated and tapering at the bafe ;
dilated, rhomboid, or very flightly and bluntly thi-ee-lobed
at the extremity ; the edges entire ; both fides ufually
fmooth. Footjlalks variable in length, but rather Ihort ;
. clothed, when young, with ftarry hairs, which are fome-
times fcattered over the back of the young leaf. Some of
its leaves however, even on the fame tree, are deeply three-
lobed ; and thofe of young plants are, the firft year, oblong
and quite entire ; the next two or three feafons, varioufly
toothed and finuated ; infomuch that botanifts know not
well how to diflinguifh its varieties from fome of the follow-
ing fpecies. The acorns are fhort and roundifh, with a
fhalloiv cup, and Hand generally in pairs, on (hort Italks.

53. Q. nigra. Barren Oak, or Black Jack. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1413. WiUd. n. 46. Ait. n. 12. Purfh n. 15. Sm.
in Abbot's Inf. v. 2. 115. t. 58. Michaux Querc. n. 12.
t. 22, 23. (Q. marylandica, folio trilido, ad faffafras ac-
cedente; Catefb. Carol, v. i.t. 19.) — Leaves wedge-fhaped ;
fomewhat heart-(hapcd at the bafe ; dilated, abrupt, and
very (lightly three-lobed at the end ; the middle lobe (horteft ;
fmooth above ; rull) beneath. Calyx hemifpherical, with
membranous fcales. Nut roundi(h-ovate. — In barren fandy
or gravelly woods, from New Jerfey to Florida, flowering
in May, This tree is of low growth, efpecially in the more

northern ftates. It bears abundance of acorns, rery good
food for hogs. The wood ia fmall, but excellent for fuel.
Purjlj. The leaves are twice or thrice the fize of the laft,
fingularly dilated, and abrupt, at the end ; their lobes, when
young, more evident, and each tipped with a brilUe, which
foon falls off. Acorns moilly in pairs, nearly felTile, with
very fcaly cups.

54. Q. triloba. Downy Black Oak. Willd. n. 47. Ait.
n. 13. Purfti n. 14. Michaux Querc. n. 14. t. 26. (Q.
rubra; Abbot's Inf. v. i. 99. t. 50.) — Leaves wedge-
fliaped, with three terminal, brilUy-pointed lobes, the middle
one longefl ; downy beneath. Calyx of the fruit flattifh.
Nut nearly round. — Native of barren trafts, near the fea-
coall, from New Jerfey to Georgia, flowering in May. It
was brought to England in 1 800, by Meflrs. Frafer. The
tree is fifty or fixty feet high, of rapid growth, even in a poor
foil. Michaux defcribes it as very fit for making live
fences ; though the wood is molt generally ufed in America
for paling. The leaves are much Imaller than thofe of
O. nigra, rounded, not heart-(haped, at the bafe, and with
\ongcr footjlalis. ' Their lobes are direft, not laterally dilated,
each tipped with one or more fmall brilUes, and the under fide
is covered with denfe white down. The foliage of young
fhoots, that fpring up where forefts of this tree have been
burnt, are often near a foot long, deeply pinnatifid, and
fharply lobed ; as reprefented in Michaux, t. 26. f. 2.

55. Q. nana. Dwarf Jagged Oak. Willd. n. 48.
Purfli n. 13. (Q. aquatica ; Sm. in Abbot's Inf. v. 2,
117. t. 59. Q. aquatica elongata ; Ait. n. 1 1, -..) — Leaves
oblong-wedge-fhaped, fmooth, fomewhat finuated ; three-
lobed at the extremity : lobes divaricated, pointed, the
middle one largeft ; forks of the vein downy beneath. — In
barren lands, called pine-barrens, of South Carolina, flower-
ing in May. Purfh defcribes it as " a low-growing fpecies,
always keeping dillinft from (). aquatica.^' The leaves are
almoft feffile, two or three inches long, much more dillindlly
lobed than in aquatica or nigra, and more finuated or angular
befides, than in any of the three laft defcribed. The acorns
are almoft globular, with a very fhallow cup.

Seftion 4. — Leaves finuated, •with pointed lobes.

56. Q. hemifphitrica. Hemifpherical Oak. " Bertram's
Travels 320." Willd. n. 49. Purfh n. 12. (Q. aquatica
maritima ; Michaux Querc. n. II. t. 20. f. 2.) — " Leaves
evergrein, oblong-lanceolate ; undivided, three-lobed, or
finuated; fmooth on both fides ; lobes pointed." Willd. —
Native of Georgia and Florida. Some of the leaves are
very deeply three-lobed, or pinnatifid ; others linear-oblong
and undivided. Willdenow fays they are evergreen, and that
the foliage of the young plant is fo like Q. Fhellos, our firft
fpecies, as to be hardly diftinguifhable. Michaux, how-
ever, aflerts this fuppofed fpecies to be but a maritime
variety of aquatica, and Purfh thinks it a young plant of
that kind.

57. Q. elongata. Downy-leaved Oak. Willd. n. 50.
All. n. 14. (Q. falcata ; Michaux Querc. n. 16. t. 28.
Purfh n. 22. Q. difcolor ; Ait. ed. i. v. 3. 358.) — Leaves
downy beneath, finuated, withthree or more fomewhat falcate,
brilUe-pointed lobes ; the terminal one elongated, jagged.
Calyx hemifpherical. — In fandy foil, near the fea-coaft ;
from New Jerfey to Georgia, flowering in May. A very
large tree, commonly called Spanifh Oak ; iw the fouthern
llates. Red Oak. Purfh. The height of the tree is fifty or
fixty feet. Z,caiT« on long ftalks ; obtufe or rounded at the
bafe ; deeply lobed, or in fome meafure palmate ; the lobes
often recurved, or fickle-fhaped ; taper-pointed, and more or
lefs notched at the end, each fegment tipped with a long
briftle. Acorns fmall, roundifh ; its cup hemifpherical, with

las

QUERCUS.

lax fcalcs. The leaves of young trees are faid to be very like
thofe of tii/oiii, n. 54.

58. Q. timloria. Dyers' Oak, Black Oak, or Quercitron.
Willd. n. yi. Ait. n. 15. Piirfli n. 16. (Q.tinftoria an-
gulofa ; Michaux Querc. n. 13. t. 24. Q. difcolor ; Willd.
Arb. 274.) — Leaver downy beneath, obovato-oblong, di-
lated, widely liniuitcd ; lobes (liort, obtufe, (ligihtly toothed,
brifllc-poiiited. Calyx of the fruit flat underneath. Nut
globofe. — In all large woods, particularly in the mountainous
parts, from New England to Georgia, flowering in May. It
is one of the largell trees of the American foreil, highly
valuable for it? timber, as well as bark, wiiich lad is fo very
fuptrior in tanning to any other ipecies of Oak. PurJIi.
Michaux fays, this Oak is found only in a good foil, always
at a dillance from the fea ; attaining its greateft fize, which
is eighty feet in height, and eight in diameter, in the vallics
between the high mountains of^ North Carolina. The bark
is ufed by tanners, throughout tlie north' and weft parts of
the United States. It gives a yellowiih colour, whence the
name of Quercitron, and which enhances the value of the
leather. The bark, bruifed and powdered, was in great re-
quell among dyers in France, before the war interrupted this
branch of commerce. The leaves are confpicuous for their
broad, angular, abrupt figure, a fpan long, and nearly as
wide, with (liallow finufes, and briftle-tipped angles.
Acorns almoft lellile, globular, with a fcaly, fhallow, flat-
ti(h cup.

59. Q. difcdlnr. Sinuous Dyers' Oak. Willd. n. 52.
Purfh n. 17. Sm. in Abbot's Inf. v. 2. III. t. 56. (Q.
tinftoria fniuofa ; Michaux Querc. n. 13. t. 25. Q. virgi-
niana, venis rubris muricata ; Pluk. Phyt. t. 54. f. 5.) —
Leaves downy beneath, oblong, piimatifid ; leaves oblong,
toothed, briiUe-pomted. Calyx turbinate. Nut ovate. —
In large foreils, from Pennfylvania to Carolina, flowering in
May. This refembles the preceding and (). coccinea, n. 61.
The young expanding leaves are covered with white down
on both fides, which is not the cale with either rubra or coc-
r'mea. Purjh. This differs from the lail in having much
more (inuated, or pinnatifid leaves, and larger, more ovate,
acorns, whofe cups are turbinate, or tapering at the bafe.
The quaHties of the wood and bark probably agree with
the tinSoria, or Michaux, who confiders the prefent plant as
but a variety, would have mentioned the contrary.

60. Q. rubra. Mountain Red Oak. Linn. Sp. PI. 1413.
Willd. n. 53. Ait. n. 16. Purfh n, 20. Michaux Querc.
n. 20. t. 35, 36. Abbot's Inf. v. 2. 205. I. 103. (Q.
efculi diviiura, foliis amplioribus aculeatis ; Pluk. Phyt.
t. 54. f. 4.) — Leaves fmooth, oblong, fnniated, on long
ftaiks ; lobes acute, Iharply toothed, briftle-pointed. Calyx
of the fruit flat underneath. Nut ovate. — Native of foreils
on a fertile foil, from Canada to Ponnfylvania, and in all the
country weft of the Allegany mountains, bloiloming in May.
It was cultivated by Miller before 1739, and is to be found in
feveral plantations. A large and handfome timber tree, of
rapid growth ; its zuood highly ufeful for building and for car-
riages ; and the lark is faid by Michaux to be the very bell
known for tanning, the European tanners, tettled in Ame-
rica, having found it, by experiment, more efficacious than
any of the oak barks of Europe. The tree is ninety or one
hundred feet high. Leaves four or live inches long, onfoot-

Jlalks about half that length ; unequally finuated or pinnatifid,
with ratiier fpreading, but not remote, lobes, whole ends
are very acute, as well as, here and there, tharply toothed,
oach tooth and point tipped with a long brillle. Acorns
rather large, ovate, with a (hortilh flat -bottomed cup. The
leaves turn of a deep red in autumn, which hue is common
to moft American trees and flirubs, in a greater or lefs
Vol. XXIX.

degree. Purfli fiiys, this is cxclufively known by the name

of Red Oak, though various others are fo denominated in

feveral parts of America.

i Q. amhi^ua, Michaux Arb. v. 2. 120. t. 24. Purfli n. 19,

is fuppofed by the latter to be a hybrid between this and the-

following.

61. Q. coccinea. Scarlet Oak. Willd. n. 54. Ait.
n. 17. Purlh n. 18. Michaux Querc. n. i8. t. 31, 32.
( Q. rubra /S ; Ait. ed. I. v. 3. 357.) — Leaves fmooth, ob-
long, deeply and widely finuated, on long ftaiks ; lobes di-
varicated, acute, Iharply toothed, brilUe-pointed. Calyx
of tile fruit turbinate, half as long as the nut. — Native of
woods, on a fertile foil, from New England to Georgia,
bloiloming in May. This was one ot the firft American
trees brought to Europe, having been cultivated before the
end of the 17th century, by bilhop Oompton, as well as by
the firft carl of Portland. The brigi.' red of the foliage in
autumn gives the tree a beautiful and ftriking appearance,
both in its native forefts and our European plantations. It
nearly equals the preceding in fize ; tlie tuood, according to
Michaux, is better, but the bark lefs valuable. The leavet
are larger, with deeper, more rounded, finufes, and more
dillant lobes. Acorns half covered by the deeper, more
turbinate, cup.

62. Q. Calejb.tt. Barren Scrub Oak. Willd. n. 55.
Purfli 11. 21. Michaux Querc. n. 17. t. 29, 30. (Q.
rubra /S ; Sm. in Abbot's Inf. v. I. 27. t. 14. Q. efculi
divifura, foliis amplioribus aculeatis; Catefb. Carol, v. i.
t. 23. ) — Leaves fmooth, oblong ; wedge-ftiaped at the bafe ;
deeply and widely finuated, on fliort ftaiks ; lobes three or
five, divaricated, acute, two or three-cleft, briftle-pointed.
Calyx of the fruit turbinate, half as long as the nut Na-
tive of dry barren ground in Maryland, Virginia, Carohna,
and Georgia, abundantly, flowering in May. This fpecies
is fhrubby, not above fifteen feet high ; its "jiood of a bad
quality, ufed only for firing. The fliortnefs of the foot-

Jlalhs, and the fewnefs of the lobes of the leaves, added t(»
their acute bafe, are fufficient botanical diftinftions between
the prefent and the tw-o laft, efpeciiUy as the fize and qua-
lity of the tree are fo unlike thofe fpecies.

63. Q. palujlrh. Marlh, or PiR, Oak. Willd. n. 56.
Ait. n. 18. Purlh n. 23. Michaux Querc. n. 19. t. 33,
34. — Leaves fmooth, oblong, deeply and widely finuated,
on long 'ftaiks ; lobes diftant, parallel, acute, fliarply
toothed, briftle-pointed; forks of the veins denfely woolly
beneath. Calyx of the fruit flattened. Nut nearly glo-
bofe.— Native of low fwampy woods, from New England
to Pennfylvania, and in the Illinois country, flowering in
Mav. Meflrs. Fraler are recorded as having brought this
fpecies to England in 1 800, but it v.-as previoufly cultivated
in Holland and France. This is a large tree, whofe wood
is tough, ufed for making fpokes of wheels. The leaves
are fmaller than thofe of rubra or coccinea, and with more
numerous lobes than Cattfbid ; tlieir finufes rounded and
very wide, and the forks at the origin of their veins marked
by a tuft of glandular hairs. The acorns are fmall, glo-
bular, with fhallow cups, and generally very- abundant.

64. Q. ncutifolia. Pointed-leaved Mexican Oak. Willd.
n. 57. Nee in Annal. Scient. Nat. v. 3. 267. Fifch.
Mifc. Hifp. v. I. 1 02. I'/illd. — " Leaves ovato-lanceo-
late, finuated, taper-pointed ; unequal at the bafe ; lobc3
toothed, briftle-pointed ; forks of the veins villous beneath.
Fruit raceniofe." -Native of New Spain, in the road from
Acapulco to Mexico. This is the largeft of all the Oak*
in New Spain. Trunk thick, twenty-five feet high, orna-
mented with a denfe head of innumerable branches. Leaves
from five to feven inches long, an inch and a half or two

L I inches

QUERCaS.

inches broad, their footjlalks an inch in length ; ovate and
unequal at the' bafe, gradually contrafting upwards to a
fharp point, finuated, befet with awl-(haped teeth ; green
and fhining above ; reddifli and veiny beneath, tlie forks of
the veins villous. FemaU Jioiuers in axillary four-flowered
cluilers, (or rather, we prefume, ^;(?«.) Gf/-m«!J ovate.
ylcorns fmall, fcarcely fo iDig as a pea, nearly covered by the
cup, wlilch is clothed with blackirti fcales. Nee.

65. Q. candicans. Hoary Mexican Oak. Willd. n. 58.
Nee inAnnal. Scient. Nat. v. 3. 277. Fifch. Mifc. Hifp.
V. I. 115. W'lUd- — " J-.eave3 ovate, finuated; white and
downy beneath ; lobes toothed, brilMe-pointed." — Native
of New Spain, in fandy ground near Tixtala. A tree of a
middling fize, with a denfe head of upright branches.
Leaves nine inches long, four wide, tapering at each end,
finuated, with bridle-pointed teeth; green and fmooth
above ; white and downy underneath. Footflalis four lines
in length. Floiucrs and J'niit not obferved. Net.

66. Q. iiidfolia. Holly-leaved, or Bear Oak. " Wan-
genh. Amer. 79. t. 6. f. 17." Willd. n. 59. Ait. n. 19.
(Q. Banifteri ; Michaux Querc. n. 15. t. 27. Purfli n. 24.
Q. aquatica ? Sni. in Abbot's Inf. v. 2. Ijy. t. 79?) —
Leaves obovate-wedge-fhaped, with three or five deep
briftle-pointed lobes, entire ; downy beneath. Fruit ftalked,
in pairs. — Found in dry barren fields, and on mountains,
from New Jerley to Virginia, flowering in May ; covering,
wherever it occurs, large trafts of ground, thence termed
Oak-barrens. It is known by the name of Bear Oak,
Black Scrub Oak, and Dwarf Red Oak. Purjh. A Jhrub
four to fix feet, occafionally more, in licight, with downy
branches. Footjlalhs downy, near an inch long. Leaves
two inches, or two inches and a half long, and near two
wide, tolerably uniform, acute at the bafe, cut into five,
rarely but tliree, deep divaricated, broad, acute lobes, en-
tire at the margin, and fcarcely toothed at the fummit,
though tipped with one or two briftles ; the upper fide
green, veiny, and fmooth ; the under pale, and finely
downy. Female Jlonvers in pairs, on thick, folitary, axil-
lary, downy Jlalks, much fliorter than the footttalks.
Acorns about lialf an inch long, nearly globular, half co-
vered by their fcaly hemifpherical cups. Michaux thinks
this fpecies would ferve well for making quick hedges. A
fpecimen from Kalm, unnamed, is in the Linnsan her-
barium.

67. Q. Pfeudo-fuber. Baftard Cork Oak. " Santi
Viagg. 156. t. 4." Spreng. Antiq. Bot. 16. t. i. Willd.
n. 60. Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 348. — Leaves ovate-oblong,
finuated, hoary beneath ; lobes numerous, pointed, entire.
Bark fungous, cracked. Nut ovate. Calyx muricated,
with lax, recurved, hnear fcales. — Native of'Sihe mountains
of Tufcany, Spain, and Barbary. Desfontaines gathered
it on mount Atlas, and the abbe Durand near Tangier. A
tree fifty or fixty feet high, whofe bark is corky, though
lefs fo than in CK Suber, n. 33. Young branches downy or
hoary, fometimes fmooth, ftriated. Leaves deciduous, an
inch and a half to three inches long, an inch or an inch and
a half wide, acute ; entire and (lightly heart-lhaped at the
bafe ; fomewhat dilated upwards, and bordered with nu-
merous, uniform, fmall, broad, acute, lobes or ferratures,
feparated by roundifh finufes ; upper furface green and
fmooth ; under glaucous, hoary, or fomewhat downy.
Acorns on fhort Ilalks, ovate, above an inch long, half co-
vered by the cup, which is downy, and clothed with lax
bluntilh fcales, recurved at their tips. Desfontaines fays
the leaves of young trees are deeply finuated and ferrated ;
thofc of old ones more flightly fo. In our fpecimens from
Dnrand and BrouU'onet, the under fide is fcarcely downy,

11

except a denfe fringe to the mid-rib. The tranfverfe veim
are more numerous, ftraight, and parallel, tho;i in Sprengel',
plate. Fooljlalhs rather above half an inch lonj;, imuoth xr
downy. Acorns nearly feflile, crowded about the <• -.ds of
the branches. Yet we think it muft be, at leall, the plant
of Desfontaines.

68. Q. Aegtlops. Great-prickly-cupped 0<jk, or Vc-
lanida. Linn. Sp. PI. I4'4- Willd. n. 61 Ait. n. 20.
Mill. Ic. t. 215. Ohvier's Travels, Enghfh fdition, v. 2.
44. t. 13. (Q. orientalis, callanex folio, glande recoidita
in cupula cralfa et fquamola ; Tourn. Cor. 40. Vrlani ;
Tourn Voy. v. I. 128. Glans Cerri ; Dalech. Hilt.
V. I. 7.) — Leaves ovate-oblong, with bridle-pointed tooth-
like lobes ; hoary beneath. Calyx of the fruit very large,
hemifpherical, with lanceolate, elongated, fpreading fcales.
— Native of the Levant. Miller cultivated this Oak in
1 73 1. The tree is not fo lofty as feme other fpecies, nor
is the wood much' eftcemed, or ufed, but in cabinet work.
Leaves dalked, about three inches long, bright green ; a
little downy at the back ; their edges, as in the lad, very
coarfcly and acutely ferrated, rather than lobed, each tooth
tipped with a bridly point. Acorn large, (hort, a little
hollow at the top. Cup fefTile, woody, two or three inches
in diameter, from the projection of its numerous, oblong,
thick fcales. Thefe cups are ufed, as well as the gall-nut,
(fee n. 40.) by the Orientals, Italians, and Englifh, in
dyeing, and are a confiderable article of commerce. Tourne-
fort fays the modern Greeks call thefe acorns Velani, a cor-
ruption of i'ixXavi, and the tree Velanida. The young
acorns and cups, gathered from the tree, are much more
efteemed than fuch as fall of themfelves, when fully grown,
and fell for t\«rice the price of the latter. DaJechamp,
Lobel, and Bauhin, midake the unripe cup and acorn of
this fpecies, as belonging to (5. Cerris, n. 83.

Seft. 5. — Leaves Jlnuated, with blunt or pointlefs lobes.

69. Q. alba. White Oak. Linn. Sp. PI. 1414. Willd.
n. 62. Ait. n. 21. Purfli n. 29. Michaux Querc. n. 4.
^- 5* (Q- ''^''^ virginiana ; Catelb. Carol, v. i. t. 21.
f. 2.) — Leaves oblong, deeply pinnatifid ; glaucous be-
neath ; lobes linear-oblong, obtufe, entire, dilated upwards.
Fruit ftalked. Calyx deprefied, warty. — Native of woods,
on a fertile foil, from New England to Carohna, flowering
in May; cultivated here in 1724, by Mr. Furber. Purfh
fays it is one of the mod abundant and ufeful of its genus,
in America, and grows in the middle States to an immenfe
fize. The adult leaves are nearly a fpan long,^ deeply and
elegantly pinnatifid ; tapering and acute at the bafe ; gra-
dually dilated upward ; fomewhat abrupt, though three-
lobed, at the end ; their lobes all entire, blunt, pointlefs,
veiny ; the upper furface green and fhining ; the under
opaque and glaucous ; not downy, as Linnscus and Willde-
now define them, except perhaps when young. Footjlalks
ftout, angular, half an inch, or more, in length. Fruit-

Jlalks twice as long, each bearing one or two, laterally fef-
file, ovate acorns, full an inch in length, with a diort tuber-
culated cup. Michaux obferves, that this Oak is preferred
to all others in America, for building houfes and (hips ; as
well as for cafiis. The wood is fo tough and pliable, as
to ferve for making balkets and brooms. The acorns are
fweet, and Parkinfon records that, in his time, the Indians
were faid to obtain from them, by boiling, an oil which
they ufed in cookery. A fuppofed variety, called repanda,
is figured by Michaux, in which the leaves are merely
waved, not lobed ; and green on botli fides, though downy
beneath. With this we are unacquainted, as alfo OTth
Willdenow's intermediate variety, called pulejcens.

70. Q. Efculus. ■ Italian, or Small-prickly-cupped Oak.

/ Linn.

QUERCUS.

Linn. Sp. PI. 1414. Willd. n. 63. Ait. n. 22. (Pha-
gus efciilus, mas et foemiiia ; Dalech. Hilt. 5.) — Leaves
ovate-oblong, finuatcd, fmooth ; paler beneath ; fegnients
bliintini ; fomewhat angular at the bafe. Fruit nearly fef-
file. Calyx fcaly, hemifpherical. — Native of the foiith of
Europe. Cultivated by Miller in 1739; hardy in our
gardens, flowering m May. jlkon. So little attention has
been paid to this fpccies by botanical writers, that we can
find no certain dclcription nor figure of it, except in Dale-
champ. We CYcn doubt whether the plant intended in the
firft edition of the Hortus Kewenfis be the true one ; yet
this fcems what Willdenow meant in iiis Arlores, or Baum-
zucht, though he does not cite either that work or Hort.
Kcw. in his Sp. PI. What Linnxus briefly dtfcribed in hio
Mantifla, 496, under the name of Efculm, feems to be
Cm-is, with which latter the defcription, copied by Will-

is more general in the woods and hedges of Britain, nor
more important as an objett of national culture. The /ree
is the moll ornamental to our plantatipns and landfcapes ;
the, -wood more ufeful than any other, for its hardnefs,
toughnefs, and durability ; the lari peculiarly valuable for
tanning. The /iwes are alternate, with ii.ort, or fcarccly
any, footftalks, obovate-oblong, fmooth, irregularly finu-
ated, with obtufe, rounded, pointlefs, entire lobes ; their
upper fide of a rich fliining green ; the under paler, flighlly
glaucous ; the bafe fomewhat heart -fliapcd, or auricled.
CluJ}crs, or rather fp'ikcs, axillary ; the male ones lax, pen-
dulous, many-flowered, yellow ; female on ftalks an inch
and a half or two inches long, compofed of about tl •ee,
laterally feflile, green Jloiucrs, furmounted by a naked
elongation of the common flalk. Calyx of the male mem-
branous, bell-fliaped, moftly fivc-clett, with about ten

denow, and the fpccific charafter extrafted therefrom, well Jlamciu ; of tlie female coriaceous, fcaly, downy, globofe,

agree ; but not at all with the original and authentic fpeci-
men of EJhilus in the Liinixan herbarium. By this lafl.
alone can any one determine what Linna:ns had in con-
templation, when he wrote both editions of Species Planta-
rum, and we fliall here defcribe the fpecimen. The branch
is angular, furrowed, and imooth. Leaves fcattered, ag-
gregate at the top, from two to three inches long, and one
and a half, at mofl, in breadth ; fmooth and fhining above ;
paler, rather glaucous, and almoft; equally fmooth, beneath,
with finely reticulated veins ; tapering at the very bafe, but
juft above it dilated, angular, and in fome meafure cordate,
as Dalechamp's figures more dilUnftly fliew. The fummit
is obtufe, and the margin cut unequally, on each fide, into
about five broad, blunt, entire, tooth-like ferraturcs, or
fmall lobes. Footjlalhs near an inch long, deftitute of the
long, linear, tufted, flipulaceous fcales, or raiiienta, found
in Aegtlops, Cerr'is, and aujlnaca hereafter mentioned.
Young aeorns axillary, nearly feflile, folitary or in pairs ;
the cups (caly, the fize of fmall peas. Dalechamp reprc-
fents the full-grown acorns about an inch long, embraced
by an hemifpherical fcaly cup, about one-third that length.
He fays they are fweet and eatable, brought to table roafted
by the Spaniards, as well as the rullic Italians, but fome-
times found to afi"eft the head, like darnel. The name
Efculus is derived by etymologills from efca, food, and is
commonly taken for the Beech-tree, ordinary readers of
Virgil's Georgics not diftinguifliing one from the other ;
jufl as the Cicada of that poet has been vulgarly fuppofed
the grafshopper. The Delphiu edition of the Georgics has
the above word Aejculus, as Linnaeus has adopted it, un-
warrantably, for the generic jppellation of the Horfe Chei-
nut ; and the editors rightly obferve, that fome perfons
.confound it wi'h Fagus, the Beech. Our Q. Efculus is
moil probably the 'J>i)o: of Diofcorides, which he exprcfsly
fays is a kind of Oak. See Fagus.

71. Q. Rolur. Common Britifli Oak. Linn. Sp. PI.
1414. Sm. Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl. Bot. t. 1342. Woodv.
Med. Bot. t. 126. Mart. Rufl. t. 10, var. pedunculata.
(Q. pedunculata; Willd. n. 65. Ehrh. Arb. 77. PI.
Oft". 168. Ait. n. 24. Q. foemina ; Roth. Germ. v. i.
408. V. 2. p. 2. 488. Fl. Dan. t. 1 180. O. racemofa ;
Lamarck Dift. v. I. 715. Q. cum longo pediculo ;
Bauh. Pin. 420. Q. liemeris ; Dalech. Hift. 4. Quercus ;
Fuchf. Hill. 229. Matth. Valgr. v. i. 184. Duham.
Arb. v. 2. t. 47. Tabern. Kreuterb. 1374. Oak-Tree ;
Hunt. Evel. Sylv. 69, with a plate.) Leaves deciduous,
oblong, fmooth, dilated upwards ; finufes rather acute ;
lobes obtufe. Stalks of the fruit elongated. Nut ob-
long.— Common in woods and hedges, throughout the more
temperate parts of Europe, flowering in April. Nothing

at length hemifpherical, woody, entire. Germen ovate.
Style fliort, cylindrical. Stigmas three. Acorn elliptic-ob-
long, thrice the length of the cup. This lacing what Lin-
naeus, as well as Britiflt botanills, always confidered as
Qiicrcus Robur, the fuperior quality of its wood, no where
better underftood than here, entitling it, above all others,
to that appellation, we cannot, on any account, lubmit to
the errors of Willdenow, or any other writer, who has been
pleafed to change the name ; and we feel equal furprife and
regret that the excellent editors of the new Hort. Kew.
fliould, in this cafe at leafl;, have carried their implicit con-
formity fo far. We trull they will hereafter corredl them-
felves in this point, as well as in the barbarous name Arau-
caria, retained by Willdenow, contrary to all propriety, for
DoMBEYA. See that article.

72. Q. fijilifiora. Seflile-fruited Oak. Sahfb. Prodr.
392. Sm. Fl. Brit. n. 2, cz. Engl. Bot. t. 1845. (Q.
Robur; Willd. n. 64. Ait. n. 23. Lamai-ck Dift. v. i.
717. Mart. Rull. t. n, var. feflilis. Q. feflilis; Ehrh.
Arb. 87. Q. platyphyllos mas et foemina ; Dalech Hill.
2, 3. Q. latifolia mas, quae brevi pediculo ell ; Bauh. Pia.
419. Rail Syn. 440.) — Leaves on longilh footftalks, de-
ciduous, oblong, fmooth ; finufes oppofitc, rather acute ;
lobes obtufe. Fruit feflile. Nut oblong. — Native of
woods and hedges, in the temperate parts of Europe ;
rather lefs common in England than the preceding, flower-
ing in April or May. Profelfor Martyn has rightly cor-
rected Miller, who mentions the prefent as the common
Oak of this country, and the former as rare. Why the
German botanills, like Lamarck, take this for Robur, is
difficult to underftand, unlels the meafure originated in in-
attention to the qualities, as well as hillory, of the trees.
The wood of our feffilijlora, in which name we gladly follow
Mr. Salilbury, is of far lefs value than the true Britifli Oak,
and the irhportance of diftinguiflfing the two fpecies be-
comes, therefore, the more obvious. The leaves grow on
longer footjlalhs, and are generally more equally and re.
gularly pinnatifid. The female flowers, and the acorns, are
almoft perfeftly feflile. In Englifli Botany ionr Jligmas are
delineated ; but we know not how far that character, wliich
would be an excellent one, is conllant.

73. Q. pubcfcens. Downy-waved-leaved Oak. Willd.
n. 66, excluding the reference to Fl. Brit. (Q. Robur
lanuginofa ; Lamarck Dift. v. I. 717. Robur prima;
Cluf. Hift. V. 1. 18.) — Leaves obloug-obovate, ftalked,
finuated ; downy beneath; lobes obtufe, angular, wavy;
fomewhat heart-fliaped and unequal at the bafe. Fruii
nearly feflile. — Native of France, Auftria, Hungary, Tar-
tary,' and of the Val d'Aoft, Piedmont, in which laft place
it was gathered by Mr. Davall. We have feen a tree ot

L 1 2 th^s

QUERCUS.

this Ipecies, growing on the north lawn at Holktiam, Nor-
folk, the feat of Mr. Coke, where it was planted by his an-
ecltor, the carl of Leicclter ; but no Britifli writer leems
acqwaintetl with the fpecies in queilion, though unqufition-
ably dillinft. WiHdenow jultly lays it is like iiis Rolnir,
our fejfilijlora, but abundantly different, being ot more
humble Itulurc, with fmvller leaves, downy beneath, very
hoary and white in tlic fpring, lomewhat heart-fhaped at
the bafe, and with fmuller fruit. To this we would add,
the leaves are remarkably undulated, efpecially in drying,
and their upper furface is more or lefs befprinkled with
very minute, fcattercd, ilarry h;urs. The fruit in Mr.
Davall's fpecimcns is quite fellile, either folitary, or in one
initance accompanied by two abortive ones ; in thofe from
Holkham the female fluivcrs are more or lefs elevated, three
together, on a thick downy _y?rt//-. Hence perhaps.AVillde-
now terms the fruit hibfelTile. Tlic fcales of the cup in both
are downy, thin, flat, and clofely ijnbricated.

A variety of this, with deeper Icgments, and of more
humble growth, is Robur tertia, Cluf. Hitt. v. i. iS. f. i.
Of this a fpecimen, erroneoufly named Cerris, and pinned
to Efcultis, 11. 70, above defcribed, is preferred in the Lin-
nasan herbarium.

74. Q. (itro-virens. Durmaft Oak. Mart. Ruft. t. 12.
(Q. fefliliflora /3 ; Sm. Fl. Brit. 1027. Q. pubefcens ;
Ait. n. 25, but not of Willdcnow. O. Robur nigra ; La-
marck Didt. V. I. 717. Chcne noir ; Secondat dii chene. 3.
t. 5 ?) — Leaves elliptic-oblong, ilalked, linuated ; downy
and hoary beneath ; lobes numerous, obtufe, even, and en-
tire ; bafe equal. Fruit feflile. — Native of France and the
fouth of England, flowering in April and May. Profciior
Martyn had his fpecimens from the New Forell, Hampfhire,
where it is known by the name of the Durmaft Oak. The
whole tree is well defcribed by him as having much the air of
a ciiefnut, and being of freer growth than the true Robur ;
the bark lighter coloured and fmoothcr ; the tvood not fo
ftrong, nor of fo firm a texture. The leaves are lefs deeply,
but more copioufly, fmuatcd, with Hve, fix, or feven (hort
lobes at each fide ; the under furface downy, and of a hoary
grey, with purphlh ribs. The foliage appears later than
in either of our common Oaks,' and lafts longer, fometimes
the whole winter. Acorns feffile, rather large. Lamarck's
defcription, indicated above, accords exaftly with our Eng-
lilh plant, to which alfo, we prefume, the fynonym of Se-
condat muft belong, though we have not been able to con-
Inlt his book. A more accurate ftudy of this genus has led
us to agree with our departed fripnd Willdenow, in diftin-
guidiing the Durmaft Oak from our ff/itifiora, but he errs
in referring it to \\n pubefcens, and has led Mr. Alton into
the fame miftake. Its leaves are more obiong, lefs deeply
linuated, flat, not undulated ; the under fide whiter, with
coloured veins. The fruit larger, and more decidedly
feffJe.

IS- Q- pyrenaica. Pyrenean Oak. Willd. n. 67

" Leaves oblong, pinnatifid, ftalked ; downy beneath ;
fomewhat heart-fhaped and unequal at the bafe ; lobes ob-
tufe, flightly toothed. Fruit ftalked." — Native of the Py-
renees. The lei:ves are larger than in fejftliflora, flalked,
deeply finuated ; denfely downy underneath. Footflalks
downy. Acorns four, feffile on one common elongated
ftalk. It differs abundantly from pubefcens, in having much
larger leaves, finuated in a pinnatifid manner, very downy
beni ath ; and flalked fruit. Such is Willdcnow's account.
We have feen no fpecimen. Can this be our above -men-
tioned variety oi pubefcens?

76. Q. faginea. Beech Oak. Lamarck DiA. v. i.
725. Willd. n. 68. (Phellodrys alba anguftifolia, folio

ferrato ; Dalech. Hift. 25.)—- Leavot on fliort downy
ilalks, obovate, with numerous, uniform, ftiallow lobes ;
downy beneath ; fomewhat hcart-fliaped and unequal at the
bafe. Fruit feffile. •■ Native of Spain and the louth of
France. Leaves fmall, an inch and half long, d'.-ciduous,
obovate, very flightly finuated, or, more properly fp. ak-
ing, coarfely toothed, tiic lobes being very fhort, equal,
and obtufi? ; the upper fide poiilhed and fmooth ; the under
white and downy. Footflalks downy. Fruit feffile. IVill-
ilenoiu. In the Linnxan herbarium arc ipeclmeii!, gathered
by Baron Alllroemcr in Spain, which anfwer extremely
well to the above delcription, and not ?inifs to the figure of
Dalechamp, which Lamarck cites with hefitation. In thefe
iiowever, the lobes, or teeth, are acute, and the upper fur-
face covered with minute ftarry hairs. There are alfo long,
linear, recurved, ramentaceous y/j/zw/^/f, that are foon de-
ciduous. We do not fcriiple to confider this as Lamarck's
plant at Kaft, and probably WiUdenow's.

77. Q. lobata. Round-lo'bed Mexican Oak. Willd.
n. 70. Nee in Annal. Sclent. Nat. v. 3. 277. Fifch.
Mifc. Hifp. V. I. 116. Willd. — " Leaves obovate-wedge-
fhaped, finuated, fmooth ; lobes toothed." — Native of New
Spain. Branches furrowed, alternate. Leaves four inches
long, two inches and a half wide, fmooth, alternate, orbi-
cular towards the extremity ; wedge-fhaped at the lower
part; finuated; the lobes rounded, obtufe, toothed. Foot-
falls flender, three or four lines in length. Nee.

78. Q. obtufloba. Blunt-lobed Iron Oak. MichauK
Querc. n. I. t. I. Purfh n. 25. (Q. ilellata ; Willd.

II. 71. Ait. n. 26. Wangenh. Amer. 78. t. 6. f. 15.)

Leaves oblong, finuated, roughifh on both fides ; lobes ob-
tufe ; the upper ones dilated, abrupt, flightly divided.
Calyx of the fruit hemifpherical. — Found in moft of the up-
land forefts, from Canada to Florida, bloffoming in Mav.
The tree is fifty or fixty feet high, fpreading, its timber of
great value for fhip-bullding. The whitenefs of the bark,
as in Q. alba, caufes both thefe fpecies to be called White
Oak by the Americans, who nevertheJefs know how to dif-
tinguifh their timber. The leaves of the prefent are roughifh
beneath, with minute rufty hairs, not hoary ; and their
upper furface appears to partake occafionally, if not always,
of the fame fort of pubefcence. Their length is from thi-ee
to five inches ; the bafe wedge-fhaped, fpreading upwards
into two fmaller, oppofite, rounded lobes, beyond which
the leaf dilates, fuddenly and widely, into a pair of broad,
flightly cloven, or cmarginate, lobes, and, after another
fudden contraftion, ends in a terminal three-cleft one. The
margin is entire throughout. Footflalks fhort, downy.
Acorns three or four on a fhort flalk, of a middling fize,
fcarcely exceeding our Britifh Oaks, eUiptical, about half
enclofed in the fcaly cup.

79. Q. lyrata. Over-cup Lyrate Oak, Swamp-pofl, or
Water White Oak. Walt. Carol. 235. Willd. n. 72.

Ait. n. 27. Purfli n. 28. Mlchaux Querc. n. 3. t. 4

Leaves oblong, deeply finuated, fmooth ; much contracted
in the middle ; lob"S acute ; the upper ones dilated, an-
gular, and abrupt. Calyx of the fruit globofe, muricated,
nearly covering the nut. — Native of fwamps, from Carohna
to Florida, and on the Miffifippi ; flowering in May. Pur/b.
Michaux fays, that though he always found this fpecies in
watery places, its growth, in a dry Rurfery-ground, ex-
ceeded that of moll other fpecies planted with it. He gives
fifty or fixty feet as the height of the tree ; Purfh from eio-ht
to fifteen only. The fmooth fme-green leaves have more
acutely-angular lobes than the foregoing, and are remark-
ably contrafted about the middle. Acorn globofe, nearly
covered by the globular prickly cup.

80. Q,

QUERCUS.

So. Q. macrociirpa. Large-fruited Oak, or Over-cup
White Oak. Willd. n. 73. Purfh n. 26. Michaux
Qiierc. n. 2. t. 2, 3. Leaves oblong, lyrate ; downy be-
neath ; terminal lobe very large, three-cleft, fmuutcd.
Calyx of the fruit hemifplierical, fcaly, fringed vrith
briftles. — Found on dry flute or Iniieilone hills, in all the
countries to the weft of the Alleganv mountains, flowerincr
in May. A large tree, whofe ivooil, according to Purfh
and Michaux, is very excellent. The bark of the young
branches is corky. In wet lituations the whole plant lan-
guiflies, and becomes cov. red with lichens. The lea-vrs arc
a foot long, more truly and precifely lyrate than thofe of
the laft ; but the fpecitic name of the prcfent is excellent,
tlic acorns being larger than thofe of any other knovcn
American fpecies. Their form is oval, their length two
inches, and they are half covered by the cup, feveral rows
of whofe broad fcales end in long briftles, making a rigid
fringe.

Si. Q. oUvifformis. Olive-fiiaped Mofty-cup Oak.
" Michaux Arb. v. 2. 32. t. 2." Purfti n. 27. — " Leaves
oblong, fmooth ; glaucous beneath ; deeply and une-
qually pinnatilid. Fruit elliptic-uvate. Calyx cup-fliaped,
fringed." — Ohferved by Michaux on the banks of Hudfon's
river, and in the weftern parts of New York ; by Purfh in
Pennfylvania and Virginia, on iron-ore hills ; flowering in
May. This is defcribed as a large tree; the fo/iage hsind-
foine, fomewhat refembling that of the laft. We have not
examined cither a fpccimen or figure. Willdenow does not
mention this fpecies.

82. Q. erinlta. Hairy-cupped Oak. Lamarck Ditl.
V. I, 718, E. Olivier's Travels, Englifh edition, v. 2.
5. t. 12. (Q. Tournefortii ; Willd. n. 74. Q. orientalis
iatifolia, foliis ad coftam pulchre incifis, glande maxima,
cupula crinita ; Tourn. Cor. 40. Voy. v. 2. 172.) -
Leaves on long ftalks, oblong, deeply pinnatifld ; downy
beneath; lobes lanceolate, bluutifli, nearly entire. Calyx
of the fruit hemifpherical, downy, brillly. — Gathered by
Tournefort in vallies and plains near Tocat, in Armenia.
Olivier fays it is met with throughout great part of Afia
Minor and Syria. The timber is brought to the arfenal of
Conftantinople, from the fouthern fhores of the Black Sea,
and is alfo moll commonly employed for the frame-work of
houfes. The tree grows to a ccnfiderable height, and fur-
nifhes excellent wood. This author, who takes the tree in
queftion for Q. Cerrls of Linna;us, may, pofllbly, confound
the real Cerrh along with it, as Lamarck, though not
without fcruple, has combined them. Olivier's plate, how-
ever, very clearly reprefents the above plant of Tournefort ;
and Lamarck's excellent definition of the fame, as variety i
of his crinita, is abundantly fufficient to flamp it a fpecies.
" Leaves very foftly villous, deeply pinnatilid ; their feg-
ments oblong, nearly fimple, obtufe, fomewhat peftinate,"
(or parallel.) He fays it is reported to grow wild in the
province of Angoumois, and is a ;ree of handfome afpeft,
remarkable for its foft, downy, broad leaves, cut very
deeply into large fegments, blunt at their extremity, often
iimple, fometimes furnifhed with a few angles, or fhort
lobes, at their pofterior margin. Acorns feffile, their cup
briftly, as in the Burgundy Oak (Cerris). Tournefort's
fpecimens agree with the Angoumois Oak, as it is called,
feen by Lamarck in a cultivated ftate at Godonvillier. We
have feen no fpecimen, but the above accounts are fufhciently
clear to admit of no doubt. Olivier's plate reprefents the
leaves three or four inches in length, their fegments about
an inch long, almoil ail iimple and undivided, bluntifh, en-
tire, more or lefs diftant, each making an angle with the
narrow linear border of the main rib. Footjlqlks flender, an

inch, more or lefs, in length, apparently i'mootli. Acornt
lateral, about an inch long, elliptical, obtufe, folitary, on
fhort fimple ilalks ; the cups belet witli numerous foft taper
briftles, divaricated upwards and downwards, near half an
Inch long. Nothing is exhibited, or defcribed, concerning
i\\Q Jlipiilas, which are very remarkable in the two fallowing
fpecies.

83. Q. drris. Turkey Oak. Linn. Sp. PI. 1415.
Willd. n. 7 J. Ait. n. 28, y. ( Q. crinita x et (3 ; La-
marck Didl. v. I. 718. Q. haliptilxos; Jufl'. in Hort.
Pitfis. Q. burgundiaca, calyce hifpido ; Bauh. Pin. 420.
Cerris Plmii, majore glande; Lob. Ic. v. 2. 156. Dod.
Pempt. 831. Ger. Em. 1345. Cerrus ; D.ilech. Hift.
V. I. 6, good.)— Leaves on very fhort ftalks, oblong,
deeply and unequally pinnatilid ; hairy beneath ; lobes
lanceolate, acute, fomewhat angular. Stipulas longer than
the footltalks. Calyx of the fruit hemifpherical, briftly. —
Native of France, Italy, and the Levant. Sometimes cul-
tivated in England, but not commonly. This is a tall
handfome tree, whofe fynonyms are much confounded by
old writers with Q. Aegilups, n. 68, and by more recent
botanifts with the following. Its leaves are deeply piniia-
titid in the manner of the foregoing ; more or lefs unequally ;
but the lobes are more acute, pointed, and moft generally
angular, fometimes remarkably lobed or compound. The
under fide differs ell'entially, in being neither downy nor
hoary, but rough with minute, fcattered, tawny, briftly
hairs ; the upper, which is of a darker green, and rather
fhining, is alfo occafionally roughifh to the touch. Foot-
Jlalks rough, thick, hardly a quarter of an inch, fometimes
not a line, in length. Stipulas linear, acute, downy, from
half an inch to an inch long, permanent, accompanied by
an axiUary tuft of fimilar, but imaller, fcales. The acorns
we have not feen. They are reprefented feffile, two or
three together, large, oblong, with an hemifpherical cup,
which is fhaggy with long briftles, projefting in every di-
reftion. They are faid to be peculiarly bitter and auftere.

Lamarck allerts, from his own obfervation, that the Q.
orientalis Iatifolia, glande maxima, cupula crinita, Tourn.
Cor. 40, fcarcely differs in any refpeft from this. If fo,
the term Iatifolia is not happily applied, unlefs Tournefort
had alfo noticed, as in our laft, the deep divifions of the
leaves, which are full as remarkable in the prefent fpecies.

84.. Q. aujriaca. Auftriau Oak. Willd. n. 76. (Q.
Cerris ; Hoft. Syn. 520, a and 8. Ait. n. 28. Q. cri-
nita ,, cerris Linn. ; Lamarck. Didl. v. i. 718. Q. calyce
hifpido, glande miiiore ; Bauh. Pin. 420. Cerrus ; Cluf.
Hift. V. I. 20, excellent. Cerri minoris ramulus cum flore ;
Ger. Em. 1346, with Clufius's figure. Cerris Plinii mi-
nore glande ; Lob. Ic. v. 2. ij6. Ger. Em. 1345. Aegi-
lops minore glande; Dod. Pempt. 831. Haliphloeos,
Cerrus foemina ; Dalech. Hift. v. i. 7.) —Leaves on longifh
italks, ovate-oblong, flightly but copioufiy finuated ; downy
and hoary beneath ; lobes fliort, ovate, acute, entire. Sti-
pulas fhorter than the footllalks. Calyx of the fruit hemi-
fpherical, briftly. — Native of Auftria, Hungary, Carniola,
Italy, and other parts of the fouth of Europe, in Itony
mountainous places. It occurs not unfrequently in planta-
tions of exotic trees, both in France and England, being
generally miftakcn for (), Cerris, from which nothing can
be more certainly diflinft. This tree is taller than the Com-
mon Oak, Q. Robur, and in favourable fituations rifes per-
pendicularly to a confiderable height, as Clufius defcribed
it, though Lamarck lays it is fmallcr, lefs handfome, more
twifted and knotty, than the laft, as well as often hollow.
The -wood is whiter, fofter, and lefs valuable, than Q,
Robur ; the bark grey, tolerably even. Branches forming

a round

QUEllCUS.

a roitntl and comjjatl head. Leaves two or three inches
long, acute, generally rounded and a little unequal at the
bafe ; their upper furface of a fine (hining green, and nearly
fmooth ; the under whitifli, clothed with tine denfe down ;
the margin cut, at each fide, into four, five, or fix, to-
lerably regular, rounded or ovate, acute, pointed, entire
lobes, more or leis deep, feparated by round finufes ; the
diflc of the leaf being kft entire, of a confiderable width.
FooiftaJks near an inch long, downy. Supulas as in the
foregoing, but fmaller and (horter, ufually wbout half the
length of the footllalks. Acorns like thofe of the laft, but
fmaller. The figures of Lobel, Dodonxus, and Ger. Em.
J 345, do not well repreieiit the lea-ucs of this fpecies, or
indeed of the former : that of Clufius, adopted by the
editor of Gerarde, in p. 1346, is pcrfeAly correft. The
cuts of Dalechanip, both of one and the other, are futfi-
cientlv cxpreflive, and very correft as to the footitalks.
The lobes of neither of thefe fpecies are quite pointlels, but
rather more pointed, as well as acute, than thofe of Efcttlus,
n. 70.

We have thus added eight fpecies of Quercus to WiUde-
now's lift. Thofe botaniils who may take the troub^ of
following us with attention, will perceive that this valuable
genus ftill requires elucidation, particularly with refpeft to
the European, and, above all, the oriental kinds ; fome of
which laft, barely indicated by authors, we have been
obliged to leave unexplained. Of the moft common and
important fpecies, Q. Robur, wc have feen in Mr. Coke's
woods at Holkham, fome itriking varieties, at leaft, whofe
diflinftions and qualities are well worthy of examination.
Two of thefe have (horter Jloiuer-fialis than the common
Robur, and one of them is three weeks earlier in coming
into leaf than the other. The footjialks of both are longer
than is ufual in Robur. How tar a difference of quality in
the wood may accompany thefe botanical diftinftions, we
muft refer to the inquiries of thofe who arc interefted in,
and have the means of inveftigating, fo important a fubjeft,
which is indeed of the firft economical, and even national,
confequence. It is much to be wiftied that the fpecies of
the Norway Oak, fo valuable for floors, on account of its
ftraightnefs, and freedom from knots, could be determined.
Perhaps thefe circumilances are owing to its being drawn
up itraight, with few branches, in its clofe native foreils,
and therefore it may not be fpecifically different from one
or other of our own fpecies. Michaux, and other writers
on the American Oaks, have taught us, that the pubefcence
of the leaves in this genus is of more fpecific importance
than had previoufly been fuppofed, and we therefore have
paid the more regard to it in difcriminating fome of the
European kinds. T\x Jloiuers, male and female, appear
ftill to demand more precife inveftigation and comparifon,
than they have any where received. S.

QuEitcus, in Gardening, furnifties plants of the foreft,
deciduous, evergreen, ornamental tree-kinds, of which the
fpecies cultivated are, the common oak-tree (Q. robur) ;
the willow-leaved oak-tree (Q. phellos) ; the chefnut-leaved
oak-tree (Q. prinus); the black oak-tree (Q. nigra) ; the
red oak-tree (Q. rubra); the white oak-tree (Q. alba);
the Italian or fmall prickly-cupped oak-tree (Q. efculus) ;
the great prickly-cupped oak-tree (Q. regilops) ; the Tur-
key oak-tree (Q. cerris); the evergreen or holm oak-tree
(Q. ilex); the holly-leaved evergreen oak-tree (Q. gra-
muntia) ; the cork-barked oak, or cork tree (Q. fuber) ;
and the kermes oak-tree (Q. cocctfera).

Of the firil there are feveral varieties ; as with the acorns
on long peduncles. This is found in the wilds of Kent and
Suflex, where there are many large trees. The leaves are

not fo deeply finuated, nor are they fo irregular as in the •
common fort, but the indentures are oppolite ; they liavc
fcarcely any footllalks, but fit dole to the branches ; but the
acorns Hand upon very long footllalks. The timber of
this fort is accounted better than that of the common oak,
and the trees have a better appearance.

The broad-leaved evergreen oak, which grows upon tiie
Apennines, and alfo in Suabia and Portugal. The leaves
are broader, and not fo deeply finuated as thofe of -the
common oak ; they arc of a lighter green on their upper
fide, and pale on their under ; have very fhort footllalks,
and their points are obiufe ; the acorns have very long foot -
flalks, which frequently fuflain three or four in a clufter.

'i'he dwarf oak, which grows in the fouth of France and
Italy, and is a low bufhy oak, riles but fix or feven feet
high, fending out many flendcr branches the whole length.
The leaves are oblong, and obtufely indented, about three
inches long, and an inch and a half broad, ilanding upon
flender footllalks ; the acorns fmall, growing in cluflers.

There are alio rhany other varieties of common oak,
which dealers in timber and woodmen diftinguifh by their
ufe, qualities, and accidents, and to which they give dif-
ferent names ; but thefe being merely local, and not
founded on permanent charafters, it is difficult to afcertaiii
them.

In the fecond fpecies they diftinguifh two forts; one of
which is called the Highland willov/ oak, and grows upon
poor dry land ; the leaves are of a pale green, and entire,
fhaped like thofe of the willow tree ; the acorns are very
fmall, but have pretty large cups. The other grows in
low moiil land, and rifes to a much greater height ; the
leaves are larger and narrower, but the acorns are of the
fame fize and fhape. It is fuggefted, as probable, that
their difference jnay be owing to the foil in which they
grow. Martyn obferves, that the latter becomes a large
timber tree, and that there are faid to be feveral varieties
of it.

The third fpecies has feemirigly two varieties, one of
which grows to a much larger tree than the other ; but this
may be occafioned by the foil, for the largeft trees grow in
rich low lands, where they become bigger than any of the
North American oaks. The wood is not of a very fine
grain, but is very ferviceable ; the bark is grey and fcaly ;
the leaves are five or fix inches long, and two inches and a
half broad in the middle, indented on the edges with many
tranfverfe veins running from the midrib to the borders ;
they are of a bright green, and fo nearly refemble thofe of
the chefnut tree as fcarcely to be diftinguilhed from it.
The acorns are very large, and their cups are fhort. The '
leaves of the other variety are not fo large, nor fo ftrongly
veined ; and the acorns are fmaller, and a little longer.
The different varieties are diftinguilhed by the form of
their leaves, which in the one is ovate, and in the other
oblong.

The fifth fort has feveral varieties.

And in the ninth fort there are feveral varieties.

The tenth fpecies has likewife feveral varieties, differing
greatly in the fize and fhape of their leaves ; but thefe will
all arife from acorns of the fame tree : even the lower and
upper branches have very frequently leaves very different in
fize and fhape ; thofe on the lower branches being miuch
broader, rounder, and their edges indented and fet with
prickles ; but thofe on the upper long, narrow, and entire.
The leaves are from three to four inches long, and an inch -
broad near the bafe, gradually leffening to a point ; they
are of a lucid green on their upper fide, but whitifh aiid
downy on their under, and do not fall till they are thruft

off

QUERCUS.

off" by young leaves in the fpring. The acorns are fmaller
than thofe of the common oak, but of the fame fliapc.

The twelfth fpecies has alfo two or three varieties ; one
with a broad leaf, a fecond with a narrow leaf, both ever-
green ; and one or two which cafl their leaves in autumn :
but the broad-leaved evergreen is the moll common. The
leaves of this are entire, about two inches long, and an inch
and quarter broad, with a little down on their under fides,
on very Ihort footllalks : tliefe leaves continue green through
the winter till the middle of May, when they generally fall
off jull before the new leaves come out, fo that the trees
are often almofl. bare for a Ihort time. The acorns are very
like thofe of the common oak.

The exterior bark forms the cork, which is taken from
the tree every eight or ten years ; but there is an interior
bark which nourifhes them, fo that llripping off the outer
bark is fo far from injuring the trees, that it is neced'ary to
contisue them : for, when the bark is not taken off, they
feldoni laft longer than 50 or 60 years in health ; whereas
• trees which are barked every eight or ten years will live
I JO years, or more. The bark of a young tree is porous,
and good for little : however, it is neceffary to take it off,
when the trees are twelve or fifteen years old, for without
this die bark will never be good. After eight or ten years,
the bark will be fit to take off again ; but this fecond peel-
ing is of httle ufe. At the third peeling, the bark will be
in perfection, and will continue fo for 1 50 years ; as the
beft cork is taken from, old trees. The time for llripping
the bark is in July, when the fecond fap flows plentifully :
the operation is performed with an inllrumeiit like that
which is ufed for difbarking the oak.

It is from the laft fpecies they collect the kermes, or
fcarlet grain, a httle red gall, occafioned by the punfture
of an infeft called coccus ilicis. With this the ancients ufed
to dye cloth of a beautiful colour.

Method of Culture. — Thefe trees are all capable of being
raifed from the feed or acorns, which, in the common oak,
(hould be gathered in autumn when quite ripe, juil as they
drop from the trees ; but thofe of moft of the foreign oaks
are generally procured from abroad, and fold by the feedf-
men.

All the forts fhould be fown as foon after they are ob-
tained as poffible, as they are apt to fprout if they remain
long out of the ground ; and for their reception, a fpot of
light ground in the nurfery {hould be prepared by digging
or ploughing, dividing it into four feet wide beds, in which
the acorns fhould be fown, either in drills, two inches deep,
in five or fix rows lengthwife of the bed ; or rake the mould
off the bed, the depth of two inches, into the alleys ; then
fowing the acorns all over the furface, about two or three
inches apart, prefs them down with the fpade, and fpread
the earth evenly over them two inches thick. When they
come, up in the fpring, they {hould have occafional waterings
and weeding ; and when the plants are one or two years old,
it is proper to plant them out in nurfery-rows : this may be
done in autumn, winter, or early in the fpring, taking them
carefully up out of the feed-bed, {hortening their perpendi-
cular tap-roots, and trimming off any lateral (hoots from
the ftem, leaving their top perfeftly entire ; then planting
them in lines two feet and a half afunder, and fifteen or
eighteen inches in the rowjs, where they ffiould Hand, with
the ufual nurfery care, till of a proper fizc for final planting
out either as foreft trees, or for ornament, training them up
as full ftaudards, with cleaa ftraight Hems, and with their
tops Hill entire.

But in raifing the ftriped-leaved varieties of the common
oak, and any particular variety of the other fpecies, it

(hould be by grafting, far, they will not continue the fame
from feed,) which (hould be performed upon any kind of
oakling ftocks raifed from the acorns, and. trained for
ftandards, as in other kinds.

With refprft to the final planting out, it may be per-
formed in all forts of deciduous oaks any time in open
fettled weather, from November till February or March •
and in the evergreen kinds in Oftober, November, or the
fpring ; and in a mild open feafon in any of the winter
months.

When the trees of all the forts are from about three or
four to fix feet Itature, they are proper for being planted
out for good ; though, as foreft or timber trees, it is better
to plant them out finally while they are quite young, as
from two to three or four feet in height ; or when planted
immediately from the feed-bed, where they are to remain,
it may be advantageous, as the very young oaks root more
freely than older trees, and take a freer growth. Thofe
dcfigned as foreft or timber trees (hould be planted in large
open trads of ground, to form woods, placing them in rows
only from four or five to ten feet afunder, and from two or
three to five or fix feet in the rows, to allow for a gradual
thinning. But perhaps the beft method of all for raifing
them, as timber trees, is from the feed, by fowing or fetting
the acorns. See Plantation and Planting.

Sometimes, indeed, large plantations of thefe trees, for
woods, are raifed by fowing the acorns at once in the places
where they are to remain ; it being generally found that the
trees raifed at once from the acorn, from their not being
checked, much outftrip the tranfplanted trees in their
growth. The method of performing it is this : the ground
being prepared by good ploughing and harrowing in the
autumn, having procured a proper quantity of acorns, draw
drills acrofs the ground four feet afunder, and two inches
deep, dropping the acorns into them fix or eight inches
afunder, allowing for failing and thinning, covering them
in evenly with the earth the depth of the drills ; or, inftead
of drilling them in, they may be planted with a dibble the
fame depth and dlftance.

The general management of thefe trees in woods, or
timber plantations, is the fame as diredled for foreft trees in
general. See Plantation.

All the above forts of trees may be employed to diverfify
large ornamental plantations in out-grounds, and in forming
clumps in fpacious lawns, parks, and other exteniive open
fpaces : the evergreen kinds, in particular, have great merit
for all ornamental purpoies in pleafure-grounds and planta-
tions. And all the larger growing kinds, both deciduous
and evergreens, are highly valuable as foreft trees for tim-
ber ; but the firft fort claims precedence as a timber tree,
for its prodigious height and bulk, and fuperior worth of
the wood.

In planting any of the fpecies for ornament or variety in
large pleafure-grounds, fome may be difpofed in affemblage
in any continued plantation, fome in clumps, and others
fingly. _

All the different forts of the oak will fucceed in any foil
of a middling quality, where the expofure is not unfavour-
able ; but to the moft advantage, where the land is of a
loamy nature : they, however, thrive tolerably in thofe
foils which are of a gravelly, fandy, or clayey defcrip-
tion.

Bcfides the great value of thefe forts of trees for the
utility and durability of their wood, as timber, for the pur-
pofes of fhip-building, houfe -building in fome parts, park-
paling, polls, railings, and a variety of other fti-ong ufes ;
they, in many of the kinds, afford confiderable additional

advantage

QUE

advantage by tlieir produce in bark, for the u(e of the tan-
ners and cork-cutters, in tanning leather, and being made
into corks ; after the former of which, it is alfo much em-
ployed in gardening, for the forming of bark hot-beds, in
raifnu"- tender hot-houfe exotic plants : as well as in their
annual crops of acorns, as an excellent food for the keeping
and fattening of fwine, deer, and fome otlier animals.

QUERCUS, in Plcinl'wg, a clatTical tt-rm fometimes applied
to the oak-tree in nurfery collections, intended for this fort
of apphcation. See OAV.-Trei:

QuERCUS Marina, the Sea-Oak, in Botany, the name of
one of the broad-leaved dichotomous fea-fucufcs.

It is not agreed, among the late botanifts, what was the
fea-oak of Thcopliraftus ; and the mod ancient botanifts,
Clufius and Caefalpinus, fuppofe it to have been a fpecics
of the flirubby coralline ; but that feems by no means to
have been the cafe, fince Theophrallus fays his fea-oak
had a long, thick, and flefliy leaf, whence we may much
more naf urally conclude it to have been of the fucus clafs.

QUERCY, in Geography, a province of France before
the revolution, in the government of Guienne ; bordered on
the E. by Rouergue and Auvergne, on the S. by Upper
Languedoc, on the W. by Perigord and Agenois, and on
the N. by Limofin : it contained two bidioprics, •vi'z. Ca-
hors and Moiitauban. The air is good, and the land is
fertile : its capital was Cahors. It now conftitutes the de-
partment of the Lot.

QUEREIVA, in Ornithology, the purple-throated chat-
terer of Latham, a fpecies of Ampelis.

QUERELA, QuARRE!., in Latv, denotes an aftion, or
declaration, preferred in any court of juftice. See Quar-
rel.

In an aftion where the plaintiff is called querens, i. (. com-
plainant, his brief, complaint, or declaration, is called
ywf/r/a.

Querela j^udlta. See Audita.

Querela coram rege el conciUo, a writ by which one is
called to juitify a complaint of a trefpafs made to the king
himfelf, before the king and his council.

Querela Duplex. See Double Quarrel.

Querela, Ex gravi. See Ex gravi, &c.

QUERENGHI, Antonio, in Biography, a man of
letters, was born at Padua in 1546. He difplayed, at an
early period of his life, a decided attachment to literature ;
he wrote verfcs before he was twelve years of age, and foon
' became diftinguilhed by his deep knowledge of the lan-
guages, civil laws, and the philofophy that was taught at
that period. For fome time he applied himfelf to theology,
and made confiderable proliciency in it. He next went to
Rome, where he entered into the fervice of feveral cardinals,
and at length became fecretary of the facrcd college, in
which capacity he was prcfent at the eleftion of five popes.
Clement VIII. conferred upon him the canonry of Padua,
which occafioned him to refide in that city, but he returned
to Rome in the pontificate of Paul V., by whom he was
promoted to fome offices of truft. He died at Rome in
1633, at the age of 87. He was a man of various and
extcnfive literature, and was much regarded by the learned
of the time in which he flourifhed. His writings were nu-
merous, and comprehended the fcicnces and polite literature.
He is chirfy known to polterity by his poems, which are
correft and elegant, but by no means animated. Moreri.

QUERETANO, in Geography, a town of Mexico; 80
miles N.N.W. of Mexico. N. lat. 20° 25'. W. long.
iOiO 36'.

QUERFAA, in the Materia Medica of the ylralians, a

QUE

name given by Avicenna and others to cinnamon, when ga-
thered with the wood of the young branches.

It was a commcni praftice in the early times not to ftrip
the fmall bark from medicinal tree:, but to cut off the littl'-
boughs, and ufe the bark' and wood together. This tiu
Greeks called xylo cinnamomum, or woody cinnamon ; and
the Arabians, querfaa, qucrje, or kcrfe.

QUERFURT, in Geography, a tcnvn of Saxony, fituated
on tile little river Weite, inconfiderable in itfcif, but having
large fuburbs ; the number of houO'S is ellimated at up-
wards of 500. The old caftle belonging to it Hands on a
hill, and it has likewife a fupcrintendency ; 16 miles S.W.
of Halle. N. lat. 51^ 23'. E. long. 1 1' 45'.

QUERIA, in Bctany, recived that name from Loefling
and Linnsus, in compliment to Don Jufeph Quer y Martinez,
a Spanilh furgeon, who though he wrote againlt the Lin-
nsan fyftem, and even the fexes of plants, contending that
palm-trees ripen fruit without impregnation, was an affiduous
praftical botanift. He publidicd a Spanifh Flora, in his
native tongue, conCfting of four volumes quarto, of whic'n
the firit three appeared in 1762, and the fourth in 1 764. A
fifth and fixth were added by Ortega in 17S4. Quer was
profed'or of botany in the royal garden at Madrid, and died
in 1764, aged 69. He wrote alio on the Uvi Urft, (which
he removes from the genus jlrlutus, ) as a fpecific in calculous
complaints ; and on the medical ufe of Cicuta. — See Haller's
Bibl. Bot. V. 2. 516. and Dryandr. Bibl. Banks, — Linn.
Gen. 43. Schreb. 58. Willd. Sp. PI. v. I. 493. MarU
Mill. Did V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. i. 185. Juff. 300.
Lamarck lUuilr. t. 52. Gxrtn. t. 128? — Clafs and order,
Trianclria Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Caryophyllea, Linn. Jud'.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five erett, oblong,
acute, permanent leaves ; the outermoft recurved. Cor.
none. Stam. Filaments three, capillary, fhort ; anthers
roundifh. Pijl. Germen fuperior, ovate ; ftyles three, the
length of the ftamens ; ftigmas fimple. Peric. Capfule
roundiih, of one cell, with three valves. Seed folitary,
roundifh, compreffed.

Eii. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Corolla none. Capfule
of one cell, with one feed.

Obf. Linnaeus remarks, that this genus differs evidently
from Minuartia, fee that article, in having a folitary feed.
Q. canadenf's, figured by Gaertner, is removed hence by
Michaux to his genus Anychia, which belongs to a different
natural order, the Holeraceis of Linnaeus, and has a capfule
deftitute of valves. Gxrtner indicates its clofe affinity, ex-
cept in number of ftamens, to his Paronychia, fee that
article. Michaux and Purfh ail'ert that its ftamens vary from
two to five.

1. Q. hifpanica. ' Spanifli Queria. Linn. Sp. PI. 132.
Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Loefl. It. 48. 83. Quer. Fl.
Elpan. V. 6. 667. t. ij. f. 2. — Flowers crowded into a tuft.
— Native of fandy grounds in Spain. Seeds were fent to
Kew, in 1800, by the late marchionefs of Bute. The plant
is a diminutive hardy annual, flowering moll part of the
fummer. Root fibrous. Whole herb whitifli, brittle, one
or two inches high, with feveral leafy, round, rather downy,
ilightly reddifti Jlems. Leaves oppofite, feflile, awl-ftiapcd, ■
three-ribbed, carved to one fide, rather longer than the joints
of the Item. Head of jloivers obfcurely quadrangular,
denfely dichotomous, eafily breaking off from the ftem.
Bradeas oppofite, awl-ihaped, recurved, and hooked, eafily
catching hold of the coats of animals. Floiuen very
minute.

2. Q. eanadenjis. Canadian Queria. Linn. Sp. PI. 132.
Willd. n. 2. Ait. n. 2. Gxrtn. v. 2. 217. t. 128. f. 10.
Gron. Virg. ed. 2. 16. (Mollugo foliis oppofitis, itipulis

quaterni;,

QUE

quaternis, caule dicliotomo ; Gron. Virg. ej. i. 14. Any-
chia dichotoma ; Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. i. 113. Purdi
V. I. 176.) — Flowers folitary, Hem forked. — Native of dry
lime-Hone liills, from New York to Kentucky, flowering
from June to Aiiguft. Introduced at Kew, in 1806, by
his royal highnefs the duke of Kent, according to Mr.
Aiton, who marks it as a hardy biennial. Linnxus and
others make it perennial ; which the appearance of the plant
contradids. The root is fmall, tapering, with a few pale
fibres. Slem folitary, near a fpan high, round, jointed,
fmooth, reddidi, ereft, leafy ; fimple below ; repeatedly
fubdivided, forked and fpreading, above ; the branches di-
varicated, capillary, leafy, many-flowered. Leaves oppo-
lite, on ihort (talks, obovate, entire, fmooth, from one-
fourth to three-fourths of an inch long, covered on both
Jides with reddirti dots, which become prominent as the
leaves dry. Thefe dots, Linnaeus fays, difappear by cul-
ture. Stipules two at each fide, membranous, acute.
Floivers very fmall, axillary or lateral, green, on fliort
ftalks. Calyx-leaves concave, or vaulted, below the point.
'Stamens, according to Michaux, always five in the wild
plant ; in the cultivated one often but two. Linnxus juftly
points out the refemblance of this herb, at firft fight, to
Litmm cathartkum ; but its drift affinity to Ilhcebrum, Poly-
gonum, &LC. is far more ilrikiag, as well as its total unlike-
nefs to the original Queria ; fo that there can be no doubt
of the neceflTity of removing it from the prefent genus,
whether the Anychia of Michaux be permanently eftabliflied
or not.

3. Q. irichotmia. Three -forked Queria. Thunb. in
Tranf. of the Linn. Soc. v. 2. 329. Willd. n. 3. (Rubia
fpicis tcrnis ; Thunb. Jap. 357.) — Flowers racemofe. Stem
triply forked. — Native of Japan. — Herl with widely fpread-
ing, thread-lhspct', finooth branches. Leaves oppofite, on
very fliort ilalks, ovate, acute, nearly entire, fmooth, widely
fpreading, as long as the finger nail. CluJItrs axillary,
three ; two oppofite, one terminal, compoled of three or
four pair of oppofite, minute, deciduous Jloivers. To this
defcription Tliunberg adds — " Corolla cylindrical. Fruit
inferior, oblong, fmooth." — This muft be altogether a
miftake, if the plant has any pretenfions to be reckoned a
Queria. Having feen no fpecimen, we leave the matter as
we find it. The genus before us muft probably depend on
the firft fpecies only ; and whether the charafter of the foli-
tary feed, by which alone it Hands diilinguiflied from
Minuarlia, be fufficient, there being the ftrifteil conformity
in habit and every other particular, we feel much inclined to
doubt.

QUERIGUT, ni Geography, a town of Fr.ince, in the
department of the Arriege, and chief place of a canton, in
the dillritt of Foix ; 27 miles S.E. of Tarafcon. The
place contanis 809, and the canton 2483 inhabitants, on a
territory of 1325 kiliometres, in feven communes.

QUERIMBA, a clufter of iflands, deriving its name
from the princip.-il, in the Indian fea, near the coall of
Africa ; fertile in dates, oranges, grapes, and other fruits
and legumes. The paftures feed great numbers of large and
fmall cattle, and the coalls abound with fifli. Thefe iflands,
when firft difcovered by the Portugucfe, were inhabited by
Arabians ; but at prefent they are chiefly occupied by the
defcendants of Portuguefe. S. lat. 12' 20'. — Alfo, a
country of Africa, bordering on the coaft. S. lat. 9° to
13°. —Alfo, a river of Africa, which runs into the Indian
fea, S. lat. 12° id.

QUERKEINESS, or Kkrkeinks, two iflands in the
Mediterranean, near the coall of Tripoli ; one of them
about ten miles long and five wide, anciently called " Cer-

VoL. XXIX.

QUE

cina ;" \\\c- other, which is fmalkr, is united to the larger
by abridge; 15 miles S.S.E. of cape Oudia. N. lat. 34''
59'. E. long. 1 1 12'.

QUERO, a town of South America, in the jurifdidtion
of Riobamba.

QUERPO. See Cuerpo.

gUERQUEDULA, in Ornithology, a fpecies oi Anas.
See DurK and Teal.

QUERRE', in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Mayne and Loire ; 1 2 miles N. of An-
gers.

QUERRIEN, a town of France, in the department of
the Finifterre ; fix miles N. of Quimperle.

QUERRIES, or Equerries. See Equerry.

QUERRIEUX, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Somme ; fix miles N.E. of Amiens.

QUERRY, Gentleman nf the, is an officer appointed to
hold the king's llirrup, when he mounts on horfeback.

QUERS, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Upper Saone ; three miles S.E. of Lux-
euil.

QUESADA, a town of Spain, in the provnice of Jaen ;
12 miles S.E. of Ubeda.

QUESENDORF, a town of Pruflia, in the palatinate
of Culm ; four miles S.E. of Bretchen.

QUESNAY, Francis, in Biography, a celebrated
French phyfician, was born at Mercy, a little town not very
di ft ant from Paris, in 1694. His family were employed in
ruftic occupations, and gave him no other education than
was deemed neceflary for their mode of life ; fo that at the
age of fixteen he was fcarcely able to read. About thit
time, however, a thirft for information feized him, and
partly by the afliftancc of a coimtry furgeon, and the fevr
books that he poffefled, but principally by his own labour*
he acquired a knowledge of Latin and Greek, and entered
with ardour into the ftudy of the ancient and modern writ-
ings on philofophy. In oppofitiou to the grovelling notions
of his relations, he refolved to turn his purfuits to medicine,
having perceived its conneftion with the various branches of
phyfical fcience ; and his maftcr, the furgeon of Ecquevilly,
wasfoon convinced of the fuperior acquirements of his pupil,
fome of whofe eflays he prefented as his own, on applying
for admiflion into the college of St. Come, and they were
received with great applaufe. This ftiU farther roufed the
zeal of Quefnay, and he repaired to Paris, where he enter.
cd with great afliduity into the iludies connefted with the
profeffion. After fome time he fettled at Mantes, a confi-
derable town in his native province. Here he was difcover-
ed by Garengeot, an eminent furgeon, who was engaged
with Peyronie in an attempt to cftablifli an academy of (iir-
gery, for the colleftion of furgical knowledge. Having
written a refutation of the doftrines of Silva, refpefting
blood-letting, which led him to a public controverfy, in
which he was deemed viftorious by Peyronie, he dif-
played fuch profound views, indefatigable zeal, and great
general knowledge, as determined Peyronie to appoint him
the fecretary of his new academy. This diftinguifhed pofl:
raifed him ftill higher in the public eitimation ; but the la-
bours connecled with it at length injured his health, which
had been for fome time delicate, and he determined to turn
his attention to medicine more particularly, and took the
degree of doftor of phvfic. He had been employed during
the campaigns ef the king, and on the death of M. Ter-
ray was appointed confulting phyfician to his majeity ;
and was much efteemed and favoured by madame de Pom-
padour ; he feems, indeed, to have been much employed,
and to have been held in high confidcratien by the dauphin,
M in the

Q U E

the father of Louis XVI., and by the whole court. Af-
ter the daupiiin had undergone the fmsU-pox, tlie king
prefented him with letters of nobility, iinfolicited, as a
mark of his efleein. He was appointed alfo hrll pliy-
ficiau in ordinary to liis majelly. He was a member
of the Academy of Sciences, of the Royal Society of
London, &c. Notwithftanding his long life, and liis courtly
favour, as well as extcnfivc employment, lie died poilcned
of little fortune, his liberality to his friends having prevented
him from accumulating money. His death took place at
Verfailles, in December, 177+, at the age of eighty.

This able and indefatigable man left feveral works,
which bear the itamp of coniiderable refearch, clear and
methodical views, and acute obfervation, mixed, however,
with feme difpofition to hypothefis. His firll eflay on
blood-letting, already mentioned, was publilhed in 1730,
under the title of " Obfervations far les Eifets de la Saignee,
avec des Remarques critiques fur la Traite de Silva ;" and
a fecond edition, confiderably eidarged, was printed in
1750. But ill the mean time he publifhed another work,
entitled " L'Art de Guerir par la Saignee," Paris, 1736, in
which he recommends blood-letting in many difeafcs. In the
fame year appeared his " Ef!':ii Piiyiique fur I'Economie
Animale," in two volumes, i2mo., which was reprinted in
1747, in three volumes. This work, however, was deemed
very imperfect by Haller, and is in tadt charadlerifed by a
love of hypothehs, rather than by the details of experience
and obfervation. In 1743, his " Preface des Memoires de
1' Academic de Chirurgie," gained him confiderable applaufe,
as a work of literary refearch. In 1744 he publilhed his
" Recherches critiques et hiftoriques lur I'Origine, fur les
diver9 Etats, ct fur les Progre^de la Chirurgie en France,"
which called forth tome replies on the alleged inaccuracy of
fome of the hillorical ilatements. His other publications
were entitled, " Teilament de M. de la Peyronie du
18 Avril, 1747 ;" " Examen impartial des Conteftations des
Medecins et des Chirurgiens de Paris," 1748, l2mo. ;
" Memoire prefente au Roi par fon premier Chirurgien, ou
I'on examine la Sagefle del'Ancienne Legiflation fur I'Etat
de la Chirurgie en France," 4to.; " Traite de la Suppura-
tion," i2mo.; and " Traite de la Gangrene," i2mo.; all in
the year 1 749. And lallly, his " Traite des Fievres con-
tinues," 1753, in two volumes, i2mo. Eloy Di£t. Hill.
de la Medc'cine.

QUESNE, Abraham du, an able French naval com-
mander, was deicended from a noble family in Nor-
mandy. He was born in 1610, and was brought up
to the fea-fervice under liis father, who gave him the com-
mand of a vefiel when he was only feventeen years of age.
In 1637 he was prefent at the attack of the ifles of Sainte
Marguerite, and in the following year contributed greatly to
the defeat of the Spaniards before Gattori. He was after-
wards in various atlions on the coaft of Spain. In 1644 he
went to ferve in Sweden, and was promoted to the rank of
vice-admiral of the Swedifh fleet. In this ilation he had a
command in the famous battle in which the Danes were en-
tirely defeated, and his veflel was one that boarded and took
the enemy's admiral (hip. On his return to France he com-
manded a fquadron fent to the expedition againft Naples.
The French navy being in a low flate on account of the
minority of the king, he fitted out feveral (hips at his own
expence in 1650, with which he afTilled in the reduftion of
Bordeaux, which had revolted, and was aided by a Spanifli
fleet. In 1676 he had the glory of being oppofed to the
great De Ruyter. The Spanilh and Dutch fleets had united
to prevent the French from fuccouring the inhabitants of
Meflina, but. Du Quefne, after ii defperate fight, fucceeded

Q U E

in entering the port. He was alfo engaged with De Ruyter
when the latter was mortally wounded. Du (jucfnc ob-
tained a more glorious and decided iuccefs in another eiiga^'-
ment with the Spanifli and Dutch fleets at Palermo, whc,
by means of his llre-lhips, he deilroyed twelve large (hips c,:
the enemy, and tiius procured for his king the fovereignly
of the Mediterranean. In 1682 he was fent with a fleet to
awe the piratical Hates of Barbary, which had committed
depredations on the French coalls, and in the followinv
year he failed to Algiers, and bombarded the town wilti
fuch fury as nearly to lay it in ruins. In the following
fpring the admiral anchored before the city, and did not
leave it till he had dedroyed almoll all the buildings, wilii
the whole of the (hipping and fortilications, the conlequence
of which was they were obliged humbly to fue for peace.
He (truck equal terror into the ftates of Tripoli and Tunis,
which were likewife compelled to purchafe peace with France
by fubmiifion. He performed other great and important
fervices for his fovereign, but the recompence due to him
on account of all he did was impeded by his firm attachment
to the reformed religion in which he was bred, and which
the bigotry of the king regarded as criminal. He received,
however, the royal gift ot a fine ellate, which was erected
into a marquifate, and gave him a title ; and on the repeal
of the edidt of Nantes, he was the only perfon exempted
from its penalties. This great hero, one of the ciiief boafts
of the French navy, preferved an extraordinary degree of
health and vigour, nutwithdanding the many wounds which
he had received, till his death in 1688, when he had attained 1
to the 78th year of his age. He left a ion, of whom we
(hall fay a few words.

QuESNE, Henry du, was born in 1652, and at the age
of fourteen he entered the French navy, and ferved with great
diftinftion under his father. He was prefent at the bom-
bardment of Algiers in 16S3, and negotiated the peace of
Tunis. At the period when the highed profpcfts in his
profeffion lay before him, his attachment to the Proteftant
religion caufed him, at the repeal of the edidl of Nantes, to
quit his country and the fervice, but he refufed with indig-
nation the offers that were made him to take a command
in the armies of its enemies, and retired to Switzerland.
His high reputation raifed him to great credit with the
Froteftar.t powers, which he employed in engaging them
to undertake the protection of his perfecuted brethren ; and
through his means a great number of victims of the moll
cruel intolerance procured their liberation from the gallies.
In 1 701 he fold his eitate in Switzerland, and retired to
Geneva, of which he was admitted to the citizenfhip. Here
he died in 1723, refpedted alike for his learning and piety.
As an author he had taken a confiderable (hare in the verfion
of the New Teftament publi(hed by the pallors of Geneva,
and he was author of a work entitled " Reflexions Anciennes
et Modernes fur I'Eucharillie."

QuESNE, Fort du, in Geography. See Pittsburg.

QUESNEL, Pasuuier, in Biography, a French pried
of much celebrity, was born at Paris in the year 1634.
Having completed his education, and being admitted a mem-
ber of the congregation of the oratory, he took pried's
orders in 1659. From this time he devoted himfelf, with
great diligence, to the ftudy of the fcriptures, and of the
fathers, and to the compofition of books in pradtical piety.
At the age of 28 he was appointed firll diredtor of the iii-
ditution belonging to his order at Paris. The firll of his
pubUcations was entitled " Moral R<fledlions upon the
Gofpels." After this he was employed in preparing for the
prefs a new edition of " The Works of St. Leo," in two
volumes, 4to. in which he has given a vad number of notes

tlfet

Q U E

that refleft great lionoiu- on the learning of the editor. Its
vakio was enhanced, in the judi^mcnt of his countrymen, by
his introducing into it an able defence of the lentimcnts of
the Gallican church, in oppohtion to the prctcnlions of the
church of Rome. This circumilance gave great oilence to
the papal government, and the edition was condemned in the
following year at Rome. On account of his attachment to
father de Samte-Marthe, general of the oratory in France,
he was obliged to quit his diocefe, and from other unpleafant
circumllances he thought it riglit to withdraw privately from
France into foreign countries. He took refuge at Brull'els,
where he continued his " Moral Reflections" on the adts of
the apoitles, and the epillles. This, witii his former work,
he publifhedin 1687. He afterwards revifcd and made ad-
ditions to the former work on the Evangelifts, and printed
an uniform edition of the whole in 1693 "'' 1^94' '" ''^U'" vols.
8vo. In the year 1703 the Jeiuits, always inimical to the
rights and liberties of mankind, and who, to the utter dif-
grace of the prefent period, have been jull re-ellablirtied in
their powers, availed themfelves of their influence with an
ignorant and bigotted king of Spain, to obtain an order for
the arreft of father Quelnel, who was now tlirufl: into a
dungeon belonging to the archiepifcopal palace at Bruilels.
From this fituation he was unexpedtedly delivered in lefs
than four months by the ingenuity of a Spaniard, who con-
trived to open a pallage through the walls of the prifon fuffi-
ciently large for his efcape. Having thus obtained his li-
berty, he made the bed of his way to Holland, where he
publiflied feveral pieces in vindication of himfelf and writings
from charges preferred againlt both before the ecclefialHcal
court of Mechlin, and the fentence of condemnation pro-
nounced by the prchbifliop. In the year 1705 the enemies
of Quefnel applied to the pope Clement XI. for the con-
demnation of the " Moral Refleftions," to which he ac-
ceded, although he had fome years before expreded his de-
cided approbation of them, and even wilhed to engage the
author to come to refide at Rome. Such, however, was
the pontiff's inconfiftency, that he ifTued a decree which
condemned the " Moral Refleftions" in general, but with-
out fpecifying any particular dodlrines which merited fuch

a fentence. At length, at the initigations of the Jefuits, the department of the North, and chief place of a canton,
eager in the caufe of perfecution, Lewis XIV. joined himfelf in the dillritt of Avefnes. The place contains 2960, and

QUE

fieur Germain ; and " Tlie Difciplinc of the Church deduced
from the New Teltament," in two vols. 4to. A lift of
this author's works may be feen in Moreri.

QUESNOI, Fkancis du, called the Fleming, an ex-
cellent iculptor, was born at Brufllds in 1594. He learned
his art under his father, who was a fculptor, and at an early
age difplayed fo much ability, that the archduke Albert gave
him a penfion and fent him into Italy. After the death of
that prince, he was patronized by the conitable Colonna ;
and the celebrated Poullin refiding with the conftable at the
fame time, the two artilts contracted an intimate friendfliip,
and ftudied together. Quefnoi formed' himfelf upon the
talle of the ancients, and chiefly excelled in making bas-
reliefs and models in a I'mall fi/.e, rcprefenting cupids and
children, to whicii he gave lingular grace and delicacy. He
employed himfelf feveral years on a marble faint, for the
chapel of Loretto, in which he imitated the genuine beauties
of tiie antique. Wiien the canopy of St. Peter's was
iniiflied, pope Urban VIII. ordered four coloffal ftatues to
be placed in the niches. That of St. Andrew was given to
Quefnoi, and although one of his competitors ventured to
affirm that he would only produce a great child, yet when
the figure was completed, it entirely effaced his own per-
formance. Notwitiillanding the talents of this artift, which
were united to much perfeverance and indullry, he could
barely earn a fubfillence, and was in a very low ftate of
health and fpints, when, in 1642, Lewis XIII. engaged
him as his fculptor, and as the head of an intended fchool
for that branch of art, at a very liberal falary. This change
of fortune he was unable to bear, and as he was on the point
of fetting out, he funk into a melancholy derangement, from
which he never recovered. His death, which happened at
Leghorn in 1646, has been imputed,' but probably on in-
fufficient evidence, to poifon, adminiftered by the hand of
a brother with whom he lived on very bad terms. He was
mild in his manners, but of a referved difpofition. His re-
putation is chiefly founded upon the exquifite foftnefs which
he gave to marble, and the peculiar grace and beauty of his
infantile groups, finiflied witii perfect anatomical exattnefs.
QUESNOY, Le, in Geography, a town of France, in

againft Quefnel, and applied to the pope for a more dehnite
decree ; his holinefs, for fo the moil wicked as well as mofl
virtuous of the popes have ever been denominated, in con-
fequence of this application, eftabhflied a congregation of
cardinals, prelates, and divmes, to enter into a particular
ex'amination of the doftrines and maxims which Quefnel had
advanced. That his work might not be condemned without
any efforts on his part to vindicate it from the accufations
of his enemies, our author wrote, on this occailon, two
letters to the pope, which were fafely conveyed to Rome,
but Clement did not deign to give a reply. State policy
had already determined what meafures he fhould adopt, and,
after the feflions of the congregation were ended, he iffucd
the celebrated ball Unigenitus, in September 1713, which
pronounced a fentence of condemnation upon loi propofi-
tionsextrafted from the " Moral Refleftions."

Father Quefnel f])ent the lafl years of his hfe at Amfler-
dam, where he formed fome Janfenift churches, and publifhed
his apologetic and controverlial pieces againlt the bull Uni-
genitus, and its abettors. He died in 17 IQ, in the 86th
year of his age. Independently of his " Moral Reflcftions,"
he was author of feveral other works of high reputation, of
which we may mention, a treatife on " Predeltination and
Grace," in four vols. i2mo. under the ficlitious name of

the cantons, to which belong the call and weft divifions,
9099 each, on a territory of 235 kiliometres, in 29 com-
munes. N. lat. 50^ 15'. E. long. 3° 43'.

QvEssoY-fur-Deule, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the North, and chief place of a canton, in the
diilrict of Lille. The place contains 4002, and the canton
15,047 inhabitants, on a territory of 82-^ kiliometres, in
nine communes.

QUEST, or Inql'e^t, an inquifition, or inquiry, made
upou oath of an impannelled jury. See Inquest, and
Jt RY,

The word is formed from tlie French gtie/f, fearch ; of
the Latin quejitum, a thing fought.

Quest, in Hunting, the feeking out of hounds, or the
venting and winding of fpaniels. See Hound.

QUESTEMBERT, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of Morbihan ; five miles W.S.W. of
Rochfort. The place contains 3668, and the canton 12,118
inhabitants, on a territory of 2575 kiliometres, in nine com-
munes.

QUESTION, Qu.i;sTio, in Logic, isfc. a propofition,
whofe truth a perfon being inquilitive about, propofes by
way of interrogation to another.

Logical queltions are varioufly diftributed ; the ordinary
M m 2 divifion

QUE

tlivifion is into^/j^ or /;«Ha»7 (luellions ; 3.i, Quid ejl? What
is J'uch a thing? AnA fccomUry, wliicli arile out of the
former ; as, How is it J'

Question, QuoJliketical. See Quodi.ibetkal.

Question, in Laiu. The gut/lio Je jure is generally to
be diftinguiihed from the gua/lio de faSo.

Question is alfo fometimes ufed for torture ; which foe.

QUEST-MEN, perfons chofen yearly in eacli ward, to
inquire into abufcs and mifdemeanors, efpecially fuch as re-
late to weights and meafures.

Quest-men, in Ecclefmjlical Latu. See Sidesmen.

QUESTOR, Qu.i-;sTOR, formed a quarendo, Jeeking,
fearching, or colleBing the revenues of the Jlate, an officer in
ancient Rome, who had the care of the pubhc treafurc.

The queftorfliip, qud-Jiura, is very ancient, as having been
eftabliihed under the kings, probably in the time of Ro-
mulus or Nunia, or at leail under Tullus Hoitilius. Ta-
citus (Annal. xi. 22.) fays, that the firil quellors were
elefted by the people, 64 years after the foundation of the
republic ; but he is of opinion that they had, long before
that period, been annually appointed by the confuls, and
even by the kings. But this obfcure point of antiquity is
contefted by other writers. Dionyfius and Livy date the
original of queftors about A. U. C. 269. Plutarch refers
the inftitution to the time of Valerius Poplicola, when he

QUE

and the queftors, who were generally employed in the pro»
viiices abroad, aifigned to them feverally by lot, no fooner
returned from tiieir provincial adniinillration than they look
their places in the fenatc ; and from that time forward,
from the rank of equcllrians, or what we commonly call
knights, became fenators for life.

The youth and inexperience of the queflors, who entered
on that important office in the 25th year, engaged Augullus
to remove them from the management of thetreafury ; and
though they were rcitorcd by Claudius, they feem to have
been finally difmifTed by Nero. In the provinces of the im-
perial divifion, the place of the quellors was more ably
fupplied by the procurators, or, as they were afterwards
called, " ratiiinaks." But in the provinces of the fenatc
we may lUll difcover a feries of quellors till the reign of
Marcus Antoninus. From Ulpian we may learn, that under
the government of the houfe of Severus, their provincial
adminillration was abolifhed ; and in the fubfequcnt troubles,
the annual, or triennial elections of quellors, mull have
naturally ceaied.

There was alfo another kind of queftors, called qutejlores
parricidii, whofe office was to enquire into, and take cog-
nizance of capit il crimes, after the confuls were denied this
privilege.

QuEs-iou _/(/fri palatii, or of \.\\e facred palace, was one

allotted the temple of Saturn for the treafury, and granted of the firil dignities under the emperc.rs of Conilantinople

the people the liberty of choofing two young men for the
treafurers. Afterwards, ■yis. A. U. C. 332, two others
were created to take care of the payment of the armies
abroad, of felling the plunder and booty, &c. for which
purpofe they generally accompanied the confuls in their ex-
peditions ; and they were diftinguiflied by the name of pere-
vrini from the other quellors, who alfumed the title of urbani.
This number continued till the entire conquell of Italy ;
and then, A. U. C. 439, it was again doubled. The four
that were added refided with the proconfuls and proprietors,
in the provinces, where they were employed in regulating
the taxes and culloms due to the ftate.

In the time of the republic, the fenate appointed queftors
in each province, to afliil the proconfuls, as lieutenants or
treafurers, in the adminiftration of the revenues ; but, under
the emperors, there was properly but one queilor, or trea-
furer-general of the empire ; tliofe other inferior or fubor-
d'nate queftors were then called afliftants of the queftor,
adjutores quiejlor'is.

The qucllor's office was originally confined to the army.
They paid the foldiery, and took charge of monies coming
by fpoil and plunder, &c.

At length there \vere new ones ere£led to refide in the
city, and to receive the public money, taxes, tribute, &c.
Their number was increafed as the empire increafed. Sylla
Julius Cxfarto forty ; fome being

It was this queftor that fubfcribcd the refcripts of the
emperor, and the anfwers to the petitions and fupplieations
prefented to him. He alfo drew up and figncd the lawr-
and conftitutions which the emperor thought ht to publifh ;
and took care of the adminillration of jullice.

Some compare his funftion to that of our lord high chan-
cellor. It was ufually one of the jurifconfulti that was
charged with this office ; it being required, that he fhould
know the laws of the empire, be able to prefcribe and fee
them executed, and judge of caufes brought by way of ap-
peal before the emperor.

Conftantine \\as the firil vi-ho erefted queftors of the
facred palace.

OUESTUS, or Ou-TCstcs. See Qu.-estus.
QtKSTUS ejl nolis, a writ of nufance, which, by flat.
15 Edw. I. lies againil him to whom a houfe, or other
thing, that breeds a nufance, is defcended, or ahenated ;
whereas before that ilatute, the aftion lay only againtt him
who firil levied, or caufed the nufance, to the damage of
his neighbour.

QUETIF, James, in Biography, a learned French Do-
minican monk, was born at Paris in the year l6lS. He
embraced the monaftic profeffion among the preaching friars
when he was not more than 17 years of age, and having
completed his philofophical coiufe at Paris, he was fent by
his fuperiors to Bordeaux, where he ftudied divinity, and re-
ceived prteft's orders in 1648. He lived to a great age, ex-

augmented it to twenty ;

nominated by the emperor, and the others by the people

Tacitus (Annal. xi. 22.) feems to confider twenty as tiie ercifing his talents in various ways, and died in the year 1698,

higheft number of queftors ; and Dion (hb. xhii. p. 374.) highly refpected for his great erudition, his extenfive know-

infinuates, that if the didlatorCsefar once created forty. It was ledge, and his virtues. He pubhftied a new edition of the

only to facilitate the payment of an immenfe debt of gra
titude. Under fucceeding emperors their number was not
fixed. Of thefe, two were appointed for the city, to take
care of the public treafure, and to keep the laws and decrees
of the fenate ; tl«: others pertained to the provinces and the
armies.

The queftorlhip was the firft office which any perfon
could bear in the commonwealth, and might be undertook
at the age of twenty-four or twenty-tive years. Accord-
ingly, the qusellorffiip was called the firft ftep of honour,
13

" Summa Theologix" of Aquinas, in three vols, folio,
with notes. He did the fame by a work entitled " ConciUi
Tridentini Canones." He was editor of " The Spiritual
and Afcetic Letters of Savonarola ;" and he publiftied, with
his own notes, ■" The Life of Savonarola," from the Latin of
John Picus, count of Mirandula, with confiderable addi-
tions. He wrote the preface to " The Letters of Peter
Morin," which he publiftied from the author's manufcripts ;
as he alfo did his treatife " On the good Ufe or Abufe of the
Sciences." He was author of a confiderable part of the

work

QUE

work entitled " Scriptorcs Ordinis Prxdicatoi'uiii, cum
notisHilloricis," which was completed by tathcr Echard.

(jUETREVILLE, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of tlie Channel ; fix miles X. of Cou-
tances.

QUETTEHOU, a town of France, in the department
of the Channel, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
triA of Valognes ; nine miles N.E. of Valoi^nes. The
place contains 1291, and the canton 14,956 inhabitants, on
a territory of ijo kiliometres, in iS communes.

QUETTENBRUN, a town of AuRria ; eight miles
E. of Eaab.

QUETZ, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Leipfic ;
two miles S.S.E. of Zorbig.

QUE VAC AMPS, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Jemappe, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Tournay. The place contains 955, and the can-
ton 10,264 inhabitants, on a territory of 1075 kihometres,
in 15 communes.

QUEVAUVIELERS, a town of France, ill the de-
partment of the Somme ; eight miles S.W. of Amiens.

QUEUE, in Commerce, a wine meafure ufed in fome
parts of France. A queue of Champaigne contains 384
pintes of Paris, or about 95 Englilli gallons ; a queue of
Burgundy contains 432 pintes of Paris, or 107 Englilh gal-
Ions.

Ql^EUE, Fr. tail, as applied to the heads of mulical notes ;
the minim is the only white note with a tail to it, and the
crotchet the firll black note with a tail to it.
Queue, in Heraldry, the tail of a bealt.
If a lion has a forked tail, he is blazoned by double-
queued.

QvEVE d'yfroeJe, q. d. /ivaHoiu's tail, in Fortificalwn, a
term applied to outworks, when narrower at the gorge than
at the face or front ; «. e. where the fides open towards the
champaign, and contraft towards the gorge. Tlie name is
occafioned by its refemblance, in figure, to a fwallow's tail,
which the French call queue d'aronde.

Of this kind ai'e fome fingle as well as double tenailles ;
and fome horn-works whofe lides are not parallel.

On the contrary, when the fides are lefs than the gorge,
the work is called conire queue d'aronde.

Queue d'aronde, m Carpentry, a method of jointing,
called alfo dove-tail.

QUEVEDO DE ViLLEGAs, Francisco, in Biography,
a celebrated Spanilh writer, was born at Madrid in 1570.
He became diltinguilhed at an early period for his literary
attainments, and obtained the honour of knighthood, but
indulging his iatirical vein too freely again ft the adminiftra-
tion of count d'Olivares, he was thrown into prifoii, from
whence he did not make his efcape till the difgrace of that
minifter. He died in the year 1645, at the age of 75. He
is regarded by his countrymen as having attained to a confi-
derable degree of excellence in moll of the different kinds of
compofition. His heroical poems are faid to be charafterized
by energy and fpirit ; his lyrical b y fweetnefs and beautv ;
and his humorous poems by eafe, pleafantry, and ingenious
invention. His printed works fil\ three vols. 4to. of which
two are occupied by poetry and one by profe. The former
were collefted by Jofeph Gonzales de Salas, whoilluftrated
them with notes and differtations. They were publiilied in
1650, at Madrid, under the title of " II Parnaffo Efpagnol."
The humorous pieces of Quevedo have rendered his name
bell known in foreign countries, and have been tranflated
into the Englifh and other languages.

QUEVILLYj in Geography, » town of France, in

Q U I

the department of the Lower Seine ; three miles W. of
Rouen.

QUEULEN, a river of Chili, which runsinto the Pacific
ocean, S. lat. 39'-' 10'.

QUEYPO, a town of Mexico, in the province of Coda
Rica, near the Pacific ocjean.

QUEYRAS, a town of France, in tlic department of the
Higher Alps ; 12 miles S.E. of Briancjoii.

QUEYTOR, a name fomctiines given to the river Ava,
at leall to that part wliich runs between Ava and Prom.

QUI, \n Rural Economy, a common term frequently ap-
plied to the female of the cow kind of animals wliilc in the
young itate. It is the moll generally employed in the northern
parts of the country. Sec Why.

Q[.'i-Ca/f, a name ufually made ufe of in the northern
parts of the ifland, to fignify a female or lieifer calf. See
Wu\--Ca(f.

Qui Tiiin, in Law, is ufed where an information is exhi-
bited againll any perfon on a penal llatute at the fuit of the
king and the ])arty who is informer, when one part of the
penalty for breach of the llatute is to be given to the king,
the poor, or to fome public ule, and the other part to the in-
former or profecutor ; and the party informing profccutcs
for the king and himfelf. The fuit is called a qui tarn action,
becauie it is brought by a perfon, " qui tam pro domino rege,
&c. quam pro fe ipfo in hac parte fequitur." If the king,
therefore, himfelf commences this fuit, he fliall have the
whole forfeiture. (2 Hawk. P. C. 268.) But if any one
hath begun a " qui tam" or " popular" adtion, no other
perfon can purfue it ; and the verdift palled upon the defendant
in the firll fuit is a bar to all others, and conclufive even to
the king himfelf. This has frequently occafioned offenders
to procure their own friends to begin a fuit, in order to
toreltall and prevent other actions ; which praftice is in
fome mealure prevented by a llatute made in the reign of a
prince very Iharp-fightcd with regard to penal laws, viz.
4 Hen. VII. c. 20. ; which enaCls, th.it no recovery, otherwife
tlian by verditt, obtained by coUufion in an aftion popular,
fliall be a bar to any other atlion profecuted bond fide. A
provifion, fays judge Blackllone, that feems borrowed from
the rule of the Roman law, that if a. perfon was acquitted
of any accufation, merely by the prevarication of the accufer,
a new profecution might be commenced againll him. Ff. 47.
15. 3. See Ini'ormatiox.

QUIA, in Logic. See Reason.
Quia dominus remijlt curiam, in Law. See Recto.
(^\Mt\ emptorcs, a denomination given to the llatute of
Wcllm. 3. 18 Edw. I. which diretls, that upon all fales or
feoffments of land, the feoffee Ihall liold the fame, not of
his immediate feoffor, but of tlie chief lord of the fee, of
whom fuch feoffor himfelf held it ; and hence it is held that
all manors exilling at this day mull have exilled by immemo-
rial prefcription, or at leaft ever lince this llatute was made :
for no new manor can have been created fincc that llatute ;
becaufe it is effential to a manor, that there be tenants who
hold of the lord, and that llatute enafts, that for the
future no fubjeft fhall create any new tenants to hold of
himfelf.

Qui improvidi:, a fuperfedeas granted in many cafes wliere
a writ is erroneouly fued out, or mifawarded.

Such is that granted in behalf of a clerk of the chancery
fued againll the privilege of the court, in the common pleas,
and purfned to the exigent.

QUIADKOUA, in Geography, a town of Prulfia, in
tlic province of Bartenland ; nine miles S.E. of AUerlburg.
QUIBBLETOWN, a town, or rather a village of Ame-
rica,

J

Q U I

rica, in Middlcfcx county, New Jerfey ; fix miles N. of New

Briinfwick.

QUIBERON, a fortified town of France, in the depart-
ment of Morbilian, and chief place of a canton, in the diltricl
of L'Oricnt, fituated at the extremity of a peninfiila, to
which it gives name, oppofite to the ifland of Belle lile ;
remarkable for an unfortunate expedition of Englifh troops
and emigrants againil France, in the year 1795; 17 miles
S.E. of Port Louis. The place contains 1916, and the can-
ton 5618 inliabitants, on a territory of 95 kiliomctres, in
three communes. N. lat. 47° 30'. W. long. 3'' 2'.

QUIBO, a fmall ifland on tlie outer part of the bay of
Panama ; it is uninhabited, but affords wood and water for
Ihippintr.

QUIBONDO, a fmall ifland in the Indian fea, near the
coall of Africa. S. lat. 8° 8'.

QUIBO R, a town of South America, in the govern-
ment of Caraccas ; 15 miles S.W. of Segovia Nuova.

QUIBURI, a town of New Navarre ; 20 miles S.S.E.
of Cafa Grande.

QUICAPOUX, a river of America, which runs into
the Millifippi, N. lat. 43° 4'. W. long. 92° 5'.

QUICARO, a town of New Navarre ; 150 miles S.S.E.
of Cafa Grande. — Alfo, a fmall ifland in the Pacilic ocean,
near the coaft of Veragua. N. lat. 7- 54'. W. long.
82° 42'.

QUICI, in Entomology, a fpccies of thecerambyx, men-
tioned by Marcgrave.

QUICK, in Gardenhig, a term applied to fignify any fort
of young plant, but efpecially thole of the white-thorn
kind. By it is alfo often underftood a hve hedge, but more
properly the fhrubs of which fuch live liedge is formed. In
a ttridl fenfe it is, however, applied to the Crataegus oxyacan-
tha, or hawthorn, the young plants or fets of which are
commonly fold by the nurfery gardeners under the name of
quicks.

In the choice of thefe fets, thofe which are raifed in the
nurfery are in general to be preferred to fuch as are drawn
eut of the woods, as the latter have feldcnn good roots :
many perfons, however, prefer them, as they are larger
plants than are commonly to be had in tlie nurfery. See
Crat^gus.

Quick. See Medlar and Pynus.

QviCVi-Beam. See Pyrun, and SERVICE-T^rfc.

Quick- Av7w;, in Planting, a name given in fome places to
the tree ufuallv known by the title of mountain-a(h. It has
been recomn\cndi-d as ufefnl for forming fences, in fome cafes,
by Dr. Anderfon, and others. Where it is employed in
this way, the plants muft be kept down to the proper height,
by benig cut over as often as there may be occafion ; and
thus encouraging them to throw out lateral branches in a
gr -ater abundance, and, of courfe, induce the fence to be-
come more clofe and thick in its lower parts. By thefe
means a tolerably perfeft hedge may be railed, from plants
of this fort, in fituations where the white-thorn will not fuc-
ceed in any proper manner.

QvKH.-Bi!tch, in Zoology. See Ursus Lufcus.

Q^viCK-Halg.-s, in Agriculture, a name given to all fuch as
are raifed from quicks, or any other fort of living plants.
Theproper forming and planting of quick-hedges have hither-
to been much too Tittle attended to by the farmer, as it is a
matter of great importance, and which interelts him in a
very high degree. Whatever fort of plants may be employed
for this purpofe, the work (liould conftantly be well per-
formed m the firll inftance, and the hedges and plants be after-
wards kept in due order and regularity by fuitable pruning,

15

Q U I

cutting in, and other proper management. There ii a great
number of different methods of raifing and making hedges of
this knid, as by planting the fets 011 the plam iurface, or the
mould a little railed above it, or on mounds, formed by tlic
fods and mould dug up in trie line of the hedge, elevated to
different conflderable heights ; by fetting the plants out in
one row only, in double ones, or fometimes in a Hill greater
number ; by putting thc-m in, in ilraight lines, in irregular
manners, in the triangular form, or in the quincunx method.
They are fometimes cut over at certain heights, at others
not cut down at all ; the fides are alfo in fome cafes clipped
or cut in, but in others tiiis is avoided altogether. When
planted on banks, they are moftly cleaned and moulded up
annually.

A great variety of different forts of plants is employed
in forming and conflrufting thefe hedges, as thofe of the
hawthorn, the black-thorn, the crab-tree, . the hazel, the
willow, . the beech, the elder, the poplar, the alder, and
feveral other kinds, according to particular circumllances
and fituations. And on the expofed coatls or Ihores of the
fouthern parts of the kingdom, a new fort of Ihrub or plant
has lately been recommended for this ufe, which is that of
the tamarillv, or lamarix gallica, as it thrives rapidly, it is
faid, when planted m fituations mofl expofed to the blall or
Itroke of the fea ; forms an admirable (lielter, and being of
q\iick growth, foon comes to anfwer the end defigned.
The writer of the agricultural report of the county of Corn-
wall has known a hedge of it, which he has been told was
planted about feven years ago, and the buflies, apparently,
cannot be lefs now than from ten to twelve feet in height,
and are feathered to the very bottom. It thrives well about
the Lizard, bears cutting perfectly well, and in expofed fitu-
ations, where it might be injured if left to grow high, may
be kept clofe and low to much advantage. It unfortunately,
however, will not Hand the frofl, and fhould never be at-
tempted, of courfe, in fituations expofed to the fevere effefts
of it. The propagation of it is by cuttings, which take root
without any difficulty. It is fuppofed that this fhrub was
brought by the monks from Normandy to Mont St. Michael
in the above county, and thence fpread to other parts. See
Hedge, and Quickset Hedge.

The quick-liedges of this country are in a very great degree
raifed from the white-thorn, which unquefUonably forms the
chcapell and moil durable kind, where the nature of the
foil, fituation, and other circuniflances are favourable for the
purpofe. It will not, however, flourifh in bad land, in ex-
poled fituations, where the bottom is wet and fpringy, or
where the growth of weeds is very abundant. In all fuch
cafes other kinds of plants are therefore had recourfe to in
the formation of them.

In many upland diilrifts beech-hedges have been planted
to confiderable extents, and found, when kept under proper
management, to be very handfome, and of great fervice in fuch
expofures. Birch-hedges have likewife been tried in different
cafes, and found to grow remarkably fall, even in cold
bare tillv foils, but they require to be cut over at the time
they are about four feet in height and carefully plafhed. Both
thefe forts of hedges have this in their favour, that they will
grow in very poor foil as well as in very expofed fituations ;
and botli will flourifh and grow ftrongly where the white
tiiorn cannot live. Their want of prickles, however, is a
great objedlion to them in this view : but they afford good
flicker.

Quick-hedges conftitute the ordinary fort of fences in
this country, and unlefs in particular fituations, and for par-
ticular purpofes, are the nioft proper and eligible. It has

been

QUI

been obiorved by the writer of a late work, tliaf in parts
which have been long inclofed without arable cultivation,
hedges, of feemiiigly great age, are met with, which are
many times crook_-d, ragged, and irregular, as though they
had been, in th- lirll inftanae, formed and laid out from the
wild underwood of fuch places. While in otiier cafes, low
plants of the various coppice kinds rife and grow on dikes
or mounds but little railed above the furface of the land,
feemingly as though they had formerly been collected froiji
brulh-woods and replanted on fuch banks, in fonicwhat the
fame manner as is Itdl praftifcd on higher Ijanks ni particular
dillrifts towards the welt, and in South Wales. But taking
the country at large, the method ot raifing quick-hedges by
letting grown plants taken from fuch (itnations, has long
ceafed to exiil and prevail as a general pradtice ; young plants
of white-thorn, or other forts, fet out in the bank and ditch
mode vvitli a low protedling dead fence on the iide contrary
to the ditch at lirft, is the plan commonly had rccourfe to,
fuch plants being firft raifed in fmall groiuids for the purpofe
in regular rows, and not taken, as formerly, from ' brulh-
woods and wafte commons.

QviCK-Lime, in Rural Economy, fuch lime as is in the
caulHc or moft aftive itate, and which poffefles the greateft;
power of operating upon different fubilanccs with which it
may come in contatf . It is quite the oppofite in its qualities
and properties, to that which has fallen down into a powdery
ttate, in confequence of being laturated with water and car-
bonic acid gas, or hxed air, or which is flaked and become
effete. Its powers, when applied upon land in this condi-
tion, have already been noticed in fpeaking of lime. See
Lime.

But it pofTeffes qualities and properties in the way of a
cement, the utility of which for building, for various do-
meflic purpofes, properly belong to this place. According
to Dr. Anderfon, lime is in the bell and moll fit flate for
this ufe when the mofl perfeftly caullic, or in the mofl:
eryllaUizing condition. It is remarked, that the powder
of lime, when reduced by means of water into a thin or
fluid fort of pafte-like form, and then fuffered to become dry,
concretes into a coherent mafs, which fixes to ftones and other
rough bodies in a very firm manner, and in this way becomes
a proper cement for building any fort of walls. And that,
after this pafty material has once become firmly dry, it is
quite indiffoluble in water, and incapable of ever being
foftened again by the moillure of the atmofphere or other
fimilar caufes. Hence it excels many other forts of
cements.

When compofed for the purpofe of building walls, &c.
it is ufually denominated mortar ; but when formed as an ap-
plication in the way of a fmooth coating upon any plain
furface without intermixture with ilony matters, it is com-
monly here termed pla'ijler.

When made from the lime of the purer fort of lime-ftone,
it is found to be more foft and crumbly, and to acquire a lefs
degree of hardnefs, and to be broken with much lefs force,
than where the lime-ftone from which it is made contains a
large proportion of fand, in which cafe it becomes much
more hard, firm, and durable.

It has, however, been difcovered that the pureft lime may
be rendered a firm cement by adding a proper proportion
of clean hard fand to it ; hence the pradlice of blending fand
with lime, when intended for mortar, has become fo univer-
fal. This is fully lliewn to have been very early the cafe,
by the oldeft lime-built walls which are now to be met
with.

It neverthelefs ftill remains a defideratum to afcertain the
due proportion of fand which is necelfary, as both writers

Q U I

and praftical mafons greatly difagree in opinion on thij
matter, as w ell in their diredlions about the modi' of mixing
tlie materials, as of applying the cement ; forae of the more
modern, efpecially, afcribing extraordinary etTedls to a fmall
variation in thefe particulars, wliile others deny that thcfe
circumllances have any fenfible elfeifl on the durability and
firmnefs of the cement.

It is conceived that thefe different and contradictory opi-
nions arife from an imperfeft knowledge of the nature of
quick-lnne, and the variations it may admit of ; for thefe
variations are fi) very great, as to render it impoflible to afford
any general rules that can poflibly apply in all cafes. It is,
therefore, conceived to behove thofe who are defirous of ac-
quiring any coufilleiit and fatisfadf ory knowledge on thishead,
to endeavour to afcertain, in the firil place, the circumllances
which render calcareous lubltances at all capable of becoming
a cement, and then to trace the feveral changes that may be
produced upon it by other extraneous caufes.

Having explained the circumllances which caufc the dif-
ferences in lime-llone, and pointed out the different con-
ilituent principles of it, as well as various other peculiarities ;
it is flated that lime, which has in any way abforbed its
full quantity of air from the atmofphere and become mild, ,
is altogether unfit for becoming a cement, and that, of courfe,
it is evident, that a great change may be produced upon the
quality of any lime, by having allowed lefs or more of it to be
in this ilate before it is worked up into mortar. And further,
that if a large quantity of water be put to frefh flaked
quick-lime, and beat up with it into a thin fort of pafle,
the water dillolves a fmall portion of the lime, which as it
gradually abforbs its air, is converted into cry Hals ; between
the particles of which cryllals, that part of the lime which
was not diilolved, and the other extraneous matters which may
have been mixed with it, are entangled, fo as to form a firm
coherent mafs of the whole. And that the pally fubftance
formed in this manner, is the well-known article mortar ; and
this heterogeneous, imperfeftly femi-cryftallized mafs, con-
ilitutes the common cement employed in building ordinary
walls or other ereftions. Thefe circumdances, therefore,
being known, it is thought that it will not be difficult
to comprehend what are the particulars that are neceffary
to form the moll perfedl cement of this nature. That
fince lime becomes a cement only in confequence of a cer-
tain degree of cryftalhzation taking place in the whole
mafs, it is fufiiciently obvious that the firmnefs and perfec-
tion of that cement muft depend upon the perfection of the
cryflals ; and the hardnefs of the matters that are entangled
among them ; for if the cryflals are ever fo perfedt and hard
of themfelves, if they be feparated from one another by
any brittle incoherent medium, it is evident that the whole
mafs mull remain in fome degree brittle and incoherent.
That as water can only diflolve a very fmall proportion
of lime, even when in its moll perfeft faline or cauftic
ftate, or wliile it remains deprived of its carbonic acid gas,
and as happens in other fimilar cafes, no more of the lime
can be reduced to a cryflallinc mafs than has been aftually
diffolved in the water ; it happens of courfe, that if mortar
be made of pure lime and water alone, a very fmall propor-
tion only can be diffolved by that fmall quantity of water
that is added to it : and as this fmall proportion alone can
afterwards be cryftallized, all the remaining undidolved
particles of the lime will be entangled anaong the few cryf-
tals that are formed. And as the undiffolved lime in this
mafs will in time' abforb its air, and be converted into mild
calcareous earth without having had a fufficiency of water to
allow it to cryilallize, it mult concrete into a friable mafa
exadly refembling chalk ; it follows, that this kind of mor-
tar.

QUICK-LIME.

tar, when as dry as it can be made, and in itsliigheft degree
of pcrfedion, will alu'ays be foft, and calily crumbled
into powder.

But that, if, inftead of forming the mortar ot pure lime
alone, a large proportion of fand be added to it, the water
will in this cafe did'olve as much of the lime as in the
former ; and the particles of hard fand, like fticks or threads,
when making fugar-candy or other cryftals, while fur-
rounded by the watery folution, will help to forward the
cryftallization, and render it more perfcft than it other-
wife would have been, fo as firmly to rement tlie particles
of fand to one another. And as the granules of fand arc
perfeftly hard cf themfclves, fo as not to admit of being
broken down like the particles of chalk, it neceffarily fol-
lows, that the cement made of thcfe materials muil be
much more perfeft in every rcfpeft than the former.

After coiifidering a variety of circumftances in regard to
the folubility of lime in water, and its cryilallization, it is
remarked, that when a large quantity of fand is mixed in
the mortar, that fand will of courfe bear a great proportion
to the whole mafs ; fo that the water that may be mixed with
the mortar will be much greater in proportion to the quan-
tity of lime contained in this mortar, than if the whole had
confifted of pure calcareous matter. And that, as the fand
abforbs none of that water, — that water, now pure, is at
liberty to aft once more upon thofe few particles of cauitic
lime that may ftill remain in the mortar, which will be dif-
folved and converted into cr\-llals in their turn. In this
way it may happen, in fome circumftances, that a very
large proportion of the lime may become cryllaUized ; fo
that the mortar will confift almoll entirely of fand enve-
loped in cryftaUine matter, and become in due time as
hard as ftone itfelf; whereas mortar, confifting of pure
lime, without fand, can hardly ever be much harder than
chalk. It is not, however, to be fnppofed, that in any
cafe this dried mortar will all'ume that tranfparent cryf-
taUine form, or the compaft hrmnefs of fome forts of cal-
careous matters, fuch as marble and hme-itone. In mortar,
m fpite of the utmoll care that can ever be taken, a very
conliderable quantity of tlie lime muft remain undiflblved ;
which undifTolved lime, although it may be fo much fepa-
rated by the fand and cryftalline lime-ftone as not much
to affeft the hardnefs of the mortar, yet it muft ftill retain its
white chalk-like appearance. As marble and lime-ftone are,
however, always formed by thofe particles of lime that have
been wholly diflTolved in water, and from which they have
been gradually feparated by a more flow and more perfeft
mode of cryttaUization, they have nothing of that opaque
calx-like appearance, but afl'ume other colours, and appear
more firm, uniform, and compaft ; the fand and other
matters that may be enveloped in them being entirely fur-
rounded with a pure cryftalline matter.

But to obtain the moft perfeft kind of mortar, it is
not, however, enough that a large proportion of fand
fhould be employed, and that the fand (hould be inti-
mately mixed with the lime ; it is alfo of the utmoll im-
portance that a large proportion of water be added ; for
without this it is impoflible that a large proportion of the
lime can be cryllallized : and the mortar, in that cafe,
would confift only of a mixture of chalky matter and fand,
which could hardly be made to unite at all, and would be
little more coherent than fand by itfelf, and lefs fo than pure
chalk. In that cafe, pure lime alone muft afford rather a
firmer cement than lime with fand. It is alfo of very great
importance that the water be retained as long in the mortar
ae pofTible : for if it be fuddenly evaporated, it will not only
be prevented from afting a fecond tim.e upon the lime, after

a part of what was firfl difTolved has been cryftallized,
but even the few cryftals that would be formed when thir
water was fuddenly evaporating, would be of themfelves
much more imperfeft than they otherwife moft certainly
would have been. In proof of which, inftances of the
cryftallization of common fait, lump fugar, and fugar-
candy, are adduced ; after which it is noticed, that every one
knows what a difference there is between the firmnefs of the
different fubilances ; and that as great muft be the difference
between tlie firmnefs of that cement which has been flowly
dried, and that whicli has been liaflily hardened by the
powerful aftion of a warm air.

It is contended, that it is owing to this circumftance that
the lime, which remains all winter in a mortar tub filled with
water, is always found to be mucli firmer and more coherent
than the mortar that was taken from the fame tub and ufed
ill any work of mafonry, althougli in this cafe the materials
were exaftly the fame. From the fame caufe, miy work
cemented with lime under water, if it has been allowed to
remain undifturbed and uninjured until it has once become
hard, is always much firmer than that which is above the
furface of the water.

In order to render the force of the above reafoning more
ftrong and convincing, lime cement or mortar is compared
to a mafs of matter confifting of a congeries of ftones
clofely compafted together, and united by a ftrong cement-
ing matter that had, while in a fluid ftate, pervaded all the
interftices between the ftones, and afterwards become a
folid indiffoluble fubilance. If the cementing matter be
exceedingly hard and coherent, and if the ftones bedded
among it be alfo very hard and firm, the whole mafs will
become like a folid rock, without fiflures, that can hardly
be broken to pieces by the power of man. But, althougli
the cement fhould be equally firm, if the Itone, of which it
confifts, be of a foft and triable nature, fuppofe chalk or
fand-ftone, the whole mafs will never be capable of attaining
fuch a degree of firmnefs as in the former cafe ; for when
any force is applied to break it in pieces, although the
cement fhould keep its hold, the folid matter cemented by
it would give way, and the whole would be eafily broken
to pieces. Whereas in mortar, the fand that is added to
it reprefents the ftones of a folid matter in the compofition,
the particles of which are united together by the lime which
had been formerly difTolved, and now cryftallized, which
becomes an exceedingly fobd and indilloluble concretion.
And as the particles of fand are of themfelves exceedingly
hard, and the cement by which tlu-'y are united equally fo,
it is plain that the whole concretion muft be extremely-
firm, fo as to require very great force to difunite any par-
ticle of it from the whole mafs. But if, inftead of employ-
ing fand, the only folid body that is entangled among the
cementing matter fliould be chalk, (as in all cafes where
the mortar confills of pure lime alone,) or any other
nightly cohering fubflance, let the cementing particles of
that compofition be ever fo perfeft, it is impoflible that the
whole can ever attain a great degree of firmnefs, as thefe
chalky matters will be eafily broken afunder.

It is remarked, in addition, that a variety of conjeftures
have been made about the nature of the hme cement em-
ployed by the ancients. It has been thought that they
poffeffed an art of making mortar, which has been long-
fince entirely loft ; as the cement in the walls which have
been built by them, appears to be, in many cafes, much
firmer than that which had been made in modern times.
Yet, when the mortar of thefe old buildings is analyfed, it
is found to confift of the fame materials, and nearly in the
fame proportions, in which they are now made ufe of.

And

QUICK. LIME.

And it is thought probable, that their only fecrct confifti-d
in mixing the materials more perfeftly than the rapidity or
avarice of modern builders will permit, in employing their
mortar in a much more fluid Hate than is done now, and in
allowing it to dry more (lowly, which tlie immoderate
thickncfs of many of their walls would naturally produce,
without any preconcerted defign on their part. Tradition
has even handed down to the prefent times the memory of
the mod effential of thefe particulars ; as the lower clafs
of people, in every part of the nation, at tliis moment inva-
riably fujipofe and believe that thefe old walls were com-
pofed of a mortar fo very thin, as to admit of its being
poured, like a fluid, between the Itones, after they were
laid in the wall : and the appearance of thefe old walls,
when taken down, feems to favour this popular tradition.
Nor is it doubted but that this may have been the cafe.
The Rones in the outer part of the wall, it is thought,
were probably bedded in mortar nearly as is praftifed at
prefent ; and the heart, after being packed well with irre-
gular Hones, might have the interftices between them
entirely filled up with iluid mortar, which would infinuate
itfelf into every cranny, and in time adhere as firmly as the
' ftones themfelves, or even more fo, if the ibones were of
a fandy friable nature. And that, as thefe walls were
ufually of very great thickncfs, it might often happen, that
the water in this mortar, by afting fucceffively upon dif-
ferent particles of cauftic lime, would at length be entirely
abiorbed by fucceflive cryftallizations, fo as to become
perfeftly dry, without any evaporation at all ; in which
cafe, a very large proportion of the original lime mull have
been regularly cryftallized in a flow and tolerably perfe£l
manner, fo as to attain a firmncfs little inferior to lime Itone
or marble itfelf.

It is fuppofed that, upon thefe pnnciples it is eafy to
account for the fuperior hardnefs of fome old cements, when
compared with that of modern times, in which a praftice
very different is ufually followed, without having recourfe
to any wonderful arcana whatever.

Monficur Loriot, a late French writer, imagined that he
had made a perfeft difcovery of the way in which the
ancients employed their quick-lime, fo as to obtain fucli an
extraordinary firm cement ; from which difcovery, he con-
ceived, very important benefits might be derived to fociety.
According to his opinion, the ancient cement confiited of
lime and fand nearly in the fame proportions as are com-
monly employed for that purpofe at prefent. But inftead
cf making it of flaked lime entirely, as is done now, he con-
tends that they employed a certain proportion of their lime
unjlaked, which they mixed with their mortar immediately
before it was ufed. And it is further noticed, that this
newly difcovered cement dries and hardens almoft under the
hand of the operator, without cracks or flaws of any fort ;
that it neither expands nor contrafts with the air ; — that it
is impervious to moifture, and may not only be employed
. for making roofs of houfes that are fubjefted to the con-
tinual dropping of water, bafons, aquedufts, canals, &c.
which will inllantly contain water in any quantities, but
even finer works of the pottery kind ; that it perfetlly
refills froits, and has a variety of other interefting qualities.
The trials of Dr. Anderfon with the fame fort of materials
do not, however, confirm the great certainty and utility of
this difcovery. " That fuch enefts as the writer defcribes,"
fays the doftor, " will invaiiably be produced, merely by
adding a certain proportion of unflaked lime in powder to
mortar, or even by making the mortar entirely with powdered
quick-lime, I may without hefitation venture to deny, not
only from the reafoning that has been given, but from
Vol. XXIX.

aftual experiment, again and again repeated by myfelfJ
and which is likcwife, in fome meafure, corroborated by th^
experience of Mr. Doflie."

On thefe accounts, it is fuppofed, that if Monfieur Loriot,
has really experienced thefe uncommon effefts from the
mortar he has tried, it mull have been occafioned by fome
other unobfervcd peculiarity, and not merely by the cir-
cumllance to which he feems to alcribe it. Poflibly the
doftor fuppofes the lime he employed may have been im-
pregnated with a gypfum, or the fulphate of lime, as is
probable, for many reafons. The cffe6ts and qualities of
which, as to becoming a fine powder, and of fuddenly fel-
ting, are well known, but it never acquires the flony
hardnefs that lime cement is fometimes endowed with,
although it takes the fmoothell pohfli of any cement we
know : on which account, it has long been employed as a
plaifler where fine ornaments are required.

There are unqucilionably, however, many doubtful and
myfterious circumftanccs coni.edled with this matter, which
require the aid of further trials and experience in their full
explanation.

There are flill further a few other circumflances that may
influence the quality of common lime-mortar. If lime-flonc
be fufficiently calcined, it is deprived of all its moifture,
and of all its carbonic acid gas, or fixed air. But ex-
perience fhews, that lime-ftone will fall to powder on the
effufion of water upon it, when it is much lefs perfeftly
calcined, and while it Hill retains almofl the whole of its
fixed air. And that as mafons have hardly any other rule
for judging whether lime-ftone be fufficiently calcined, ex-
cept this fingle circumftance of its faUing to a powder
when water is poured upon it, it may thus eafily be per-
ceived, that the fame lime may be more or lefs fitted for
making good mortar, according to a circumilance that, in
a great meafure, eludes the obfervation of operative mafons ;
for if it fhould happen that all the pieces of lime drawn
from a kiln at one time, were jufl fufficiently calcined to
make it fall to a powder with water and no more, that
powder would be altogether unfit for making mortar of
any kind. This is a cafe that can fcldom happen : but as
there are a great many intermediate degrees between that
ftate and perfeft calcination, it muft often happen that the
ftone will approach nearer to one of thefe extremes at one
time than at another ; fo that the mortar may be much more
perfeft at one time than at another, owing to a variation in
this particular.

All thofe who have written on the fubjeft of lime as 3
cement, have endeavoured to afcertain what is the due
proportion of fand for making the moft perfeft cement.
But a little attention to the matter will fhew, that aU rules,
which could be prefcribed as to this particular, muft be
fo vague and uncertain, as to be of little utility to the prac-
tical mafon ; as, befides the variation which may arife from
a more or lefs perfeft degree of calcination as above, it
is a certain faft, that fome kinds of lime-ftones are much
more pure, and contain a much fmaller proportion of fand
than others do ; fome being found almoft perfeftV)' pure,
while others contain eleven-twelfths of fand and all the
intermediate proportions of it. Therefore it would be ab-
furd to fay that pure lime would require as fmall a propor.
tion of fand when made into mortar, as that which originally
contained in itfelf a much larger proportion of ftind than
amy writer has ever ventured to propofe for being put into
mortar.

Befides, there are differences caufed by the different na-
ture of the calcination in the different forts of hme-ftone,
from wliich it may, upon the whole, be concluded, that
N n about

QtllCK-LIME.

.ibout one-tenth of pure hme-ftone is not enough calcined
to admit of being made into mortar; and tliat of the
mofl impure forts of hme-ftone, not above one-fourth part
of the lime contained in it ia fo much calcined as to be in a
cauitic ftate.

The variation that is produced by thefe means ui regard to
the proportion of fand that will be required to tiie lime in the
one or the other cafe, is found to be fo extremely great as
hardly to be conceived. It is, however, ftatcd, that the bell
mortar that has been feen made, was formed of lime which
had been found to contain eleven parts of fand to one of
lime : to this there was added between twice and thrice
its whole bulk of fand by meafure ; which may be allowed
to have been at leall three times its quantity by weight.
Therefore, fuppofing that every particle of that lime had been
fo perfeftly calcined as to be in a cauitic ftate, there could not
be lefs than forty-feven parts of fand to one of lime. .As
much may, however, be allowed for the uncauftic part of
the hme as is pleafed, and the calculation made accordingly.
But it is hardly poflible to fuppofe that above one-hundredth
part of this mafs, independent of the water, confifted of
pure cauitic calcareous earth.

On thefe confiderations it is conceived, that it is impof-
fible to prefcribe any determinate proportion of fand to
lime, as tliat muft vary according to the nature of the Hme
and other incidental circumftances, which would form an
infinity of exceptions to any general rule. But it would
feem that it might be fafely inferred that the moderns in
general rather err in giving too little fand, than in giving too
much. It deferves, however, to be noticed, that the land,
when naturally in the lime-ftone," is more intimately blended
with the lime than can poffibly be ever eff'efted by any
mechanical operation ; fo that it would be in vain to hope
to make good mortar artificially from pure hme, with fuch
a fmall proportion of cauftic calcareous matter as may fome-
times be effeited when the lime naturally contains a very
large proportion of fand. But there feems to be no doubt,
that if a much larger proportion of fand were employed,
and if that were more carefully blended and expeditioufly
worked than is common, the mortar would be much more
perfeft than is ufual in modern times, as has been proved by
aftual trials.

Another circumftance that tends greatly to vary the
quality of cement, and to make a greater or fmaller pro-
portion of fand neceffary, is the mode of |>reparing lime
before it is beaten up into mortar. When for plaifter, it is
of great importance to have every particle of tlie lime-ftone
flaked before it is worked up ; for, as fmoothnefs of the
furface is the uioft material point, if any 'particles of lime
fiiould be beaten up in it, and employed in work before
fufficiently fallen, the water, ftill continuing to aft on them
after it was worked up, would infalhbly flake fuch par-
ticles, which forcibly expanding themfelves, would pro-
duce thofe excrefcences on the furface of the plaifter com-
monly termed bhfters. Confequently, in order to obtain
a perfett kind of plaifter that will remain fmooth on the
furface and free of blifters, there is an abfolute neceliity
to allow the lime to lie for a confiderable time macerating
or fcur'mg in water, before it is worked up. And the
fame fort of procefs is neceflary for the lime when intended
for ufe as mortar, though not fo abfolutely. Great care is,
however, required in the management in this refpeft ; the
pnncipal things being the getting of well-burnt lime, and
the allowing it to macerate or four with the water for only
a very Jtmrt time before it is ufed ; but that which is the
beft burnt will require the maceration of fome days in
the water before it is fufficiently flaked in the whole

mafs for this purpofe. See SovRiuc Lime for Mortar and

Plaijkr.

It has been almoll univerfally admitted, that the hardeft
lin.c-ftone affords a lime that will confolidate into the
firmell cement ; and hence generally concluded, that lime
made of chalk, produces a much weaker cement than what
is made of marble or hme-ftone. It would feem, however,
that if ever this be the cale, it is only incidentally, and
not necefl'arily fo. As from the nature of calcareous mat-
ter, every kind of lime is equally fit for becoming a firm
cement, if it be firll reduced to a proper degree of cauf-
ticity, and has afterwards a due proportion of fand properly
mixed with it, before it be employed in work. Difi'erent
forts of hme, without doubt, differ much from each other in
the proportion of fand they naturally contain, and, of
courfe, require very different proportions of fand to be
added to them before they can be made equally perfect as a
cement ; which is an economical confideration, of no fmall
moment in fome cafes, as it may make one fort of lime a
great deal cheaper than another on fome occafions, and, of
courle, deferves the attention of builders in general. See
Lime.

The excellencies and defefts of other fubftances that may
be occafionally mixed with lime in making cement may be
juft noticed. Thofe commonly ufed as an addition to mor-
tar, befides fand of various denominations, are powdered
fand-ltone, brick-dult, and fea-fheUs. And for forming
plaifter, where clofencfs rather than iiardnefs is required,
they are hme that has been flaked and kept long in a dry
place, till it has become nearly effete, powdered chalk or
whiting, and gypfum in various proportions ; befides hair
and other materials of that nature. But fome others have
been more lately advifed, fuch as earthy balls, flightly burnt
and pounded, powdered and fifted old mortar rubbifh, and
others of a fimilar kind. All of which fubftances are
found objeftionable in fome refpeft or other for this ufe,
fand being the only perfedtly fuitable material that can be
eaflly met with ; on which account it has been always juftly
preferred. Pure firm cryitaUized fand is the beft, but all
pure fands are flot equally proper in this intention. See
thefe fubftances refpectively. See alfo Cement and S.'VND.
It is dated by fir Humphry Davy, in his work on " Agri-
cultural Cheraiftry," that there are two modes in which lime
afts as a cement ; in its combination with water, and in its
combination with carbonic acid. When quick-lime is rapidly
made into a pafte with water, it foon lofes its foftnefs, and
the water and the lime form together a folid coherent mafs,
which confills of feventeen parts of water, to fifty-five
parts of hme. When this hydrate of lime, while it is con-
folidating, is mixed mth red oxyd of iron, alumina, or fihca,
the mixture becomes harder and more coherent than when
lime alone is ufed ; and it appears that this is owing to a cer-
tain degree of chemical attradion between hydrate of hme
and thefe bodies ; and they render it lefs hable to decompofe
by the adlion of the carbonic acid in the air, and lefs folu-
ble in water. It is thought that the bafis of all cements that
are ufed for works which are to be covered with water muft
be formed from hydrate of Hme ; and that the lime made
fromimpure lime-ftones anfwers this purpofe very well. Puz-
zolana, it is faid, is compofed principally of fihca, alumina,
and oxyd of iron ; and it is ufed mixed with lime, to form
cements intended to be employed underwater. It is itated
that Mr. Smeaton, in the conftrudlion of the Eddyftone
lighthoufe, ufed a cement compofed of equal parts, by
weight, of flaked lime and puzzolana. Puzzolana, it is
faid, is a decompofed lava. Tarras, which was formerly
imported in confiderable quantities from Holland, is found

to

Q U I

Q U I

to be a mere decoitipofed bafalt : two parts of flaked lime into cultivation all forts abounding in hard roots, dry fibres,
and one part of tarras form the principal part of tlie mor- or inert vegetable matter. The qucftion, of courfe, vvlie-
tar ufed in the great dykes of Holland. It is iiii)|)ofed
that fubilances which will anfwer all the ends of jni/./.oiana
and tarras, are abundant in the Britifli iflands. An excel-

lent red tarras may be procured in any quantities fnnn the
Giant's Caufeway, in the north of Ireland : and decom-
pofmg bafalt is abundant in many parts of Scotland, and in
the northern diftrids of England in which coal is found.
It is obferved that Parker's cement, and cements of the

ther cjuick-hme (hould be applied to land or not, depends on
the quantity of inert vegetable matter it contains ; and that
whether mild lime, niarle, or powdered limc-ftone, fhould be
ufed or not, on tlie quantity of calcareous matter already in
the land. All forts of land are improved by mild lime, and
ultimately by quick-lune, which do not eifervefce with
acids ; and the I'andy forts more than the clayey kinds.
In land deficient in calcareous matter, but containing much

fame kind made at the alum-works of lords Dundas and /«)/hM' vegetable manure, the ufe of quick-lime (hould con

Mulfrave, are mixtures of calcined, ferruginous, liliceous
and aluminous matter, with hydrate of lime.

It is noticed, that the cements which atl by combining
with carbonic acid, or the common mortars, are made by
mixing together flaked lime and land. Thefe mortars at
firfl folidify as hydrates, and are flowly converted into car-
bonate of lime by the adlion of the carbonic acid of the air.
It was found by Mr. Tenuant, that a mortar of this knid,
in three years and a quarter, had regained fixty-three per
cent, of the quantity of carbonic acid gas, which conftitutes
the definite proportion in carbonate of lime. The hardncfs
of the mortar in very old buildings is alfo thought to de-
pend upon the perfett converfiou of all its parts into carbo-
nate of lime. The pureft lime-ftones are the bell adapted, it
is faid, for making this kind of mortar. The magnefian
lime-ftones make excellent water cements, but aft with too
little energv upon carbonic acid gas to make good common
mortar. The Romans, on Pliny's authority, made their
bell mortar a year before it was ufed ; io that it was par-
tially combined with carbonic acid gas before it was employ-
ed, it is fuppofed.

It is likewife fuggefled, in regard to the cultivation and
improvement of land by means of this material, that quick-
lime in its pure ilate, whether in powder, or difl'olved in
water, is injurious to plants ; grafs in feveral inflances having
been killed by watering it with lime-water : but that lime,
in its ftate of combination with carbonic acid, is an ufeful
ingredient in foils. Calcareous earth is found in the aflies of
the greater number of plants ; and expofed to the air, lime
cannot long continue cauftic, but foon becomes united to
carbonic acid. Tliat lime, when combined with about one-
third of its weight of water, conftitutes hydrate of lime ;
and that it becomes carbonate of lime by long expofure to
the atmofphere, the place of the water being fupphed by
carbonic acid gas. On mixing frefhly burnt or flaked lime
with any moift fibrous vegetable matter, a flrong aftion oc-
. curs between them, and they form a fort of compoil, part
of which is commonly foluble in water. In this way, lime
renders matter, before comparatively inei"t, nourifhing ; and
from charcoal and oxygen, abounding in vegetable matter,
it becomes converted into carbonate of lime at the fame time.
Mild hme, or powdered calcareous fubftances, have no ac-
tion in this way on vegetable matter ; by their operation they
prevent the too quick decompofition of bodies previoufly
diflolved ; but do not tend to form foluble matters. Con-
fequently it is clear that the operation of quick-lime and
mild calcareous fubftances, depend upon wholly different
principles. The former, on being apphed to land, tends to
bring the hard vegetable matter contained in it into more ra-
pid decompofition and folution, as a proper food for plants.
The latter only improve the texture of it, or its relation to
abforption : it is merely an earthy ingredient. Quick-lime,
in becoming mild, has a fimilar aftion, but while taking on
that ftate, prepares foluble out of infoluble matter. On
this depends the operation of lime in the preparation for
wheat crops, its efficacy in fertilizing peats, and in bringing

ftantly be avoided, as tending either to decompofe the folu-
ble matters, by uniting to their carbon and oxygen in be-
coming mild, or to combine with the foluble matters, and
form compounds with lefs attraftion for water than the pure
vegetable fubitance. The fame is the cafe in regard to moft
annual manures ; but its operation is different in difierent
cafes, according to the nature of the animal matter. On
the whole, it (hould however never be employed with ani-
mal manures, except when too rich, or for preventing
noxious effluvia. It is hurtful in mixture with common
dung, and tends to produce infolubility in the extraftive
matter. It is ufeful in mixture with fimple vegetable barks,
&c.

The folution of the queftion about the inutility and dif-
advantage of magnefian lime, which has lately been found
ufeful in fmall quantities on the poorer lands in Leiccfter-
(hire, as from twenty-five to thirty bulhelsthe acre, and in
larger ones, on the rich foils ; it is fuppofed to depend upon
that fort of lime having a lefs attraftion for carbonic aeid
than the other, in confequence of the portion of that fub-
ftance in it, and thereby remaining longer in the cauftic
ftate ; and its becoming fooner a carbonate of lime in the
rich than in the poor foils. Magnefia, while in the cauftic
flate, is poifonous to certain kinds of plants, and afts fo in
the mixture as lime. It may be ufefuUy applied in large
quantities to peat -earths ; and to lands injured by too much
of this fort of lime, peat-earth will be a proper and cffeftual
remedy, when ufed in a fuitable proportion.

More full information may be met with on this curious
and interefting fubjeft in the firft volume of Anderfon's
EfTays on Agriculture and Rural Affairs, in Doflic's Me-
moirs of Agriculture, vol. ii. and in fir Humphry Davy's
" Agricultural Cliemiftry."

QuiCK-Mfl«uri', a term fometimes applied to that fort
which is ftrewed over crops upon the furface of the land,
fuch as foot, fmall dungs, different foi-ts of aflies, &c. As
manures in this intention on pafture lands, wheat, clover,
tare, and other fimilar crops, twenty bufhels of foot is re-
commended to the acre, fixty bufhels of rabbit or poultry
dung, and fifty of pigeons' dung and aflies ; but much larger
as well as fmaller proportions are made ufe of in different
inflances and circumitances. The foot and dungs fliould be
fown over the crops about the middle of March, the afhes
in Febrirary, and all in the mod equal and exaft manner
poflible, as much depends upon this being properly per-
formed. See Ashes, Duxo, and Soot.

In different counties there is much difference in the ufe of
fubftances of thefe kinds in this way as manures. In Hert-
fordfhire the ufual quantities of foot employed in this man-
ner are from about twenty to forty bufhels, on the wheat
crops ; but in fome places they are ufed to the extent of
fifty or more on the acre. The apphcation of this materia!
is univerfal throughout almoft evc-ry parifh in the whole
county, in this mode and intention. Afhes in the fame dif-
trift are coniidered by fome as rendering the foil more
light and open, without contributing, in any great degree,
N n 2 to,

QUI

to the nutrition of the crops over which they are fown.
The proportions in which they are ufcd to the acre over
the clover, and occafionally the wheat crops, are from fifty
to one hundred bu(hels. They are fuppofed to be very fer-
viceable to the two clover crops, and greatly beneficial to
the fuccceding wheat one, by fome perfons ; but others are
of quite the contrary opinion, thinking them of very little
ufe to the wheat, except by increafuig the quantity of the
clover. They are alfo ufeful in deilroyiiig niofs in the fur-
face of grafs lands. The)r are to be ktpt dry, and com-
monly fown over the crops in November or January in luild
moid weather.

In Oxfordlhire, peat-afliC3 are made ufe of from about
twelve to forty bulhels upon the acre ; and thofe of coal
from fixteen to upwnrds of fifty. They are fown over the
wheat, clover, faintfoin, and turnip crops, the coal being
fomewhat the bell on the clovers, and the peat on the
turnips.

In Berkfhire, peat-aflies are ufed very generally for moft
forts of crops, except wheat, barley; and peas, either fown
with the feeds and harrowed in together, or fown on the
land as a top-drefling, only ; but they are more preferred
for all forts of artificial grafs crops, and on natural meadow
and pafture grafles, as well as turnips. The quantities em-
ployed are from fifteen to twenty bufliels and upwards on
the acre. They are applied in March or April, feveral acres
being capable of being fown in the courfe of the day. They
only laft about a couple of years in the land. The afties of
bean Hubble are likewife found beneficial hereabouts, bring-
ing up white clover when put upon the grafs lands.

Different forts of alhes have been found very ufeful on the
frafs lands in Suffex, at the rate of from twenty to thirty
bulhels on the acre, employed as a manure.

In Effex coal-afhes are laid upon the clover, faintfoin,
and grafs crops to the quantity of fixty bulhcls on the
acre or more, with very great effects in promoting their in-
creafe.

In the county of Hertford they manure for turnips and
fome other crops with rabbit and poultry dungs, at the rates
of from fifty to fixty bulhels or more on the acre, with good
fuccefs. And in fome part of the Oxford diftrift, pigeons'
dung is found an excellent manure when thrown over the
young barley crops, mixed with that of poultry. In Effex
too, it is found beneficial for promoting feed when fown
over the rape or cole crops in the proportion of eight bufhels
to the acre.

There are feveral other articles which are occafionally
thrown over crops on the furface of the lands as a manure,
in this intention, fuch as thofe of the dull of malt, rape-
cake, bones, plailler of Paris, and fome others. Malt-duft
is made ufe of on wheat and barley in many parts of the
county of Oxford, and on the young wheats in Hertford-
{hire, in the quantity of five quarters to the acre. In
Berkfhire thirty bufhcls per acre. Rape-cake dull is alfo
ufed in the former of thefe laft counties on the wheats
with great fuccefs. Pounded bones are likewife greatly bene-
ficial when ftrewed over the grafs and fome other forts of
crops, being fometimes a very forcing manure, and at the
fame time lafting. The plailler of Paris has been ufed on
clover, fiintfoin, lucern, and other crops with immenfe
effeft, in fome parts of Oxfordfhire, fown over them about
March, to the quantity of fix bufliels per acre. But in
Suffex, in the proportion of eight bufhels to the acre, when
fown over natural grafs, bean, potatoe, pea, and barley
crops,, it had not the leafl good effeft. Nor even when
tried on other forts in the quantity of fix bufhels to the
fame extent of land.

Q IJ I

Powdered oil-cake that has been fpoiled by keeping, u
an excellent application as manure in the above way. The
lame is alfo tlie cafe with chopped tanners' hair, which hat>
been found fupcrior in this ufe to either malt-dull or any
fort of calcareous matter. Horn-fhavings are likewife
very beneficial when laid on in this manner to graf« lands,
in the proportion of from fifty to one hundred bufhels to
the acre, lafting five or fix years, and being of very eafy car-
riage they fhould be employed in damp weather about
February or March. See Manure.

All thefe different forts conftitute excellent quick forcing
manures, when applied in fome of thefe ways for fome of the
above purpofi's, and lliould be much more generally em-
ployed in futh methods than is at prefent the cafe.

OaiCK Match, in Artillery, is formed of three cotton
ftrands drawn into length, and dipped in a boiling compofi-
tion of white wine vinegar, faltpetre, and mealed powder.
After this immerfion, it is taken out hot, and laid in a
trough where fome mealed powder, moiflened with fpirits
of wine, is thoroughly incorporated into the twills of the
cotton, by rolling it therein : thus prepared, they arc taken
out fcparately and drawn through mealed powder, and then
hung upon a line to dry. There is alfo quick match. made
of worlled inilead of cotton. For its ufe, fee Yivx-Shipt.
Quick nuitb Child, in Lain. See Rei'RIEve.
Quick Pulfe, in Medicine. See Pulse.
Quick Sand, in Sea Language, denotes a loofe quaking
fand, into which a fliip finks by her own weight, as foon as
the water retreats from her bottom. See Quicksand.

Quick Thorn, in Agriculture, a name frequently applied
to young plants of the hawthorn or white-thorn kind, which
are fit for being planted out for the purpofe of forming a
hedge-fence. See Quicks, and Quickset.
It alfo iignifies this fort of thorn generally.
QUICKEN Tree, in Gardening, the common name of
a tree of the ornamental fruit kind. See SoRBUS.

QUICKENING, in Midiuifery, the firfl perception
women have of the motion of the foetus. This ufually
happens in the third or fourth month of pregnancy. It
has puzzled phyfiologifls to explain why the motion of the
foetus fhould not be perceived earlier, as it is endowed with
life from the firfl moment of conception. But, befides that
the parts of the foetus are too foft and tender to affett the
uterus by its motion, the membranes enveloping it are too
thick, and there is then a proportionably larger quantity of
fluid in the ovum than afterwards, which keeps the embryo
from touching the fides of it. The uterus alfo during this
period is confined in the cavity of the pelvis, which being
of fmall capacity, and every way furrounded with bones,
leaves little room for the motion of the foetus. But as foon
as the uterus emerges into the cavity of the abdomen, it
readily yields to the motion of the inclofed foetus, and the
parts by which it is now furrounded being extremely deli-
cate and fenfible, they are affefted by the flighteil liirring
of it. In fome women of dehcate habits, the moment of
quickening is marked by a flight hylleric paroxyfm. In
thefe cafes it feems probable, that the uterus has flipped
fuddenly into the abdomen, but ordinarily it rifes flowly and
gradually, whence the ihock on the bowels is fo incon-
fiderable, as fcarcely to make any fenfible impreflion. See
Conception.

QUICKING-Drac;, in Agriculture, a name fometimes
given in different diftricts to the couch and quitch drag.
See Drag.

QUICKJOCK, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
the Lapmark of Lutea; 15 miles N.W. of Lutea. N. lat.
Of 20'. E. long. in"^.

QUICKS,

■QUI

QUICKS, in Agriculture, a name commonly given to the
young lets of the white-thorn, which are ufed in planting
hedges of that fort. See Quickset /^cJff.

It is thought to be indifpenfably necefi'ary to the fuccefs
of this fort of fets, as liedge plants, in every fituation, that
they be well provided with roots and root iibrils of the
healthy kind, by Mr. Nichol, who has had much experience
upon the fubjed. And that this is belt iecured by taking
them from a feminary of rich mould at the end of the firit
or fecond year, according to their llrength ; and nurfing
them, after that, likcwife in rich earth, for one or two
feafons longer at the farthell : hut, in the latter cafe, re-
moving them into frelh rows at the end of the tirft year.
It is contended, that plants of this age, and thus treated,
will outgrow thofe of greater fize in any fort of foil or
fituation. This has been repeatedly proved by impartial
trials ; and the caufe, it is fuppofed, is obvioufly this, that
fmall plants, even by the fame treatment, are riifed with
better roots, in proportion to their ftems, than large ones.
Therefore in the choice of quicks, regard fhould be had to
the roots, not the tops of the plants. Their being nurfed
the feafon previous to their being removed for hedging pur-
pofes, in rich mellow earth, and being allowed a fufficiency
of room, kept clear of weeds and other matters, is the bell
mode of preparation, it is imagined, that can pofiibly be
adopted.

There is, however, it is maintained, a double advantage
in making ufe of young plants of this nature. They are
cheaper and fitter for expofed fituations than thofe of older
growths ; not becaufe their tops are lefs bu(hy, which,
lince they are to be cut over about half their lengths before
being planted, is immaterial, but becaufe they have better
proportioned roots to the fize and ilrength of the flems,
and of courfe are better fitted to feek paiturage for their
common fuitenance and fupport.

The Hems of the plants, as has been fuggefted above,
(liould be cut over about half their lengths, or, in general,
about fix inches above the ground mark : an operation
which may be performed by the common hedge (hears, a
large fharp knife; or by gathering a handful of them evenly,
and laying them upon a block or other fimilar body, and
chopping them off by means of a hatchet. They fliould
always be carefully raifed, and even the fmalleft fibre be re-
tained. And at all times, until replanted, the roots (liould
be expofed as little as poffible to the air or atmofphere.
See Quickset.

OuicKs is alfo a term fometimcs applied to the weed
called couch-grafs, in different places, and which is of a
very troublefome nature, not being extirpated out of the
land without much difficulty. See Couch.

QUICKSAND, any fort of fpot or bed of running
fand, either near to the furface of the foil, or at any depth
below it, which has a fhaking quaggy feel under the foot
at certain times or feafons, in confequence of contaniing
certain proportions of water. The writer of the work
on " I^anded Property" has remarked, that they are for
the mod part topical, and in general only temporary,
commonly appearing in and after wet feafons only ; clofing
and becoming firm when their fupplies of moiflure are ex-
haufled by long drought. In thefe cafes the furfaces are
free from the depofition of the moory earth of bog plants,
which demand a conflant coolnefs, if not a perpetual fupply
of moifture, being cauled bv heads or fmall beds of fand or
gravel rifing through firmer ftrata to the furface. They
are of courfe apt to be fcorched in dry hot feafons. In
order to remove them, the fame writer advifes, that the
centre of the part which is affetled fhoiild be marked out

Q u r

when the feafon is wet, in order that a drain may be cut,
when it is dry, of a fullicient depth quite up to the mark,
letting it have the ncceliary defcent, and then filling it with
fuitable materials to admit of the water bting conveyed off
as it is collefted in the fub-foil. When the defeft has been
thus removed, where it is fituated in the area of a field, it is
a good praftice to cover the part by foil of the fame nature
as that of the field where it it fituated, by bringing it from
thofe parts which are the mod elevated, as by this means it
may be rendered of an uniform quality with the reft, and
of courfe have a better appearance, as well as be more ad-
vantageous in the growth of crops.

Dangerous trafts and fpots of this nature are frequently
found in marfhy and fandy lands, which are occafionally
covered by the tides. And large deep beds or layers of
quick or running fand are often met with in digging pits,
quarries, mines, and other forts of fhafts, to great depths
under the ground, and caufe much trouble and difficulty in
getting on with fuch kinds of work, en account of the
quantities of water which they contain and let pafs off into
them : thus occafioning the neccffity of much difficult
drainage, and other inconveniences. See Quarries, Pits,
&c. Draiiihig of.

Quicksand Bay, in Geography, a bay on the weft; coaft
of North America. N. lat. 45^ 50'. W. long. 124°.

QUICKSET, in Agriculture, a term generally applied
to the white, or hawthorn plant, the fets or young plants
of which are raifed by nurferymen for fale, for the purpofe
of planting and forming hedge-fences. The roots of the
thorn will, however, anfwer equally well, and in fome cafes
much better, as there is a certainty of their being of the
right fort, or fuch as have prickles upon them, which does
not always happen in ufing the quickfets, as they are liable
to difappear when raifed in this method, but which is never
the cafe in the root-mode. See pEXCE-TV^orn, and White-
Tiorn.

Young plants of the quickfet kind are befl raifed in fmall
portions of ground fet apart for them ; in which, after they
are come up from tfTe feed to fome height, they fhould be
tranfplanted in lines at narrow diitances, in a ftraight man-
ner, with fmall intervals between the rows ; where they are
to remain from three to five years or more, being annually
well cleaned and moulded up. Some, however, tranfplant
them more than once, and think it an advantageous way,
but they do well in either method. Well grown plants,
with itout clean ftems, are the moft proper for planting out
as hedge plants.

Quickset Hedge, a name given to all forts of hedge-
fences which are conltituted of any fort of living plants;
but more efpecially of thofe of the white-thorn kind.
Hedges of this nature compofe the principal fences of this
country. In the drier and better forts of foil, thofe of the
thorn kind generally prevail ; but in moft other fituations,
thofe of fome other forts of plants, according to the par-
ticular nature of the foils and expofnres. The quicks or
quickfets of the thorn forts are commonly fuppofed to form
the beft hedges, when planted in the raifed bank or dike me-
thod. The manner of placing them out in thefe, is different
in different cafes, both in refpeft to the form and number
of the rows, as well as the diftances of the plants from each
other. Some think one regular or irregular row the moil
proper, others prefer two ftraight ones ; and fome fuppofe
a few inches diftance from plant to plant the moft benefi-
cial ; while others think eight or nine inches to be much
better. Strong well-grown quickfets are commonly pre-
ferred in all cafes. It is remarked in the ElTex Report, by
one of the perfons engaged in drawing it up, that in the
1 2 parifh

Q U I

Q U I

parldi of Birdbrook, in the north-cad part of it, " fome ex-
cellent hawthorn lu'dgus have been lately raifed, by planting
one row only at fix inches afunder, rather than two rows
nine inches or a foot apart. The hedges have not been cut
down, nor do they require it, to thicken their bottoms, as
they are, at this time, a complete protedlion againlt hogs,
and in other refpeiSs form a beautiful and effedlual fence.
Nothing can be more evident, it is thought, than that a

row of plants fet thus, fi>> inches dillant from

each other, mull form a more complete and effeftual fence
at the bottom, than an equal number planted tluis, .•.•.•••
at a double diftance, and occupying the fame length, but a
greater depth of ground upon the hedge row." This reafon-
ing of Mr. Vancouver's, Mr. Young obferves, may, for
aught he certainly knows, be conclufive, but it ftrikes him
in a different ligiit. It is true, that the plants in each row
arc, in the latter mode, at double the diftance from each
other than they are in the former ; but it is to be obferved,
that in the double row, the plants are diagonally as near
each other as in the fingle row, and, confequently, there is
the fame vacant fpace for any animal to pals through in the
fingle row as in the double ; and what mult be a great ad-
vantage to the latter, the plants will fhoot out their branches
laterally on the outfides at leaft, juft as far as thofe in the
fingle row, and twice as far lengthwife, meeting with no
obftruflion in their progrefs. Of courfe, it is naturally to
be concluded, that the double-rowed plantation muft form
a fence, if not altogether twice as ftrong and fecure, yet
vaftly Itronger and fecurer than the fingle one. He does
not, however, prefume to fet fpeculation againft faft, as he
has not leen the hedge noticed above, while Mr. Vancouver
has. He has, however, himfelf planted one in a fingle row,
as above defcribed and recommended ; the plants have grown
■well ; the hedge is a good one, but would, he thinks, have
been ftill better, if there had been two rows inftead of one,
as fome others are that he has of that defcription.

In Sudex, the quickfet hedges at Goodwood are capital,
and deferving of every attention, being raifed and trained
in a moll mailerly manner. The duke of Richmond planted
them about eighteen or twenty years ago. They furround
a very confiderable farm, and are in a wonderful liate of pre-
fervation. They form an excellent fence, without the aifift-
ance of any ditch, bank, rail, or pale ; confift of three rows
of white -thorn plants, which fpread three or four feet at
bottom, but are clipped regularly and gradually to a thin
edge at top ; the (lioots are fo numerous, and trained with
fuch care, that even in winter, without a leaf, the thick-
nefs is uncommon. By the young hedges now in training,
it appears that one method purfued has been to plant the
centre row lirft, and when that is well ellablilhed, to add
another on each fide of it ; at leaft this is done in thefe new
hedges. They are kept in a ftate of garden cleannefs ; the
branches are drawn into the line defired, by being tied with
mat, or other lines, and the clipping done with the exadleft
attention ; the union of the hedges with the gate-pofts is
clofe and perfcft, and as to gap, &c. there is no fuch thing.
How they have been preferved from cattle, but efpecially
from ftieep, is marvellous, if either are ever allowed to enter
thefe clofes ; — an attention never ceafing, and a boundlefs
expence, fo far as neceflary, muft have been exerted. They
cannot be recommended to the imitation of farmers on ac-
count of the trouble and expence of them, but they are
beautiful as an objeiSt to the farming eye, and for their pcr-
feSion, they merit all that can be faid of them.

On the Walburton farm in the fame diltrift, there are
fome very good quickfet hedges, which were planted about
twenty-three years ago ; the quick was fet about two inches

afunder, and fingle ; they are cut twice in a year ; are four
and a half feet high, and two feet thick. There is very
little ground loft by the hedge, as it occupies only four feet.
T'le fame excellent fort ot quickfet hedges has alfo been
made in fome other places.

Here two rows of white-thorn plants are common, which
are put on the bank of the ditch, care being taken not to
have them too near it, for fear of its draining them too much
and preventing their growth.

In fome dillrifts, where the cultivation is principally of
the arable or tillage kind, and in cxpofed upland fit nations,
there is frequently a great prejudice and objection to the in-
troduftion and formation of any fort of live hedges, whether
of tiie quickfet or any other defcription, as they take up
much fpace, harbour birds and iiifeCts, greatly Ihade the
grain, and tend to promote blight, ruft, and mildew, by
preventing the free circulation of air. Alfo in bleak ex-
pofurcs they are not raifed without great difficul';y. Such ob-
jedlions, however, fpeedily vanifti where they are kept fuffi-
ciently low and well cUt in and trained on the fides. See
Hedge and Fence.

QUICKSILVER, a very ponderous fluid mineral, by
the chemifts called mercury. For the method of gaining,
preparing it, &c. with its properties, ufes, &c. fee Mer-
cury.

Quickfilver, when rubbed down and blended with uncluous
matters, forms a fort of ointment, which is ufeful in th»
curing of different difeafes of the cuticular kind, as well as
in deftroying lice and other vermin that infeft animals of dif-
ferent kinds, which form the live-ftock of the farmer.

It has alfo been ftated on the authority of Mr. Bradford,
as communicated to the Society for the Encouragement of
Arts, &c. to have been found ufeful in its crude ftate in de-
ftroying infefts on fruit trees. On a plum-tree he made the
following trials : he took a fmall awl, and pierced. Hoping,
through the rind, and into part of the wood of the branch,
but not to the heart or pith of it ; and poured in a fmall drop
or two of the quickfilver, and ftopt it up with a fmall wooden
plug, made to fit the orifice : and the refult was, he fayf,
that the infcfts all dropt off from that very branch the next
day ; and in a day or two more, from oft the other branches
of the tree, without any other punfture : and the tree con-
tinued in full vigour, and throve well all the fummer after.
Encouraged by this fuccefs, he next tried it upon an honey-
fuckle, the leaves of which were quite covered with them :
and here he fcraped away the top of the ground with a
trowel, and run his awl, in the fame floping manner, into the
main ftem, juft above the roots ; but with the fame caution
as above, not quite to the inner pith ; and the fuccefs was
the fame as before. The infe&s all drbpt off dead the next
day after the experiment was made.

Thefe trials are faid to have been confirmed by other ex-
periments ; but they are ilill in want of full and fatisfaftory
confirmation.

Quicksilver, Virgin. See Virgin.

Quicksilver Water. See Water.

QUICKSTADT, in Geography, a town of Norway, in
the province of Aggerhuus ; 42 miles N. of Chriftiania.

QUICK-WORK, m-ii sup, is a general name given to
all that part of a ftiip which is under the furface of the
water, when fhe is laden fit for a fea- voyage. The term is alfo
applied, occafionally, to that part of the fide which is above
the flieer-rail, and which is ufually painted with trophies, &c.
on theoutfide. Falconer.

QuiCK-woKK is likewiie applied to the ftrakes that (hut in
the infide, between the foirkitting and clamps.

QUID,

Q U I

QUID, What, in the Schools, is iifed to denote the de-
finition of a thing.

It is thus called, becaufe the definition anfvvers to the
queilion, quid ejl ^ what is it ?

Hence we have two kinds of quids ; nominal, quid nominis ;
and real, quid rei.

Qum Juris clamat, in Laiu, a writ that lies where I grant
the reverfion of my tenant for life by fine in the king's
court, and the tenant will not attorn ; then the grantee fliall
have this writ to compel him.

This writ icems to be obfoletc, fince the fourth and fifth
of Anne. See Attournment.

Quid pro quo, q. d. luhat for tuhal, denotes the giving
one thing of value f-or another ; or the n-.utual contideration
and performance of both parties to a contract.

QuiD^)-» quo, or Qui pro quo, is alfo ufed, in Phyfic, to
exprefs a miftake or cheat of an a|)othecary, in adminillcring
one medicine for another : or in iifing an ingredient in a com-
pofition different from that prefcribed.

A northern phyfician, in a printed thcfis on qlid pro quos,
,owns ingenuoufly, that tliey are very frequent. He diltin-
guifiies very accurately a great variety of kinds of quid pro
quos ; fome with regard to the operation, others with re-
gard to the fubjeft ; and others with regard to their form,
or eftefts. The firlt comprehends the quid pro quos o{ the
phyfician ; the fecond, thofe of the patient ; the third,
thofe of the apothecary.

Quid Lo/l, a term which fignifies the lofs of the ruminant
power in animals of the live-ftock kind. It is moltly pro-
duced by local weaknefs of the flomach, caufed by eating
improper coarfe kinds of food in too large quantities, or
other fimilar means. It may be bed rcftored by the ufe of
ftrong acids of the vegetable and other kinds, and its i-eturn
prevented by ftrong bitter infufions, as thofe of gentian,
bark, &c. See Cud.

QUIDDEINEN, iu Geography, a town of Prullia, in
Oberland ; 6 miles S.E. of Holland.

QUIDDENY, QuiDDANY, (of the Latin cydonium, or
cydoniatum,) a conferve of quinces, called alfo marmalade.

QUIDDITY, QuiDDlTAS, in the Schools, a word of
the fame fignification with cjfence.

The name is derived hence, that it is by the eflence of a
thing that it is tale quid, fuch a quid, or very thing, and
not another. When upon feeing, or hearing, the name of a
thing, with whofe nature, &c. we are unacquainted, we aflc.
Quid ejl? What is it ? we mean no more by the interrogation,
but that we defire to have its nature and eflence explained by
a definition. Whence quiddity is ufually defined the eflence
known orexprefTed in a definition.

And hence what is efiential to a thing is faid to be quid-
ditive ; as quidditive knowledge, &c.

QUIEBOU, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Channel ; 6 miles S.W. of St. Lo.

QUIEN, Michael le, in Biography, a learned Domi-
nican monk, who flourifhed in the latter part of the 17th and
in the 1 8th century, was" born in the year 1661. He re-
ceived a liberal education, having been inftruftedin clalTical
learning at his native place, and he Was then fent to ftudy
philofophy at the college du Plefiis, at Paris. At twenty
years of age he determined to renounce the world, and took
the habit in a Dominican convent. Here he iludied with un-
common ailiduity and proportionate fuccefs, the Greek,
Hebrew, and Arabic languages, criticifm, divinity, the fa-
cred fcriptures, and ecclefiaftical antiquities. In the year 1690
he firft appeared as an author, by publiihing " A Defence
of the Hebrew Text and the Vulgate Verfion," againft a
work, entitled " The Antiquity of Time reftored," written

Q U \

by father Pezron. The latter having publifhcd- a reply,
Quien anfwcred in a work entitled " The Antiquity of Time
exploded." Pie next attacked him in " Remarks" on his
" Attempt at a literal and Inlkorical Commentary on the
Prophets," printed in the Memoires de Trevoux, for M.irch
1 7 1 I . During the following year he publiihed " S. .Joanni»
Damafceiii Opera qua; extant Gr. et Lat." in 2 vols. fol.
accompanied with difiertalioiis abounding in erudition. He
intended to have given a third volume, containing fuch pieces
as had been fallely attributed to that father, but it was never
lent to the prefs. The fame fortune has attended his labours
on " The Works of Leo of Byzantium," to which he had
paid a confiderable (hare of attention. Towards the clofe
of his life he entered into a controverfy with father Courayer,
concerning the validity of the ordinations of the church of
England, in which the palm of victory was given to his op-
ponent. Le Quien died in 1733, at the age of 72 years,
refpefted for his piety, and uniform corredtnefs of condu£tt
He was author of various " Diflertations" to be found in
Defmolets " Memoires de Literature etd'Hilloire," and the
" Mercure de France." At the time of his death he was
engaged in printing the moil confiderable of his works, re-
lating to the ancient and prefent ftateof the eaftcrn churches.
" His plan includes the whole of his churches, under the
four grand patriarchates of Conilantinople, Alexandria,
Antioch, and Jerufalem ; prefents a geographical defcrip-
tion of each diocefe, and of the epifcopal cities, and then
gives a particular account of the origin and eftablidiment of
the churches, their extent, their jurifdiftion, their rights,
their prerogatives, the fucceflion and order of their bifhops,
their political government, the changes which they have un-
dergone," &c. As the author did not live to finifh his work,
it was publifhed with additions, in the year 1740, under the '
title of " Michaelis le Quien Oriens Cliriltianus, in quatuor
Patriarchatus digeilus, qua exhibentur Ecclefias, Patriarchae,
csterique Prefules Orientis," &c. in 3 vols. fol. Moreri.

QUIEN FIORD, in Geography, a bay on the coaft of
Norway ; 27 miles N. of Chnftianfand.

QUIENS, a river of Norway, which runs into the fea,
1 8 miles N. of Cape Lindefnefs.

QUIESCENT, fomething at reft.

QUIETISM, in Ecckjiajlical Hipry, the fentiments of
the Quietilts, a religious fedt, which made a great noife to-
wards the clofe of the 1 7th century.

Molinos, a Spanifh priell, who died at Rome in the prifon
of the inquifition, pafles for the author of Quietifm ; and
yet the Illuminati in Spain had taught fomething like it
before.

A feft fimilar to this had appeared at Mount Athos, in
Thclialy, towards the clofe of the fourteenth century, under
the appellation of Hefychalls, which denotes the fame with
Quietilts. Thefe were a branch of the Myjlics, (which fee,)
or thofe more perfeft monks, who, by a long courfe of in-
tenfe contemplation, endeavoured to arrive at a tranquillity of
mind entirely free from every degree of tumult and pertur-
bation. Thefe Quietifts, in conformity to an ancient opinion
of their principal dotlors, (who imagined that there was a
celeitial light concealed in the deepeft retirements of the
mind,) ufed to fit every day, during a certain fpace of time,
in a folitary corner, with their eyes eagerly and immoveably
fixed upon the middle region of the belly, or navel ; and
boatted, that, while they remained in this pofture, they
found, in effeft, a divine light beaming forth from the foul,
which diffufcd through their hearts inexprefiible fenfations of
pleafure and delight. To fuch as inquired what kind of light
this was, they replied, by way of illuilration, that it was
the glory of God, the fame celeftial radiance tliat furrounded

Chrift

QUI

Clirift during his transfiguration on the mount. Barlaam, a
monk of Calabria, from whom the Barlaamites derived their
denomination, llyled the monks, who adlicrcd to this inlli-
tution, Madahans and Euchites : and he gave them alfo tlie
new name of Umbihcani. Gregory Palamas, archbidiop
of Theffalonica, defended their caufe againll Barlaam, who
was condemned in a council held at Conilantinople in the
year 1341.

The name is taken from a fort of abfolute rell, and inac-
tion, which the foul is fuppofed to be in, when arrived at
the ftateof perfeftion, which in their language is cAhd t/je
unitive life. To arrive at this, a man is iirll to pafi through
the purgative way ; that is, through a courfe of obedience,
infpired by the fear of hell : hence he is to proceed into the
illuminative way, before he arrives at perfeftion.

The fentiments of the Quietifts, with regard to God, are
wonderfully pure and difinterefted. They love him for him-
felf, on account of his own perfeftions, independently of any
rewards or pimifhmcnts : the foul acquiefces in the will of
God, even at the time when he precipitates it into hell ; in-
fomuch that inftead of flopping him on this occafion, B. An-
gelo de Foligny cried out, " Haftc, Lord, to call me into
hell : do not delay if thou haft abandoned me : but finifh my
deftruftion, and plunge me into the abyfs."

At length the foul, after long travail, enters into reft, into
a perfeft quietude. Here it is wholly employed in contem-
plating its God ; it afts no more, thinks no more, deijres no
more r but lies perfeftly open, and at large, to receive the
grace of God, who by means thereof drives it where it will,
and as it will.

In this ftate it no longer needs prayers, or hymns, or
vows ; prayers where the fpirit labours, and the mouth
opens, are the lot of the weak, and the imperfeft : the foul
of the faint is, as it were, laid in the bofom, and between the
arms of its God, where, without making any motion, or
exerting any aftion, it waits, and receives the divine graces.
It then becomes happy : quitting the exiftence it before had,
it is now changed ; it is transformed, and, as it were, funk
and fwallowed up in the Divine Being, infomuch as not to
know or perceive its being diftinguiflied from God himfelf.
Fenel. Max. des Saints.

QUIETISTS, the difciples of Mich, de Molinos ; or
the adherents to the opinions delivered in the article
QuiETlSJI. The fentiments of Molinos were contained in a
book, which he publidied at Rome in the year 1681, imder
the titleof the " Spiritual Guide :"in confequcnce of which
he was caft into prifon in 1685, where he was foon obliged

Q U I

bilhop of Cambray, who fcemcd difpofed to favour the reli-
gious fyftem of Madame GuyoH, and who, in 1697, publidied
i book, cited in the lall article, containing fcvtral of her
tenets. Fenelon's book, by the interelt of BoiTuet, wa»
condemned in the year 1699, by Innocent XII. and the fen-
tence of condemnation was read b-y Fenelon himfelf at
Cambray, who exhorted the people to refpeft and obey the
papal decree. Not with ftanding this fecming acquiefcence,
the archbifhop pcrfifted, to the ei>d of his diys, in the fenti-
ments which, in obedience to the order of the pope, he
retraced and condemned in a public manner. See the article
Fknklon.

QUIETO, in Geography, a river of Iftria, which runs
into the Adriatic, two miles W. of Baftia.

QUIETUS, freed or acquitled, a term ufed by the clerk
of the pipe, and the auditors in the exchequer, in their
acquittances or difcharges given to accomptants, which
ufually conclude with the words abinde recejftt quietus ; which
is called a quietus efl.

A quietus ejl granted to a ftierilT, difcharges him of all ac-
counts due to the king.

QUIFORO, in Geography, a diftria of Africa, on the
Gold Coaft

QUIGNONES, FiiANcis de, in Biography, an eminent
Spanifli cardinal in the i6th century, who embraced the reli-
gious life at an early age, in a monaftery of Francifcans, and
fubfequently afforded fucli evidence of fuperior talents, that
he was elefted general of his order in the year 1522. He ob-
tained the office of confeliorto Charles V. and upon the cap-
ture of Rome by the imperial army in 1527, and the impri-
fonment of pope Clement VII. in the callle of St. Angelo,
his fervices were folicited by that pontiff, in negociating for
his liberty, and were afterwards rewarded with a cardinal's
hat. After this, he was by the fame intereft nominated
biftiop of Cauria, and fent in the capacity of apoftolical le-
gate into Spain, and the kingdom of Naples. He died in
the year 1540. He was author of a reformed breviary
printed at Rome in 1536, which met with the approbation
of popes Clement VII. and Paul III. but it was afterwards
fuppreffed by Pius V. ; hence it has become fcarce, and is
fought after by colleftors. Several fpurious editions have
been printed at different times. It is inferted in the " An-
nales Minores" of Wadingus, and in the fecond edition of
Joly's treatife " De Roformaiidis Horis Canonicis."

QUIJUBATUI, in Ornithology, the name of an Ame-
rican fpecies of paroquette.

It is of the fize of a lark, and in general of a yeUow co-

to renounce, in. a public manner, the errbrs of which he was lour. Its eyes are black, and its beak grey. The edges

accufed : and this folemn recantation was neverthelefs fol
lowed by a fentenccof perpetual imprifonmcnt, from which
he was in an advanced age delivered by death, in the year
1696. Molinos had a confiderable number of difciples in
Italy, Spain, France, and the Netherlands. One of the
principal patrons and propagators of Quietifm in France,
was Marie Bouvieres de la Mothe Guyon, a woman of
fafhion, remarkable for the goodnefs of her heart, and the
regularity of her manners ; but of an unfettled temper.

of its wings are of a duflcy green, and its tail long and yel-
low. It is a very beautiful bird, and very cafily tamed.
See P.slTTACL'S Guarouba.

QUIKNE, in Geography, a town of Norway, in the
province of Bergen ; 105 miles N. of Chriftiania.

QUIL, in Zoology. See Quirpele, and Viverra
Miingo.

QUII.AQUIE, in Ornithology, the name given by
the people of the Philippine iflands to a very beautiful fpe-

and fubieft to be drawn away by the fedudlion of a warm and cies of parrots, which is commonly found wild in the woods

unbridled fancy. This female apoftle of myfticifm derived
all her ideas of reUgion from the feelings of her own heart,
and defcribed its nature to others as (he felt it herfelf. Ac-
cordingly, her religious fentiments made a great noife in the
year 1687 ; and they were pronounced unfound, after accu-
rate examination by feveral men of eminent piety and learn-
ing, and profefledly confuted, in the year 1697, by the cele-
brated Boffuet. Hence arofe a controvcrfy of great mo-
flveot, between the prelate laft mentioned, and Fenelon, arch-

there. It is all over of a fine green colour, and is fmaller
than the common parrots, and has a broad black bill, and
black legs. It is a very wild bird, and will not learn any-
thing.

QUILATE, in Spanifh and Portuguefe Coinage, a term
ufed for carat ; which fee.

QUILEA, in Geography, a fea-port town of Peru, near
the Pacific ocean, which gives name to a fertile valley, in the
jurifdiftion of Arequipa. S. lat. 16" 45'.

QUILICI,

Q U 1

Q U 1

QUILICI, Gaetano, in Biogrnphy, an Italian opera- quit the country on account of his oppofition to a meafure
finger, with a bafe voice: a good muiician, who arrived of Richelieu, wliich is thus narrated. Quillet was at Loudun
here in 1759, during the performance and opera regency of at the time that Loubardcmont, a creature of the cardinal,

the Mattei. He continued to perform on our lyric ftage
near thirty years, and is, we believe, itill living in London,
we fear, in penury and obfcurity. Since quittmg the llage,
he lias fupported himl'eif, a bed-ridden wife, and an ideot
fon, by teaching to fmg, and has made fonie admirable
fcholarf.

QUILIMANCY, in Geography, a river of Africa,
which runs into the Indian fea, 20 miles S. of IVtelinda. S.
lat. 3° 16'. E. long. 40° 10'. — Alfo, a ica-port town of
Africa, in the kingdom of Melinda, at the mouth of tlic
before-mentioned river, belonging to the Portuguefe. S.
lat. 3° 10'.

QUILIMANE, a town of Africa, in Mozambique.
S. lat. 18' 15'. E. long. 37° 30'.

QUILLAJA, in Botany, a genus of plants found in
Chili, and defcribed by Molina. JuH. 444. Lamarck II-
luilr. t. 774. — Clafs and order, Monoecia Doilecandna.
Nat. Ord. uncertain.

EfT. Ch. Male, Calyx five-cleft. Corolla none. Sta-
mens twelve, or more.

Female, Calyx, five-cleft. Corolla none. Germens five,
fuperior, oppofite to the fegments of the calyx. Styles
five. Capfules five, coriaceous, of . two valves, and one

was fent thither to lake informations rcfpeifting the pretend-
ed podenion of fome nuns by the forceries of Urban Gkan-
DIER (fee his article), an impolhire which Richelieu tliought
fit to favour. The counterfeit Satan one day threatened, that
on the morrow he would lift up to the roof of the church
any one wlio fhould prefume to call his power in queftion. A
large company appeared on the next day with M. Loubardf-
mont, when Quillet, who alio was prefent, challenged the
devil to keep his word. To the furprife of the fujicrftitioug
who had met on the occafion, nothing follovred, but the
challenger found to his coll; that he had given offence to a
mightier power than Satan, and felt it necellary to quit
Loudun in hafte, and retire to Italy. He went to Rome,
and was engaged as fecretary to the French ambaflador at
that court. He probably rL-turned to France with tliat mi-
nilter, after the death of Riciielieu, and in 1655 he publirti-
ed at Leyden, under the name of Calvidius L^tus, the
poem by which he is chiefly known, entitled " Callipaedia
five de pulchrse Prolis habendx ratione." In the firfl edi-
tion were fome fatirical lines againft Mazarin. The cardi-
nal fent for him, and having gently remoiiftrated with him
for treating his friends with feverity, promifed to give him
the firft vacant abbey. Quillet threw himfelf at the cardinal's

cell. Seeds numerous, oblong, inferted into the bottom of feet, afked pardon, affured him he would inftantly obliterate

the capfule, dilated and winged at the fummit. the offenfive lines, and begged, as a fign of his penitence,

Such is the charafter made out by JuITieu, from the to be allowed to dedicate the poem te) him. This was done

pubhcationsof Molina and Frezier, and from fpecimens of in the Paris edition of 1656, and Quillet became the flat-

the fruit, brought to Europe by Dombey. They belong terer of him who had been the objcft of his fatire. He

to a tree, whofe bark has a foapy quality. The leaves are
alternate, fimple, evergreen. Flowers axillary. — The ge-
nus appears akin to the Magnolis of Juflieu, but whatever
it may be, the name is barbarous and quite iuadmiffible ;
only tolerable for a time, till fome botaniit, furnifhed with
better materials to define the genus, fhall be entitled to give
it a more claflica! appellation. Juflieu remarks, that another
plant of Dombey's appears to belong to the above genus.
This is a tree referred by him to Dioecia Icofandria, whole
fruit is called Gayo Colorado, and which is the fame with the
" Loque, or Peruvian tree with iive capfules," of Jofeph de
Juffieu, whofe branches, according to his manufcript ac-
count, are fo long and pliant, as to be twifted into cords,
ferving, in the province of Cufco, for the fupport of hang-
ing bridges.

QUILLALA, in Geography, a town of Chili, on the
Aconcagua ; 30 miles E.N.E. of Valparayfo.

QUILLAN, a town of France, in the department of
the Aude, and chief place of a canton, in the dillrift of Li-
moux ; 10 miles S. of Limoux. The place contains 1568,
and the canton 9195 inhabitants, on a territory of 272^
kiliometres, in 22 communes. N. lat. 42^ 52'. E. long.
2^ !6'.

QUILLA-YACU, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of
Lima; 60 miles E.N.E. of Guanuco.

QUILLE, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ; 23
miles N. of Uddevalla.

QUILLEBCEUF, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Eure, and chief place of a canton, in the didritt
of Pontaudemer, feated on the Seine ; eight miles N. of
Pontaudemer. The place contains 1200, and the canton
7272 inhabitants, on a territory of I07r. kiliometres, in 16
communes. N. lat. 49° 29'. E. long. 0° 38'.

QUILLET, Claude, in Biography, b9rn at Chinon,
in Touraine, about the year 1602, was brought up to me-
dicine, which he pvaftifed fome years, till he was obliged to
Vol. XXIX.

died at Paris in 1661, repenting not of his adulation, but
of the licentious cait of fome of his verfes. The Callipse-
dia has gone through many editions, and has been tranflated
into various languages. " It is," fays an able critic, " an in-
genious performance, agreeably varied by fable and epifode,
but frivolous in its main topic, and in its reafonings. Its
details arc frequently loofe and inflammatory, and that a car-
dinal Ihould have allowed it to have been dedicated to him, is
a proof how little regard was paid, at that period, to the
rules of decorum. The verfification, though generally free
and flowing, is by no means correft, and the diftion is fre-
quently impure." Quillet compofed a verfion of Juvenal
in French verfe, and a Latin poem in twelve books, entitled
" Henriados," or the aftions of Henry IV. This, with
other papers, he left to Menage, with 500 crowns to de-
fray the charge of printing them, but the abbe took the
money, and negledled the conditions.

QUILLIGA, in Geography, a country of Africa, in
Upper Guinea, near the river Maqualbary.

QUILLOBO, in Betany, a name given by fome to a
fpecies of ketmia, called alfo quingombo.

QUILLOT, KiLLO, or K'ljlo, in Commerce, a Turkifh
corn meafure, weighing, in wheat, about 23 okes, or 6olbs.
avoirdupois : 4 killos make i fortin ; 85 killos anfwcr
nearly to I Englilh quarter. A killo of rice contains 10
okes, and the oke is 400 drachms.

QUII^LOTA, in Geography, a town andjurifdiftion of
Chili. The towhi does not contain above lOO families, but
thofe fcatteredover the country exceed 1000.

QUILLY, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Loire ; 7 miles N. of Savenay.

QUILOA, a country and kingdom of Africa, fituated
near the eall coaft, near the mouth of the Coavo, about
1 80 miles from north to iouth ; but the extent inland towards
the weft is unknown. This country was firft difcovered by
the Portuguefe, in the year 149S. The king and his fub-
O o jeds

Q U 1

jcdts are Mahometans ; the latter partly black and partly
tawny. They all fpcak the Arabic and feveral other
languages, which they learn from the nations they traffic
uith. Their drefs is that of the Arabian Turks : the wo-
men elpecially afFeft finery, with variety of ornaments
.•;bout their neck?, arms,\vrifts, and ankles; particularly
bracelets made, of ivory, curioudy wrought, which upon
the death of a parent, hufband, or near relation, they
break in pieces, in token of forrow, whilft the men expreis
theirs by fnaving their hair, and abftaining from food. The
«-apital of the kingdom is fituated on an illand near the mouth
of the Coavo, and is faid to be large, rich, and well built.
The houfes are of flone and mortar, handfome, and after
the Spanifh manner. They are feveral ilories high, and
have each a pleafant garden behind, well watered and culti-
vated, here being plenty of fprings of frefh water. The
houfes are finely furnifhed within, and terraces on the top,
with a kind of hard clay, and the ftreets fo narrow, that one
may eafily ftep from one fide to the other. On one fide of
the town is the citadel, where refides the Mahometan prince.
It is adorned with ftately towers, and furrounded with a
ditch and other fortifications. It hath two gates, one to-
wards the port, whence one may fee the fhips lailing in and
out ; the other loeking towards the land. The country
about Quiloa, though low, is yet very pleafant and fertile
in rice and millet, fruits and <jood pafture ; fo that tiiey
breed abundunce of cattle, befides poultry of all forts, both
wild and tame. They have fifli likewife in great plenty,
and very good. The climate is likewife affirmed by moll
travellers to be very temperate and healthy ; Sanut being
the only author we know of who hath ventured to afic-rt the
contrary in all thefe refpefts. S. lat. 8° 35'.

QUILONNE, a province of Africa, in the kingdom of
Sabia.

OUILOVIA, a fmall ifland in the Indian fea, near the
coaTl of Africa. S. lat. 13°.

QUILTAINEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland ; 8 miles S.E. of Holland.

QUILTAON, one of the La-cadive iflands, in the In-
dian fea. N. lat. 12°. W. long. 72*45'.

QUILTING denotes the operation of weaving a fort
of coat or texture, formed of the ftrands of rope, about
the outfide of any vellel, to contain water, &c. as ajar, callc,
bottle, &c.

QUIMICHPATLAN, in Zoohgj. See Sciurus Vo-
luctlla.

QUIMINATIN, \n Geography, a fmall ifland in the fea
ofMindoro. N. lat. 10° 55'. E. long. 120° 40'.

QUIMIRI, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Lima; 40
miles N.E. of Nafca.

QUIMO, a fmall ifland on the eaft fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 17'. E. long. 21° 52'.

QUIMPER, a city of France, capital of the depart-
ment of Fmillerre, and chief place of a diftrift, feated on
the Oder ; before the revolution the fee of a b'.fhop, the feat
of a governor, an admiralty, &c. The place contains 6608,
the canton 17,028 inhabitants, on a territory of 90 kilio-
metres, in feven communes. N. lat. 47° 59'. W. long.
4° I'.

QUIMPERLE, a town of France, and chief place of
d dii'tridt, in the department of the Finifterre. The place con-
tains 4162, and the canton 9128 inhabitants, on a territory
of 125 kiliometres, in 15 communes.

QUIN, Dr., of Dublin, in Biography, an eminent phy-
fician, and one ot the mod enlightened dilettante muficiaus
with whom we liave ever been acquainted. This gentleman,
who, during his travels, refided in Italy fome years, had

Q u ;

heard and (ludied mufic with fucii taile and inteUigeiiCc,
that his opinions and converfation on the fubjeft wert; equally
entertaining and itiilrudtive. He refided in Dublin at the
timj of H:uidcl's arrival in that city, 1742, and perfectly
remembering his performance, perfwn, and manners, in 1788
wrote us word, that" he (Handel) was received in Ireland
by perfons of the firit dillinction with all poliible marks of
elleem, as a man, and admiration as a perlormer and com-
pofcr of the highelt order." And adds, " the Meffiah, 1
am thoroughly convinced, was performed in Dublin for the
Jirjl time, and with the greatell applaufe. Mrs. Gibber and
fignora Avolio were the principal performers. Thefe, with
the affillance of the clioriilers of St'. Patrick's cathedral and
Chrift-church, formed the vocal band ; and Dubourg, with
feveral good initrumental performers, cornpofed a very re-
fpeftable orcheftra. There were many noble families here,
with whom Mr. Handel lived in the utmoil degree of friend-
fhip and familiarity. Mrs. Vernon, a German lady, who
came over with king George I. was particularly intimate
with him, and at her hoiifc I had the pli.-afure of feeing and
couverfing with Mr. Handel ; who, with his other excel-
lencies, was poileiTed of a great llock of humour ; no man
ever told a ifory with more. But it was requifite for th-:;
hearer to have a competent knowledge of at leaft four
languages : Englifli, French, Itahan and German ; for in
his narratives he made ufii of them all."

QuiN, James, was born in London in 1693. He was
the Ion of an Irifli gentleman, and received his education in
the capital of that country. His father had, ignorantly,
married a woman fuppofed to be a widow ; whole hufband,
after a long abfence, returned and claimed her. The fubjcdt
of this article was the offspring of this conne£tioii, and was
accordingly illegitimated, and upon his father's death, in
1710, was left almoft deititute. For want of education he
was, at the age of twenty-one, without a profeffion, and
was under the neceffity of appearing on the ftage at Dublin,
in the very lowefl charafters. He difplayed, however,
rifing talents, which induced a friend to advife him to at-
tempt fome better parts in London, and he was accordingly
admitted into Drury-lane company in 1 71 5. After the ex-
perience of a year or two, he entered lumfelf under Rich at
Lincoln's-Inn theatre, where he continued to perform during
feventeen years. He was allowed, by the moii competent
judges, to fhine both in tragedy and comedy. His utterance
was weighty and impreffive, which, however, was accom-
panied with various defects. He was, from caufes not well
aicertaincd, continually changing from one theatre to another,
and perhaps he may be ranked among that number with
whom it was difficult to keep terms. His paffions were
ftrong, his temper irritable, and his language often coarfe.
He was of convivial habits, and, it has been faid, grofsly
attached to the pleafures of the table. There was, however,
a fund of generofity in liis temper, which fhewed itfelf in
manly fentiments, and, occafionally, in benevolent aftions.
The circumllance of his giving a 100/. to* the poet Thom-
fon, when he was under an arreft for debt, has often been
told to his honour. It was the comm(fncement of a flrong
friendihip between them. After Thomlon's death, he ap-
peai-ed in that poet's tragedy of Coriolanus, and fpoke a
prologue, written on the occaiion by lord I,,yttleton, with a
pathos that did honour to his feelings. His laft perform-
ance was the favourite part of Fallfaff, for the benefit of
his friend Ry.in in 1753. He novi' retired to Bath, where
his fund of anecdote, and flrong pointed fenfe, rendered his
company much fought after. He had good breeding, which
fitted him for the highelt f6cictics, when he chofe to
aft the gentleman, J and his fenfualify and coarfenefs were^

frequently

Q U I

Q U 1

frequently put up with for the fake of his companionable
qualities. Quindicdat Bath in 1766, at thcageof feventy-
three. Garrick, whofc fuperior talents are fuppokd to liuve
driven him from the ftage, but afterwards his iUiidy friend,
wrote a poetical epitaph for Ills monument. Wiiile Quin
continued on the ftage, he conftantly kept company with the
moft celebrated gcniufcs of tlie age. He was on intimate
terms with Pope and Swift ; and was frequently invited by
the earl of Chellerheld to his table. His pecnllar judgment
in the Englilh langiiagc recommended him to his royal hlgh-
nefs, Frederic prmee of Wales, who appointed him to in-
ftruft his children in fpeaking and reading with graceful pro-
priety. When Quin was informed of the elegant manner in
which his prefent majefty had delivered his iirll gracious
ipeech from the throne, he was in raptures, and the king
foon after gave orders, without any application on the part
of Quin or his friends, that a genteel penfion fliould be paid
him during his life.

Quin, in Geography, a village of the county of Clare,
Ireland, where are the remains of a monallery, which was
founded f )r Franclfcan friars in 1402, and repaired by the
Roman Catholics in 1604. Blfliop Pococke fpeaks of it as
one of the finell and moft entire monallcries he faw in Ire-
land. It is fituated on a fine ftream, with an afcent of fe-
veral fteps to the church : at the entrance one is furprifed
with the view of the high altar, entire, and of an altar on
each fide of the arch of the chancel. The building is quad-
rangular, with piazzas fupported by a number of pillars ;
there are apartments on three fides of the cloiflers, with a
vaulted room under them all. A round tower and fome
other ruins are adjoining. Quin is 15 miles from Limerick,
on the road to Galway, and about 106 miles W.S.W. from
Dublin. Archdall'a Monafticon. Carhfle.

QUINA Folia, in Botany. See Leaf.

QUTNABAUG, in Geography, a river of America,
formerly called " Mobegan," which rifes in Brimfield,
Maliachufetts, and is joined at Oxford by French river,
which has its fource in Sutton, Worceiter county. It runs
a loutherly courfe, and difcharges Itfelf into Shetucket,
about three miles above Norwicli Landing, in Connefticut.
In the iirft part of its courfe it furnifhes many good mill-
ieats : as it advances, the intervals in many places are wide,
and aiford a moft excellent foil.

QUINA-QUINA, in Botany, a Peruvian name, gene-
rally applied to tiie Peruvian bark. (See Cinxiiona.)
JuHieu, however, in his Gen. PI, 366, informs us, that it
properly belongs to a tree, nearly if not entirely agreeing in
genus with Myrnfpermum of Jacquln, or Myroxylon of
Llnnxus. (See the lall -named article.) An account of
the Qiiina-quina may be found in the Memoires de I'Acad.
des Sciences'for 1738, p. 237.

■ QUINARIA, fo called by Loureiro, Fl. Cochinch.
V. I. 272, from the prevalence of the number five in the
parts of fruftification, is the IVampfe or Wampi of the
Chinefe, now eftablifhed as a genus by the name of Cookia.
(See that article.) This plant palled long; in the gardens
of England, for Giiarea trichU'ioules, according to the ob-
fervation of the late Mr. Dryander.

QUINARIUS, Quinary, in Jntlqulty, a little Roman
com, equal to half the denarius. See Coin.

The quinarius was properly the Roman halfpenny.

Medalifts indeed ufe the term quinarius in the general
for a medal ot any matter, not exceeding the fize of our fix-
pence ; but F. Cham.illart, in an exprefs diilertation, ftiews
this to be an abufe. The filver coins, current under the
republic, he fhews, were two : the one weighing a drachm,
and called denarius, as containing ten afles ; the other

weighing half a drachm, and called quinarius, as containing
five afles : which coins continued on the fame fooling under
the emperors.

Hence tiie origin of the word quinarius : and hence, m
propriety, it is only the filver medal of tlie weight of half
a drachm that the name belongs to ; the Romans having
never given it to any other fpecics of the fame fr/.e with
it. It is only by way of analogy, therefore, that the
moderns apply It to the medals of gold, or copper, of the
fame fize with the filver quinarius ; tiiofe of gold being fixed
at 3i value mucli above, and thofe of brafs nmch below five
afi'es.

The only relation between thefe qnlnarli is, that the gold
quinary is the half of a gold medal, as to weight and value ;
and the bral's quinary half a brafs medal, as the filver qui-
nary is half a filver one.

Hence a feries of quinaries fliould feem at Icaft a neccf-
fary in tlie cabinets of the curious, as the feries of great
medals ; they being all equally different fpecies of money,
which teach us how many kinds of pieces there were of any
metal current in commerce.

Add to this, fays our author, that the quinaries were of
a finer and more finlflied coin than the other medals, being
wrought by the hands of the mafters ; which feems owing
to the nicety required in engraving whole figures in fo
fmall a compafs. He adds, that though quinaries are very
fcarce, yet M. the duke of Maine had almoft a complete
fet of them.

OUINAULT, Philip, in Biography, a French poet,
was born in 1636, probably in a low condition; though
while fome fay he was the f«n of a baker, others maintain
that he was defcended from a family of confequence at
Paris. He had, however, veryr few advantages of educa-
tion, but was foon found to poffefs a talent for poetry and
the belles lettres. Before the age of twenty he brought
out fome pieces on the ftage ; and for a number of years,
he continued to produce dramatic works ot different kinds,
which were much applauded by the public voice ; but fome
of which drew upon the author the fatires of Boilcau, who
carried the matter lo far as to injure his owri reputation.
Quinault now affociated hirafelf with Lulli in the compofi-
tion of operas, and difplayed an excellence in lyric poetry,
or that adapted to mufic, which placed him beyond com-
petition in that branch, and has ranked him among the dli-
tinguillied characlers of the age of Lewis XIV. Nothing,
it is allowed, can be more tender, delicate, and ingenious,
than the turn of his fongs and love-dlalcgues ; and no one
has more happily accommodated the melody of French
verfe to mufical expreffion. His " Armida" and his " At-
tliys" are fpoken of as mall:er-pieces of their kind. Not-
withftanding the high reputation which he enjoyed as a poet,
he applied himfelf to the ftudy of the law, and eventually
made his fortune by marrying the rich widow of a merchant,
to whom he had been ufeful in his profeflion. After this,
he purchafed the place of an auditor in the chamber ot ac-
counts. He was received into the French academy, and,
in the same of that foclety, harangued the king on his re-
turn from the campaigns of 1675 and 1677. He died in
1688, having enjoyed a penfion from Lewis XIV. feveral
years previoufly to his deceafe. In his lall illnefs he was
extremely penitent, on account of his having devoted his
talents too frequently to the excitement of the licentious
paflions. He left a family of five daughters, and was
eiteemcd in foclety attentive, polite, and mild. Btfides his
numerous pieces for the ftage, he wrote occafional poems.
His works were printed at Paris in 5 vols, izmo,, 1739,
and again in 1778.

O o 2 It

Q U I

It has been faid that Quinault's appreiiticefhip to poetry
was ferved under Triitan I'Hermile, by being hin domeftic.
The leffons of Triftan were probably of lome ufe to him, as
that author had had long experience in theatrical matters ;
but Quinault owed ilill more to nature : as before he was
twenty years old, he had diilinguiftied lumfelf by feveral
pieces for the llage, which had confidcrable fuccefs : and
before he was thirty, he produced fixteen dramas, fome of
which were well received by the pit ; but not all equally.
It is fuppofed that lome of thefe early pieces prejudiced
Boileau againlt Quinault early in his career. There was
neither regularity in the plan, nor force in the flyle : ro-
mantic lovers and common-place gallantry, in fcenes which
required a nervous pencil and vigorous colourmg. Thele
were defefts not likely to efcape the lafti of the French
Juvenal. He covered the young poet with ridicule ; re-
proached him with the aifettedly foft and languifliing dia-
logue of his lovers, by whom even / hate you was faid ten-
derly.

Quinault, born with great fenfibility, was fo woimded
by his feverity, that he applied to the magiftratcs, not only
to lilence Boileau, but oblige him to remove his name from
his fatires ; but the attempt was vain. His enemy infulted
him Itill more cruelly by an epigram on the fubjecl.

" Peace ! peace ! my friend —

If from the public thou'dlt avoid difgrace,

From thy own works, not mine, thy name efface."

It was not till after Quinault was inhfted by Lulli to
write for the opera, that he filenced all his enemies, except
Boileau and his party, who envied him his fuccefs. The
French nation knew no better niufic that that of Lulli, and
thought it divine. Quinault's was thought of fecoudary
merit, till after his deceafe ; and then, in proportion as the
glory of Lulli faded, that oi Quinault increafed. Voltaire,
in the lirtt editiOH of his " Siecle de Louis Quitorze," in
1749, feems to have been the firft who fpoke out on the
fubjf ft ; not forry, perhaps, to lower Boileau a little in the
eves of the public. He there fays, that " Quinault was
celebrated for his beautiful lyric poetry, and for the gentle-
nefs with which he oppofed the unjuit fatires of Boileau.
His poetry was greatly fuperior to the mufic of Lulh. It
will always be read ; and Lulli, except in a few of his re-
citatives, can no longer be fiipported. However, it was
long believed that Quinault entirely owed his favour to
Lulli. Time appreciates all things."

After this, his writings began to be examined and felt ;
and of late years, his name is never mentioned by his coun-
trymen without eloge. His operas, though admirable to
read, are ill calculated for modern mufic ; and are obliged
to be new written, ere they can be new fet, even in France.
Marmontel, who had modernized feveral of them for Pic-
cini to fet in 1788, gave M. Laborde a diflertation on the
dramatic writings of Quinault for mufic ; which is publifiied
' in the fourth volume of his " EfTai fur la Mufique."

He begins by aflerting that Quinault was the creator of
the French opera upon the molt beautiful idea that could
be conceived ; an idea which he had reahzed with a fuperi-
ority of talent, which no writer has fince approached.

His defign was to form an exhibition, compofed of the
prodigies of all the arts ; to unite on the fame llage all that
can iatereft the mind, the imagination, and the fenfes.
And this illufive theatre Voltaire has admirably defcribed :

" II faut fe rendre a palais magique," &c.

" Hafle to the magic palace, where abound

The joys fublijne of verfe, of dance, and found ;

Q U 1

where bright illufion fafcinates the fight,
And firen-notes the inchanted ear delight ;
Where all the platlic powers of art are (hewn,
And joys unnumber'd are combin'd in one."

For this purpofe a fpeeies of tragedy is neceffary, that
fhall be fufficiently touching to move, but not fo aultere as
to refufe the enchantments of the arts that are neceflary to
embellifli it. Hiftorical tragedy, in its majellic and gloomy
fimplicity, cannot be fung with any degree of probability,
nor mixed with fcllivals and dances, or be rendered fuf-
ceptiblc of that variety, magnificence, fhow, and decora-
tion, where the painter and the macliinift. ought to exhibit
their enchantments.

In Italy, where genuine tragedy has no theatre appro-
priated to its ufe, a people panionate for mufic have per-
mitted Regulus, Themiilocles, Alexander, and even Cato
himfelf, to utter their fpeeches in fong ; but a people, whofe
tafte ought to be more fevere, and more delicate, as to pro-
bability, having for comparifon the fchool of Corneille and
Racine, would have been very unwilling to fubltitute the
recitative of Lulli to the declamation of Baron. Melody
itfelf is a fabulous and magical language ; and in a theatre
" where all is prodigy, it feems confiftent that the manner
of fpeaking fiiould be that of enchantment as well as the
reft. We arc then in a new world ; it is nature enchanted,
and vifibly animated by a crowd of intelligences, whofe
wills are laws. Mufic there plays a marvellous part ; mufic
there conftitutes the probability of the marvellous ; but in
a reprefentation where all palies for natural, according to
truth and hiflory, by what means can we be prepared to
hear Auguftus, Cornelia, Agrippina, or Brutus fing \"
Might it not be rephed, " By the fame means as the French
are reconciled to thefe fame exalted charaAers converfing in
rhyme." When once it is fettled that all the charafters con-
verfe in a mufical language, no other ii expefted, and the
audience is foon reconciled to it. But all this is to prove
that the French alone are right, and Italy and all the reft of
the world wrong as to the mufical drama. The reft of
Europe is tired and aftiamed of flying gods and goddefles,
and have long fince furrendered mythological wonders both
in poetry and mufic to their children. But all people are
thought barbarians, who do not implicitly adopt the talle
and fafhions of France.

But to return to Quinault, whom all the wits of the time
tried to write down. Ignorant of mufic and its powers,
they thought Lulli always right, and the poor, modeft, un-
pretending Quinault always wrong. Pofterity has long
difcovered the converfe of this fuppofition to be the
truth. Quinault's great miftake and misfortune, fays La
Harpe, was the calling his pieces tragedies, and not
operas. He would not then have been regarded as a
rival of Racine, or have offended claflical hearers or readers
with the little refemblance thefe compofitions had to
Greek and Roman dramas, or to the genuine tragedies of
the moderns. ■

QUINCE Tree, in Gardening, the common name of a
tree of the apple kind. See Pyrus Cydonia.

Quince, in the Materia Medico. The fruit of the quince
is aitringent and ftomachic ; and its expreffed juice, in fmail
quantities, as a fpoonful or tvTO, is of conCderable fervice
in naufeae, vomitings, nidorous eruttations, and fome kinds
of alvine fluxes. This juice was formerly ordered in the
Lond. Pharm. to be made into a fyrup, called " fyrupus
cydoniarum," or fyrup of quinces, prepared by digefting
three pints of the depuratedjuice with a drachm of cinnamon,
half a drachm of ginger, and half a drachmof cloves, on warm

afhes.

Q U 1

aflies, for fix hours, then adding a pint of red port, and
diffolving in the flrained hqiior nine pounds of fugar. But
the only preparation of the quince wliich it now din-As is,
a mucilage of the feeds, made by boiling a drachm of the
feeds in eight ounces of water, till it acquires a proper con-
fiftence. This has been recommended in aphthous affec-
tions, and excoriations of the mouth and fauces : however,
though it may be a more pleafant mucilage, it is certainly
lefs efficacious than that of the fimple quince. Lewis and
Woodville.

Aa ufeful reRringent marmalade is made by boiling tlie
juice with fine fugar to a due confitlence, in the proportion
commonly of three pints to a pound. The juice of quinces
becomes richer, by keeping them for fome time, after they
are gathered, in a dry airy place.

Quince IJlan4, in Geography, a fmallifland near the S.W.
coail: of Ireland, and county of Cork ; five miles W. of
Gaily-Head.

QUINCHAC, a fmall ifland in the Pacific ocean, between
the ifland of Chiloe and the continent of Chili. S. lat.

43° 30'-

QUINCHAMALA, m Botany, altered by Willdenow,

one can fcarcely fee with what reafon or advantage, from
Ottinchatnalwrn of Juflieu, a barbarous and totally exception-
able name, taken from the Peruvian Quinchamcili. — Willd.
Sp. PI. V. I. 12 1 7. Mart. Mill. Ditt. v. 4. Juil. 75.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 142. — Clafs and order, Paitamlria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. EUagnl, Julf. Rather perhaps Rii-
h'tacee.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, in four
deep, ovate, unequal fegments, one larger than the reft.
Cor. of one petal ; tube funnel-fhaped, much longer than
the calyx, quadrangular, curved ; limb in five lanceolate,
acute, fpreading fegments. Stam. Filaments five, very
ftiort, inferted into the top of the tube ; anthers oblong,
the length of the limb. P'Jl- Germeu roundifh ; ilyle
thread-fhaped, the length of the tube ; ftigma capitate.
Perk. Berry (rather drupa) roundifh. 5W iolitary.

Eff. Ch. Calyx in four unequal fegments, fuperior.
Corolla funnel-lhaped, five-cleft. Stigma capitate, undivided.
Drupa dry.

I. (^. chUenfis. Willd. n. i. (Qninchamali lini folio;
Feuill. Plantes Medccinales, 57. t. 44. ) — Gathered by
Feuillfe on the mountains of Chili, and by Dombey, among
ftones on the hills about Lmia, flowering in December and
January.' The root is annual, compofed of a few fimple
yellow fibres. Stems feveral, proftrate, fimple, round, leafy,
from four to fix inches long. Leaves fcattered, feliile, linear,
entire, flefhy, fmooth, bluntifli with a fmall point. Floiuers
in fimple, terminal, folitary, denfe fpikes. Corolla green ex-
ternally, of a faffron yellow within. Seed round, uncon-
nefted. — We have taken the- generic charafter, and the de-
fcription, from Dombey's manufci-ipt, compared with one of
his original fpecimens. The _/;-z/;V appears to be a ilnipa, (he
terms it ^acca,) tin* fize of hemp-leed, whofe coat becomes
coriaceous by drying, and feparates, along with the perma-
nent calyx at its lummit, irovcyihzfeed, or micktis, to whofe
upper part the corolla remains attached. Juflieu, Lamarck,
and Willdenow, having formed their ideas from dried fpe-
cimens only, take the coat of the drupa for an inferior
ealyx, and the firll of thefe writers conceives the floicer to
coniilt of a fuperior inner calyx, to which he was led by an
idea of the affinity of this genus to Thcfium. Willdenow,
not adverting to any fuch affinity, terms the inner calyx of
Juflieu, a corolla, wiiich agrees with the opinion of Dombey,
the only botanilt who has examined the living plant, and
by whofe authority we are led to confider the true cahx as

10

Q U I

fuperior. If we are riglit, this genus will belong to the

natural order of Rubiacea, nolwithllauding its fohtary/f?^.

Dombey exprefsly fays ir is akin to Morinda.

Feuillee relates, that the Indians take a decoftion of this

plant for internal dilorders, efpecially wlien they believe
themfelves labouring under an internal abfcefs, of which
there is no external appearance. The decoftion, taken
warm, is fuppofed to break the abfcefs, and to caufe an eva-
cuation of its contents by the ufual paii'ages.

QUINCUNX, Qii'mque uncia, denotes a thing that con-
fifts of five twelfth parts of another.

Quincunx, m Gardenhig, is l^e name of a form of plant,
ing in which trees are planted by fives, four of them form.

* «
ing a fquare, and the fifth placed in the middle, thus, '•

* *
and which may be repeated over and over again in one con-
tinucd plantation, with as many trees in feveral ranges as
may be proper. It was formerly a fafhionable mode of plant-
ing groves and other regular plantations, but is now lef»
common. It is feen more fully below :

* # # * *

*****
*****

Something of this mode of arrangement has always a good
effeft in the difpofitiun of Ihrubby plants, &c. though not
in the regular order of it, but fomething nearly fo, which
gives the ihrubs a gre.nter fcope of growth, and (hews them
to greater advantage. It is likewife a mode of planting that
is proper in the kitchen-garden, in tranfplanting many kinds
of efculent plants ; fuch as lettuces, endive, Itrawberries,
and even all the cabbage kinds, and many other plants, which
gives them a greater fcope to grow than if planted exaftly
fquare at the fame diilance from each other.

It is of this kind of quincunx that Cicero fpeaks, in his
Cato Major ; aiW Quintilian, lib. viii. cap. 3.

The modern quincunces, Daviler obferves, are made hke
thofe of the ancients, except for the fifth tree, which is now
generally difufed ; fo that, being as it were netted, and their
alleys viewed by the fide of the reftangle, they formed a
perfeft chequer.

Quincunx, in AJlronomy, Sec. denotes a pofition, or
afpedf of the planets when difhmt from each other a hundred
and fifty degrees, or five figns.

QUINCY, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Seine and Marne ; fix miles S.W. of
Meaux.

QuiNCV, a poft-town of America, in Norfolk county,
Maffachufetts, taken from Braintree ; 10 miles S. of
Bofton. It contains 1281 inhabitants, moll of whom are
farmers ; but large quantities of (hoes and boots are manu-
faftured for exportation. The town has an epifcopal and
congregational church.

QUIN DECAGON, in Geometry, a plain figure which
has fifteen fides and fifteen angles.

The wo'-d is formed fomewhal irregularly, from the Latin
quhique. Jive, and the Greek i -.a, ten, and yunK, angle. Pen-
tedecagon would be a more regular term.

If the fides be all equal, it is a regular quindecagOH.

Euclid fhews how to infcribeit in a circle, prop. xvi. lib. 4.
And the fide of a regular quindecagon fo defcribed, is
equal in power to the half-diSerence between the fide of the
equilateral triangle, and fide of the pentagon ; and alfo to
the difference of the perpendiculars let fall on both fides,
taken to^^-ether.

QUINDECIM VIR, XV. VIR. a Roman magiftrate,

who

Q U I

who had fourteen collcagvi'-s joined with him in the fame
fuiiftiun.

Under Tarquin the Proud, there were firft two magiftratcs
erefted to take care of the facrifices to be performed ; thefe
were called duumviri. Their number, at length, grew to ten,
and tlien they were called decem-viri. In the time of Cicero
it had reached to fifteen, when they ad'umed the name of
quindecimviri : and though their number grew to forty after-
ward, yet Servius obferves, on the fixth of the iEneid, that
their name never after changed, but th;;y Itill continued to be
called quindsciinviri.

They were the perfons who examined the Sibyls' books,
and were the interpreters of them ; yet they never did this but
by exprefs order of the fenate, declared by a fenatus con-
fultum. They alfo prefided at the facrifices, and all other
extraordinary ceremonies of religion.

On medals, a dolphin joined with a tripod marks the
priefthood of the quindecimviri ; who, to publini their
folemn facrifices, ufed on the eve of them to carry a dol-
phin at the end of a pole throughout the city ; that fifh
being efteemed facred to Apollo, as the crow was among
birds.

QUINEPAUGE, or Eajl Rliwr, in Geogniphy, a river
of America, in Connecticut, which runs a foutherly courfe
into the N.E. corner of New Haven harbour.

QUINGEY, a town of France, in the department of the
Doubs, and chief place of a canton, in the dilf ridt of Be-
fangon ; nine miles y.W. of Befangon. The place contanis
1079, 2"^ ^'^^ canton 1 1,734 inhabitants, on a territory of
272^ kiliometres, in 36 communes. N. lat. 46° 6'. E.

long' S° 57'- , . , ,

QUINGOMBO, in Botany, the name given by the peo-
ple of Congo to a fpecies of ketmia, dillinguiihcd by M.
Tourncfort by the name of the ketmia Brafilienfis folio ficus,
fruclu pyramidoto fulcato, the fig-leaved Brafilian ketmia,
with a pyramidal fulcated fruit.

QUINISDAL, in Geography, a town of Norway, hi
the province of Chnllianfand ; 35 miles W.N.W. of Chrif-
tianfand.

QUINI-SEXTUM, in Ecch/wfual Hijlory, denotes a
council held at Con.lantinople in the year 692 ; called alfo
the council in Trullo, and by the Greeks PentheSe, q. d. five-
f'xth ; as intimating that it was only a fupplement ot the
two preceding councils. Though, in propriety, Fleury ob-
ferves, it was a council itfelf.

Marlhall obferves, that the fifth and fixth general councils
having made no canons relating to the external celebration
of divine worfiiip, the government of the church, and the
lives and manners of Chriftians, the Orientals judged it ne-
ceffary to fupply that defeft by this ; lo that the 102 canons
falfely attributed to thofe, were in reality made here. See
Trullum.

QUINNET, in Mining, the name of a tool ufed in the
cleaving rocks by means of gunpowder. This is a fort of
wedge fitted to the flat fide of what is called the gun ; that
is, a cylindric piece of iron, only flattened in one part to
receive this, and drilled through. When a proper hole has
been made in the rock by the borer, the powder is put in,
and then the orifice being Hopped by the gun, and that
wedged in by this quinnet, the powder being fired by a train
communicating with the hole drilled through the guns, exerts
all its force on the rock, and fplits it m feveral direftions at
one explofion. Phil. Tranf. N° 167.

QUINOLA, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province o Cuhacan ; ^o miles S.E. of Culiacan.

QLINQUAGENARIUS, among the Romans, was an

Q U I

officc-r in the army, who had the command of a company cf
fifty men.

QuiKQUAGEXARius was alfo an officer of policy, who had
the infprc'tion of fifty houfes, or families.

And in the ancient nionafteries, quinquagenarius was a
fuperior who had fifty monks under his guidance.

QUINQUAGESIMA-SUNDAY, Siikove-Sundav.
It is thus called, as being about the fiftieth day before Eallc-r.
Anciently they ufed Quinquagefima for Wiiitfunday, and
for the fifty days betwen Ealler and Whitfunday ; but to
dillinguifh this Quinquagefima from that before Ealler, it
was called the Pafchal Quinquagefima.

QUINQUANGULAR Leaf. See Lkaf.

QUINQUANNION, QuiNCiUEXNiu.M, in the French
Cujloms, a refpite of five years, which infolvent debtors for.
merly obtained by virtue of the king's letters, to have time
for the paym.ent of their debts.

When the thing intended was only to prevent the fale of
their effects at an under-value, the term of one year was
ordinarily granted, and this was called the benefit of
annion.

But when the debtor would avoid the furrendering of
his effedls, upon proving that he was reduced by poverty,
lofles, &c. to make ufe of this expedient, the term of five
years was granted, and called the benefit of quinquannion,

QUINQUATRIA, m ylntiquily, a name given to the
feaits of Minerva, othcrvvife called Panathenaea.

Some thmk they were termed quinquatria, becaufe they
lafled five days ; but others, with more reafon, think it
was becaufe they fell out five days after the ides of the
month.

QUINQUE PoRTUs, the five cinque ports.

" Servitium quod barones quinque portuum praefcripto-
rum recognofcunt facere ad fummonitionem regis per annum,
fi coi'.tigerit per 15 dies ad cuftum eorum proprium ; ita
quod primus dies computatur a die quo vela navium ercxe-
runt, ufque partes ad quas tendere debent, vel ulterius,
quamdiu rex voluerit ad cultum ejus," Thorn.

QUINQUEFOLIUM, in Botany, Cinquefoil, the old
name of the Linna:an genus Poter.tilla, many, but by no
means a majority, of whofe fpecies have five leaflets on a
flalk. G^ertner, who, like many others, was difcontented
with Pctentilla, fubllituted the word Fentaphyllum. See

POTENTILLA.

QUINQUEMPOIX, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Lower Seine ; feven miles N. of
Rouen.

QUINQUENNALIA, in Jmiquity, games, or feafls
founded at Tyre, celebrated every five years, in honour of
the deified emperors.

The quinquennalia began to be exprefl'ed on m.edals
about the middle of the third century-. F. P^gi produces a
medal whereon are engraven thofe of the emperor Poflhu-
mus ; they are not found on any medals of his prede-
celfors.

QUINQUENNALIS, a magiftrate in the colonies, and
municipal cities of the Roman commonwealth ; much the
fame with xdile at Rome.

They were not thus called from their continuing in their
office five years ; but becnufe they were elefted every fifth
year, to piefide at the cenfus, and to receive the declaration
each citizen made of his efleft s.

QUINQUENNES, in fome old Hi/lorians, a name given
to a certain pc-ople ot Inciia, among whom the women began
to bear children at five years old, and feldom lived to more
than eight years. Pliny gives us this account ; and Solinus,
who repeats it from him, increafes the miracle by teUing us,

that

Q U I

Q U 1

that they were a nation of women who had no men among
tlicm.

QUINQUEPARTITE Lkaf, among liohvnjs. See

LuAf.

QUINQUEPRIMI, among the Romans, tlic live prin-
cipal men in the lenate of evcrv municipal town.

QUINQUEREMIS, in the Naval ylrcbileaure of the
Ancients, a name given to a galley which had five rows of
oars. They divided their velfels in general into monocrota
and polycrota : the former had only one tier of rowers ;
the latter had feveral tiers of them, from two or three,
up to twenty, thirty, or even forty ; for fnch a vedel
we have an account of in the time of Philopater, which
required no lefs than four thoufand men to row it. See

Poi.YCItOTA.

QUINQUERTIONES, among the Romans, an appel-
lation given to thofc who had gained the vidlory in the qitin-
qucrlhim, or pentathhm.

QUINQUERTIUM was the fame with the Grecian
pentathlon, compreliending the hve exerciies of running, leap-
ing, throwing, dartuig, and wrellling. See Pentathlon.

QUINQUE VIR, frequently wrote V. VIR, a Roman
magiftratc, who had four colleagues joined with him in the
fame funttion.

There were various kinds of officers thus denominated.
Pomponius the lawyer mentions quinqueviri on this and on
that fide of the Tiber, eftablilhed for the adminlllration of
julUce in the night-time, in lieu of the ordinary magiltrates,
who were not judged proper to run up and down the llreets
in the dark.

Rofinus tells us, that they were fometimes the quinqueviri
who conducted the colonies, and divided the lands aliigned
to them among the feveral families.

Sometimes the epulones were five in number ; in which
cafe they were called quinqueviri. See Epulo.

QUINQUEVIRI MoN'ETARn, were officers firft erefted
under the cnnfulate of Valerius Poplicola, to moderate the
exceffive ufury, or interell, which creditors or bankers ufed
to exaft from the people.

QUINQUINA. See Cortex Perumanus.

QIUNSEY, fometimes written Qinnanfey, and Qiiinzy,
in Medicine, a corruption of the French word f/jw/Mncif, which
again is derived from the Greek, cynanche, xviy.yx,^, fignifying
fore -throat, or inflammation and tumour of the internal fauces.
The term is applied generally to inflammations of llie throat,
but more particularly to the acute inflammation of the tonfils.
A tonfil, enlarged from inflammation, is alio emphatically
called a quinfey. See CYVAScnK ton/tl/aris.

Ql'ixsev, among domeftic animals of the live-flock fort,
is an afFeftion about the throat and breafl, which often at-
tacks them, and which is very obilinate and troublefome.
In horfes it is ufually called anticor.

QUINSIEME, or QuiNZiE.ME, in our old Lti-w Booh.
See Fifteenth.

QUINSIGAMOND, or Long PorJ, in Geography, a
lake of Mailachufetts, between Worcefler and Shrewfbury.
This is a beautiful lake, in form of a crefcent, about five
miles long, and from 60 to 100 rods broad. It is inter-
fered with a number of iflets, one of which is upwards of
200 acres in extent.

QUINSON, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Alps ; 25 miles S.S.W. of Digne.

QUINT, a fequence of five cards of the fame colour.
See Sequence.

QUINTA, Ital. QuiNTE, Fr. (See Fifth and Dia-
PENTE. ) The chord of the ° in thorough-bafe is refolved
two ways : firft, by the bafe rifing one note, and the lowcflr

treble note defccnding ; lecondly, by the Iiighell note of
tlie cljord rifing, and the lowelt remaining Itationary, when
the difcord i:i refolved upwards. This is what Raraeau calls
/(■ double emploi cle la lijj-mance.

QfiNTA Pars, in old madrigals, a 5th vocal part, com-
pofcd of the refufe of the other fouri

Qi:iNTA F./finl'ui. See Quintkssknce.

QUINTAIN, Ql'iNTANA, in ylncient Cifloms, a poft,
or pillar, driven into the ground, with a buckler fixed to it,
for the performance of military cxercifes on horfeback, the
throwing of darts, breaking of lances, &c.

Mdtth. Paris defcribes the quintain as a kind of mark,
formed like a man from the navel upwards, holding a fhield
in his left hand, and in his right a fword or ftick ; the
whole fo fitted as to turn round on its foot, and fo as that
a cavalier running a-tilt againft it witli a lance, if he hit it in
the breafl, it wiiked round, and, unlefs he were very dex-
trous, flruck him with the fword held in the other hand.

In otlier places, at the top of a poll, was erefted uflender
beam fitted to turn round a fpindle ; at one of whofe cuds
was a flope or flat board, and at the other a bag of fand or
dirt. The fport was, with a long ftaff, or wooden lance,
to ride a-tilt at the board, and to be either fo flcilful or lucky
to efcape the blow of the fand-bag.

This fome take to be the fame with the arietum levatlo,
frequently prohibited in our old fynods and epifcopal
conftitutions.

The cullom is ftill retained in Shropfhire, and fome other
counties, among the nuptial folcmnities. He that breaks
the moft poles againfl the quintain, has the prize ; which
was anciently a peacock, but is now a garland.

Some derive the word from an ancient game called quintus ;
others from a man of the name of Quintus.

The vallus and palus, mentioned in Cxfar, are taken, by
Vigenere, for a kind of quintam, or wooden man, fixed up
as an adverfary, or man of llraw, to prove one's dexterity
againft.

Mention is made of this exercife in the Code, De Alea-
toribus, and in the Paralitles of Cujas on the fame. Juvenal
fpeaks of women engaging in it :

" Aut quis non vidit vulnera pali ? ice."

Quintain was alfo a right which the lord had to oblige
all the millers, watermen, and otlicr young jicople unmarried,
to come before his caftle every three years, and break feveral
lances or poles againil a poll, or wooden man, for his
diverfion.

QUINTAL, in Commerce, the weight of a hundred
pounds.

The quintal admits of fome difference in different places,
according as the pound confifts of more or fewer ounces,
and as the ounce is lighter or heavier.

Thus, e. gr. the Paris quintal, or hundred, in the old
fyftem, yields izjlbs. at Montpelier ; and the Montpeher
hundred only 81 lbs. 9 oz. 18 gr. French poids de marc, or
881bs. avoirtlupois nearly. The quintal of Conflantinople
is efteemed the heavieft of all thoie ufed in the Levant :
it contains 44 okes, or 100 rottoli ; the oke being 4 yuf-
droraes or chequees, or 400 drachms, and the rottolo 176
drachms. The quintal, or kintal, of cotton y.arn is 45 okes.
The quintal, or cantaro, weighs about I23flbs. avoirdupois,
and the oke zlbs. 13 oz. ; the rottolo, 19 ^oz. and the che-
quce, ll^oz. avoirdupois. The quintal is equal to ii2ilbs.
of Amlterdam ; I24lbs. of Venice ; and 1 60 of Leghorn.
The quintal of Lifbon contains 4 arrobas, the arroba 32
pounds, the pound, libra, or arrate, 2 marks, or 16 ounces ;
the ounce, 8 outavus : 13^ quintals make a ton. The
8 pound

Q U I

Q U I

pound of Lifbon weighs 9552 Dutch afes, 70S4I grains
Enirlidi troy weight ; and therefore 83lbs. of Lifbon =
841153. avoirdupois weight.

The Englifh quintal uCualiy confiRs of lizlbs. avoir-
dupois, and IS divided into tour quarters.

QU1NT.A.L was alfo formerly ufcd for a weight of lead,
iron, or other common metal, ufually equal to a hundred
pounds, at fix fcoreto the hundred.

QITINTE', Ip He, in Geography, an ide in lake Ontario,
Upper Canada, which lies cloie ofFthe fliore of Ameliafburg,
and oppofite the W. point that forms Sandy bay.

QuiNTE, in French Mufic, is the name of the inftru-
mental tenor part in full pieces, ufually written in the
mezzo foprano clef on the fecond line. All the inilrumental
tenor or alto viola parts, in Purcell's time, were written in
this clef, as may be feen in his overtures and acl-tunes.
This was an imitation of France, where all the tenor parts
in Lulli and Rameau's operas are in the mezzo foprano
clef.

QUINTELLO, Ttal. Quinque, Fr. a vocal or inilru-
mental compofuion in five parts, dialogued, and generally
a parte equak. The inilrumental quintets of Boccherini and
Mozart are fublime produttions : there is, perhaps, no
inilrumental mufic in which more genius and abilities are
manifeil, than in the quintets of thefc great mailers.

QUINTENAR, El, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
New Caflile ; 37 miles S. of Hueta.

QUINTER, QuiNTOlEU, Fr. in the firll attempts at
harmony, was counterpoint in a feries of Jths, any two of
which, in aftertimes, would ruin for ever the reputation of a
compofer.

QUINTESSENCE, quh,ta ejentia, in the old Cbemtftry,
properly denoted the fifth efTence, or the refult of five fuc-
ceffive dillillations. The term, now obfolete, was ufed to
exprefs the higheft degree of rectification to which any
fubllance can be brought. It alfo fignified a preparation
confining of the ed'ential oil of fome vegetable fubllance,
mixed and incorporated with fpii'it of wine.

Thus, on a proper quantity, e. gr. of efl'ential oil of fennel,
pouring twelve times the quantity of pure alcohol prepared
per fe, they inllantly unite into one fimilar liquor, which is the
quintefience of that plant.

The ancients were perfectly unacquainted with the method
of diflolving oil in fpirit of wine ; and even fome of the
moderns have queftioiied its reality : but the certainty of
the thing is eafily proved, from the inllance above, and from
a thoufand others.

If fuch quintelfence be feveral times digefted, cohobated,
&c. the oil will at length be broken fo fine, as, like the
fpirit itfelf, perfetlly to mix with water ; which is one of
the mod extraordinary effecls in all chemiftry.

After the like manner is made a quinteffence of camphor,
by only pouring on it fpirit of wine.

QuintefTences, thus prepared, were fuppofed to have great
medicinal virtues ; on account of the pure and potent m-
gredients ufed in their compofition ; which retain, in a
great degree, all the virtues of the plants they arc procured
from : and hence their denomination.

Boerhaave thinks, they might properly be called vege-
table fulphurs made potable, and raifed to their utmoft
degree of power and efficacy.

Dry quinteffences may be made from the liquid ones, by
adding to them fome more efiential oil of the fame vegetable
from whence the liquid quinteffence was procured, with a httle
fugar, all mixed together, and dillilled, by a very gentle
heat, till all the moiilure is come over ; the matter remain,
ing is then a dry quinteflence.

This form was deemed principally ufeful for traveller*,
failors, &c. inafmuch as it renders the quinteflence portable }
fo that the quantity, e. gr. of a piu'b point, (hall be an
efficacious medicine.

QuiNTEs.SES'CE, in /llchemy, is a myfterious term, fignify-
ing the fifth, or lall and higheft effence, or power, of a
natural body.

This is fuppofed to be, as it were, the foul drawn from
the grofs body and its four elements, by a moft perfeft
dillillation ; and, by means of which, the thing is faid to
be fpiritualized, /'. e. rendered exceedingly pure, fpirituous,
and, as it were, incorruptible.

The ancients, who allowed nothing to be real but what
has a body, would have the loul of man to be a fifth element,
a kind of quintcifence without a name, unknown here below,
indivifible, immoveable, all celcitial, and divine. Fenelon.

Quintessence of the Elements, is the hermetical mercury.

QvisTKfiHK'acF. 0/ JVine, a term ufed by Glauber to ex-
prefs an efiential oil of wine, which he direds to be made
by a careful dillillation ; and which he is very fond of, as
having a power to meliorate, improve, and even to fpecificate
the poorer wines into the nature of thofe from which it was
obtained.

This is one of the fchemes of Glauber, generally efteemed
an imprafticable one, though very plauGble in theory : but
though in general there is a difagreeable flavour in the quint-
effence drawn after his method, which is different from the
true flavour of the wine, and fpoils the liquor it is added to ;
yet, by proper care, there is a poffibihty of fucceeding fo
far as to render this extraneous flavour almofl imperceptible,
and produce an oil that will mend poor wines extremely,
and give a truly vinous flavour to fuch as are in them-
felves tallelefs. But whatever may be done by this method,
may alfo be done with much more certainty, and much lefs
trouble, by the concentration of wines by freezing. This
may be eafily praclifed in the wine countries ; and by this
means Burgundy, Champaigne, and other the moft valuable
Avines, may be reduced into thick extracts and robs, by the
means of which wines may be made in England ; a very
fmall quantity of thefe concentrated wines being fufficient
to convert the whole of any of the poor tallelefs and infipid
wines, which are of themfelves of little or no value, into the
very wine from which the rob was made ; and that in fuch
perfeftion, that the niceft judge cannot find out the dif-
ference.

Thefe robs of wine, made and preferved upon the fpot,
would alfo be of infinite ufe in the wine countries, as they
might be kept to improve the wmes of bad years. Stahl,
De Concentr. Vin. Shaw's Chem. Eff.

QUINT-EXACT, in old La-u^ Booh, the laft call of
the defendant fued to an outlawry. If he appear not to it,
he is, by the judgment of the coroners, returned outlawed,
if a feme, waived.

QUINTI, Bay of, in Geography, a bay and harbour in the
N.E. part of lake Ontario, at the mouth of the Trent ;
formed by a large peninfula, confifting of the townfhips of
Ameliafburg, Sophiafburg, and Maryfburg, extending
eafterlv from an ifthmus, where is a portage at the head, or
W. end of the bay, to Point Pleafant, the eaiternmoft extremity
of the peninfula, oppofite to Amherfl ifland. The river Trent
difcharges itfelf into the head of the bay, weftward of the
portage, and fupplics it wit.h the waters of the Rice lake.
Weflward of the portage in lake Ontario, is the harbour of
Prefque Ifle de Quinte, now called NewcalUe. The fer-
tility of the foil about the bay of Quinte is generally al-
lowed. The land is rich and eafily wrought, and produces
feveral crops without manure ; 25 bufhels of wheat being

often

QUI

Q U 1

often produced from an acre. The timber, like that of the
other parts of the province, confiils of oak, elm, hiccory,
maple, &c. The bay is narrow tliroughout, and about 50
miles lonp;, through which diftance it is navigable for the
I'mall vefTels that are ufed on the lakes. It abounds with
wild fowl, and various kinds of fidi. The river Trent
affords a falmon fifhery. In palling from the head of the
bay of Quinte into lake Ontario, you crofs a fhort portage,
in front of the townfliip of Murray, being the ifthnuis
between it and the peninfula of Prince Edward. At the
«nd of the portage, and before you enter lake Ontario, is a
fmall but very beautiful lake, having very good land on its
banks. To the northward of this portage it has been pro-
pofed to make a canal for connedling the waters of tiie bay
with thofe of the lake. A little to the weltward of tiie
portage and propofed canal, is the harbour of Newcaitle, a
Situation well fuited for commerce and protection, and
fheltered from all winds. A knoll on the peninfula affords
a healthy fcitc for the town.

QUINTILE, QuiNTiLis, in AJlronomy, an afpeft of
the planets, when they are feventy-two degrees diftant from
one another, or a fifth part of the zodiac.

QUINTILIAN, Marcus Fabius, in B'tography, a ce-
lebrated teacher of eloquence, was born about the year 42
of the Chriftian era, during the reign of the emperor Clau-
dius. He is fuppofed to have defcended from a family ori-
ginally Spanifh, but that his father, or grandfather, had
fettled in Rome. The place of his birth is not known, but
it feems certain that he was educated in that capital, where
he ftudied rhetoric under Domitius Afer, a celebrated
orator. He opened a fchool at Rome, and was the firil
who obtained a falary from the flate as a public teacher.
After he had remained twenty years in this laborious em-
ployment, and obtained the applaufe of the mofl illuflrious
Romans, not merely as a preceptor, but as a pleader at the
bar, Quintilian retired to enjoy the fruits of his labours and
jnduilry. In his retirement he alTiduouny devoted his time
to the fludy of literature, and wrote a treatife on the
" Caufes of the Corruption of Eloquence." Some time
after, he wrote his " Inflitutiones Oratorije," the moil
perfeA and complete fyftem of oratory extant. It is, in
truth, one of the mofl valuable remains of antiquity. It
was compofed for the ufe of his fon, vvhofe ei^rly death he
had occafion to deplore, and is an inititute for the education
of an orator, whom he takes up from the cradle, and con-
dudls through all the periods of inftruciion to the exercife of
his proper art. It accordingly contains many excellent pre-
cepts with refpeft to education in general, efpecially the
early parts of it, which are applicable in all times and
countries, as being founded on the nature of the mind. The
ftyle of Quintilian is faid, by critics, to exhibit tokens of
the deterioration of the Latin tongue ; but, on the other
hand, it mufl be obferved, that every deviation from the
ufage of the Augultan age has been too readily regarded as
a depravation. Quintilian was appointed preceptor to the
two young princes whom Domitian deflined for his fucceflbrs
on the throne ; but the celebrity which the rhetorician re-
ceived from the favours and attention of the emperor, and
from the fucceis which his writings met with in the world,
were embittered by the lofs of his wife, and of his two fons,
one of whom he defcribes as a prodigy of early excellence.
It is faid that Quintilian was poor in his retirement, and that
his indigence was relieved by the liberality of his pupil,
Pliny the younger. He is fuppofed to have died about the
year 95. His "Inflitutiones" were difcovered in the year
1415, in an old tower of a monaftery at St. Gall, by Poggio
Bracchiolini. The treatife on the " Caufes and Corruption
Vol. XXIX.

of Eloquence" ha« not conic down to us. The name of
Quintilian is afHxed to certain «' Declamations," of which
there are 19 of moderate length ; but ;.s the flyle, method,
and manner, are totally different from the ru'oe laid down in
the " Inllitutiones," no good judges attribute them to the
name of Quintilian. Of the editioiF, of Quintilian fome of
tiie mofl valuable are thofe of Gefucr, 410. Getting. 1738 ;
of Lug. Batavorum, 8vo. cum notls variorum, 1665; of
Gibfon, 4to. 0x011. 1693; and that c,f RoUin, re-piiblifhed
in London in 1792. There is an Englifli tranflatioa by Mr.
Guthrie.

QUINTILIANS, Quintilian/, in Ecclefuifual Hlflory,
a fe£l of ancient heretics, the fame with the Pepuzians j
thus called from their prophetcfs Quiiitilia.

In this feci, the women were admitted to perform the
facerdotal and cpifcopal fundlioiis ; grounding their pradlice
on that palfage of St. Paul to the Galatians, where he fays,
" That in Chrifl there is no diflinftion of males and females."

In their affemblics, it was ufual to fee the virgins enter
in white robes, perfonating the proplietelfes. The Quin-
tilians bore fome refemblance to the modern Quakers.

QUINTILIS, in Chronology. See July.

QUINTIN, or Quint, in Commerce. See Quentin.

QuiNTiN, in Geogrnphy, ,?L town of France, in the de-
partment of the Northern Coafls, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diflridl of St. Brieuc ; nine miles S.W. of St.
Brieuc. The place contains 3976, and the canton 12,510
inhabitants, on a territory of 1475 kiliometres, in eight
communes.

QUINTINIE, John de la, in Biography, famous for
his flcill in horticulture, was born at Poiftiers in 1626. He
received a learned education, and wa^ brought up to the pro-
fcffion of the law, in which he gained reputation as a pleader
at the bar. A pallion for agricultural knowledge led him
to fludy, with great attention, all the authors, ancient and
modern, upon that topic ; and on a vifit to Italy as tutor to
a youth, he made great additions to his knowledge from
adlual obfervation. On his return he devoted himfelf almoft
entirely to experiments on the culture of trees and plants,
and made many difcoveries which greatly improved the art
of gardening. He was the firfl perfon who laid down jufl
principle? of the art of pruning fruit-trees. He alfo re-
marked that a tranfplanted tree grew only by the new roots
which it threw out, and that the old fibres were ufelefs, and
ought to be cut off. It does not appear at what time he
began to follow gardening as a profeflion, but he had cer-
tainly acquired a high degree of reputation in it when he
was invited to England by Charles II. who offered him
a confiderable penfion to engage him in his fervice. He
twice vifited London, and a paper of his was publiflied in
the Philofophical Tranfaftions, on the culture of melons.
He was made, by Lewis XIV., diredlor-general of the
gardens in all the royal palaces. In 1690 he publifhed
" Inftrudlions pour les Jardins Fruitieis et Potagers," which
obtained a high degree of popularity, was frequently re-
printed, and was tranflated into feveral modern languages.
The lafl edition was entitled " Parfait Jardinier," in two
vols. 4to. The author died at Paris in the year 1700.

QUINTO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Arragon ;
20 miles S.E. of Saragolfa.

QUINTUS Calaber, in Biography, a Greek poet,
who wrote a fupplem.ent to Homer's Iliad, in 14 books, in
which a relation is given of the Trojan war from the death
of Hedlor to the dellruftion of Troy. He is fuppofed,
from the ilyle of his work, to have lived in the fifth cen-
tury, but nothing certain can be colledled concerning his
perfon and country. His poem was firil made known by
P p cardinal

Q U 1

cardinal BcfTarion, wlio difcovered it in St. Nicholas' church,
near Otraato in Calabria ; hence the author was named
Ouintus Calaber. It was publifhed at Venice by Aldus, but
there is no date attached to the title page.

QuiNTUs CuRTicjs. See Curtius.

yoiLTUS Femorls, in Anatomy^ a name given by Fallo-
pius and nnany others to one of the mufcles of the thigli,
now called the pfoas magnus.

QuiNTU.s Oculonim, a name given by Vefahus and fome
others to one of the mufcles of the eyes, more expreffivcly
called by others obliquus fuperior oculi, and opifex circum-
gyrationis oculi.

QUINVA, in Botany, a name by which fome authors
have called the amaranth, or cockfcomb.

QUINZANO, in Geography, a town of Italy; 18 miles
S.W. of Brefcia.

QUINZIEME, Fr. in Mufic, tlie double oclave, above
or below any found (fee Fifteenth) ; which is the name
of a ftop in our organs, equidiftant from the diapafon.

QUIOPELA, in Zoology. See Viverua Miingo.

QUIPOS, in Literary H'ljlory, a name given to knots on
cords of different colours, in Peru, which imperfeftly fup-
plied the place of writing. This u^vice was adopted, as it
has been faid, for rendering calculation more expeditious
and accurate. The various colours denoted different ob-
jefts, and each knot exprefled a diiHucl number. Thus an
account was taken, and a kind of rcgiltcr kept of the in-
habitants in each province, or of the feveral produftions col-
iefted there for pubhc ufe. But as by thefe knots, how-
ever varied or combined, no moral or abftracl idea, no
operation or quality of the mind could be reprefented, they
contributed little towards preferving the memory of ancient
events and inftitutions. The Mexican paintings and fym-
bols, rude as they were, conveyed m.ore knowledge of re-
mote tranfaftions than the Peruvians could derive from their
boafted quipos. If, indeed, the latter had been of more
extenfive ufe, and better adapted to fupply the place of
written records, they periflied fo generally, together with
other monuments of Peruvian ingenuity, in the wreck occa-
fioned by tlie Spanifli conqueft, and the civil wars fubfcquent
to it, that no acceffion of light or knowledge is derived from
them. Robertfon's Hifl. Amer., vol. iii.

QUIQUI, in Zoology, a fpecies of Mujlela ; which fee.

QUIR.AZAI, or CuRAPOA, in Ormthohgy. See Crax
AkBor.

QUIRE (if Paper, of the French cah'ier, the quantity
of twenty-four or twenty-five fheets.

QUIRICIA, a name given by fome to the ftone called
qmris by the generality of writers.

QUIRICU, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ifere ; 1 2 miles E. of Ballay.

QUIRINACIUM Opium, in the Materia Medica, a
name given by fome to the gum we know by the name of
affa foetida.

QUI RIN ALIA, in Antiquity, feafts celebrated, among
the Romans, in honour of Romulus, who was called Qui-
rinus. See Quirites.

The Quirinalia, called HAo jlultoritm feri^, were held on
the 13th of the calends of March, i. e. on our 17th of
Tebruary.

QUIRINI, Angiolo-Maria, in BicgrapJiy, 3 learned
cardinal, by defcent a Venetian, was born in the year
1680. While young he entered into the order of the
BenediiEtines of Monte Caflino. At Florence he pur-
fued a very extenfive courfe of ftudy under feveral of
she moll eminent men in fcience and literature of that age.

12

Q U I

Upon his entering a profefforfhip in his convent, he dc
livcred an orarion " D- Mollicse Hiltoriae Preitantia," which
was printed. His ftudies were interrupted fome time, by
an imagination that he was afflift'.-d with a (lone in his
bladde;- ; but the death of his phyfician, who fell 3 viftim
to a falfe impreflion refpefting his own cafe, freed him from
his fancied complaint, and in the year 1710 he fet out upon
his literary travels. He vifited Germany, Holland, Eng--
land, and France, making in the latter country an abode
of more than two years, during the greateft part of which
time he rcfided in the Benedidtine abbey of St. Germain
des Pres. In the courfe of his travels he formed an ac-
quaintance with almoil all the literary charafters in thofe
countries, and vifited every object of learned curiofity,
at the fame time every where exciting a general etteem of
his talents, his indufiry, and his conduct. Upon his re-
turn to Italy he pubhfhed a Differtation containing a Plan
for a Hiflory of Italy ; — an Eflay on the Hillory of Farfa,
in the Duchy of Spoleto ; — and an edition of the Office for
Divine Service according to the Ufage of the ancient Greek
Church. He was foon after created bifliop of Corfu, by
pope Innocent XIII., a dignity which he filled in fuch a
manner as to infpire the Greek feparatifts with veneration
for his perfon. His rcfidence in Corfu was the caufe of
his compofmg a learned work, entitled " Primordia Cor-
cyra; ex antiquiffimis Monumentis illullTata," 4to. 1725.
In the year 1727, Benedict XIII. railed Quirini to the
cardinalate, after having nominated him to the bifhopric
of Brefcia. His promotion to that fee was followed
by fome publications relative to the literature of Brefcia.
His attachment to the fee of Rome was difplayed by a
life of pope Paul II. printed in 1740, the objeft of
which was to defend the memory of that pontiff agairift
the attacks of Platina. Soon after this he was appointed
librarian to the Vatican ; in this and other polls he con-
tinued to ferve the caufe of literature. It was through his
means that a new edition of the works of St. Ephrem was
given in 6 vols. fol. in the Greek, Syriac, and Latin lan-
guages. He hkewife edited the letters of cardinal Pole,
written againfl the principles of the reformers. This pre-
late died, greatly regretted, at his epifcopal refidence, in
1755, at the age of 75. Though a vigorous champion of
the papacy, he wrote with a fpirit of candour and modera-
tion, which obtained the applaufe of the Proteftants them-
felvcs. He was afTociated to feveral literary focieties, among
which were the academies of Peterfburg, Berlin, and Vienna,
and the Inftitute of Bologna. He enjoyed a large revenue,
which he expended with munificence, on objefts of charity
and pviblic fplendour. At Rome he beautified the church of
St. Mark, whence he derived his cardinal's title, and he
contributed liberally to the fine Catholic church at Berlin.
He laid the foundation, by a valuable gift of books, of a
public library at Brefcia. His own feleft and valuable li-
brary he prefented to the Vatican. His charities were nu-
merous and extenfive, and he v.'as indefatigable in perform-
ing his paftoral duties, vifiting the alpine parts of his diocefe
in the moft inclement feafons. Befides the works already
mentioned, he pubhfhed an account of his own life, and a
narrative of his travels.

QUIRIQUING, in Geography, an ifland on the coaft:
of Chih, near the entrance into the bay of Conception.
S. lat. 36° 35'.

QUIRIS, Quirinus lapis, a name given, by the writers
of the middle ages, to a ftone famous among them for its
imaginary virtues, but of which they have left us no de-
fcription.

QUIRISTER, Chorister, or Chorlfla, a perfon ap-
pointed

Q U I

pointed to fing in the quire, or choir, of a cathedral. See
Anthem, Chantor, and Choik.

QUI RITES, in Antiquity, an appellation given to the
people of Rome, chiefly the common citizens, as diftin-
guifhed from the foldiery.

It took its rife from the Curetcs, the inhabitants of the
Sabine town Cures. On this occafiou Romulus, and Tatius
king of the Sabines, having imitcd their two people, and
their two ftates, into one ; upon RonviKis's death and deifi-
cation, the Sabines, outdoing the Romans in number, be-
came mafters of the councils ; and accordingly appointed,
that Romulus fliould be denominated Quirinus, from Cures,
a city of the Sabines ; or rather from Quirinus, the name
of a god worfliippedin that city.

From the new Quirinus, all the people came afterwards to
be called Quiritcs ; unlefs we will luppofe, that the fame
authority which denominated Romulus Quirinus, from
Cures, did alfo denominate the people Quirites, immediately
from the Curetes.

Some authors derive tiie word Quirinus from Curis ;
which, in the Sabine tongue, fignified a pike, or halbert.
Struvius adds, that Romulus was always painted with a
pike in his hand.

Julius Casfar, as Tacitus informs us, ( Annal. i. 43.) ap-
peafed a fedition by the ufe of this word Quirites, which op-
pofed to foUiers, exprefTed contempt, and reduced the offen-
ders to the lefs honouj-able condition of mere citizens. The
emperor Alexander alfo applied it to the fame purpofe. See
his biographical article.

QUIRK, in BuiUing, a piece of ground taken out of
any regular ground-plat, or floor.

Thus, if the ground-plat were Iquare, or oblong, and a
piece be taken out of a corner, to make a court, or yard,
&c. the piece is called a quirk.

QUIROGA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Galicia ;
24 miles N.E. of Orenfe.

QUIROS, Cape, lies on the E. coaft of the illand of
Efpiritu Santo, in the South Pacific ocean. S. lat. 14°
56' 8". E. long. 167° 20'.

QUIRPELE, in Zoology, the name of a fmall animal,
called by fome authors the Indian ferret, or viverra Indica,
and by others quil. See Viverra Mungo.

Garcias and fome authors give very remarkable accounts
of the enmity this creature has to ferpents of all kinds.
They tell us, that when this little creature intends an attack
upon one of thefe animals, it firlt prepares againft danger,
by gnawing a quantity of the root of the lignum colubrinum,
or Inake wood ; and when it has thoroughly impregnated
its faliva, it wets with it firft. its fore-feet, and with them
daubs over its head and its whole body ; and that thus pre-
pared, it boldly attacks the fnake, and never leaves off till
it has killed it. Garcias affures us, that many of the Por-
tuguefe have been eye-witnefles of thefe combats.

It is probable enough, that this creature may attack a
fnake when thoroughly hungry, knowing its flelh to be
good food ; but the ftory of the antidote is to be fufpefted.
See Ichneumon.

QUIRPEN, in Geography, an ifland in the North At-
lantic ocean, near the N. coaft. of Newfoundland. N. lat.
51° 40'. E. long. 52° 22'.

QUIRSWYCK, a town of Norway ; 60 miles N.N.E.
of Romfdal.

QUIS, in Natural Hi/lory, a kind of marcafite of iron
er copper, from which vitriol is drawn. It is more fre-
quently called pyrites.

QUISBRO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Ne-
ricia ; 12 miles S.W. of Orebro.

QUI

QUISCALA, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Gracula ;
which lee.

QUISIBI, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-"
vince of Oman ; 180 miles W. of Julfar.

QUISIL AuHEN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Cara-
maiiia ; 15 miles W. of Cogni.

QUISONGALA Islands, a clufter of fmall iflands in
the Indian fea, near the coaft of Africa. S. lat. 10* 40'

QUISPICHANCHI, a jurifdiftion m the diocefe of
Cufco in Peru, beginning at the fouth gates of Quito, and
ilretchiiig from E. to W. about 20 leagues. The lands of
this jurifdiaion belong, in general, to the richer inhabitants
of Cufco, and produce plenty of wheat, maize, and fruits.
Hercare alfo manufadtures of baize and coarfe woollen ftuffs.
Part of the jurifdiftion borders on the forcfts inhabited by
wild Indians, and produces great quantities of coca, or
cacoa, an herb greatly ufed by the Indians working in the
mmes, and forming one of the principal branches of its
commerce ; the town lies 12 miles S. of Cufco.

QUISQUALIS, m Botany, a name combined by Rum-
phius of quis, who, and qualis, wliat kind or manner, by
which he intended to exprefs the fingular variablenefs of the

plant, as if nothing could be found hke it Linn. Gen.

215. Schreb. 292. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 579. Mart.
Mill. Dift. V. 4. Juff. 78. Lamarck lUuftr. t. 357.
— Clafs and order, Decandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Ve-
preculcc, Linn. ThymeJuie, Juff.

Gen. Cli. Cal. Perianth inferior, tubular, thread-fhaped,
very long, deciduous, its border in five fpreading ferments.
Cor. Petals five, inferted into the mouth of the tubet feffile,
oblong, obtufe, fpreading, much larger than the fegments
of the calyx. Stam. Filaments ten, briftle-fhaped, inferted
into the tube of the calyx, five of them below the reft ; an-
thers oblong, in or above the mouth of the tube. Pifl.
Germen fuperior, ovate ; ftyle thread-fliaped, longer than
the ftamens ; ftigma obtufe, dilated. Peric. Drupa dry,
with five unequal angles. Seed. Nut elliptic-oblong, penta-
gonal.

Eff. Ch. Calyx with a thread-fhaped tube ; fiye-cleft.
Petals five. Drupa fuperior, with five angles.

I. Q. indica. Linn. Sp. PI. 556. (Quifquahs; Rumph.
Amb. V. 5. 71. t. 38. Q. pubefcens ; Burm. Ind. 104. t. 35.
f. 2, and Q. glabra ; t. 28. f. 2.) — Native of Java, and
the Molucca ifles ; naturalized by Rumphius in Am-
boyna. The Jlem is fhrubby, at firft low and ftumpy,
but fubfequently throwing out long trailing or t\rining
fhoots, which become as thick as a man's arm. To
this diverfity of habit, and the changeable hue of the
jlo'wers, the name alludes. The young branches are clothed
with fine foft down. Leaves oppofite, occafionally fcatter-
ed, on fhortifli downy ftalks, ovate, pointed, entire, two
or three inches long ; their ultimate veins finely reticulated ;
both furfaces more or lefs downy, rarely fmooth. Flowers
in axillary or terminal brafteated fpikes. Bra^eas ovate,
downy. Corolla two inches long, downy, whitifh in the
morning, turning pale red in the afternoon, rofe-coloured in
the evening, and the next morning of a blood red. Fruit
as big as one joint of the finger. Nut eatable when quite
ripe, having the flavour of a filbert. When unripe. Rum-
phius compares its tafle to that of a radifh. Thefe nuts
are a popular remedy, among the Malays, for worms in
children. Two or three of the pungent unripe ones, or
five of thofe that are arrived at maturity, are a dofe. Some
perfons are attacked with a dangerous hiccup from eating
two or three of the nuts in queftion, whilft others find ne
fuch effeft from a confiderable number. The integuments
are carefully removed. They probably partake of the
P p 2 poifonous

QUI

poifonous qualities of the Mczereoii tribe ; though in a mild
degree, as Rumphius fpcaks of the flavour of Icvcral parts
of the plant, without mention of any very hurtful proper-
ties. Even the kernels of our European Daphnes arc highly
acrimonious.

QUISQUISANA, in Geography, a town of Peru, in
the dioccfe of Cufco ; 32 miles S.S.E. of Cufco.

QUISSAC, a townof France, in the department of the
Gard, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriiS of Le
Viffan, having a mineral fpring ; 20 miles N. of Mont-
pelier. The place contains 1 3 10, and the canton 3884
inhabitants, on a territory of 160 kiliometres, in 12 con -
munes.

QUISTELEO, a town of luly, in the department of
the Mincio ; 15 miles S.S.E. of Mantua.

QUISTORP, John, in Biography, a German Lutheran
divine and profcflbr, was born at Roftock in the year 1584.
He purfued his academical iludies at his native city, at
Berlin, and at Franckfort on the Oder ; and afterwards
travelled through Holland, Brabant, and Flanders, in the
capacity of governor to the fon of a patrician of Lubec.
In 1614, his learning and abilities pointed him out as a fit
perfon to fill the divinity chair at Roftock ; but before he
entered upon the duties of his office, he was created dodlor
of divinity. He obtained other preferments in the church,
particularly the archdeaconry of St. Mary's at Roftock.
In 1645 he was appointed pallor of the fame church, and
fuperintendant of the churches in the diitrift of that city.
He had the felicity of rendering important fervices to the
celebrated Hugo Grotius, during his lall fatal illnefs at
Roftock. Upon the death of that great man, he wrote a
Latin letter to Calovius, containing an account of his fick-
nefs and laft fentiments, which is inferted in the " Bibho-
theque Choilie" of Colomies ; and in the " Vindicias Gro-
tianae," under the title of " Grotii Manes." Quiftorp died
in 1648, at the age of 64. He was the author of " An-
notationes in omnes Libros Biblicos," " Commentarius in
Epiftolas Sanfti Pauh," and feveral other works. He left
a fon of the fame name, who was born at Roftock in 1 624,
and died in 1 669. He became paftor, profefTor of divinity,
and reftor of the univerfity in that city.

QUISTRUM, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Weft Gothland ; 9 miles N.W. of Uddevalla.

QUITANGONE, a river of Africa, which runs into
the Indian fea, 15 miles N. of Mozambique, S. lat. 14° 40'.

QUITAPABILLA, a river of America, being a
. branch of the Swetara, which falls into the Sufquehannah
at Middleton.

QUITAPORA, a town of the ftate of Georgia. N.
lat. 33° 27'. W. long. 89° 58'.

QUITCH, in j4griciilture, a name frequently applied, in
many diftrifts, to a very troublefome fet of plants of the
weed kind ; for though it properly belongs to the couch-
grafs plant only, it is much ufed to fignify others of the
creeping perennial rooted fort, as the bent, creeping, foft,
and tall oat-grafs, as well as fome others, which are only
capable of being deftroyed by repeated fummer ploughings,
or forking them out and burning them on the ground. See
Couch.

QviTcn-Grafs, tiie common name given in fome places
to a very troublefome fort of weed, found in many diltrifts,
and which requires great exertion to eradicate it out of tlw
land. See Couch.

Qvncn-Drag, that fort of tifeful tool of the drag-kind,
which is employed in the dragging out and removing this
fort of weed from ploughed lands. It is made in feveral
differen,t iriethods, according to circumftances ; but has

Q U I

moftly fomething of the long triangular form in the beam
part, into which the teeth or tines are fixed. Thefe are
feldom made fo large in tiiis as in the heavy forts of drags ;
but they are moftly a little hooked, or bent forward, to-
wards the points or lower ends. Tlie frame-{)art is fome-
times fet with two rows of tines, or more.

It is a fort of tool which is frequently made ufe of for
rendering arable ground perfeflly clear of root weeds, being
had recourfe to before the laft ploughings. Where the'
land has been crofs-ploughed, this kmd of drag may be
employed with great advantage in brmging it into proper
order. It has fome other names in different countiea. See
CovtM-Drag, and Drag.

QuiTcii-Z^a/f, a name given in many diftriftsto the rake
employed in colle£ting the weed called couch, from the fur-
face of ploughed ground, as well as fome other forts in-par-
ticular cafes. The head of this tool, into which the teeth
or tines are fattened, is ufually about five feet in length ;
the tines are made in a round form, having a projeftion
of about eighteen inches below the head, each being gra-
dually turned or crooked forward about two inches ; the
diftance from each other alfo about two inches. There is
commonly a fmall beam made to faften in the middle with
two pieces of wood, which come from euch corner of the
rake-head, into which the tines are fattened by means of a
pin that goes through the beam, and keeps the rake fleady.
In working, tliis implement may be put on the carriage-part
of a two-wheeled plough, to be drawn by one horfe ; a man
going behind to occafionally lift up the rake when full, in
order to leave the couch and other weeds in rows, for the
purpofe of burning them. In this manner, a great deal of
weeds and trumpery may be coUefted together in the courfe'
of a day. See CoiCH-^ra/} Rake.

QUIT-CLAIM, a rele.afe, or quitting one's claim or
pretenfions to a thing.

QUITE RVA, in Geography. See Sofala:

QUITEVA, or KiTEA, a town of Africa, in the
country of Darah, defended by a caftle ; 75 miles S.E. of
Morocco. N. lat. 28'' 6'. W. long. 5^ 26'.

QUITO, an extenfive province of South America,
which was fubjefted to the Peruvian empire, by Huana
Capac, about the year 1526, at the time when the Spaniards
firlt viflted the coaft of Peru. Huana prevailed on his legiti-
mate and eldeft fon Huafcar to allow one of his natural chil-
dren, Atahualpa,by the daughter of the laft king of Quito, to
hold this kingdom as a fief of the empire. Atahualpa, how-
ever, rebelled, feized the empire, imprifoned his brother, and
foon after put him to a violent death. His profperity was
of fhort duration ; for in the year 1533 he fuffered the fame
fate, by order of Don Francifco Pizarro, who had deputed
Sebaftian de Benalcazar to conquer the kingdom of Quito.
Having by a feries of viftories made himfelf mafter of the
kingdom, he proceeded in the year 1534 to rfebuild the
capital, which had fuifered much from internal commotions,
and called it " San Francifco de Quito," a name which it
ftill retains, though it was not till feven years after this date
that it obtained the title of city. The province, which the
Spaniards found annexed to the kingdoi\i of Peru, con-
tinued in that ftate all the year 17 18, when it was difmem-
bered from Peru, and attached to tije viceroyalty of New
Granada. At the fanie tinx- the audience of Quito was
fuppreffed, together with that of Panama, in the kingdom
of Terra Firma : though the latter continued dependent on
the viceroys of Lima. See Ne'iu Granada and Peru.

This province is bounded on the north by tliat of Santa
Fe de Bogota, and includes part of the government of Po-
payan ; on the fouth it is limited by the governments of

Peru

QUITO.

Peru and Chacliapoyas ; towards the caft it extends over
the whole government of Maynas, and the river of the
Amazons, to the meridian of demarcatioit, or that which
divides the domii'ions of Spain and Portugal. Its boundary
on the well is the fea, from the coalt of Machala, in the gulf
of Puna, to the coall of the government of Atacames, and
the jurifdidtion of Barbacoss, in the bay of Gorgona. Its
greatell breadth from nortli to fouth is about 200 leagues ;
and its length from eaft to welt, the whole extent from Cape
de Santa Elena, in the South fea, to the above-mentioned
meridian, which, by tlie moll accurate computation, is 600
leagues. All the parts, however, that can properly be faid
to be peopled, and actually lubjedl to the Spaailh govern-
ment, are thofe intercepted by the two Cordilleras of the
Andes, which, compared with the whole extent of the
country, may be termed a Itreet or lane, extending from the
jurifdiftion of the town of St. Miguel de Ibarra to that of
Loja ; the country frdm hence to the government of Po-
payan, and alfo that comprehended between the weitern
Cordillera and the fea. With this limitation, the extent
of the jurifdiftion from eaft to well will be 15 leagues, or
fomewhat more, bemg the diftance intercepted between the
two Cordilleras. But to this mull be added the countries
comprehended in the governments of Jaen de Bracamaros,
which borders on the jurifdicSlion of Loja, and the extremity
of the whole province, and fituated on the eall fide of the
eallern Cordillera ; and to the northward, the government
of Quixos, and that of Maynas to the eallward of it, but
feparated by large trafts of land inhabited by wild Indians ;
and on the north fide of the province from that of Popayan ;
though the latter is properly a diftinft province from that
of Quito. Tlius on the weft fide of that interval between
the two Cordilleras lies the government of Atacames, and
the jurifdiftion of Guayaquil ; on the eaft fide, the three
governments above mentioned ; and on the north, that of
Popayan.

This province, exclufive of thefe five governments, con-
fifts of nine jurifdiftions, called in that country provinces,
that of Quito being fubdivided into as many others as there
are governments and jurifdiftions. Thofe in the province
of Quito, beginning with the moft northern, arc the fol-
lowing, Wz. the town of San Miguel de Ibarra, the vil-
lage of Otabalo, the city of Quito, the affiento of Lata-
cunga, the town of Riobamba, the afliento of Chimbo, or
Gaaranda, the city of Guayaquil, the city of Cuenga, and
the city of Loja.

The jurifdiftion of Quito, the third of thofe above enu-
merated, confifts of 25 pariihes, befides thofe in the city,
and extends more than five leagues, comprehending lands
covered with plantations, producing a variety of plants and
fruits, according to the quality, iituation, and expofure of
the ground. Thofe in the tempei-ate parts yield plentiful
harvefts of maize ; and thofe at the bottoms of deep cavities,
being in a hot temperature, are planted with fugar-canes,
from which are extrafted great quantities of fugar and rum.
The plantations near the fummits of the mountains, having
a variety of temperatures, produce wheat, barley, pot-
herbs of all kinds, and potatoes. Above thefe plantations
are fed numerous flocks of fhecp, producing that wool
which affords employment to a great multitude of people.
Some farmers breed cows, with the view to the advantage
derived from their milk in making cheefe and butter. In
other farm-houfes, various occupations are obferved, fuch
as breeding of cattle, agriculture, and manufactures, par-
ticularly of cloth, bays, and ferges. The degree ' of cold
and heat in this jurifdiftion is fubjeft to fudden variations,
according to the fituation of different places ; but in the

fame place viciffitudes feldom occur. The villages in this
jurifdidion are conftrudted with little regularity. They
confilt principally of a church and parfonagc, called the
Co:-,vent, the priells being formerly all religious ; the other
parts prefent a number of huts with mud-walls, fcat-
tered all over the country, where every one has his appro-
priate piece of ground, which he tills for his fubfiftence.
A great part, and in fome villages the whole, of the in-
habitants are Indians, who live there when out of place ;
though in fome parts the inhabitants are Mellizos, and here
and there a Spanifti family ; but thefe are extremely poor.
Ulloa's Voyage, vol. i.

Quito, the capital of the above dcfcribed province, re-
built in the year 1534, (fee the preceding article,) and
fituated in the inland parts of the continent of South Ame-
rica, on the eaftern iliirts of the Weft Cordillera of the
Andes ; diftant from the coall of the South fea about
thirty-five leagues to the well. On the N.W. is the moun-
tain and defert of Pichhica (which fee), on the acclivity
of which the city is built, and alfo among the breaches
that are formed by the eminences of this mountain ; fo that
many of the buildings Itand upon arches, and the ftreets
are of courfe very irregular and uneven. With regard to
magnitude, this city may be compared to one of the fecond
order in Europe ; but the unevennefs of its fituation is a
great difadvantage to its appearance. Near the city are
two fpacious plains, one on the S., called Turu-bamba, three
leagues in length ; and the other on the N., termed Inna-
Quito, about two leagues in extent ; both of which are in-
terfperfed with feats and cultivated lands, which much con-
tribute to the variety and beauty of the fcenery. Thefe
plains contradl as they approach the city, and at their
junftion form a neck of land, covered with thofe eminences
on which part of Quito ftands. The principal fquare in
Quito has four fides, in one of which Hands the cathedral,
and in the oppofite the epifcopal palace ; the third fide is
taken up by the town-houfe, and the fourth by the palace
of the audience : this fquare is very fpacious, and has in its
centre an elegant fountain. The four ftreets terminating
at the angles of the fquare are ftraight, broad, and hand-
fome ; but at the diftance of three or four quadras, (each
quadra being about one hundred yards,) the troublefome ■
declivities commence ; and on this account the inhabitants
cannot enjoy the benefit df coaches, or wheel carriages.
The principal ftreets are paved ; and thofe which are not
paved are almolt impaflable after rain, which is here very
common. Befides the principal fquare, there are two others,
that are very fpacious, and feveralthat are fmaller. In thefe
moft of the convents are fituated, and thefe make a handfome
appearance, and fome of them, particularly that of the order
of Francifcans, are elegant Itrudlures. The principal houfes
are large, and fome of them have Ipacious and well-con-
trived apartments, though none are above one ftory in
height, but their doors and windows are low and narrow.
The materials made ufe of in building at Quito are " adobes,"
or unburnt bricks and clay, cemented by a fubftance called
" fangagua," a ipecies of mortar that is uncommonly hard,
ufed by the ancient Indians for building all kinds of houfes
and walls. The city is divided into feven parifties ; the ca-
thedral is richly adorned with tapeftry hangings and other
coftly decorations ; but the parilh churches are of mean ap-
pearance. The convents of monks are thofe of the Auguf-
tines, Dominicans, and Fathers of Mercy, &c. colleges, &c.
Quito has alfo feveral nunneries. The college of Jefuits, as
well as all the convents of monks, are large, well built, and
very fplendid. Here is alfo an hofpital, with feparate wards
for men and women, under the name of the order of our Lady

of

'QUITO.

of Bethleliem. Among the courts whole feflions are held
at Quito, the principal is that of the Royal Audience,
eftablifhed there in 1563; the exchequer or chamber of
finances, a treafury for the effedts of perfons deceafed, &c.
The corporation confilh of a corregidor, two ordinary al-
caldes chofen annually, and regidores. The cathedral
chapter confifts of the bilhop, dean, archdeacon, chanter,
treafurer, a doftoral, a penitentiary, a magiilral, three
canons by prefentation, four prebends, and two demi-pre-
bends, with the following falaries; that of the bilhop 24,000
dollars, the dean 2500, the four fucceeding dignities 2000
each, the canons 1500 each, the prebends 600, and the
demi-prebends 420. This church was created into a cathe-
dral in 1545, and among other feftivals celebrated in it, the
moft magnificent are thofe of Corpus Chriili, and the Con-
ception of our Lady, wlien all the courts, offices, and
perfons of ehiinence aflitt. In the former there is a fmgular
pomp of the rrocelTion of the holt, and here are alfo dances
of a peculiar nature* which were performed before their
converfion to Chriftianity. The corporation and cathedral
chapter keep, by vow, two annual feitivals in honour of
two images of the Virgin, which are placed in the viUages
of Guapulo and Quincha, belonging to this jurifdiftion.
Thefe images or ftatues are brought with great folemnity to
Quito, and each feftival is fucceeded by nine days' devotion,
the audience and other courts afliftingon the occafion. Thefe
feftivals are held in commemoration of the affiftance vouch-
fafed by the holy Virgin, at the time of an earthquake and
terrible ejeftion from Pichincha, by which Latacunga,
Hambato, and a great part of Rjiobamba, were utterly dc-
ftroyed ; whereas by the fuppofed interpofition of the
Virgin, the city efcaped even the flighteft damage.

The celebrated city of Quito is faid by Alcedo to contain
58,000 perfons, fome of whom are diitinguifhed by their
rank. Thefe are the defcendants either of the original
conquerors, or of other perfons who in fucceeding times
came over from Spain invefted with fome lucrative office,
and who have preferved the luftre, both of their defcent
and wealth, by intermarriages, without mixing with meaner
families though famous for their riches. The lower orders
of people confift of four clafles, Spaniards or whites, Mef-
tizos, Indians or natives, and Negroes, with their progeny.
The former, according to the ftatement of UUoa, compofe
about a fixth part of the population ; the Meftizos, or de-
fcendants of Spaniards and Indians, amount to about a
third part ; the Indians form about another third ; and the
others, who are about one-fixth, are the Calls. The Spaniards
are prevented by their pride from applying to any kind of
bufinefs, and therefore many of them are poor and wretched.
The Meftizos occupy themfelves in arts and trades, but
principally in thofe of the higheft repute, fuch as painting
and fculpture, in which they excel. Thefe men of talents,
however, are indolent and (lothful, fo that they loiter about
the ftreets during the whole day. The Indians, who are
generally fhoemakers, bricklayers, weavers, or engaged in
■fimilar occupation, are not more induftrious. Perfons of
fortune among the Spaniards affe£l great magniticence in
their drefs, wearing the fineft gold and filver tifllies ; but
that of the middling and lower clafs is a black cloak, and
ynder it a long coat, reaching down to their knees, with a
clofe fleeve, open at the fides, without folds, and orna-
mented with rows of buttons. The Meftizos generally
wear blue cloth, manufaftured in this country. The dreis
of the Indians confifts only of white cotton drawers, made
either from the ftufFs of the country, or from others brought
from Europe, reaching down to the calf of the leg, and
edged with lace fuitable to the Huff. The ufe of a fliirt is

fupplied by a black cotton frock, wove by the natives ; and
over this is a kind of ferge cloak, through which tlie head
paftes, and a hat made by the natives. The men, both
Cr jples and Spaniards, are well made, of a proper ilature,
and of a lively agreeable countenance. The Meftizos in
general are alio well made, often taller than the ordinary
(ize, very robuft, and have an agreeable air. The Indians,
both men and women, are generally low, but well propor-
tioned and very ftrong. The Indians have no beard, nor
have either males or females any indications of the age of
puberty. The youths wf family are inftrufted in philolephy
and divinity, and fome, with reludtance, proceed to the
ftudy of the civil law. The country is obferved to abound
more in women than men ; and it is obferved, that nature
begins to decay at the age of thirty in the male fex, efpe-
cially among thofe who have been tenderly brought up ;
whereas the females enjoy a more confirmed ftate of health
and vigour. This difference is afcribed partly to the climate
and partly to the food, but principally to early intemperance
and voluptuoufnefs, and alfo the want of proper employ-
ments. The liquors that are ufed here are rum and brandy,
in which they freely indulge, and alfo the infufion of the
Paraguay herb, wliich ferves for tea. The vices prevalent
here are idlenefs, drunkennefs, and gaming. The common
people and Indians are much addifted to theft, in which
they are very artful and dextrous. In Quito, and in all the
towns and villages of its province different dialefts are
fpoken, Spanilh being no lefs common than the Inga.

Quito is fo happily iituated, that neither the heat nor cold
is troublefome ; though the extremes of both may be felt
in its neighbourhood. An equahty of temperature takes
place throughout the whole year, the difference between the
feafons being fcarcely perceptible. The winds are falu-
brious, and blow continually, but never with any violence.
The rain occafionally defcends in impetuous torrents.
Earthquakes are not uncommon, and when they occur very
violent; that of 1775 was very deftruftive. The great
earthquake on the 4th of February 1797, which chaaged
the face of the whole province, and in one inftant deftroyed
thirty-five or forty thoufand perfons, has fo altered the
temperature of the air, that the thermometer is now com-
monly 41° to 54°, and feldom rifes to 68° or 70° ; whereas
Bouguer obferved it conftantly at 66° or 68°. Since this
catailrophe earthquakes are continually recurring ; and fuch
fhocks, it is probable, that all the higher ground is one vafl
volcano. Von Humboldt adds, that what are called the
mountains of Cotopaxi and Pichincha-are but little fummits,
the craters of which form different conduits terminating in
the fame cavity. The eai"thquake of 1797 afforded a me-
lancholy proof of this ; for the ground then opened every
where, and vomited forth fulphur, water, &c. Notwith-
ftanding the dangers and horrors that furround them, the
people of Quito are gay, lively, and variable, and very much
addicted to pleafure, luxury, and amufement. Humboldt
informs us, that the volcanos of Quito ejeft pumice, bafalt,
and porphyry Icorified ; with enormous quantities of water
and liquid clay, which diffufe fertility eight or ten leagues
round. The fertility of this country is fuch, that, as we
are informed, a full defcription of it would appear incredible.
The equability of the chmate, aswellasthe fertility of the foil,
occafion a regular fucceflion of the produflions of the earth :
when the fruits have obtained their maturity, and the leaves
begin to change their colour, frefh leaves, bloffoms, and fruits,
are feen in their proper gradations on the fame tree. The
fame inceffant fertihty is confpicuous in the corn, reaping
and fowing being both carried on at the fame time. This
remarkable fecundity of the foil is natvirally produftive of

excellent

Q U I

excellent fruits and corn of every kind, as is evident from
the delicacy of the beef, veal, mutton, pork, and poultry
of Quito. One of the principal foods ufed by the inha-
bitants is cheefe, of wliicii it is computed that the quantity
annually coiifumed amounts to between icventy and cicfhty
thoufand dollars of the money of that country. The vici-
nity alfo aflords excellent butter. The manufaftures of this
province are cottons, fome white, called tucuyos, and others
ftriped bays and clotiis, which meet with u good market at
Lima, for hipplying all the inward provinces of Peru ; and
the returns are made partly in filver, and partly in gold and
filver fringes made in tiiat city, wine, brandy, oil, copper,
tin, lead, and quieklilver. The produfts ot the earth are
chiefly confnmcd within the province ; except the wheat,
part of which is fent to Guayaquil. But this trade is
carried on by Mcllizos and poor people. Goods, manu-
fadlured by the public, or woven by private Indians, are fent,
together with fome kinds of proviiions, to the jurifdiftion of
Barbacoas. Thefe provifions are exchanged for gold, found
in that country, and which is afterwards fent to Lima, and
difpofed of at a greater price. Their ftuffs find a vent in
the governments of Popayan and Santa Fe. The coaft of
New Spain fupphes this province with indigo, of which a
great quantity is coiifumed ; blue being univerfally the co-
Sour which thefe people affedt in their apparel. They alfo
import, by way of'Guayaquil, iron and Heel, both from
Europe and the coaft of Guatemala. S. lat. o° 13' 27".
W. long. 78° 10' 15". Ulloa's Voyage, vol. i.

QUIT-RENT, q. d. qu'ut rent, a certain fmall rent,
payable yearly, by the tenants of moft manors, in token of
fubjeftion ; upon the payment of which, they ai'e quiet, and
free. It includes both rents of aflife and chief rents.

Thefe rents differ very greatly in different manors, being
in fome a mere trifle, while in others they are very heavy
and oppreflive to the tenants. This part of the feudal
fyftem is now confiderably on the decline.

In fome ancient records it is written white rent, becaufe
paid in filver, to diftinguifli it from rent-corn, rent-pepper,
&c.

QUITTA, in Geography, a town of Africa, -on the
Slave coaft. N. lat. 6°. E. long. 0° 8'.

QUITTANCE. See Acquittance.

QUITTER, or QuiTTOR, in horfes, is an ulcer formed
between the hair and hoot, ufually on the infide quarter
•of a horfe's foot ; it often ainies from treads and bruifes,
fometimes from gravel, which by working its way up-
wards, lodges about the coronet ; if it is only fuperficial,
it may be cured with cleanfing dreffings, bathing the coronet
every day with fpirits of wine, and drefiing the fore with
lime-water, or a detergent apphcation, fuch as red precipi-
tate. But where tlie matter forms itfelf a lodgment under
the hoof, there is then no way to come at the ulcer but by
taking off part of the hoof; and if this be done well, the
cure may be effefted without danger.

When the matter happens to be lodged near the quarter,
the farrier is fometimes obliged to take off the quarter of the
hoof, and the cure is then for the moft part but paUiative ;
for when the quarter grows up, it leaves a pretty large feam,
which weakens the foot ; this is what is called a f alfe quarter,
and a horfe with tliis defeat feldom gets quite found.

If the matter, by its confinement, has injured or deftroyed
thecofTin-bone, which is of fo foft and fpongy a nature that
it faon becomes carious, it will be neccffary to enlarge the
opening, cut away the fpongy flefli, and apply the aftual
cautery, or hot iron, pointed pyramidically, dreffing the
bone with dolfds of lint dipped in tindlure of myrrh, and
the wound with the green or precipitate ointment. When
*hc fore is not enlarged by the knife, which is the beft and

Q U I

lead painful method, fublirnate is generally applied ; or blue
vitriol powdered, and embued with a few drops of oil, is
alfo ufed for this purjiofe, and is faid to aft as effeftually,
and with Icfs pain to the animal.

In the time of the aftion of thefe cauftic remedies, the
foot fliould be kept in a poultice. And where finufes form
they fliould be laid open by a knife, and be afterv/ards fti-
mulated by the application of fome detergent ri;medy. The
following has been advifed by a late writer: Take of corro-
five fublirnate, red precipitate in fine powder, of each equal
parts ; honey fuflicient to form a pafie.

The wound is advifed to be afterwards drefTed with com-
mon digeftivc ointment, preliure being given by means of a
bandage. It is fometimes written qmttor.

QuiTTKR-iSonc, another term applied to the fame difeafe
by fan-iers and perfons engaged in hufbandry.

QUITY, m Botany, a Brafilian name ufed by fome au,
thors for the fapindus, or foap-berry tree of the Weft
Indies.

QUIVER, feemingly corrupted from the Fr. couvrir,
to cover, a cafe or fheath for arrows.

QUIVISA, in Geography, a town of Hindoottan, in
Baliar ; 25 miles S.W. of Bettyah.

QUIVISIA, in Botany, from the vulgar name of this
tree or fhrub in the ifles of Bourbon and the Mauritius,
hois ik qii'ivi. Jufl". Gen. 264. Cavan. Dilf. 367. (SeeGlt--
LIBERTIA.) One cannot but wonder how a writer of Juf-
fieu's learning could, for a moment, tolerate fo faulty a,
name ; efpecially as his authority leads heedlefs perfons into
the adoption of fuch, for want of reading his preface ;
where, in a note to p. 24, he decb.res thefe rude and bar-
barous names to be merely borrowed for a time, till the ge-
nera to which they belong are better determined.
I QUIXOS, in Geography, a jurifdiftion of South Ame-
rica, attached to the province of Quito, on the eaft fide of
the Cordillera of the Andes. Quixoson the north fide bor-
ders on the jurifdiftion of Popayan ; reaching eaft ward to
the river Aguarico, and towards the weft feparated from the
jurifdiftions of Quito, Latacunga, and the town of San Mi-
guel de Ibarra, by the Cordilleras of Cotopaxi and Cayam-
buro. This country was firft difcovered.in 1536, by Gonzalo
de Pineda, one of the officers fent from Popayan by Sebaftian
de Belalcazar (or Benalcazarl, to trace the courfe of the river
Magdalena ; and in coniequence of his report, Gonzalo Pi-
zarro, in 1539, reconnoitred its whole extent, and cfta-
blifhed fettlements in it. But upon the failure of his expe-
dition, the conqueft of this country was fufpended till the
year 1549, when the marquis de Cauete, viceroy of Peru,
gave a commiflion to Gil Remirez Davalos, a man of un-
daunted courage, for reducing the Indians, and making fet-
tlements in the country. This objeft he accompliflied, and
founded the town of Baeza, the capital of the government,
in the year 1559 ; and this was foon followed by other
towns and villages, the principal of which are Archidona
and Avila. The temperature of this country is hot and
moift, the rains being aim-oft continual. It is covered with
thick woods, fome trees being of a prodigious magnitude.
In the S.W. part of thejurifdiction of Quixos is thecanela or
cinnamon tree, which led Gonzalo de Pineda to call the country
Canelos, a name which it ftill retains. The other produfts
of Quixos are the fame with thofe in all the other lands under
the fame climate as this government. Adjoining to this is the
diftrift of Macas and Maynas. See Macas and Maykas.

QUIZA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa, in
Mauritania Cvefarienfis. This was a fortrefs, according to
Pomponius Mela and Pliny. Antonine makes it a muni-
cipium, and places it between Portus Magnus and Arfe-
navLi.

QUIZAMA,

Q U O

QUIZAMA, in Gco^ra/)/.;5', a province of Africa, m the
fouthcrn part of Angola ; the country is extenfive, moun-
tainous, and badly cultivated ; but it produces abundance
of honey, wax, and fait. The inhabitants are warlike, and
have not fubmitted to the Portugueie.,

QUIZ IB A, a fmall ifland in the Indian fea, near the
coail of Africa. S. lat. 12° 30'.

QUIZIMAJUGO, a river of Africa, which difcharges
itfelf into the Indian fea, S. lat. 8° 50'.

QUIZINA, or Teusin, a chain of mountains in Fez,
90 miles in extent.

QUIZUMGO, a river of Africa, which runs into the
ftraits of Mozambique, S. lat. 17° 20'.

QUO Jure, in Law, a writ that lies for him who has
land, wherein another challengeth common of pafture time
out of mind : its defign is to compel the party to (hew by
what right or title he challengeth it. This is now out of
ufe, as, on the claimant's putting his cattle in, the owner
may bring trefpafs, when the claimant muft plead and prove
his title.

Quo Minus is alfo a writ which lies for the king's
farmer or debtor in the court of exchequer, againll him to
whom he felkth any thing by way of bargain, touching his
farm, or againft whom he hath any caufe of perfonal action ;
becaufe by the vendee' s detaining any due from him, the
farmer is lefs able to pay the king's rent. This was for-
merly allowed only to fuch perfons as were tenants or debtors
to tlie king : at this day the praftice is become general for
the plaintiff to furmife, that, for the wrong which the de-
fendant doth him, he is lefs able to fatisfy his debt to
his majefty ; which furmife gives jurifdi£tion to the
court of exchequer to hear and determine the caufe.
Finch. 66. Old N.B. 148.

Quo minus is alfo a writ that lies for him who has a grant
of houfe-bote and hay -bote in another man's woods, againft
the grantor making fuch wafte, as that the grantee cannot
enjoy his grant.

Quo Warranto, a writ that lies againft any perfon or
torpor ation (which fee) who ufurps any franchile, or liberty,
againft the king ; as to have waife, ftray, fair, market,
court baron, leet, or fuch like, without good title ; to in-
quire by what authority he fupports his claim, in order to
determine the right. Finch. L. 322. 2 Inft. 282.

It alfo lies for mif-ufer or non-ufer of privileges granted ;
and even, according to BraClon, againft him that intrudeth
himfelf as heir into land. See Intrusion.

This writ was originally returnable before the king's juf-
tices at Weftminfter ; but afterwards only before the juf-
tices in eyre, by virtue of the ftatutes of " quo waiTanto,"
6 Edw. I. c. 1. and 18 Edw. I. ft. 2. (2 Inft. 498. Raft.
Entr. 540.) ; butfince thofejuiHces have given place to the
king's temporary commiffioners of aflife, the judges on the
feveral circuits, this branch of the ftatutes hath Toft its ef-
fe6t : and writs of "quo warranto" (if brought at all)
muft now be profecuted and determined before the king's
-juftices at Weftminfter. And in cafe of judgment for the
defendant, he ftial! have an allowance of his franchife ; but
in cafe of judgment for the king, for that the party is enti-
tled to no fuch franchife, or hath difufed or abufed it, the
franchife is either feifed into the king's hands, to be granted
out again to whomever he ftiall pleale ; or, if it be not fuch
a franchife as may iubfift in the hands of the crown, there is
merely judgment of " oufter," to turn out the party who
ufurpedit. Cro. Jac. 259. I Show. 280.

Thejudgment on a writ of quo warranto (being in the na-
ture of a writ of right) is final and conclufive even againft the
crown. (iSidd. 86. 2 Show. 47. 12 Mod. 225.) This

QUO

circumilance, together with the length of its procefs, pro-
bably occafioned that difufe into which it is now fallen, and
introduced a more modern method of profecution, by infor-
mation liled in the court of king's bench by the attorney
general, in the nature of a writ of " quo warranto ," in
which the procefs is fpeedier, and thejudgment not quite fo
decifive. This is properly a criminal method of profecution,
ao well to punifti the ufurper by a fine for the ufurpation of
the franchife, as to ouft him, or feife it for the crown ; but
hath long been applied to the mere purpofes of trying the
aftual right, feizing the franchife, or oufting the wrongful
podenbr ; the fine being nominal only. Blackft. Com.
b. iii. See Intokmation.

QUOAD HOC, a term often ufed in law reports to fig-
nify, " as to the thing named" the law is fo, &c.

QUOCOLOS, the name of a ftone found in Tufcany, as
hard as a flint, lomewhat tranfparent, and, in fome meafure,
refembhng marble. In the fire it loles its tranfparency, and
becomes lefs ponderous, and white ; and a ftrong fire readily
converts it into glafs. It has no medicinal virtues, but 18
ufed at Ibme glais-houfes.

QUOD, Cape, or Quada, a cape on the coaft of Pata-
gonia, in the ftraits of Magellan. S. lat. 53^ 33'. W.
long. 74° 6'.

Quod clenci beneficiati de cancel/aria, in Law, a writ
to exempt a clerk of the chancery from the contribution
towards tlie proftors of the clergy in parliament. Rep. Orig.
261.

Quod clenci non eligantur in officio ballivi, &c. is a writ
that lies for a clerk, who, by reafon of forae land he hath,
is made, or like to be made, a bailiff, beadle, reeve, or fuch
like officer.

Quod cum, that whereas, being by way of recital, and
not pofitively, is not good in indictments. 3 Salk. 188.
See Indictment.

Quod ei deforccat, a writ for tenant in tail, tenant in dower,
by the courtefy, or for term of life, having loft their land^
by default, againft him that recovers, or his heir. Reg.
Orig. 171. Stat. Weftm. 2. cap. 4.

This, though not ftriftly a writ of right, fo far partakes
of the nature of one, as that it will reitore the right to him
who has been thus unwarily deforced bv his own default.
(F.N.B. 155.) But in cafe the recovery were not had by
his own default, but upon defence in the inferior pofleffbry
aftion, this ftiU remains final with fegard to thefe particular
eftates, as at the common law : and lience it is, that a com.mon
recovery (on a writ of entry in the pojl) had, not by default
of the tenant himfelf, but (after his defence made, and
voucher of a third perfon to warranty) by default of fucli
voucher, is now the ufual bar to cut off^ an eftate-tail.

This writ may be brought againft a ftranger to the reco-
very ; as if a man recover by default, and maketh a feofi-
ment, this writ may be had againft the feoffee^.
Quod medium. See Medium.

Quod pennittat, in Law, a writ that lies where a man is
difleifed of his common of pafture, and the diffeifor aliens
or dies feifed, and his heir enters ; then if the diileifee die,
his heir (hall have this writ. See Disturbance of
Common.

QvoT) permittat projlernere. See AJJifs of NusANCE.
Q^VOX} perj'ona nee prabendarii, &c. a writ that lies for fpi-
ritual perfons, when diftrained in their fpiritual poflefGons,
for the payment of a fifteenth, with the reft of the parilh.
F.N.B. 176.

QUODLIBETICAL Question, Quaflio quodlibetica,
a coUege term for a thefis, or problem, anciently propofed
to be debated in the fchools, out of curiofity and entertain-
ment, rather than for the fettling of any ufeful point.

6 The

QUO

Tlie term is formed from the Latin quodlibel, any thing,
what you pkafe : and fo well fatisfied were the public of the
impertinences of thefe quellions, that the term quodlibel lias
been fince retained, to fignify any little ridiculous quibble.

QUOJA, in Geography, a country of Africa, fituated
above 100 miles from the coaft of the Atlantic, between the
•Stli and loth degrees of W. longitude, and between the
7tli and 9th degrees of N. latitude.

QUO IF, in Ship-Building, a piece of oak thickftuff on
the deck-hook, to which the deck water-way on each fide
is butted, otherwife the butt would come in the middle, and
could not be caulked.

QUOIL, QuovL, or Coile, in the Sea Language. A
cable is faid to, be quoiled, when it is laid round in a ring, one
turn over another, on the deck of a fhip.

The middle of fuch ring, or quoil, is a good place to lay
(hot in : they are more fafe there, than in lockers along the
fide, where the enemy's fnot may fall into them.

Quoil, Weather. See Wkatiikr Quo/'/.

QUOIN, or Coin, formed from the French ro/n, of the
Latin cuneus, wedge, aboard a fhip, is a wedge faftened on
the deck, clofe to the breech of the carriage of a gun, to
keep it firm up to the fhip's fide, and prevent its rolling ;
and alfo to raife or deprefs it.

Quoins, Canlic, are fhort three-legged quoins, put be-
tween cades to keep them fteady. See Coin.

Quoins, in /Irehileilure, denote the corners of brick or
Hone walls.

The word is particularly ufed for the ftones in the corners
of brick buildings. When thefe ftand out beyond the
brick-work (their edges being chamferred off) they are
called rujlie quoins.

Ql'OIN, in Geography, a finall ifland in the Indian fca,
near the W. coaft of Madagafcar. S. lat. 14°. E. long.
48^ 14'.' — AHo, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, N. of the
Nicobar iflands. N. lat. 9° 56'. E. long. 93° 20'.

QUOITS, a kind of exercife or game, known among the
ancients under the name of the difcus. See Disc.

QUOLL, in Zoology, a name given by the natives of
New Holland to an animal refembling a pole-cat, with a
bro«'n back, fpotted with white, and the belly of a pure
■white, in which it differs from others of thefe fetid animals.
Cook's Voy. 1770. vol. iii. p. 626.

QUONDANGA, in Geography, a town of the Birman
empire ; 32 miles N. of Prone.

QUORUM, a term frequently mentioned in our ftatutes,

and often ufed in commifTions, both of peace, and others.

A juftice of the quorum is thus called from the words in

the commiflion, Quorum C. D. or A. B. aliquem •veflrum uniim

^s/fe itolumns.

For an example : where a commiflion is direfted to feven
perfons, or to any three of them, of which A. B. and
C. D. are to be two ; there A. B. and C. D. are faid to
be of the quorum, becaufe the reft cannot proceed without
them.

So a juftice of the peace and quorum is one without whom
the reft of thejuftices, in feme cafes, cannot proceed. See
Justices of the Peace.

Quorum Nomina. In the reign of king Henry VI. the
king's colleftors, and other accomptants, were much per-
plexed in pafling their accounts, by new extorted fees, and
forced to procure a then late-invented writ of quorum nomina,
for the allowance and fuing out their quietus, without the
allowance of the king.

QUOTA, in Law, a t.ix to be levied in an equal
manner.

Vol. XXIX.

QUO

QUOTATION, in Literature jz. citation ; or apaflage
rehearfed exprefsly in one author from another.

Quotations are ufually dittitiguiflied by inverted commas.

The manner of quoting by book, and chapter, or fcftion,
if chiefly affefted by men of erudition ; but it is abufed :
this method ought only to obtain where the whole chapter or
feftion is exprefsly on the fubjeft. On other occafions,
quoting by page is more commodious ; except in clafiics, and
other ancient writings, of which there are many editions in
different forms ; where this method is of little ufe, unlefs
the edition be alfo fpecified.

The quotations from the Old Teftament, found in the
New, have occafioned great doubt, difpute, and criticifm.
The apoftlcs are frequently referring to the Old Teftament,
and quoting paffages and prophecies thence, as fulfilled in
our Saviour ; yet thefe pafl'ages, thus quoted, are frequently
either not found in the Old Teftament at all, or they are
not urged in the New, according to the literal and obvious
fenfe they feem to bear in the Old.

A late ingenious author, in an " Eflay upon the Truth of
the Chriftian Religion," frankly owns, that the cvangelifts
fometimes apply to the Mefiiah paflagcs of the Old Tefta-
ment, which, as they lie in our prefent copies, plainly re-
Inte to fome other perfon, or thing. This is evident, e.gr.
in the paffage, Matthew, ii. 15. Out of Egypt have I called
myfon ; which is quoted from Hofea, xi. where it is plainly
underftood of the coming of the Ifraelites out of Egypt.

This circumftance has been urged as a great objeftion to
Chriftianity, which the divines, commentators, critics, &c.
have long laboured to remove, though by very different
means.

Some have recourfe to a double completion ; and imagine,
that though the prophecies were primarily accomplifhed in
other events, yet they might have a fecondary accompliftt-
ment in the Melftah : but others fet afide a double comple-
tion, except where the prophet himfelf declares as much,
this otherwife making all prophecy ufelefs. See Pro-
phecy.

The generality choofe, therefore, to have recourfe to an
allegorical, typical, or fpiritual meaning in the prophecies,
&c. and fuppofe them to have been thus underftood among
the ancient Jews, thus fulfilled in our Saviour, and thus ap-
phed by the apoftles.

In' effeft, the Jewifli rabbins, it is allowed, took great
liberty in quoting and interpreting fcripture ; and it is
fuppofed the apoftles might follow thefe rules in their
quotations.

Accordingly, M. Surenhufius, Hebrew profefFor at Am-
fterdam, has endeavoured to retrieve thefe rules, long fince
loft, in an exprefs treatife on this fubjeft, publiflied in 1713.
This author obferves a great deal of difference applied in
the different forms of quoting ufed by the facred writers : as,
// has been faid; it is written ; that it might be fulfilled ivhicb
•was fpoken by the prophets ; the Scripture fays ; fee what is
faid J the Scripture forefeeing ; it is not written, &c. He adds
that the books of the Old Teftament having been difpofed
in a different order at different times, and having had dif-
ferent names, it is thence, that one book or writer is fome-
times confounded with another.

For the rules of quoting and interpreting praftifed among
the rabbins, he gives us ten ; recovered with much ftudy
from the Talmud, and the ancient Jewifli doftors : in-
ftances of which he gives us in the writings of the apof-
tles ; and by thofe rules he endeavours to explain and
juftify all the quotations made from the Old Teftament in
the New.

The rules are, i. Reading the words not according to
Qq the

QUOTATION.

the points placed under them, hut according to others fub-
ftituted ill their l\ead ; as isdoi,<!by St. Peter, Afts, iii. 23,
by Steplien, Afts, vii. 43. and by Paul, 1 Cor. xv. 54.
■1 Cor. viii. 15, &c. The fecond is by cliangiug the letters ;
as is done by Paul, Rom.ix. 33. i Cor. xi. 9 Hcb. viii. 9,
and X. 5. and by Stephen, Ads, vii. 43. The third is by
changing both letters and points ; as is done by Paul, Ads,
xiii. 41 . and 2 Cor. viii. 15. The fourth is by adding; fome
letters and taking away otliers. The fifth is by tranfpofing
words and letters. The fixth is by dividing <;ne word into
two. The feventh, adding other words to make the fenfe
more clear. The eighth, changing the order of the words.
The ninth, changing tlie order of the words and adding
other words. Both of which are done by the apoftles.
And laiHy, changing the order of words, adding words,
and retrenching words ; wliich is a method often ufed by St.
Paul.

Other authors, as bifhop Kidder, M. le Clerc, Mr.
Sykes, &c. folve the difficulty another way. That ulual
form of quotation among the evangelilts, " That it mi^ht
be fulfilled which wasfpoken by the phrophets," according
to thefe authors, means no more than an accommodation of
the prophet's words to the cale in hand.

The word -rj-f.r.-u.'^r,, fulfilled, does not nPC'I'-'-ily determine
us to fuch a fenfe, as if the evangelilL u^ugned to fpeak of
a predidion of future events accouipTiftjed ; but may barely
exprefs an accommodation of borrowed words. In effed,
fays bifliop Kidder, a fcripture may be laid to be fulfilled
two ways ; properly, as when that which was foretold comes
to pafs ; and improperly, by way of accommodation, as
when an event happens to any place or people like to what
fell out fome time before. And thus it is that St. Matthew
fays, on occafion of the murder of the innocents, that " then
was fulfilled what was fpoken by the prophet Jeremy, In
Rama "was a voice heard," &c.

This interpretation is confirmed by M. le Clerc, who
obferves that the Jews, in their language, uied to fay, that
a pafl'age of fcripture was fulfilled, as often as any thing
happened to which it might be apphed ; fo that the evange-
lifl Matthew, who was a Hebrew, and wrote, as is com-
monly fuppofed, in that language, intended no more in the
padage juil cited, but that a tiling happened, to which
one might apply what Jeremy had formerly faid on another
occafion.

Accordingly, fays Mr. Sykes, the evangclifts, in citing
that paflage of Ifaiah, Behold, a "virgin Jloall he luith child,
&c. only ufe it as words of that prophet remarkably agree-
ing to the miraculous birth of Jelus, and not as a prophecy
of his birth.

It may be*added that this way of fpeaking was not un-
known among the heathen writers. Thus in jElian, Dio-
genes Sinopeiifis ufed continually to fay of himfelf, that he
fulfilled and underweit all the curfes of tragedy.

The difficulty ftated in this article has been already the
fubjed of difcufiion under the terms Accommodation and
Prophecy. Whilft it is allowed, that many paliages in the
New Teftament, and aKo in the writings of the Chrillian fa-
thers, arc very different from the correfpondent paffages as
they now ftand in the Hebrew text ; and that fome words are
introduced as quotations which are no where to be found :
thofe who urge the objedion {hould be difpofed to pay due
attention to the various modes of replying to it, which bibli-
cal critics have propoft d. Some have fuppofed,with W'.iilon,
that thofe early Chritlian writers quoted from the LXX :
others have alleged that they fometimes quoted from their
memory ; and this, it is faid, is the more probable, becaufe
the fame paflage is quoted in fome cafe.s by different authors

in very different worda, even where the fenfe agree*. It 19
moreover alleged, that \.he fcufe of the pafiages fuppofed to '
be loft is ffill to be found in the Old Teftament, though
the auords be not ; fuch efpecially are Matt. ii. ult. and
John, vii. 38. But if it were granted, that fome of the
verfes originally belonging to the Old Teftament are loft,
or materially corrupted, no objection could be jullly alleged
agaiiift the authenticity and divine authority of the facred
writings in general. As for the quotations that occur in
the New Teflament, the m.oft probable opinion is, that
fome of them arc made from the Greek verfion and fome
from the Hebrew text. To thofe who aflume, that though
fuch quotations are made from the Greek verfion, where
that differs from the Hebrew, yet both the text and the
verfion are in fuch places always the fame in fenfe, we reply
with Dr. Kcnnicolt, that this is not the cafe : and he thinks,
that the only way of doing juflice to our Saviour and his
apofHes in their references to the Old Teftament, is to fay,
that for whatever purpofc fuch quotations were made ( whether
by way of exprefs prophecy, or only of allufion and ac-
commodation) they were always confonaiit to the true fenfe
of the Hebrew text. For he fays, it is fcarcely poflible
to conceive, how any fpeaker or writer can quote juftly fucli
and fuch words, as (e. g.) from Mofes or from Ifaiah, when
the words quoted are not the words of Mofes or Ifaiah,
and do not exprefs even the fenfe of Mofes or Ifaiah ; but
are only taken from fome verfion, which (upon the prefent
fuppofition) was no verfion at all in thefe inftaiices, becaufe
it did not agree here in fenfe with its original. The found-
ation of this miftake, as this learned writer adds, is the
notion that has prevailed of the integrity of the modern
Hebrew text ; for the writers who have held this to be per-
fed, have never been able and never will be able to vindicate
the prophetical quotations. Paffages quoted from the feveral
Jewilh writers by iufpired men muft (he thinks) have been
quoted agreeably to the fenfe of the Hebrew text ; but fuch
quotations do not agree in fenfe with the printed Hebrew
text. Therefore fome alterations have happened, either in
the Gi-eek text of the New Teftament, or the Hebrew text
of the Old. Collins fays that the Hebrew text has been
delivered down perfed, and therefore that the quotations
are either forged or falfified in the New Teftament. To this
it is replied, that as it appears from a collation of the
Greek MSS. of the New Teftament, that the words of the
quotations are not corrupted in the Greek text, fo it ap-
pears from a collation of the Hebrew MSS. that the
words have been corrupted in the Hebrew. And this is
an aiifwer which fhould approve itfelf to all Chriftians. See
Kennicott's State of the Hebrew Text, vol. ii. p. 34J —
347. &c.

Upon the whole we obferve, that the writers of the New
Teftament did not make it a conftant rule to quote from the
Greek verfion, becaufe there are many places where their
quotations differ from that verfion and agree with the Hebrew.
And as the quotations now agree with the Hebrew, fre-
quently in the exprefs words, generally in the fenfe ; fo it
it is mofl probable, that they always agreed at firft, and that
where the Hebrew was cxpreffed properly in the Greek
verfion, they ufed the words of tliat verfion ; and where the
verfion was not proper, they tranflated for theinfelves.

With regard to Matt. ii. ult. the firft of the paffages
above cited. Dr. Doddridge (Fan>. Expof. in loc.) obferves,
that Nazareth was a little city on the confines of Zabulon
and Illachar ; fo contemptible among the Jews, that it
was a proverb among them, No good thing can be expeded
from thence. Thus was fulfilled what was fpoken in effed by-
many of the propliets, "hefhallbecalledaNazareiie;" /. e. he

ftiall

QUO

(hall appear in mean and defpicablc circumflances, and he:
treated as the mark of public contempt and rcproacli. It' this
fenfe be not approved, Dr.Doddridgo profeiros to acqnii.-fce
in Chryfollom's opinion, that the padage referred to is loll,
avouching hia diflatisfai^ion with other interpretations of
this pafTage. The fecoud palFage, viz.. John, vii. 38, our
learned expofitor thus explains. " He lliat believcth in
me, as the fcripture hath faid, out of his belly Ihall flow
rivers of living water, i. e. as the fcripture has in many
places faid and promifed, he (hall receive thofe fupplics in
fo great an abundance, that he fhall not only be retrelhed
himfelf, but out of his belly, or from within him (hall flow
vital ftreains, and as it were rivers of living watur for the
refrefliment and comfort of others." Chryfoftom, and after
liim many other eminent writers, Callalio, Zegerus, and
I. Capellus, refer the words " as the fcripture hath faid,"
to the former claufe, and underftand them, as if our Lord
had faid, " He that hath faith in mc," which tlie fcripture
requires, and thus they avoid the difficulty, which arlfes
from our not finding the following words in fcripture. But
Grotius, with whom Dr. Doddridge agrees, fuppofes, that
here is a general reference to the leveral prophecies which
refer to the effufion of tliefpirit by the MelTiah, under the

QUO

fimilitude of pouring out water. Sec Ifaiah, lii. 15. xliv. 3
Iviii. 1 1. Joel, ii. 28.

QUOTIDIAN, in Medicine, fignifyinr literally Jailji,
18 applied to all intermitting difeafes, which return once in
twenty.four Ikmus. As the molt remarkable of thefe is the
iigM, or intennittent fever of marlhy countries ; fo the term
quotidian fignilies emphatically a quotidian ague. The pa-
roxylni ufu.illy returns in the morning. See Ague.

Quotidian, Doulk, returns twice in twenty.four hours.

QUOTIEN T, QuoTiKN>s formed from the Lalm quotics,
q. d. hcnu often is fuc/j a number contained in fuch another, in
Arithmetic, the number refulting from the divifion of a greater
number by a fmaller ; and which (hews how often the fmaller
is contained in the greater, or how oft the divifor is contained
in the dividend.

In divilion, as the divifor is to the dividend, fo is unity to
the quotient. Thus the quotient of 12 divided by 3 is 4 ;
which is thus difpofed, 3) 12 (4 quotient.

QUOVEDO, in Geography, a town of lilria : fix miles
E. of Capo d'llfria.

QUOUSQUE. Execution zvitb a Q_uoufque. See Ex-
ecution.

QUOYL. See Quoil.

R.

A liquid confonant, and the feventeenth letter of the
i\.9 alphabet.

The grammarians hold it a femi-vowel ; efpecially in the
Greek, where, in commen with the other vowels, it admits
an afpirate, &c. though whether the afpirate (hould be
founded before or after it, is tome doubt. We find inllances
of each.

Thus f'joo the Latins wrote rheda; and 'f.l-.i the .Etolians
wrote 0poc(ov ; and in Engli(h words derived from the Greek
it is followed by an h, as rhapfody. The ancient Goths,
and Teutones, Littleton obferves, always prefixed h to r.
SeeH.

The found is formed by a guttural cxtrnfion of the breath,
vibrated through the mouth, with a fort of quivering mo-
tion of the tongue drawn from the teeth, with the tip a little
elevated towards the palate.

In fome words, as Rome, rape, and river, it has a rough
found ; in others, as iard, card, regard, its found is fmooth.
Re at the end of many words is pronounced like a mute er,
as in theatre, Jepulchre, and majfacre. Rh is ufed in words
derived from the Greek, as myrrh, rheum, and rhyme.

The Hebrews allow the r, or ">, the privilege of a guttural ;
, that is, they never double it, which yet is done by the
Arabs, Greeks, and Latins, &c.

Perfius calls the r, litcra canina, becaufe the dogs feem to
pronounce it in fnarling ; yet it (hould feem to have had a
fofter found among the Romans than among us, by its being
frequently interpofed to prevent the clalhing of vowels ; as
in rarus, a^aoij, nurus from no;, murexirom f^vx^, mus murii
from fxvi fccof ; and this foftnefs was fuch as frequently oc-

cafioned its being dropt as ufelefs in writing. Thus fbi
Hetrufci they frequently wrote Thuja, and even Tufci; and
ior furfum, rurfus, prorfus ; fufum, ru/iis, profus.

In effeft, there was that agreement betwfcn the found of
the^ and r, that as the Romans svoideA the doubling of
their confonants, it was no wonder they here dropped the
r in fuch words; the s fupplying the place of both. Hence
too it came to pafs, that what they at firft pronounced a/a,
nfena, cafmen, was afterwards ara, arena, carmen; and thofe
firll named Fujii and Valejii, were afterwards called Furii
and Valerii. Cicero tells us, the Papirii were firft called
Papijii; and even fixes the time when the change was made,
viz. in the year of Rome 415. Fefl:us adds, that olera, pi^-
nora, plurima, were anciently written olefa, pig'io/a, plujlma.

From the fame foftnefs of the found of the r, it came to
be ufed indifferently with the /, in many words ; e. gr. La-
tiaris and Latialis, Palilia and Parilia, &c.

Though the r more frequently degenerated into /; thus
remures became changed into lemures ; interlego, perlu:eo, into
intdligo inA pelluceo ; frater into frate/lus, &c. ; and the fame
is lometimes done between n and r, as arcus, and aneus, &*,

In the notes of the ancients, R. or RO. fignified Roma;
R. C. Romana civitas ; R. G. C. ret gerendu caufa ; R, F.
E.D. rede faSum et didum; R. G. F. regis fli'us ; R. P.
res public a, or Romani principes } and R. R. R. F. F. F. res
Romana ruetferro, fame, Jiamma.

R was anciently a numeral letter, fignifying 80; accord-
ing to the verfe,

" Oftoginta dibit tibi R, fiquis numerabit."

Q q 2 Wini,

R A A

R A B

"!

(hire of Invernefs. It is about fifteen miles in length, and
from two to five in breadth. On all fides the coafl rifes to

When a dafh was added at top, as R, it fignificd eighty

thoufand. > . , r n i \ r.,r„U\^A , a great heiirht above the level of the fea ; and on the eaft

The Greek r, f, with a fmall mark over ■'. JS"'' ^^ a b ^^.^^^^ .^ peculiarly bold, and ahnoll perpendicular,

hundred; with the fame mark under it, it denoted looo . r . ' . . . i- «- .
X lOO ; thus p fignified 100,000.

In the Hebrew numeration, 1 denoted 200 ; and with
two horizontal points over it, 1000 x 200; thus 1 =

200,000. , . , • n 1

R on the French coins, denotes their being Itruck at

Orleans. „ , ,■ ■ i

R, or R, in Medic'wal Prefcrlption, (lands tor recipe, tnke.
RAA.'in Geography, a town of Norway; 10 miles N.E.
of Frederickftadt.

RAAB, GyoR, or Javarin, a town and tortrels ot
Hungary, fituated in a pleafant level country, at the conflux
of the Danube, the Raab, and Rabnitz, which furround
it. Its houfes are conllrufted of ftone, and its ftreets are
large and ftrs.ight. It is the fee of a bifhop. Its fortifica-
tion confilto of feveu baftions, and it has always a ftrnng
garnfon, provided with military (lores. The fortifications
of the city and caflle are chiefly the works of the emperors
Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. In this place are feen
fome Roman antiquities; 56 miles S.E. of Vienna. N. lat.
47= 42'. E. long. 18^ 45'.

Raab, a rivt-r of Stiria, which rifes near mount RettI- .
ilein, and runs into the Danube, near Raab in Hungary.

RAAF, or Raff, Anthony, in Biography, the moft
exquifite and celebrated tenor finger of the lall century,
was born at Bonn in 1 7 10. He was a fcholar of Bernacclii,
and equally admired for his tafte, expreflion, and fl;yle of
finging, by the Italians and Germans. In 1729 his voice
was fettled from a high treble to a fweet and firm tenor,
fufficiently for him to perform a capital part in an opera at
Naples. After finging in all the great cities of Italy, he
returned to Germany, where he was courted and carefled
by all the princes of the empire. He was knighted by the
eledlor of Bavaria, and appointed his chamber mufician.
In 175 1 he performed again at Naples in Metallafio's "At-
tilio Rigolo," with the Mingotti, and in the letters of
Metaftafie of that period, we have the poet's opinion of his
performance. (Mem. of the Life and Writings of Metallafio,
vol. i. p. 403.) He performed in an opera compofed by
Chriftian Bach at Manheim in 1 7 70, when the celebrated
air " Non fo donde viene" was in his part, and which was
afterwards fung on our opera Itage with fuch effeft by Ci-
prandi. Rafl:' was at Paris more than once; for in 1780,
his 70th year, Laborde fpeaks of him with great refpeft.
" This celebrated tenor has acquired great reputation, and
though at prefent d'un certain age, he obliges us Hill to ad-
mire his tafte, and regret all that he has loft." According
to Gerber, Mufical Lexicon, vol. ii. he fung at Manheim in
1783, and was living in 1792.

RAAGOE, in Geography, a fmall ifland of Denmark,
near the N. coaft of the idand of Laland. N. lat. 54° 58'.
E. long. 11° 19'.

RAAJAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the country
of Malwa, near the river Nieunoudge ; 74 miles N.E. of
Ougein. N. lat. 24° 2'. E. long. 76= 56'.

RAALBRANN, a town of Auftria ; feven miles S.E.
of Meiffau.

RAAN, a town of Auftria ; four miles E.S.E. of
Hooren.

RAASAY, an ifland of the Hebrides, or Wefl:ern
Iflands, Scotland, is fituated between the main land and the
Ifle of Skye, and is included within the pari(h of Portree and

The interior is throughout its whole extent mountainous ;
and hence is better adapted for pallurage than for tillage,
but there are neverlhelefs fevcral fpots of very fertile and
well cultivated land. The fupply of free-ttone is almoft
incxbauftible, and there is likewife plenty of lime-ftone.
Formerly there were in Raafay feveral ancient chapels, but
thtfe are now ruinous and only ufed as places of burial.
Here arc likewife remains of two forts, the highcft of which
was fituated at the fouthern extremity of the ifland, and is
called Dunn-Cann, as tradition records, from Cannc, coufin
to one of the ancient kings of Denmark. The other fort,
called Caftle-Broichin, is a well-known land-mark among
failors. The rock on which it is fituated is nearly round,
covering an area of little more than feventy feet fquare ; is
forty feet high, except at the fpot where the ftair leads up
to it ; and is fixty feet above the level of the fea at its bafe.
The caftle is built of ftone and lime, and feems to have been
no lefs rtrongly fortified by art than by nature. It was an-
ciently the chief feat of the lairds of Raafay. Now, how-
ever, the family refidence is at Clachan, or Kirk-town, near
the oppofite extremity of the ifland. One of the old High-
land alliances has continued for more than two hundred
years, and is ftill fubfiftiiig between Macleod of Raafay, and
Macdonald of Skye, in conlequence of which the furvivor
always inherits the arms of the deceafed ; a natural memorial
of military friendfl-iip. At the death of the late fir James
Macdonald, his fword was delivered to James Macleod, efq.
the prefent laird of Raafay. Dr. Johnfon, in his Tour to
the Hebrides, fpeaks in warm terms of the elegance and
hofpitality with which he was entertained by this truly re-
fpeclable family. Carhfle's Topographical DiAionary of
Scotland, 2 vols. 4to. 1813. Pennant's Tour through
Scotland, vol. ii.

RAASS, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; five miles W.
of Marburg.

RAASTORF, a town of Auftria; four miles N. of
Entzerft&rfF.

RAAT, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of Agra ;
128 miles S.S.E. of Agra. N. lat. 25^ 37'. E. long.

19" 58'-

RABACAL, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira ; [2 miles S. of Coimbra.

RABANUS, MAUnus Magnentius, in Biography, a
celebrated German prelate in the ninth century, was born
at Fulda in the year 785. He was educated partly at Fulda,
and partly at Tours, under the famous Alcuin. In the
latter fituation he diftinguifhed himfelf by an unwearied ap-
plication to his ftudies, and his almoft unequalled proficiency
in ail the learning of the times, both profane and facred.
Not long before the death of Alcuin he returned to Fulda,
and embraced the religious profeffion in its abbey. In the
year 810 he was placed at the head of a fchool belonging
to the abbot Ratgarius, and the fame of his fuperior learn-
inor foon raifed the feminary into great reputation, and
filled it with pupils, many of whom were afterwards pro-
moted to the higheft ecclefiaftical dignities, and proved the
brighteft ornaments of the age. In 815 he was ordained
prieft, and in 822 he was elefted abbot of Fulda. About
830 he was, by his prudence and good conduct, the means
of cffefting a reconciliation between the emperor Lewis 1^
Debonnaire and his fons. Shortly after this, Ebbo, arch-
bilhop of Rheims, who had been condemned for high trea-
fon, was committed to his cuftody. In 838, at the requeft

of

R A B

of count Erlal'rid, he font a colony of monks from Fulda»
to occupy a inorialk'ry lately founded by him at Hirfchau ;
and at the fame time, in order that he might be enabled to
purfuc his fhidies with lefs interruption, he devolved upon
another perfon the care of governing the abbey. In the
following year the monks expelled him from his port, com-
plaining, tiiat in confequence of his devoting himfelf to his
(Indies, the necefTary aflairs of the monallery were negleiited,
and its eftates fulfVred to be much dilapidated. He now re-
tired either to St. Peter's Mount, or, as others report, to
an humble apartment in the outer court of the abbey, where
he fpent his time in devotion, the (ludy of facred literature,
and the compofition of his various writings, deaf to the
repeated entreaties of the monks who exhorted him to re-
lume his authority. In 847 he was elefted to the arch-
bidiopric of Mentz, and in the following year he fummoned
a council, in which he procured the condemnation of Godef-
chale, for maintaining the doftrine of St. Augulline relpeft-
ing predelUnation and grace. Rabanus died in 856, at the
age of 71. He is dcfcribed by Diipin as " having excelled
all his contemporaries in the learning of thofe times, in ex-
plaining the principles of the liberal arts and fcienccs, and
the rules of grammar and rhetoric ; in a readinefs in colleft-
ing from the fathers of the church common places upon the
facred fcripturcs ; in allegorizing the hiif orical parts of the
bible ; in an expofuion ot the niyiHcal reafons of the cere-
monies ; in a facility at turning profe into verfe, and in the
manner of reducing all common places in precepts and

R A B

peans. Ncverthelefs, Rabat is the mod proper place for
trade of any upon this coalt, both for its vicinity to Europe,
and the quantity of wool, leather, and wax, which it is
capable of furnifhing. From its central fituation in the
empire, it is alfo better adapted for the conveying the com-
modities imported to every part of the country ; but a
defpotic government acknowledges no principle but the coi*-
veniencc of the moment ; it commands, judges, and exe-
cutes, without confidernig either caufe or confequence.
At Rabat, near the mouth of the river, are the ruins of a
cattle, built in the twelfth century by Jacob Almanfor, but
entirely dellroyed by the late emperor. The vralls, which
ilill remain, are near two miles round, and fortified by fquare
towers. Tliey enclofe the cadle, the town of Rabat, and
a large fpace of ground where J. Almanfor built beautifnl
palaces, and laid out delightful gardens, watered by plentiful
Ilreams, which he brought from the neighbouring fpring.
Theic walls, as well as the palace and the town, were buih
by Spanilh Haves, whom he took prifoncrs in his lirll cam-
paign. Within the fame inclofurc he alfo built a very large
moique, of vvliich the ruins ilill remain. The roof was
fupported by 360 columns of rough marble. Near it was
a handfome iijuare tower, ttrongly built with cut Hone, near
200 feet high, and called the tower of Hafian. From this
tower may be had an extenfive view over the fea, and diips
may be dilcovered at a prodigious dillance. This monument
is in almoll perfeft prefervation. Tliere are fome docks for
building (hips both at Sallee and Rabat ; but the difiicuky

flruftions." And Modicim fays " he is defervodly placed of navigating the channel, and the probability that the fand
at the. head of the Latin writers of this age ; the force of will continue to accumulate, give ground for apprehending

his genius, the extent of his knowledge, and the multitude
of produ<flions that flowed from his pen, entitle him to this
diftinguifhed rank, and render improper all comparifon be-
tween him and his contemporaries." He was denominated
the great hght of Germany and France, becaufe from his
fund of knowledge thofe nations derived principally their
religious inltruttions. His writings were every where in
the hands of the learned, and were held in fo much venera-
tion, that during four centuries, the moft eminent Latin
divines appealed to them as authority in religious matters.
His writings confiif of Commentaries on the Scriptures ;
Homilies on the Epillles and Gofpels; Scripture Allegories,
and a great many theological and literary pieces. Of which
the moil confiderable number were coUetled and publiihed
at Cologne in 1627, in fix vols, folio. Some other pieces
of this author, not to be found in that colleftion, may be
found in Baluze's " Mifcellanea," among Father Sirmond's
publications, and in the eighth vol. of the CoUett. Concil.
Mo(heim. Dupin.

RABASTENS, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department ot the Upper Pyrenees, and chief place of a
canton, in the diilrift of Tarbes ; 10 miles N.N.E. of
Tarbes. The place contains 750, and the canton 7422 in-
habitants, on a territory of 150 kiliometres, in 2j com-
munes.

Rabastens, or Ralajleins, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Tarn, and chief place of a canton, in the
dillrift of Gaillac ; 21 miles S.S.W. of Alby. The place
contains 6076, and the canton 8 1 24 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 1525 kiliometres, in five communes. The principal
article of its trade is wine.

RABAT, a town of Africa, in the empire of Morocco,
fituated on the S. fide of the river Sallee. Rabat had
formerly, at intervals, a number of European factories ; but
the difficulty of navigating the river, the obf-lacles arifing
from the arbitrary power of the fovereign, and the difpofi-
tion and prejudices of the Moors, have difguftcd tlve Euro-

that very loon, only vefTels with oars will be able to enter
the river. Chenier's Morocco, vol. i.

Rabat AJfarmacan, a town of Perfia, in Farfiilan ; 120
miles E. of Schiras.

Rabat Arvah, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Kernian ; 40 miles E. of Kelvah.

Rabat el Cadi, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Kerman ; 40 miles E. of Mailih.

Rabat Maabad, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Kerman ; 60 miles N. of Kabis.

Rabat al Najfi, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Kerman ; 60 miles N.E. of Maftih.

Rabat Shiharijlan, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Cliorafan ; 260 miles N.E. of Ifpahan.

R A BATE, in Falconry. A hawk is fometimes faid to
rabate, when, by the motion of the hand of the bearer, the
lure, call, &c. (he leaves purfuing her prey, or quarry, and
recovers the filt.

Rabate, in Commerce.- See Rebate.
RABBA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Judea, which
belonged to the tribe ot Gad ; fituated upon the torrent of
Jaba ; it was befieged by Joab, after, he had defeated the
Ammonites. Here was feen the head of Og, king of Balhan,
who alone remained of the race of giants. — Alfo, a town
of Paleftnie, in the tribe of Jndah. See Raiiabah.

RABBATH-AMMON, or Philadelphia, a town
of Afia, fituated in the mountains of the fouthern part of
Paleftme ; S.E. of Tiberias, and S. of Boftra.

RABBATH-MOAB, orAncopoLis, a town of Afia,
fituated at fome diftance to the eaft of the lake into which
the river Jordan diicharges itlclf.

R ABBEN, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 14'. E. long. 22° 14'.

RABBET, in Carpentry, is a deep groove or channel,
cut in a piece of timber longitudinally, to receive the edge
of a plank, or the ends of a number of planke, which are
to be fecurely fallened in it. The depth of this chaujiel

R A 13

R A B

fo that when the

ia equal to the thickiicfs of the plank, .„ ^ , ,

end of the latter is let into the rabbet, it will be level
with the outfide of the piece. Thus, in (h.p-carpentry,
the ends of the lower planks of a iTiip's bottom terminate
upon the Hem afore, and the ftern-port abaft, with wiiofe
fides their furfaccs are even. The lurface of the garboard
ftreak, whofe edge is let into the keel, is, in the fame man-
ner, level with the fide of the keel at the extremities of tlie
veffcl.

RABBET-P/jnt-. See Plaxe.

RABBETING, the planing or cutting of channels, or
grooves, in boards.

RABBI, or Rabbin, a dodor of the Jewifh law.
The word in its original, >2~\' ^gi'Ses majler.
The words rabbi and rabiin have the fame fignification ; yet
is there fome ditTtrence in their ufe. When we fpeak abfo-
lutely, and without applying the term to any proper name,
wc fay rMln, not rabbi. Thus we fay, it would be unjull
to attribute to the ancient rabbins all the notions of the
modern ones.

On the other hand, when we prefix the term to the proper
name of fome Jewi(h doftor, we fay rabbi, not rabbin ;
rabbi Salomon Jarchi is of this opinion.

Yet rabbi having no plural, we fay, the rabbins Juda
Chiug, and Juda ben Chabin, are the authors of two ancient
Hebrew grammars.

The title rabbi is faid to have been firft alTumed, as a
diftinguifhing title of honour, by men of learning, about
the time of the birth of Chrift ; though it 'had been anciently
given to feveral magiftrates and of&cers of Hate, and to thofe
who were of fuperior rank and condition in life. See Efther,
i. 8. Jer. xli. I. Job, xxxii. 9.

The firft Jewifh rabbi faid to have been diftinguifhed with
any title of honour, was Simeon, the fon of Hillel, who
fucceeded his father as prefident of the fanhedrim ; and his
title was that of rabban. The later rabbins tell us, that this
title was conferred with much ceremony. When a perfon
had gone through the fchools, and was thought worthy of
this degree, he was placed in a chair raifed above the com-
pany ; and then were delivered to him a key and a table-
book ; the key as a fymbol of the authority conferred on
him to communicate the knowledge he had acquired, which
key he wore as a badge of honour, and when he died, it
was buried with him ; and the table-book was a fymbol of
his dihgence in his ftudies, and defire of farther improvement.
To thefe ceremonies were added the impofition of hands by
the delegates of the fanhedrim, and the proclamation of his
title. It has been difputed, chiefly between Vitringa and
Selden, whether our Lord had taken the degree and title of
rabbi in the Jewifh fchools; Vitringa maintains the affirmative,
and Selden the negative. See Jennings's Jewifh Ant. vol. i.
p. 400, &c.

The Jewifh writers diftinguifti betwixt the titles rah, rabbi,
and rabban.

In the Old Teftament we find the term ^jn, rab, in com-
pofition with fome other words, employed as a name of
office and dignity, but not till the people became acquainted
with the Chaldaeans, concerning whom only it is ufed. The
word, both in Hebrew and in Chaldee, fignifies fometimes
great, fometimes many, and when ufed fubftantively, denotes
one who is at the head of any bufinefs, of whatever kind it
be. Thus '72nn HI' ''"^ hachebel, is, in the LXX, vfijst;,
Q'n3D ^'^,rabtebachim,x^X^fj.ayui;r,c,chiefcook. i,Jonah,i. 6.
Jer. xxxix. 11, fee alfo Dan. i. 3.) It is ufed in the plural
alfo ioT chief men in general, fuperintendents, or thofe at the
he»d of affairs. Thus ■]'7Qn 'Jll. rabbi hammekch, are

the chief men employed by the king over tlie different de-
partments of the Itate. (Jer. xxxix. 13.) The original term
fuits entirely the import of the Latin word princeps, but
not of the Englifh word prince, at leafl in its moll common
acceptation ; for they are not the king's fons, or nobles of
any order, who arc fo denominated among the Chaldxans.
The word evidently appears to have been equivalent to the
term T^S fliar, among the Hebrews. Accordingly, he
who is ftylcd by Daniel, in the above cited pailage, Q'D'ID
"yy, rab ftiijim, is four times, in the fame chapter, called
0'D'"lDn ~\Z' 1 P^i"' ^<^f(r>fini. (Dan. i. 7, 8, 9. 18.) And
this ufe of the name rab ieems to have continued long in
Syria, as well as in Chaldea. Thus in the Syriac New
Teilament, it is feund in the fame manner, united with th"?
common appellation of any fort of officer, in order to
denote the principal perfon in that office : thus, rab-cohana,
(Matt. xxvi. 51.) is the highprieft, rai-m(2fA/(j(Luke, xix. 2.)
is chief of tlie publicans, and rab-ragholha ( I Pet. v. 4. )
is chief fliepherd. Rab, conllrued in this manner, is equi-
valent to the Greek x;;)^', as ufed in compofition. The pre-
ceding titles are accordingly thus exprefled in Greek,

Again, the word rab is fometimes found in that verfion,
combined not with the title of any fort of officer, but with
a term denoting the office or charge itfelf ; in which cafe it
alvv.iys means the perfon who is principally entrufled with
thebufinefs. Thus, raWf/A (Matt. xx. 8. ) is the fteward,
firiT^oTor, he who is over th2 houfehold ; and rab-ccnojhetha
(Mark, V. 35.) is the ruler of the fynagogue, a{;^»tru»a> nyo?.
It is not unlikely, though no example occurs in fcripture,
that the term has at firll been fimilarly compounded with
fome word fignifying a fchool, or, perhaps, with the
name of the art or Icicnce taught, in order to denote the
overfeer of fuch a feminary, or the teacher of fuch an art.
When the term rab came to be pecuharly apphed, as an
honourable compellation of the learned, the word with
which it was, at firft, for diftinftion's fake, compounded,
would be fuperfeded as unneceil'ary. It is, at leaft, certain,
that the Jewifh doftors, who refided at Babylon about the
time of our Saviour, were called fimply rah. But in the
Old Teftament there is no trace ef luch a title as rab,
rabbi, ■ or rabban, given to a man of letters ; nor is any one
of the old prophets, or fcribes, or indeed any other perfon,
diftinguifhed by this mark of refpeft prefixed to his name.
Although the introduftion of titles is plways occafioned by
the ereftion of ufeful important offices, it is commonly in
the decline of merit that pompous titles are molt affefted.
At firft, without doubt, vain-glory has led many to afTume
them, to whom they did not belong, in right of office, and
an interefted adulation has induced others to give them.
Some of them, however, came foon, among the Jews, to be
converted into a kind of academical diftinftions, which, in
order to give them more weight, are faid to have been con-
ferred folcmnly in their fchools or colleges, accompanied
with certain rchgious ceremonies. From this praftice
fprung literary degrees in Chriftian univerfities, to which
there is nothing fimiiar in all Pagan antiquity, either Greek
or Roman, but to which the Jewifh cuftom above-mentioned
bears an evident and clofe analogy.

As for rab and rabbi, the only differeHce, it hath been
faid, betwixt thjm is, that rab was the title of fuch as had
had their education, and taken their degree in fome foreign
fchool, e. gr. at Babylon ; whereas rabbi was the title of fuch
as were educated in the land of Judea, and more honourable
than the other. But the higheft and moft honourable
title was rabban ; which, they fay, was never conferred
on more than feven perfons ; vfz. on R. Simeon, five of

his

1

R A B

R A B

his defcendants, and R. Jochanan, who was of a difTerent

family.

Tliofe who belonged to the Jewifh fchools were divided
into three claiies or orders. Tlie lowcft was tliat of the
difciples or learners ; the fecond, that of the fellows, or
companions, who, having made confiderable progrcfs in learn-
ing, were occafionally employed by the mafters in teaching
the young Undents : and the higheft was that of ttie pre-
ceptors, or teachers, to whom they appropriated the re-
fpedlful title of do£!or, or rabbi, differing, as fome have faid,
from rah only by the addition of the affix pronoun of tlie
firft perfon. This title rabb't was the highell accadumical
honour. In the gofpels, lilao-K'x'Kc; is given as the Greek
tranflation of the S>yi'\-a.c rabbi. (John, i, 38.) Yet this word
does not, as the Greek, literally iigmiy teacher ; but, having
been conferred at fuil, as a mark of relpeft on aftual
teachers, and afterwards on other learned men, was jutUy
accounted as appofite a verfion as the Greek language
atforded.

Ih procefs of time, the term rabbi was ufed with great lati-
tude ; being bellowed on thofe who were not aflual teachers ;
and yet it always retained, ever fince it had been appropri-
ated to the learned, a relation to learning, and denoted that
the perfon who enjoyed it, though not actually employed in
teaching, was well qualified for the office. Rabban, as
fome have afferted, is not the name of a degree fuperior to
rabbi, though it feems intended for heightening the fignifi-
cation, and may be undeiftood to denote eminent or learned
rabbi, but it was very feldom ufed. The title rabboni, which
we find to have been twice given to our Lord, (Mark, x. 51.
John, XX. 16.) is rabban, with the addition of the affix of
the firft perfon, and accommodated to the pronunciation of
Judea. The ufe of the term rabban does not feem to have
extended far beyond Paleltine, as we may conclude from the
following circumftance. Although the word rabbi is very
common in the Syriac tranflation, the Greek Aitiacrnc>?is being
generally fo rendered ; yet in the only place where that
tranflator introduces the word rabboni, which is that quoted
from John, he prefixes in Hebrew, that is, in the dialeft
of Palefline, which was then fo called, adding the explana-
tion given by the evangelift, that is, teacher ; which plainly
ftievvs that the word rabboni was not Syriac. This is the
more remarkable, as in the other paffage, where the hiftorian
interprets, in the fame manner, the word rabbi, adding
(John, i. 38) " 6 XE'/s'iati \^ij.miWfiim\ JiJaciiaA:-," that inter-
preter omits this explanatory claufe as intended only for the
Grecian reader, and of no ufe to thofe who underftood
Syriac. In the paffage in Mark, where rabboni occurs, as
the evangelift had added no explanation, his interpreter has
not thought it necelTary to change their own word rabbi;
tlius regarding the difference in fignification between the
two words as inconfiderable, to which we may add, that the
apoftle John explains both by the fame Greek word. It
may be here obferved that it was cultomary to enhance the
import of a title by doubling it. Thus our Lord, fpeaking
of the Pharifees, fays, (Matt, xxiii. 7.) "they love to be
called of men, rnbhi, rabbi." In this manner he was himfelf
addrefied by Judas, at the time when that difciple chofe to
affume the appearance of more thaji ordinary regard. (Mark,
xiv. 45.) The title vufi- feems to have been ufed in the lame
manner. (Matt. vii. 21.) The words Jewifli rabbles and
Jewiffi dodors were commonly ufed fynonimoufly. In
Juftin Martyr's dialogue with Trypho the Jew, the rabbies
are always called ^idac7x«Xoi. But fome may objeft that this
does not account for the application of the title to our Lord.
As he did not derive his doftrine from any of thofe learned
feminaries, frequented by fuch of the youth as were reckoned

the (lower ol the nation, tlie name doSor could not, with
propriety, be applied to him. To this objection it may be
rcpHed, that as in Judea at that time they fpoke not Greek,
but a dialeft of Chaldce, not diftering confiderably from
what is called Syriac, it is evident that tlie aftual compellatiori
by wliich our Saviour was addri.llcd, was rabbi, equivalent
to the Greek iiJaa-xcAo,. Befides, though the title rabbi
could regularly be conferred only by tliofe who had the
fuperintendency of their ichools, yet the people would be dif-
pofed to give the compellation through courtefy, and on
the prefumption that it had been conferred, wherever they
faw or fuppofed diftinguidied abilities in teaching ; and this
probably was the reafon why it was given to John the
Baptift. (John, iii. 26.) Moreover, in the Jevvilh ftate, a
divine commiffion was conceived to confer all lorts oi dignities
and honours, in an eminent manner, and thus fupcrfeded all
ordinary ru' .sand human dellinations. Accordingly, fome
of thole who gave the title of 7-abbi to our Saviour, were
willing, either fincerely or pretendedly, thus to account for
their doing fo. Thus Nicodemus affigns the reafon why he
falutcd him rabbi (John, iii. i. &c.), although he knew that
he had not been educated in human literature, and had not
received iroin man any literary honours. Upon the whole we
may remark, that the term iiJas-HaAij may be fitly cxprefled,
either by the Enghfh term doSor, or by the Syriac rabbi,
which is now fo much naturalized among us, that its meaning,
as a Jewifh title of hterary honour, can hardly be miftaken.
It mull alio be allowed, that the rabbi among the Jews of
our Saviour's age, was a title in the higheft degree refpeft-
ful ; and on that account it was intcrdifted by their mafter,
even to the apoftles themfelves. Campbell's Seventh Pre-
liminary DifTertation.

Tile modern rabbins are entitled to a confiderable rcfpeft
among the Jews: they have the firft places in the fyna-
gogues; they determine all matters and controverfies of
religion, and very frequently pronounce upon civil af-
fairs. They have even a power to excommunicate the dif-
obedient.

They retain a vafl number of fuperftitious traditions, from
the writings of their predeceffors ; which they obferve as
fcrupuloufly as they do the law of Mofes.

The ancient ri.bbins were ijifinite dealers in allegories.
Their writings are almoit wholly allegorical, particularly
their comments and interpretations of the fcripturc.

They had a great number of rules, and forms of inter-
preting and quoting, which fome modern writers fuppofe
to have been followed by the apoftles, in their interpretation
and quotation of the prophecies of the Old Teftament, in
the New. See Quotation.

Rabbinical CharaSer. See Hebrew.
Rabbinical Hebrew. See Hebrew.
RABBINIST, a follower of the dodrine of the rab-
bins ; a term ufed in contradiftinftion to Caraite.

Father Simon contends for Rabbanijl, or Rabbanite, in-
ftead of Rabbinifl : in effeft, the former readings arc appa-
rently preferable to the latter ; the word being derived from
the Hebrew Rabbanim, which is the name of the feft, and
which the Jews ufe to diftinguifti their doftors from thofe ot
the Caraite Jews.

Rabbinitt, then, fignifies a Jewifh doftor who adheres to
the traditions of his fathers ; not fimply a rabbin or doftor ;
for the Caraites, who eppofe thofe traditions, have their
rabbins as well as the other Jews.

RABBIT, CuNicuLUS, in Zoology, a well-known animal

of the hare kind, or the lepus cuniculus of Linnxus, with

a fhort tail and naked ears. In the wild ftate the colour of

the fur is brown ; but in a tame ftate it varies to a black,

7 piedj

RABBIT.

pied, and ciuite white ; tiie eyes are of a fine red. Tn their
wild ftate they inhabit the temperate and hot parts of
Europe, and the hotteft parts of Afia and Africa. " See
L.EPUS Cvriicuhu.

The female, or doe rabbit, goes with young thirty days,
and then flic kindles ; and if (he take not buck prefently
fhe lofcs her month, or at leall a fortnight, ard often kills
her young and eats them.

In England they begin to breed at a year old, but in
fome places much fooner ; and they continue breeding very
fall from the time when they begin, four, five, fix, or feven
times a year being common with them. They have ufually
from four to eight in a litter, and hence it is that a fmall
number at firft will foon Hock a whole warren, if left to breed
a little while undillurb;d. The does cannot fuckle their
young till they have been at buck again ; this therefore is to
be done prefently, elfe there is a fortnight loft of the time for
tlie next brood, and the prefent brood alfo probably loft.
When the buck goes to the doe, he always firft beats and
ftamps very hard with his feet, and when he has copulated
with her, he falls backwards, and lies, as it were, in a
trance ; in this ftate it is cafy to take him, but he foon re-
covers from it.

The buck-rabbits, like our boar-cats, will kill the young
ones, if they can get at them ; and the does in the warrens
prevent this, by covering their ftocks, or nefts, with gravel
or earth, which they clofe fo artificially up with the hinder
part of their bodies, that it is hard to find them out. They
oevcr fuckle the young ones at any other time than early in
the morning, and late at night ; and always, for eight or
ten days, clofe up the hole at the mouth of the neft, in this
careful manner, when they go out. After this they begin
to leave a fmall opening, which they increafe by degrees,
till at length, when they are about three weeks old, the
mouth of the hole is left wholly open, that they may go
out ; for they are at that time grown big enough to take
care of themfelves, and to feed on grafs.

People who keep rabbits tame for profit, breed them in
hutches ; but thefe muft be kept very neat and clean, elfe
they will be always fubjedl to diieafes. Care muft be taken
alfo to keep the bucks and does apart till the latter have
juft kindled ; then they are to be turned to the bucks again,
and to remain with them till they (hun and run from them.

The general direction for the choofing of tame rabbits is,
to pick the largeft and faireft ; but the breeder fhould re-
member, that the fl<ins of the filver-haired ones fell better
than any other. The food of the tame rabbits may be cole-
vrort and cabbage-leaves, carrots, parfneps, apple-rinds,
green corn, and vetches, in the time of the year ; alfo vine-
leaves, grafs, fruits, oats, and oatmeal, milk-thilUes, fow-
thiftles, and the like : but with thefe moift foods they
muft always have a proportionable quantity of the dry foods,
as hay, bread, oats, bran, and the Hke, otherwife they v.-ill
grow pot-bellied, and die. Bran and grains mixed to-
gether have been alfo found to be very good food. In
winter they will eat hay, oats, and chaff; and thefe may
be given three times a day : but when they eat green tilings,
it muft be obferved, that they are not to drink at all, for it
would throw them into a dropfy. At all other times, a
very little drink ferves their turn, but that muft always be
frefh. When any green herbs or grafs are cut for their
food, care muft be taken that there is no hemlock among it ;
for though they will eat this greedily among other things,
when offered to them, yet it is fudden poifon to them.

Rabbits are fubjeft to two principal infirmities. Firft,
the rot, which is caufed by the giving them too large a
quantity of greens, or from the giving them frefti gathered.

with the dew or rain hanging in drops upon them. It i»
excefs of moiilurc that always caufes this difeafe ; the
greens, therefore, are always to be given dry, and a fufii-
cient quantity of hay, or other dry food, intermixed with
them, to take up the abundant moifture of their juices.
On this account, the very beil food that can be given them
is the fhorteft and fweeteft hay that can be got, of which
one load will ferve two hundred couples a year ; and out of
this ftock of two hundred, two hundred may be eat in the
family, two hundred fold to the markets, and a fufficient
number kept in cafe of accidents.

The other general difeafe of thefe creatures is a fort of
madnefs : this may be known by their wallowing and tum-
bling about with their heels upwards, and hopping in an odd
manner into their boxes. This diftemper is fuppofed to be
owing to the ranknefs of their feeding ; and the general cure
is the keeping them low, and giving them the prickly herb,
called tare-th'ijlk, to eat.

The general computation of males and females is, that
one buck rabbit will ferve for nine does ; fome allow ten to
one buck : but thofe who go beyond this always fuffer for
it in their breed.

The wild rabbits are to be taken either by fmall cur dogs,
or by fpaniels bred up to the fport ; and the places of
hunting thofe who ftraggle from their burrows is under
clofe hedges or bufties, or among corn-fields and frefti paf-
tures. The owners ufe to courfe them with fmall grey-
hounds ; and though they are feldom killed this way, yet
they are driven back to their burrows, and are prevented
from being a prey to others. The common method of
taking them is by nets, called purfe-nets, and ferrets.
The ferret is fent into the hole to force them out, and the
purfe-net being fpread over the hole, takes them as they
come out. The ferret's mouth muft be muffled, and then
the rabbit gets no harm. For the more certain taking of
them, it may not be improper to pitch up a hay-net or two,
at a fmall diftance from the burrows that are intended to be
hunted : thus very few of the number that are attempted
will efcape. The method by the dog, called the lurcher
and tumbler, is alfo a very good one.

Some, who have no ferrets, fraoak the rabbits out of
their holes with burning brimftone and orpiment. This
certainly brings them out into the nets, but then it is a ver)'
troublefome and offenfive method, and is very detrimental to
the place, as no rabbit will for a long time afterwards come
near the burrows, which have been fumed with thefe ftink-
ing ingredients.

The tefticle of a rabbit is a very good objeft for ex-
amining the ftruclure of this part of generation in animals.
The tellicles of various animals are very varioufly com-
pofed, but all, in general, of veflels varioufly rolled and
folded together ; and even the human tefticles are of tlie
fame fort, being compofed folely of rolls of veffels, without
any intermediate fubftance, only confifting of veffels and
their liquors. Phil. Traaf. N" 52.

The ftvins of rabbits are a great article of commerce,
numbers being exported to China : the fur is of great ufe
in the hat-manufaftory.

Rabbit, \x\ Agrkulture, is fometimes employed as farming
ftock. It is fufiiciently evident, however, that this is a
defcription of farming ftock that can only be attended to
with advantage under particular favourable circumftances of
foil and fituation. ,

SiluaUons proper for Rabbits. — The praftice of forming
rabbit warrens, can only be beneficially Introduced where
the lands are not capable of affording crops of tolerable
grain or grafs. The great uncertainty of this fort of

hufbandry

RABBIT.

liufbandry renders it much more advantageous for the farmer
to depend upon fiich crops, than on it. In liilly trafts of
land, where the plough cannot be introduced, and where
the foil is of fuch a liglit fandy porous nature, as to afford
- little or no grafs for the pafturage of fhecp, or in rocky
fituations, this fyftem of management may take place with
profit to the farmer.

And it has been obfervcd by the author of the Rural
Economy of Norfolk, that this fort of animal is there con-
fined to the heathlets, and the barren hills upon the coaft .
A level country is unlit for rabbit-warrens, but convenient
for the plough ; on tlie contrary, rabbits delight in tiie iides
of fandy hills ; which, where turn-wrill ploughs are not iu
ufe, are extremely inconvenient for tillage ; and, when cul-
tivated, are generally improduftivc. For tiie rabbit, on
level ground, finds it difficult to make its burrow ; the ex-
cav.ited mould is all to be dragged upward to tiie furface ;
hence a piece of ground altogether level, can feldom be
flocked fuccefsfuUy witii rabbits ; unlefs it be firft laid up
by art, at a great expence, into inequalities. While, on the
contrary, againft the ilde of a fteep hill, the rabbit has no
difficulty to encounter ; the declivity affords him a ready
vent for his mould ; his work is all down hill ; and, unlels
the foil be too ftubborn, or too rocky, for tlie rabbits to
work freely among, a broken hilly country may generally
be itockedwith advantage ; provided a tolerable market for
the carcaiiescan be had within reach. He thinks there are,
perhaps, few fandy or other loofe-loiled hills, which would

■ not pay better in rabbit-warrens, than under any other courfe
of hulbandry that could be introduced on them. And it
is afterwards ilated, in a minute, that on a confiderable
part of a farm wliich lies towards the coaft, being hilly and
very badly fulled, — more efpecially the tops and fides of the
hills, which have always been full of rabbits in fpite of all
endeavours to dellroy them, — the tehants laft year (1782)
applied for leave to convert this part, about ninety acres,
into a rabbit-warren. Leave was given, and an allowance
made them of half the elUmated expence of raifing a fod-
wall fence round theie ninety acres. He adds, that the
fence was nearly finifhcd, and the warren had, that year,
turned out beyond expedlation ; it was valued by one who
ought to be the bell judge of its worth, at forty pounds a
year ; which is nine fhilhngs an acre. And that, as the
part of a farm, thefe ninety acres vvfere not worth five fiiil-
lings an acre ; at the then prefent price of barley, they were
not worth more than four (hillings an acre. It is, therefore,
obferved, that for ten pounds a real improvement of twenty
pounds a-year has been made and fecured ; for the warrener
will, through neceffity, hereafter keep the fence in repair
for his own advantage. He remarks, that the fence is made
about four feet high, and three feet thick ; faced with
greenfward ; and capped with furze, fo as to projedl eiglit

^or ten inches over the face. Some of it was done for a Ihil-
ling a rod ; but the fpring putting in, fourteen or fifteen
pence a rod of feven yards \va.s obhged to be given. And

■ a neighbouring warrener, that winter, gave ninepence for
the wall without the capping ; which he does not mean to
put on till the n-all be thoroughly fettled. This is very judi-
cious ; as feveral rods of that above-mentioned ihot down in
different placet, as is often the cafe in fuch fort of work.
It is further obferved, that there are feveral patches in the
vallies, and fome on the tops of the hills which have ufually
been tilled. Some of thefe were laft year ( 1 78 1 ), and fome
of them ought to be every year, cultivated for the rabbits ;
thus, when the grafs gets foul or mofl'y it Ihould be ploughed
np ; fallowed, fowing turnip-feed for prefent feed, (they
will not let rape get up, ) and to prepare the ioil for barley

Vol.. XXIX.

and grafs-feed the enftiing year. Thus a regular luccefiiou
of feedage might be kept up for the ufe of thefe animals.
And in the Rural Economy of Yorkfhire it is Ilated, that
at Dalby there are two pretty large warrens. At Lockton
there is one now (the time of writing) planting. And there
are other parts of thefe heights which might be profitably
ftocked with rabbits. In general, however, property is too
much intermixed to admit of an improvement, which is fin-
gularly adapted to the nature of thefe liigh grounds. And,
that in fituations where the ground, as well as the foil, is
fuitable to rabbit-warrens, and where an extent of it, fuffi-
cluntly large, can be coUefted together in one propirrty,
there is a very itrong reafon why it may be profitably itocked
with rabbits. It is added, that one of the warrens of this
dillridl contains eighteen hundred acres of furface ; moll of
it covered with a black moreland foil ; part of it a barren
gravel ; fome little of it a thin lime-ilone loam ; not worth
perhaps, on a par, for the common purpofes of hufbandry,
a fhilling an acre ; neverthelefs, tiiefe eighteen hundred acres
are let, as a rabbit-warren, for three hundred pounds a-year!
He will not pretend to fay, that this warren is worth three
hundred pounds a-year, nor aflert that it is not worth a
Ihilling an acre to a huft>andman. If it be worth two hun-
dred and fifty pounds, as a warren, and fuppofing it to be
worth even two fhillings an acre, as a farm, it ftiil is iuni-
cient evidence of the profitablenels of rabbit-warrens, ui
proper fituations.

And in fpeaking of the wolds, he obferves, that the
warrens are numerous, and fijiiie of them very exlenfive.
Coldham warren is at prefent, he believes, the largell upon
the wolds ; and, probably, tiie moft valuable warren in the
ifland. The Coldham farm contains about nineteen hundred
acres ; and, fpeaking generally, it is all warren ; not, how-
ever, wholly appropriated to I'abbits, a flock of from fix to
eight hundred fheep being kept within the warren walls ; prin-
cipally, however, on one fide of the warren, away from the
burrowing grounds. And this appears to be a pradlice
peculiar to the wolds of Yorkftiire and Lincolnfliire, whofe
hills likewife abound much with rabbit-warrens, and where
better foil is appropriated to rabbit-warrens, than is perhaps
in any other part of the illand. The Coldham warren, in
point of foil, is moft of it worth from ten to twelve ftiillings an
acre ; fome of it fifteen or fixteen ftiillings. But the pre-
fent bleaknefs of the fituation renders it of little more than
half the value. As thefe better parts become molfy, they
are inclofed by a fod-wall, the furface pared and burnt, and
the foil broken up for arable crops. Having afforded a
fucceflion of crops of corn, turnips, &c. they are fown v.ith
grafs-feeds, and again thrown open to the rabbits and fheep.
In 1783, there were about two hundred acres ot tliis farm
under the plough, befides fome little ftieep-walk which lay
without the warrt-n walls. The warren therefore, at that
time, contained from fifteen to fixteen hundred acres ; and, ad.
joining to Coldham, are two more confiderable warrens ; fo
that there are, perhaps, three or four thoufand acres of
tolerably good land, lying together, and appropriated prin-
cipally to rabbits.

But it is remarked in refpecl to ioil, that there is a dil-
advantage in ftockiug a ric/j ioil with rabbits ; a fluftl ot
grafs, after a dry featon, is found to produce a fcouring ;
which fometimes carries off great numbers. With regard
to the burrows on the high wolds, they are moilly on the
fides of hiUs ; at Coldham, principally in one deep valley ;
whofe fides are fteep ; giving the rabbits great freedom in
working. The foil, in this cafe, is about eight or ten inches
deep, under this a chalky rubble, of fome inches thick,
lying on a chalk-ftone rock. The burrows are in the fub-foil,

R V between

RABBIT.

between the foil and the rock, and chieHy towards the tops
of the hillB. And thoufands of daws build their nefts in
the burrows, to tlie great annoyance of the rabbits. But
at Driflieldgi-eets, near Drilfield, where there are two large
warrens, the furface is a dead flat ; neverthelefs, the warrens
nre well itockcd and produftive ; a proof that a flat furface
may, in fome cafes, be profitably Hocked witli rabbits. The
foil, iu this cafe, is a light laisd or gravelly loam, which is
very proper for the purpofe to whicii it is applied.

In fome of the very fouthern diilricts, rabbits occupy the
different fandy hillocks, and many of the rocky vvalles ;
but there is nothing of any great importance in the manage-
ment of them. Both the grey and black forts prevail in
fome inftances. The writer of the Sufl'ex Report on Agri-
culture thinks, that tins fort of Hock is tlie nuifance of a
county ; it increafes and ilouriflies in proportion to the fize
of the walles, and is, of coiirfe, produftive in this county.
From Horfliam foreft, Afhdown, and other parts, very con-
fiderable quantities of rabbits are fent to be difpofed of in
London.

In fome of the midland counties they are fouiid to be
fuflficiently abundant upon the fandy parts of wade lands ;
in inclofed level land, it is thought that they are no better
than vermin, and that fliould the commons be pretty gene-
rally inclofed, they mud be in a great moafure exterminated
to make way for a better fort of flock ; in inclofed land,
they can only be kept u'ith propriety, either in fmall warrens
near the houle, well fenced in, for family confumption ; or
on fandy or rocky precipices, impradticable to the plough,
where they (houid alfo be fenced in. It is well known, that
in the neighbourhood of commons abounding with them,
great pains and expence are often ufed to fence the inclofed
adjoining lands from their depredations. Rabbits arc cer-
tainly a fort of ttock unworthy of being cultivated, or bred
in any confiderable numbers, on inclofed and cultivated land ;
yet doubtlefs deferving confiderable attention on impracti-
cable fandy or rocky iteeps, which may at the fame time be
planted ; and when properly fenced m, and thus ftocked,
fuch land fcems in a fyllcni of the higheft improvement of
which it is capable.

In Chelhire many doubts have been entertained as to the
advantages of encouraging the breed of rabbits, and many
farmers are fo utterly averfe to them, that they would wifh
the whole race to be entirely exterminated. Where land is
inclofed, and applied to arable purpofes, it feems agreed
that by the injury they do to the fences, by the interfering
^vith the cultivated land, and by the deftroying of its pro-
duce, thev are much more detrimental than profitable. It
is, however, thougiit to be a queilion for confideration, whe-
ther, if a portion of weak fand, or dry heath land, was fet
apart for a rabbit-warren, well fenced, and kept diftinft
for this purpofe; it might not, in fome fituatiorts, be more
profitably employed in this than in any other manner.

By fome it is fuppofed, that it may be occafionally ne-
ceflary to reftrain them, on account of their aftonifiiing
fecundity ; but that to attempt to exterminate them, if it
were poffible, could not be politic or advifeable, as they
furnifli food for foxes, which would otherwife prey on game
and poultry;

This fort of dock is frequently met with in many other
diftrifts on tracts and fpots of fimilar kinds of barren and
uncultivable forts of land, and is probably the mod con-
venient, appropriate, and beneficial defcription of any by
whicli they can poffibly be occupied and managed.

Stocking. — In the fecond of the above didrifts, it is dated,
that in itocking a warren, whether the furface be flat or
hilly, a;-tificial burrows are made, to reconcile the rabbits

to the ground, .ind to preferve them from vermin, until they
have time to make their own burrows. And that in making,
thefe burrows, an improvement has lately, it is obferved,
been hit upon. They are bored with an auger, of a dia-
meter large enough to make a burrow of a fuHicicnt width.
In a level warren, thefe augers may, from lime to time, be
found ufeful in forming fucli holes. They, however, in
mod cafes, arc capable of making burrows for themfelves
without any difficulty.

But in regard to docking in Lincolnfhire, according to
the agricultural furvey of that didridt, fome of the warren
lands are docked in the proportion of three couple only to
the acre ; while in others, it is in a coniiderably larger pro-
portion. And one buck or male rabbit is faid to be there
fufficient for one hundred does, or females ; but this is cer-
tainly a much larger proportion of the latter fort, than it
allowed in mod other didnCts. On the wold warrens of
Yorkfliire, according to Mr. Marfliall, one male is confidered
as fufficient for only fix or /even females, and the nearer they
can be brought to that proportion, the greater the dock of
young ones that may be txpcfted, it being the nature or
economy of the rtiales to dedroy their young, efpecially
when the proportional number is too great.

Fencing. — The fencing in thefe fituations is fod-wall,
capped w'ith furze, or of late vvith diff draw, forming a
kind of thatch. And it is fuppofed, that reed would be
found admirable in tliis intention. The warrens near Drif-
field are fenced with paling; an expenfive fence in the out-
fet, and always under repairs. A brook, though ever fo
deep, is found to be infnfficient as a fence againd rabbits ;
one fide of Driffieldgreets warren is bounded by a brook ;
but it is neverthelefs fenced with paling. When the rabbits
can evade this, they readily fwim tiie brook. The neceffity
of good fences is of courfe fufficiently evident in this view,
as well as that of preferving them from the dedrudlion of
vermin, and birds of prey, fuch as eagles, kites, &c. which
are taken in deel traps, placed on elevated mounds of earth,
where they delight to fit. It is this kind of fencing ^nd
coping, or kidding the top, together with food in winter,
nets, traps, and other things for taking them, with char-
coal for drying the Ikins, warreners' men for killing and
carrying, horfcs for carrying them to market, &c. that con-
ditute the great expence of this fort of management.

Different Breeds. — There are many different breeds or
varieties of thefe animals, but thofe that are employed as
fto'ck for warrens are the common grey and filver-grey
breeds : the former of which is found to be confiderably
more hardy and much better for the purpofes of food ; but
the latter has greatly the advantage in the value of the fltin.
In the above warrens, -till lately the common grey rabbit,
probably the native wild rabbit of the iiland, was the onlv
fpecies. At prefent, the filver-haired rabbit is fought after,
and has, within the few lad years, been introduced into
mod warrens. The fliin of the grey rabbit is cut ; that is,
the wool is pared off the pelt, as a material of hats ; whereas,
that of the filver-haired rabbit is dreffed as fur ; which, the
writer uuderdands, goes principally to the Ead Indies.
The colour is a black ground, thickly interfperfed with
fingle white hairs. The flcins of this variety fell for about
four (hillings a dozen more than thofe of thecomm.on fort ;
a fufficient inducement for propagating it in preference to
the grey fort in mod cafes. If the white forts could be in-
troduced they might be ifill more valuable.

Management, Expences, Profits, isfc. — This is a fort of
dock tliat on the whole only requires a flight attention ;
it is, however, necedary to fupply the rabbits with addi-
tional food in the winter feafon, when the weather is fevere,

fuch

RABBIT.

fuch as fine green hay, i'ainfoin, clover, turnips, and others
of the fame fort, which niuft be dillributedover the warrens.
It is fuppofed that turnips anfwer the beft in deep fnows, as
the rabbits can difcover them by the fcent. This fort of
food is given in the quantity of two or three large cartfuls
to a thoufand couple per day, and one load of hay in the
fame time during a florm. It is l^kewife fometimes the prac-
tice to diflribute billets of new cut afli-boughs, gorfe or
whins, and other fimilar woods in the warrens, the bark and
other parts of wliich is eaten, by which the proportion of
hay is leflened in a conilderable degree. In great fnows, it
is neceffary to clear them away from the ditches or fences,
to prevent the rabbits from getting over them.

It may be obferved, that tiie rabbit is a fort of ftock that
begins to breed at an early age, as at eight, ten, or twelve
months, going only about thirty days vf ith young, the young
being a little more than three weeks old before they appear
from the burrows, during which time they are fuckled twice
in the day by the mother. It is therefore evident, that they
may breed three or four times in the courfe of the year under
good keep, as the does take buck almofl immediately after
producing their young. In warrens that are inclofed, it is
however faid, that they feldom breed more than two or three
times in the year. The annual produce per acre, is moftly
cftimated at from three or four, to eight or ten couple,
yielding a profit of from eight, ten, or even fifteen (hillings,
wliere they are conduced under a good fyftem of manage-
ment. And the produce is, as has been feen, the largelt
on new lands ; however, much of the profit muft always
depend on fituation, fo as to be near good markets.

Thefe animals are in what is termed feafon from the
end of Oftobcr to the beginning of January, in which
period the bed flcins are produced : of courfe a large pro-
portion of them is killed in this fliort time. The farmer
often fuftains great lofs in what by the purchafers are called
hiilf (Ifins, quarter fjcins, and racls, fixteen of which are
only confidered as a whole fein. The rabbits are difpofed
of by the hundred, fix leore couple being confidered as an
hundred.

The following ftatements are given in the Agricultural
Sul^'ey of Lincolnfhire, on this fort of management. On
the authority of Mr. Chaplin, it is ftated that on looo
acres it is fair to kill 2000 couple, which are fold by the
hundred, as above; which have fold at 10/. on an average
often years ; laft year 13/. ; killing and looking after, 60/.
for 1000 acres. And on the warrens oetween Gayton and
Tathwell, filver flcins have been from 15 j. even to 21s. a
dozen ; but the common grey rabbit is fo much hardier,
that if a warren be ftocked with both, there will, in a few
years, be nothing but greys. It is added, that from Louth
to Caftor, 18 miles, 10 of them are warrens, chiefly filvers ;
rent 2s. to 3J. an acre. They plough a part every year
for corn and turnips ; and laying down again with feeds, let
down the fences for the rabbits to enter. Warrens are
reckoned profitable, fo that fome fortunes have been made
on them. It is further ftated, that in point of fldns, thofe
bred about May-day undergo no change from their white
colour, but from a white rack become a whole flcin ; bred
at Lady-day, become black ; in June, white ; in July,
black ; in November, white again : then in full feafon, as
the carcafes are alfo. The llcins ought to have thofe colours
on the infide, when flayed, or ftripped off from the rabbits.
The writer further itates, that from 250 acres of land, that
were fainfoin worn out, and planted with rabbits, the fol-
lowing was the account many years ago ; but all prices,
rent, &c. &c. are calculated at the prefent rates ; and it is
to be noted; that the ground being thus new to rabbit"

was much more produ<£livc than old warren land is found
to be, as they breed much better on fuch new than on old
land. Ufed to kill about 20CO couple ; (lock left about 700
couple. Sod banks that coil, thirty-five years ago, is. zd.
a rood of feven yards, would now colt is. ; furze faggots
were is. a hundred, that is, ^s. for tlic furze, and zs. Kid-
ding, now doubled. Banks will lall about feven years, in
a middling way ; from three to twenty ; want facing once
in feven years, at hall the firft expence ; want capping in
three years witli the furze. I^aying on, or capping, 'i,d. a
rood now. It was then reckoned that 250 acres would
clear 100/., befides rent, which then was ij-. an acre.
Fencing annually half a mile 800 yards 133 roods at 1/.,
6/. 13^.; for facing furze, a kidd will do a yard ; z\ miles
kidding, at a kidd a yard, 4400 yards and kidds, at ijj-.
now, for 120 or 27/. los., or per annum 9/. 7,5. \d. add
6/. 13 J-., it is 15/. \f)s. \d. per annum. A warrener 35/.,
a cow, fuel, and iioufe : in all 40/. Extra labour, killing
1 8 J. a -week for fixteen weeks, 14/. Sj-. Alfo for a month
i%s. a-week, 3/. \zs.: in all 18A Befides nets and
thread, 1 2 at 60 yards each ; lall fix or feven years ; would
coft i/. 1 1 J. dd. Traps jj. a-year. The men who kill
will carry. Four horfes for fix weeks, i /. 4^-. a-week,
7/. 4 J-. Charcoal for drying Iliins, 5^. A perfon to order
Ikins, that is, clear from fat, and drying, five weeks ; a
ufeful woman will do it, i /. Winter food (after three
days fnow they mull be ferved) cannot be lefs than 10/. a
year on 250 acres.

Rent now

Tithe

Rates

Fencing
Warrener
Extra labour

Recapitulation.

Per Acre,

£ s. d.

060"]

o

o

o I 3

032

o I 6

6 o"!

0 o >

1 oj

£

10 o

Nets, traps, and charcoal

Horfes

Winter food

002
o o 6f
000

16 16 4
40 o o
19 o o
216
740
10 o o

o 13 7q

Poifon, powder, and (hot, and iundries ; fox-
(kins I s. each ....

Produce.

2000 couple at 9</.

Skins 9 ^. to I J. 3 (/. ; average i s.

\ 20

Expences
Profit

184 II 10

75 o o
200 o o

275 o o
184 II 10

90 8

But it is, notwithftanding this ftatement, fuggefted, that
if he had a warren of his own, he would plough it up for
corn, &c. ; thinking tillage now more profitable than rab-
bits. And the author adds, that at Partney fair, meeting
with Mr. Grant of Withgul, and difcourfing with him upon
warrens, he informed him that a common ftock in wnnter
was three couple per acre, and the produce five or fix
R r 2 couple

RABBIT.

couple killed; that killing, carrying, &c. might amount
to fomething more tlian is. an acre: the fort fdver

fP'

vhich will not do well in other counties, where they

have been tried. He has now looo acres of warren ; and
upon looo acres the ilock is 2600 couple, and kill jooo
couple annually. New land is the moil produdive. On
fuch a warren, the rabbits mult have two loads of hay a day
in a ftorm, or two or three large waggon loads a day of
turnips. The warrener has 20/. a-year, and two cows ;
the killers '6s. or C)s. a-week, and board for ten weeks.
Silver (Icins now are lOs. a dozen ; have been 14^. to 15J.
Fences 60 a-year ; no crofs ones ; no buildings. The im-
menfe occupation of Mr. Grant and his fons, being much
the mod conlidcrable in the county, with the circumllance
of making an ample fortune, made him defirous of feeing
him. It is added, that 20 years ago, Driby had a warren
of 12 or 1300 acres ; and the rent of the farm including it,
300/. a-year, which rent has been doubled by ploughing.
And Mr. Kenliaw obferved, that the community received
next to nothing from warrens ; which is probably the cafe,
as has been feen above, where the land is capable of being
managed under the plough, or the fyllem of grafs.

And the calculation of Mr. Parkinfon, of a warren of
700 acres under rabbits, in the fame diftrift, (lands thus :
rent 5^. ; Handing ftock 2000 couple of filver hair, valued
to the incoming tenant at 2/. 6d. a couple ten years ago,
and demanding a capital of 1400/.; and carefully i^i/ic^/ to

catch all extra bucks, fo as to leave only one-fourth ot thf

total number of bucks.

€ s. d.

Produce 3000 couples for fale, worth, enl

an average of (even years pad, 15/. a > 450 o o
hundred - - - - - -J

But as fome are greys, the price 10/. - 300 o o

750 o o

375:

Take the average of the two, that is, filver'

liair of the Wolds, and greys of Lincoln

Heath, it will be on a medium
Or about los. lod. an acre. And add to thefo, 350 Iheep,
kept by a courfe of tillage ; that is, ploughing up 50 acres
annually for paring and burning for turnips ; then fpring
corn and feeds, which feeds (lieep-fed one year, and thrown
open to the rabbits : the (heep at zJ. per week for 25 weeks,
will amount to 72/. \0s. This is inferior to the common
produce of (heep ; but the rabbits will demand hay, &c. to
the amount of the difference ; and alfo a team of horfes mull
be kept for the cultivation of 1 00 acres of land, and carrying
the rabbits to market. Hence,

The 50 acres of corn will be confumed by
the horfes, and mailer's and warrener's
cows, &c. ....

'}

447

Expences and Profits of a Rabbit Warren Farm.

Dr.

£

s. d.

Per Contra Cr.

£

s. d.

To rent 700 acres of land, ^s. per

acre

.

175

0 0

By flaughter of 3000 couple of rabbits, 15/.

450

0 0

To tithe, one-ninth

_

.

19

8 10

By 300 fleeces of wool, 4 and 5 to tod,")

To town charges . . .

.

21

17 4

about 65 tod, 20s. per tod, -viz. 200 >

65

0 0

To matter and miftrefs's board?

and clothing " - "J
To four children, 10/. per year .
To four fervants, 10/. ditto, viz.

three men and one maid

£

40

40

0
0
0

d.
0

0

0

ewes and 100 hogs - - - -J
Sell about 80 he-hogs, from turnips, 24J.
And about 50 drape-ewes, 21s.
By 50 acres barley, 3 qrs. per acre, 1 p

and oats - - - -J
Deduft feed and horfe corn - 70

96
54

0 0
10 0

To extra labourers, carpenters,'
and other workmen

30

0

0

Remains 80 quarters, at 2 1 j.

84

0 0

Total houfekeeping

_^^^

162

0 0

By 20 beafls, to fell about five to graziers, 1
8/. /frhead J

40

0 0

To Hujhandry.

By Rnne, poultry, &c. ...

20

0 0

A warrener, with houfe, and two '
cows ....
To three extra labourers, mow-^

26

0

0

Profit in breeding foals - -

20

0 0

Total

827

10 0

ing corn and hay, repairing.

72

Expences

533

6 2

fencing, alTifling in killing

0

0

rabbits, &c. . . -

Net gain

294

3 10

To blSckfmith's bill ' -
Carpenter's ditto ...

'5
22

0
0

0
0

It is noticed, that as the family is main
the farm, the intereft of the capital of ab
not charged, becaufe the intereft would be <
year, when they are maintained out of the
profit of 294/. 3J-. lod.

tained

out of

Extra turnip-hoers and hay-"}
makers in fummer - - j

20

0

0

■55

0 0

3ut 1400/. is
)nly 70/. per
farm, with a

J33

6 2

It is ftated by the writer of the above agricultural
furvey, that the warren of North Ormfby, occupied by the
late Mr. Anfell, is fuppofed to be one of the belt managed
in the county. The rabbits chiefly confifl: of filver-greys ;
the land of the yearly value from 2s. 6d. to Ss., and fome
little of it los. the ftatute acre. The occupier was of
opinion, that lately his warren lands would liave paid him

better, had they been applied to the purpofe of growing
corn, and grafs feeds for keeping fheep. The rabbit pro-
duce he fuppofed to be from Ss. to los. ; in fome parti-
cular years they have paid from Ijj. to 21s. an acre; but
to obtain any extraordinary profit, very great care muft, he
thinks, be taken in kilhng the many difTcrent kinds of
vermin which depredate, and, without the utmoll vigilance,

will

RABBIT.

will quite depopulate the warrens. A confiderahle ex pence
alfo attends the necefilty there is for night-watchers, to pro-
teCl them from the inlinitely worfe vermin, the poachers.
With him the lilvcr-erey Ikins have been fold from H-r/. to
l^cL and i6c/. per flcin : the lall two years they have only
brought from I0(/. to ud. p<;r i\i\n ; but to obtain even
theie prices, they mud be what is called full fealoned, whole
flcins, and of the choicell colours, with relpccl to which
the fafhion varies very greatly. Tiie carcafes, of late years,
have not averaged net into pocket more tlian 4 (/. ^cr couple,
after the expence of drying them, and by means of light dili-
gence carts, having them carried to markets 30, and fometimes
more than 60, miles to obtain even that fum. This incon-
vcHience is occafioned partly by its being neced'ary to kill
eight or ten parts of a year's flaughter in io fliort a time, as
between the fecond week in November and Chrillmas, on
account of their ficins being tlien only in full prime, and as
they arc alio very foon fubjc£l to become putrid, much
more fo than hares ; and their being obliged to be packed
clofe together, very greatly increafes the mifchief.

The elUmate of the warren on the eftate at Thorefway of
1 700 acres, as given by the tenant Mr. Holdgate, with the
filver fort of rabbits, is this :

Labour, three regular warrencrs, with extra 7
affiitants at killing - - -J

Fences ....

Winter food . . •

Nets, traps, Sec. &c.
13elivery ...

Rent is faid to be ■7s. an acre -

£ s.

rt.

SS 0

0

42 10

0

42 10

0

14 3

4

21 5

0

595 0

0

The capital employed is that fum with the"
addition of (lock paid for ; fuppofe
Hated about three couple an acre

1 with the!

)ofe this as >-

at 2s. 4(i. J

800 8

595

Intereft on that fum one year at 5 per cent.

Annual Account.

1395 8 4

69 15 5

1465 3 9

£ s. (!.

800 8 4

69 15 5

Expences as above
Intereft

Produce 10,000 couple, at 2s. 4^.
Expences ...

Profit

Or about 22I. per cent, (the 5 /f /■ cent, included) on capital
employed. This the writer obferves is very great, reckoned
on the capital, but fmall reckoned by rent, as it amounts to
only half a rent. But fuppofe the grofs produce of 1500,
which he takes to be nearer the fadl ; then the account will
ftand thus :

£. s. d.
Produce .... 1500 o o

Expences .... 870 3 9

870

3

9

1 166

870

13
3

4
9

296

9

7

But it isfuppofed tliat, in whatever way it is taken, it ex.
plains the rcalon of fo many of thefe nuifanceS remaining.
The invcdmcnt of a fmall capital aflbrds a profit orintercll
that nothing elfe will, and of courfe tile proprietor will be
fure never to convert them to better ufe. But, it is afked,
what fays the public interell > Here are only 200/. ex-
pences to 600/. rent, what is the population, the indultry,
the improvement ! The landlord gets the lowed of rent's,
the tenant makes a good profit, they divide all, and the rett
of the world is little or no better for them.

Rabbit-warrens are met with in mod other didncts of
tlie kingdom, both towards the foutljern and northern parts
of it ; but more abundantly in thofc of the north. In the

Profit

or 45 per cent, on the capital.

629 16 3

iitly
fouth they have in mod places been got quit of from any
tolerable fort of land which is capable of affording any
other better kind of uleful produce, but in fome parts of
the north they dill occupy fpaces of ground which are of a
good quality, and which might be converted to better pur-
pofes with great advantage to the proprietors, as well as far-
mers. Warrens of this nature, in fome cafes, in both thefe
fituations, however, dill continue to be well docked, and in
the latter, are in particular indances of pretty confiderable
extents.

In Chefliire, the principal rabbit-warrens are on Delamere
fored, tiiougii on ieveral of the heaths and fand-lands thefe
animals are frequently met with, but not in fucii numbers
together as to conllitute warrens.

In the north riding of Yorkdiire, alfo, a few rabbit -war.
rens are met with on the detached moors, as well as on the
fliirtsof the higher moors ; but they are not fo extenfive as
to make them an objeft of much attention. The kind of
rabbits here are moilly the common grey, with the excep-
tion of the dock on a warren at Nappa, in Wenfley-dale,
of about one hundred and fifty or two hundred acres, which
confids of fiiver-greys, and is the only warren which is
known, in tiiis didridt, to be entirely docked with this
fort : they are ilated to have been brought fome years fincc
from a warren in the above noticed didrift of Lincohiihire,
to which they had been originally introduced from Ireland.
The fkins of this kind of i-abbits are fuppofed to be worth
double thofe of the grey ; they are not uled for felts, as the
lad, but dreffed as furs, and ultimately exported in that
date for the China market, where they are worn by the
principal people ; an ufc which has been already noticed and
confidered in regard to the demand which it creates.

But in the northern parts of Lancalhire, warrens of this
kind are more frequent. At Roflall-hall, in the-trad called
the Fild, one of great extent has exided for a very great
length of time ; but the prefent proprietor, B. F. Hiflteth,
efq. has, with great propriety, lately reduced it very confi-
derably, by taking two large fine farms from it, fo that it
now confiils only of about a hundred acres of the mod fandy
barren part.

This warren formerly fupplied a great number of rabbits
for fale in the markets and hat manufaftories of the neigh-
bourhood, and of courfe became a fource of profit to the
owner, though the management was very imperfeft. The
farms taken from it will, however, become far more ad-
vantageous to him.

Tlie dock here was formerly of the grey rabbit kind, and
it is dill the lame on the warren which remains, w'hich is
however tar from being fufficiently Itocked.

There was formerly no fort of green food ever cultivated
for this fort of dock ; nor has it been yet attempted on the
prefent warren, but the proprietor intends to have it done in
an effeftual manner. Nor have the rabbits ever been fed in
the winter feaXou with either hay, bark, or any other fort

of

RABEIT.

of food ; their being fo near to the fea-coaft perhaps ren-
ders it unneceffary.

The only mode of taking the rabbits here has liitherto
been in nets, by what is termed running them by means of
doEjs.

At Heynuim tlic Rev. Mr. Clarkfon has a trad of coarfe
ftony hmd above his houfc, of about twenty acres, which has
a groat number of grey rabbits in it, and is well fuited for a
rabbit-warren, as it is incapable of being converted to any
better purpofe on account of the fcverity of the well winds,
and the effefts of the fea-fpray thrown up by them, as well
as its rocky, vvhiny nature.

The principal rabbit-warrens in this county are, however,
thofe in the fandy trails in the fouth and north ends of the
ifle of Walney, and in the neck of land from which it feems
to have been Separated. The rabbit-warren at the north end
of this little ifland occupies a confiderable fpace of ground
of this barren fandy quality, as well as that at the fouthcrn
point. The former is flocked wholly with rabbits of the
grey kind, this fort being in moil demand. There is much
expence attending thefe warrens in many cafes.

The expence of Hocking in order to keep them up is
fometimes very confiderable. In this inftance the farmer has
upwards of two miles of dike fence compofcd of fod and Hone
to keep up and in repair, which cofts from five to fix fhiU
lings the rod of feven yards. The expence of a man con-
ftantly to Icok after the rabbits, and keep the dike fences
in proper order and repiiir. That of the purchafe of the
traps or types, which coil 3/. a-piece, and eighteen are re-
quired ; but tliey lall long, and coil httle in repairs.

The providing net and dogs, which is annually about id.
The charge of taking the rabbits to Ulverllon, twice in
the week, during ten weeks, which is 5^. each time.

The fale of rabbits is annually from one hundred and fifty
couple upwards, at the rate of 2s. 6d. each couple. They
are ufually fold to Lyons of Prellon, who takes the charge
of them after they have been delivered at the above-named
place.

Not any fort of dry or green food is ever given to the
rabbits in this warren during the winter feafon ; but there is
not any fnow, and very little froft taking place ; in confe-
quenceof the fituation being fo furrounded by the fea.

The warren at the fouth end of the fame little ifland is of
fimilar extent, and exactly under the fame fort of manage-
ment ; but it is faid to be earher, by a month at leaft, in the
breeding of the rabbits, and the quahtyof their fur ; which
is fuppofed to arife from its being more fully expofed to the
influence of the morning fun, in which the rabbit delights,
and by which it is greatly benefited.

The rabbits are here likewife aflerted to fell for a higher
price, as 3^. the couple, than in the warren at the north end
of it.

The rabbit-warren at Sand Scale is another farm of this
fort in this neighbourhood, under fimilar regulations, but
fomewhat imaller than thofe in the ifle of Walney ; and there
is a ftill fmaller one attached to a farm at Roanhead, the
property of Miles Sandyes, efq. of Graythwate, which is
condufted in much the fame manner, and with the fame re-
fults as in the above cafe.

It may be noticed that this fort of fl:ock is moftly taken
by nets or traps, fet in the form of a fold between the places
where they rvui, and thofe where they feed, the rabbits being
hunted into them as they return from feeding. But the
wold warreners, Mr. Marfliall fays, have three ways of
catching their rabbits : with fold-nets, with fpring-nets,
and with " types ;" afpeciesof trap. The fold-nets are fet
about midnight, between the burrows and the feeding-

grounds ; the rabbits bemg driven in with dogs, and kept
inclofed in the fold until morning. But the fpriiig-ntt, when
ufed, is, he believes, generally laid round a liay-ilack, or
ctlier place, wliere rabbits colIe£t in numbers. It is added
that the trap is a more modern invention. It confills of a
large pit or cift.ern, formed within the ground, and covered
in with a floor : or with one large falling door, having a
fmall trap-door towards its centre, into which the rabbits are
led by a narrow muce. And this trap, on its firft introduc-
tion, was fet mollly by a hay-ilack ; hay being, at that
time, the chief winter food of rabbits ; or on the outfide of
the warren wall, where rabbits were obferved to Icratch
much, in order to make their efcape. Since the cultivation
of turnips, as a winter food for this fpecies of Hock, has
become a praftice, the fituation of the trap has been changed.
Turnips being cultivated in an inclofure within the warren,
n trap is placed within the wall of this inclolure. For a
night or two, the muce is left open, and the trap kept co-
vered (with a board or triangular rail), in order to give the
rabbits the requifite haunt of the turnips : which having
got, the trap is barred, and the required number taken. He
adds, that in emptying the cift.ern, the rabbits are forted ;
thofe which are fat, and in feafon, are flaughtered ; thofe
which are lean, or out of condition, are turned upon the
turnips to improve. And that, at the clofc of the feafon,
the bucks and -the does are forted, in a fimilar way ; the
bucks are flauglitercd, the does turned loofe to breed. Mr.
Marfliall alfo remarks^ that great caution is requifite in the
ufe of thefe traps. If too many rabbits be admitted at once,
and the ciflern be kept clofe covered only for a few hours,
fuffocating and inordinate heat takes place, and the carcafes,
at leail, are fpoiled. Many thoufand carcafes have been
wailed through this means. The traps are therefore
watched ; and wlien the required luimber is caught, the
muce is fl:opped, or the trap covered in a proper manner.

And it is obferved, that fome notion may be formed of
the produce of the wold warrens, from the great numbers
which are frequently flaughtered at once ; five or fix liun-
dred couple having not unfrequently been flaughtered in one
night : and, it is faid, that when the two Driffield warrens
lay together, there was once an inft^ance of fifteen hundred
couple being killed at one time.

There is often much inconvenience in thi> fort of it ock, from
their getting out oftheir inclofures, and defl:roying tlie young
corn-crops, new fown graffes, young turnips, and the quick
hedges as well as young plantations of apple-trees that may
be in the neighbourhood. This forjns a material objedlion
tc- this fort "of ftock by' the farmer.

Tame Rabbits. — In refpeft to breeding and rearing tame
rabbits with the view of profit, thofe who are engaged in
the bufinefs perform it in hutches, which mull be kept very
neat and clean, otherwife the rabbits will be iubject to dif-
eafc- Care mull be taken alfo to keep the buck and does
apart, till the latter have juft kindled, then they are to be
turned to the bucks again, and to remain with them till they
fliun and run from them.

And the general direftion for the choofing of tame rabbits,
is to pick the largeft and fleekeft : but the breeder fliould re-
member, that the fl<ins of the filver-haired and white forts
fell better than any other. Tiie food of the tame rabbits
may be colewort and cabbage-leaves, carrots, parfnips, green
corn, and vetches in the time of year ; alfo parfley, grafs,
green leaves, milk, and fow-thiflles, and other fimilar plants,
but with thefe moiil foods they rauil conllantly have a pro-
portionable quantity of dry food, as hay, bread, oats, bran,
and other fimilar matters, otherwife they grow pot-bellied,
and die. Bran and grain mixed together have been found

to

RABBIT.

to be very good food. In winter they cat hay, oats, and cliaff,
and thele may be given tiiem three times n day ; but when
they eat green things, it muit be obferved tliat they are not
to drink at all, as it throws them into a dropCy. At all
other times a very little drink fervcs, but it fliould alvi'ays be
frefli. When any green herbs or grafs are cut for their food,
eare muil be taken that there is no hemlock among it, for,
though they will eat this greedily among other things, when
offered to them, it is a fudden poifon to them. In this mode
of breeding, one male to eight or ten females is fufficient.

It is remarked, that the author of the Treatife on Agri-
culture and Gardening, has bred thefe animals with much
fuccefs and ornamental effeft in a fmall artificial warren, in
a lawn in the garden, made in the following manner.
" Pare off the turf of a circle, about forty feet diameter,
and lay it on the outfide ; then dig a ditch within this
circle, the outfide perpendicular, the inner (loping, and
throw earth fufficient into the middle to form a little hill,
two or three feet higher than the level of the Inwn ; the
reft muft be carried away. Then lay down the turf on the
hill, and beat it well to iettle. The ditch at bottom mould
be about three feet wide, and three and a half deep, with
two or three drains at the bottom, covered with an iron
grate, or a ftone with holes, to carry off the hafty rains, in
order to keep the rabbits dry. In the outfide bank fhould
be fix alcoves, the fides and top fupported, either by boards
or brick-vv'ork, to give the rabbits their dry food in ; by
their different lituations, fome will always be dry ; fix boxes,-
or old tea-chefts, let into the bank, will do very well. If the
ground be very light, the outfide circle fhould have a wall
built round it, or fome flakes driven into the ground, and
boards or hurdles nailed to them, within a foot of the bot-
tom, to prevent the bank from falling in. The entrance
muil be either by a board to turn occafionally acrofs the
ditch, or by a ladder. The turf being fettled, and the
grafs beginning to grow, turn in the rabbits, and they
will immediately go to work to make themfelves burrows in
the fides, and in the hill. By way of inducing them rather
to build in the fides, to keep the turf the neater, make a
fcore of holes about a foot deep, and they will finifh them
to their own mind ; and if there be a brick-wall round it, it
fhould be built on pillars, with an arch from each, to leave
a vacancy for a burrow." But there is, he fays, another
way that may be pradtifed, which is, " to dig the ditch
only about two feet deep, which will yield about earth
enough to make the hill ; put fome pales, about a foot high,
on the outfide, for that will be a fulScient height to keep
the rabbits in. Feed them as other tame rabbits are fed ;
and in wet weather fprinkle faw-duil at the bottom, by
which means the quantity of manure will be increafed ; once
a week is often enough to take it away : the quantity will
be furprifing, nor will the.fmell be in the leaft offenfive,
even though it be quite clofe to the houfe. In a very large
lawn, two or three of thefe hills, with the rabbits f:^eding
on the tops, will not be unpleafing objefts. If the bucks
happen to be mifchievous in killing the young ones, they
muft be chained in an alcove ; or elfc have their liberty
as in a warren. After a great fnow they will want fome
affillance early next morning ; becaufe the ditch will be
nearly filled, and perhaps the alcove, where the hay is, will
be blocked up."

He adds, that " it is a great improvement to caftrate
the young bucks, and keep them till they are full grown,
before you kill them ; the flefh will be amazingly finer,
whiter, and tenderer. But then it will be beft to take
them away, and- keep them in another warren, left they

fhould be too numerous, and difturb the breeding does ; or
eH'c liave a few hutches in the alc<n-e to fatten them in."

It is fuggofted, that " as oil-cakes are found of great
life in fattening cattle, it is probable they would be ufeful
in fattening ral)bits : and it is afTertcd, that fome of the
oil mixed with the pollard or buck-wheat, is cheaper than
the cakes ; but having never made the experiment, he can-
not afcertain its fupcrior advantages."

In this mode, attention fhould be had to the breeding
thofe forts of rabbits whofe fl<ins are in the greateft efteem
with the furriers and hatters. Thefe fkins are gerierally
of more value than the f^efh, efpecially in the winter, againit
which time contrive to have the greateft quantity of thefe
fattened bucks.

Pi-nfit. — It is remarked, in relpetl to profit in this way,
that wliere does are kept in hutches, they are fuppofed to
breed fix times a-year, and only five young ones are left
to each, \vhich is thirty from each doe : but as thefe ai-e iit
a more natural way, and the young ones difficult to be
gotten at, let us fuppofe about thirty-fix to be produced
from each doe, reckoning only feven- pence for each ; there
is a guinea profit from each doe; as the additional valuc
of the f]<ins in winter, and the dung, will more than pay the
exponce of food and attendance on them. And it is quite
neceffary that thofe who keep many rabbits in this way,
fhould cultivate fome lucern, parfley, and carrots, as no
other vegetables are fuch proper food for them as thefe ;
they fliould alfo be fed upon fome of the beft upland paf-
ture-hay ; for if it be coarfc, i"o far from eating, tiiey will
walte it. Lucern hay is very proper for them in thefe
cafes.

In fome diftrifts very confiderable profits and advantages
are derived from the breeding and keeping of white tame
rabbits. The flfins of this fort having lately been much
employed in trimmings, have fold at a much higher price
than thofe of the common kinds. Their dung is alfo
found of very great utility in the cultivation of large
farms.

Dijiafes. — When kept in this way, rabbits are fubjeft
to feveral difeafes, as the rol, which is caufed by the giving
them too large a quantity of green food, or the giving
it frefh gathered, with the dew or rain hanging in drops
upon it, as it is over-moillure that always caufes the
difeafe ; the green food fhould, therefore, always be.- given
dry, and a fufficient quantity of hay, or otiier dry food, in-
termixed with it, to counteract the bad effefts of it. And
a fort of madnefs often feizes them : this may be known
by their tumbhng about ; their heels upwards, and hop-
ping in an odd manner into the boxes. This diitemper
is fuppofed to be owing to the ranknefs of their feeding :
and the general cure is the keeping them low, and giving
them the prickly herb called tare-thiftle to eat as much as
poflible. They are alfo fubjeft to a fort of fcabby erup-
tion, which is feldom removed. Tliefe fhould, however,
be direftly feparated from the reft: of the ftock.

It is noticed that the profit in this mode of management
cannot, however, be well afcertained, as much will depend
on the care which is taken in the feeding, and other manage-
ment.

RABBiT-ZFarrra, the place where thefe animals breed
and rear their young. The land for this purpofe fhould
be of a light fandy quality, and it is beft to have a hilly
fituation, wth a funny expoftire, being well inclofed by
means of fod-walls, or paling-fences : any fort of watte,
craggy, or rocky land, on winch nothing elfe can be culti-
vated, anfwers very well for this purpofe. See Rabbit.

6 Rabbit-

R A B

R A B

RAViTiiT-IV/irrei! Farm, that fort wliich is chiefly managed literature of the age. He acquired a good (hare of popu-
under the rabbit fyflem. Thcfe forts of farms are now larity as a preacher ; and what he gained by his fermons, 1 c
much lefs common than formerly, but in fome inllances, as expended in the purchafe of a fmall hbrary. His private

has been feen, tiu-y afford the lieft and nioft advantageous
means by which lands can be turned to any account in the
way of cultivation. They, however, in moit cafes require
no little capital, exertion, and attention, to manage them
in the bell and mod profitable methods. See Rabbit.

Rabuit Mmmre, that which is collefted from the dung
of thofc animals, and which is faid to be very valuable. See
Makuuk.

It (s found beneficial in different modes of application, as
by being intimately mixed and blended with the main par-
ticles of the foil or mould in arable lands, and by being
fown by the hand, only over the furface of it, in the way
of a top-drelling, when they are in a ilate of crop. When
ufed in this lad manner, it is likewife highly advantageous
on moft for:^ of grafs land ; and in both thefe cafes of top-
drefling with it, there is a very quick and powerful Itate of
vegetation produced in the crops, which can hardly be
(rained in any other way. See Quick Manure, and Top-
DreJJing.

In Oxforddiire, Mr. Fane lias raifed a fmall building for
keeping rabbits in hutches, for the fake of the manure ; he
is faid to have fome hundreds, and to meditate the ereftion
of a fccond building for keeping double the number ; the
prefent quantity make a load of manure in the courle of the
week ; and as two loads manure an acre, they are the means
of fully dreffing twenty-fix acres annually : it is not con-
ceived by him that they produce any other profit, nor is it

'ife was not fo exemplary as his public difcourfes were edi-
fying ; and for fome mifconduft, which caufed fcandal in
the monaflery, he was impriloned in his cloifter. By his
wit and facetioufnefs he obtained his liberation, with the
pope's permiifion to quit his order, and remove to that of
St. Benedift. Not being able, however, to bear any kind
of reftraint, he laid afide his religious habit, and, in 1530,
went to Montpclier to fludy medicine. After fome time
he repaired to Lyons, where he printed a collection of
pieces of Hippocrates and Galen. Here he likewife pub-
lifhed feveral other works, among which were fome of the
books of his Hiftorj' of Pantagruel, which gave him fo dif-
tinguifhed a place among burlefquc writers. In 1535 he
went to Paris, and waited on cardinal John du Bellay, to
whom he had been known when they refided in the fame
convent ; and he now made himfelf fo agreeable to his old
friend, that he was taken into his houfe in the feveral capa-
cities of phyfician, reader, librarian, and fteward. Du
Bellay, in the following year, going out as ambaflador to
the court of Rome, took Rabelais with him, where his wit
fo much interctted the pope and cardinals, that he very
readily obtained a full abfolution for the crime of apoftacv.
In 1537 he took his doftor's degree in phyfic at Monl-
pelier ; and returning to Paris foon after, his friend the
cardinal prefented him with a prebend in the chapter of St.
Maur. He was afterwards made the cure of Meudon,
which office he held from IJ45 to his death, in 1553,

neceffary ; for to be able to fell fo much food at home, and being, according to one of his biographers, in the 631!,

pay attendance, the profit of manuring iuch a breadth of and according to another, in the 70th year of his age. His

land, it is fuppofed, mufl fie confiderable. Three dozen of Pantagruel, which was finiflied about the time that he ac-

rabbits in the week are moftly fent to the London market cepted the cure of Meudon, brought upon him the hoftility

durino- the feafon in which they can be ufed. of the monks, whom he had feverely fatirized, and who

This is a fort of dung or manure, which has yet been procured its condemnation by the Sorbonne and the par-

but little fubjefted to chemical examination, confequently liament ; but it caufed his company to be much fought

its real properties, or conftitucnt principles, are very im- after, as the wittieft writer of his time. The want of de-

perfeftly known or underttood ; it would appear, however,
from the effects which it produces, that it may be employed
with the moft advantage, when laid upon the land, in its
more raw, crude, or frefh ftate, before it has undergone
much decompofition by the procefs of fermentation or putre-
faftion. It has, perhaps, never yet been kept dry and
reduced into a powdery condition, fo as to be put in along
with the Jeed, in the manner of rape-dufl;, though it feems
probable that it would go farther, and be more beneficial, in
fome cafes, if ufed in this way. See Dung.

RABCHORCADO, in Ornithology, the name of an
American bird, defcribed by Nieremberg with many fa-
bulous circumilances. All that feems certainly known is,
that its tail is very remarkably forked.

RABDA, in Geography, a town of Arabia, in the pro-
vince of Yemen ; 30 miles N.W. of Sana.

RABDIUM, in Ancient Geography, Tur-Raldin, a town
of Afia, upon a mountain, av fome diftance from the Tigris,
fouth of Tigranocerta, and eaft of Nifibis.
RABDOIDES. See Rhabdoides.
RABDOLOGY. See Rhabdology.
RABDOMANCY. See Rhabdomaxcy.

cency was eafily pardoned at that period, and Rabelais
had fome eifimable qualities, and poffelied extenfive and
various erudition, with a ready elocution, and an inex-
hauftible ftore cf ludicrous ideas. " The Pantagruel and
Gargantua of Rabelais," fays a critic, " are to be regarded
as comic fatires, often concealing, under a whimfical ex-
travagance, attacks upon follies which it would not have
been fafe ferioufly to expofe. It is in vam, however, that
commentators have attempted to find out the meaning in
much that is mere ribaldry and nonfenfe, and even to dif-
cover real hiftory veiled in the allegory of burlefque, where
the author meant nothing more than to make his reader
laugh or wonder. His fatire, where it is intelligible, is
often juft and ingenious ; but the obfcurity of his language,
and eccentricity of his conceptions, render the perufal of
his works, to a modern at leaft, rather a ta(k than an amufe-
ment." The moil complete editions of his works is that
publifhed in Holland, in 5 vols. 8vo., 1715, with notes by
Duchat ; and that at Amfterdam, in 3 vols. 4to., 1741,
with plates by Picart. The letters of Rabelais were pub-
lifhed in an odlavo volume, with notes by St. Marthe.
The memory of Rabelais is perpetuated in the medical

RABEBOIA, a name given by fome to the roots of the fchool of Montpelier, where bachelors are inverted with a

flammula major. fcarlet robe, faid to have been the very robe which that wit

RABELAIS, Fraxcis, \n Biography, was born about himfelf wore,

the end of the fifteenth century at Cliinon, in Touraine. RABELHORST, in Geography, a town of the duchy

At an early period he entered himfelf among the Cordeliers, of Holllein ; 5 miles W.N.W. of Cifmar.

and became well fKilled m the learned languages, and the RABENAU, a town of Saxony, in tjie margraviate of

1 1 Meiflfen ;

R A B

Meiilen ; 8 miles S.S.W. of Drefden. N. lat. 50° 52'. E.
long. 13° 36'.

RABENECK, a town of Bavaria, in the bidiopric of
Bamberg ; 3 miles S.W. of Weifchenfeld.

RABENEJl, TiiKoi'HiLus William, in Biography, a
celebrated German writer, was tiie fon of an advocate at
Lciplic, and born at Wachau in 1714. He was educated
at home, by tutors employed for the purpofe ; but when he
was 14 years of age, he was fcnt to the college of Meillcn,
where he had for fellow-iludents Grabener, Gartner, and
Gellert, with whom, and particularly vi'ith the Jall, he
formed a friendlhip which continued through life. In 1735
he went to the univcrlity of Leipfic, where he apphed him-
felf chiefly to the (tudy of jurifprudencc, witliout entirely
negleifling the Mufis. In 1741, profcllor Schwabe having
begun a journal in the German language, entitled " Amufe-
inents of Reafon and Wit," Rabener became one of his
principal coadjutors, and continued to afliil him by his con-
tributions till the year 1744. He is chiefly known as a
writer in the firfl volume, by a humorous piece entitled
♦' Proofs of the Neceflity of employing Rhyme in German
Poetry." This periodical work was, for fome time, carried
on with fpirit and fuccefs ; but at length it became de-
graded by literary difputes, whicli finally put an end to it ;
and another was eftablifhcd, under the title of <' Contribu-
tions of Bremen." Tlie writers engaged in this were all
the moft celebrated perfons who flourifhcd at that period,
among whom were Gartner, Schmidt, and Rabener, to
whom were united Gellert, Klopilock, and others. The
Journal of Bremen forms an epoch in the hiltoiy of the
German literature, as it introduced uito the country a better
. tafte, and tended greatly to improve the language, which,
previoufly to this, had been much negleiiled. Rabener had
befoie this been appointed controller of the taxes in the
circle of Leipfic, a place of great labour, and which re-
quired an exaft knowledge of the laws of the country, and
the moft inflexible integrity. Notwithftanding, however,
the attention which the duties of this office required, he
found leifure to continue his literary purfuits ; and towards
the end of 1751, compofed his fatirical letters, in which he
introduces perfons of every ftate and charafter, all of whom
fpeak in the lar.guage fuited to their condition. In 1753
he was appointed chief fecretary to the direftors of the
taxes at Drefden ; and two years afterwards he pnblifhed
the fourth and lafl volume of his fatires, which contains
<' A burlefque Explanation of the Proverbs of Sancho
Panza," the " Firfl of April," and " The Excufe and
Reparation." After this he began to write for the ftage,
and compofed a comedy in four afts, entitled " The Free-
thinker," which, with many other papers and letters, were
burnt, together with his houfc, during the fiege of Drefden,
in 1760. He now abandoned his literary labours, but his
friends obtained from him a colledtion of letters, which
were afterwards publifhed by Weifs. Thefe were never
intended for the public, but they are written with fo much
truth and fincerity, and exhibit a more correft pidlure of
the author than any pen could have drawn. His health
began to decline foon after his lofs in 1760, and in 1 767 he
experienced a paralytic llroke, which was repeated in 1769;
but he lingered out till March 1771, when he died. " He
was," fays his biographer, " among the fmall number of
thofe privileged men, whom nature has endowed with every
quality neceffary to their flate. He thought and fpoke in
a manner peculiar to himfelf: his pleafantries flowed as
from an abundant fource ; he never fought for them ; and
they appeared fo natural, pleafant,- and lively, that it was
impofTible not to be ftruck by them. But he difplayed his
. Vol. XXIX.

It A B

wit only among his friends : he never lavifhed it on the rich
and great ; on the contrary, he concealed it, when invited
merely for the purpofe of being heard. He always fpoke
the truth, witliout regard to perfons or rank." Raijener,
fays he, was the favourite author of Germany, who wrote
poetically in profc, whofe fatirical, fportive genius pofiefled
fait witliout gall. Rabener's works are generally known
throughout Europe, having been tranflatcd into the French,
Englilh, Dutch, and Mwcdifh languages. Gen. Biog.

RABENSPURG, in Geography, a town of Auftria •
8 miles N.E. of Liilerdorir.

RABENSTAIN, a town of Auflria, on the river Bie-
lach ; 8 miles S. of St. Polten.

RABENSTEIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Eeitmeritz ; 40 miles E. of Prague. N. lat. 50'^. E. long.
13" 26'. — Alfo, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 11 miles

N.N.W. of Gratz Alfo, a town of Bavaria, in the

bifhopric of Bamberg ; 2 miles S. of Weifchenfeld.

RABIA PniOR, in Chronology, is the name of the third
month of the Arabic year, conlifting of thirty days ; and
Ral'm poflerior is the name of the fourth month, coufifting
of twenty-nine days.

RABICH, a name given by Leo Africanus to a tree
or fhrub growing very plentifully in many parts of Africa,
the fruit of which is much .eileemed by the natives. He
fays that the 'tree rabich is prickly, and that the fruit is
round, and hke a cherry, but fmaller, and of the tafte of
the jujube.

RABIEL, a name given by fome authors to dragon's
blood.

RABIES, in Medicine, that peculiar ftate of the nervous
fyflem, which is produced by the bite of a rabid animal, and
which is commonly, but improperly, called madnefs. As
the dog is the principal fource of this difeafe, the word
rabies is commonly united with the epithet cantna. See
Hydrophobia.

RABINAL, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Vera Paz ; 40 miles S.S.W. of Vera Paz.

RABINET, a name formerly given to a fmall piece of
ordnance, between a falconet and a bafe. Its dimenfions,
&c. fee under Cannon.

RABIRA, a word ufed by fome of the chemical writers
to exprefs tm.

RABISHI, m Geography, a river of the ifland of St.
Vincent, forming a bay on the eaflern coaft, neur the
fouthern extremity, where it runs into the fea. . N. lat. 13''
5'. W. long. 61'=' II'.

RABLAY, a town of France, in the department of the
Mayne and Loire ; 9 miles N. of Villiers.

RABLES, JJIes aitx, a clulter of fmall iflands at the
entrance of lake Superior, in Upper Canada, and at theeafi:
end of it, eafl of White Filh ifland, and pretty clofe to the
main land.

RABNABAD, a town of Hindooflan, in Bengal, at
the mouth of the Ganges ; 90 miles S.S.E. of Mahmud-

pour Alfo, a fmall ifland on the coaft of Bengal, at the

mouth of the Ganges. N. lat. 22°. E. long. 90° 30'

Alfo, one of the mouths of the Ganges, which opens into
the bay of Bengal. N. lat. 22°. E. long. 90° z6'.

RABNITZ, a river of Hungary, which runs into the
Danube, a little below Raab.

R ABOGH, a town of Arabia, in the province of Ye-
men, near the coaft of the Red fea, where the Arabs live
in huts ; 105 miles S.W. of Medina.

RABOLANE, in Ornithology, a name given by many to
the lagopus, a bird found on the fnowy mountains, and
called by fome the white partridge.

Sf RABRI,

R A B

R A C

11 ABRl, a name given by fome authors to bole armenic. The filler of the bifliop, a nun, published an abridgment of

K A DUEL, Claude, jn Biography, a French Jefuit the life of Madame de Chantal, and of the life of St. Francis

and able mathematician, was born' at Font-de-Vele, in the de Sales. ,

county of Brede, in the year 1668. About the age of 18 RABY, in Geography, a fmall townfliip of America, in

he was entered into the focietv of Jefus, and principally New Hamplhire, m HilKborough county; about 65 miles

dillinguiflicd hmifclf by his prolicieiicy in mathematical W. by. S. of Portfmouth ; incorporated in 1790. Its

learning, of which he became the profelior in Trinity col- name has been fmce changed. — Alfo, a town of Bohemia,

leo-e at i.vons, oerformine its duties with great reputation in the circle of Prachatitz, containing a citadel, at th^

lege at Lyons, performing its duties with great reputatioi
and I'ucccfs. He died in 1728, in the 6otli year of his age.
His chief work was " A Commentary on the Geometry of
Defcartes," which was publifhed after his death in 1730,
under the care of father rEipinalle. This was the firll il-
lurtration of the whole of that work, which had been given
to the public. The labours of Fermat, De Witt, and
others, extended only to particular parts of it. Rabuel
left behind him other works on algebra, the conic fcftions,
and the geometrical loci of the diflerential calculus, and
of the integral calculus ; and he was one of the few inllances
of perions who, witli a paflion for the mathematics, had a
fine taite for polite literature.

RABUTAH, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
kingdom of Sennaar ; 35 miles S.S.W. of Senna.^r.

RABUTIN, Francis de, in Biography, who fiouridied
in the fixteenth century, was of an ancient and noble family
in Burgundy, and ferved in the army with the duke de
Nevers, under Heiu-y II. and Charles IX., with a high re-
putation for valour and fidelity. He was living in 1 581,
but nothing is known of him beyond that period. He was
author of " Commentaires de dernieres Guerres du Roi
Henri II. et de I'Empereur Charles Quint," firft printed
in 1555; a continuation was printed afterwards, in 1558;
and the whole work together in 11 books, in 1574. It
contains a hillory of the wars in the Low Countries, from
1550 to 1558, and is faid to be written in a fimple ftyle,
with a great appearance of vivacity.

Rabutin, Rogek de, count of Buffi, a very diltin-
guifhed charafter in the reign of Lewis XIV., was born at
Epiry, in the Nivernois, in 1618. He entered very young
into the army, in his father's (Leonor Baron of Buffi)
regiment, of which he became colonel. After ferving in a
number of battles and fieges, he roL- to the rank of mellre-
de-camp of the light horfe, and lieutenant-general of the
Nevernois. He looked for ilill liiglier honours, and being
difappointed, engaged in hinpoons upon perfons about the
court, which drew upon him the king's difpleafure ; and in
1665, in which year he was admitted a member of the

containing
fiege of wliicli, Zifca, general of tlie Haffites, loll hii
only remaining eye ; 4 miles S. of Horazdiowitz. — Alfo,
a town of Sweden, in Sudermanlaud ; 7 miles N. of Ny-
koping.

RACA, or Raciia, a Syriac term, found in the Gof-
pel of St. Matthew, chap. v. 22. and preferved in moft
tranflations.

Father Simon obferves, that the Greek tranflator of St.
Matthew's Gofpcl retained the Syriac raca, which he found
in the original, becaufe it was very common among the
Jews. And St. .Jerom, Luther, the Englilh tranflators,
thofe of Geneva, Louvain, Port-royal, &c. ftill preferve it
in their refpeftive languages.

F. Bonhours clioofes rather to exprefs the fenfe of it in
a fort of paraphrafe, thus ; he that fays to his brother,
homme de pen de fens, man of Utile underjlariding, fhall deferve
to be condemned by the tribunal of the council, &c.

Moit tranflators, except the Englifii, and F. Simon, for
raca write racha ; but the former orthography feems the
bell founded ; all the I^atin copies having raca, and all the
Greek ones fay.y., or, with Hefychius, f'co-.xs-, which is the
fame ; all, we mean, but St. Irenasus, and Beza's copy,
now at Cambridge, whicli have fa;;a. In efFeft, the origin
of the word (hews it Ihould be raca ; as coming from the
Syriac {<D"1; raca, of the Hebrew rek, p'~\, empty, Jhal-
loiv.

RACAISBONE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Aurungabad ; 30 miles S. of Aurungabad.

RACAM, a town of New Mexico, in the province of
Hiaqui ; 60 miles S.W. of Riochico.

RACAN, Hoxorat de Bueil, Marquis of, in Bio-
graphy, a French poet, was born in 1 589, of a noble family,
in Touraine. When very young, he had a place in the
king's bed-chamber, under the duke of Bellegarde. From
Malherbe, who was at that time domefticated with the
duke, he acquired a fondnefs for poetry, and obtained in-
ftruClions in the art of verfifying. He at firft bore arms,
as a proftffion ; but after a time he devoted himfelf to a life

French academy, a manufcriot hiilory of the amours of of leifure. He was one of the earlieft members of the

two court ladies, of which he was the wTiter, being handed French academy, and though almoft wholly without tlie

about, under the title of " Hilloire Amoureufe des Gaules," advantages of education, he obtained reputation as a writer.

i somplaint was laid before his majefly, in confequence of His moft popular work was entitled " Bergeries." He

which he was lent to the Baftille. Imprifonment had nearly compofed in various ftyles, and WTOte tranflations of Pfalms,

proved fatal to him, and he was liberated,- but was ob-
liged to reficn the office which he held under government.
After this he was exiled to his country-feat, where he re-
mained 17 years, during which he did not ceafe to impor-
tune the king to be allowed to return, by letters conceived
in terms of abjeft humility and bafe adulation. In 1682 he
was allowed to return to court, but finding himfelf gene-
rally neglefted, he retired of his own accord to his eilates.
He died at Autun in 1693, at the age of 75. He was
;iuthor of feveral works, among which were " Difcours a
fes Enfans, fur le bon Ufage des Adverfites ;" " Memoires,"
pubhihed firit at Pans in two, and afterwards at Amfter-
dam in three volumes, 4to. ; " Lettres," 7 vols. l2mo. ;
and " Hiftoire Abregee de Louis le Grand." His fon the
abbe de Buffi became bilhop of Lu9on in 1723, and was a
iearncd and ingenious member of the French academy.

and many facred odes taken from the Pfalms, and other
fcriptural poems. In profe he pubhfhed " The Life of
Malherbe ;" " A Difcourfe pronounced before the Aca-
demy ;" and fome " Letters." He died in 1670, at the
age of 81. Of his works a new edition was given at Paris,
in 1724, in 2 vols. l2mo.

RACCA, Racaii, Rita, or Racia-Rica, in Geography,
a town of the Perfian empire, in the province of Diar-
bekir, and paihalic of Orfu, the capital of the diftrift
named Diar Modzar. It is fituated on the eaitern bank
of the river Euphrates, at the mouth of a fmall river named
Beles, (the ancient Billicha,) and was founded, according
to Phny, by Alexander the Great. It was firft called
Nicephurium, and afterwards Callinicum and Leontopolis,
from Seleucus Callinicus and the Greek emperor Leo.
It was the fevourite refidence of Haroun al Rafehid, the

ruins

R A C

tuins of whofe palace, it is faid, are flill vifible. Tlie poli-
tion of Racca, in the parallel of 36° N., was afcertaineJ
by the celebrated oriental allroiiomer Mahomed Ben .Tiber,
furnamed Al Batani, who paffed many years of his life at
this place. The town and adjoining country are inhabited
by different tribes of wandering Arabs. N. lat. 36^ i'.
E. long. 38'-' 50'.

RACCAN, a river on the north coaft of Sumatra,
which rnns into the fea, N. lat. 2° 30'. E. long. 100'' 15'.

RACCANATTO, a river of Naples, which runs into
the gulf of Tarento, N. lat. 39° 47'. E. long. 16° 42'.
RACCOON, in Zoology. See Rackoon.
Raccoon, in Geography, an ifland in the Atlantic, near
the coaft of South Carolina, nine miles long and one wide.
N. lat. 33'^ 3'. W. long. 79° 22'.

Raccoon Creek, a river of Pennfylvania, which runs into
the Ohio, N. lat. 40'^ 38'. W. long. 80° 25'.

Raccoon IJlnnd, a fmall ifland in Olfabaw found, be-
longing to the ftate of Georgia. N. lat. 31^47'. W. long.
81° 12'.

Raccoon Key, a fmall ifland or rock in the gulf of
Mexico, near the fouth coaft of Welt Florida. N. lat. 29°
46'. W. long. 89 21'.

Raccoon Keys, a clufter of fmall iflands near the coaft
of South Carolina. N. lat. 24° 8'. W. long. 79'^ 15'. .

RACCOURCY, in Heraldry, fignifies the fame as coupe,
that is, cut off', or Jhortened; and denotes a crofs, or other
ordinary, when it does not extend to the edges of the
cfcutcheon, as they always do when abfolutely named, with-
ovit fuch diftinftion.

RACE, in general, fignifies running with others, in order
to obtain 2 prize, either on foot, or by riding on horfe-
back, ill chariots, &c.

Racing was one of the exercifes among the ancient Gre-
cian games, which was performed in a courfe, containing
one hundred and twenty-five paces ; and thofe who contended
in thefe foot-races were frequently clothed in armour. For
a particular account of thefe races, fee Stadium.

There were properly but two kinds of horfe-races at
Olympia, namely, the char'wt-race, introduced into thofe
games in the 2Jth olympiad (for an account of which fee
Chariot), and the race of riding-horfcs, which was
not admitted till the 33d. Although chariots were in
ufe before riding-horfes, as we may conclude from the
teftimony of Homer, among all whofe heroes, Greek
and Trojan, no one makes his appearance on horfeback,
except Diomcdes and Ulyd'es mounted upon the horfes
of Rhefus (II. X.), it is neverthelefs plain, from this in-
ftance, that neither the heroes nor the horfes were utter
ftrangers to the art of riding ; and it is alfo evident,
•from another padage in the 15th Iliad, that horfemanfliip
was carried even to lome degree of perfeftion, at leait in
the time of that poet, who lived but in the next generation
after the fiege of Troy, according to fir Ifaac Newton.
This paffage, extradted from Pope's Homer \\\. xv. v. 822.)
is as follows :

" So when a horfeman from the wat'ry mead
(Skill'd in the manage of the bounding rteed)
Drives four fair courfers, praftis'd to obey,
To fome great city, thro' the public way :
Safe in his art, as fide by fide they run.
He fhifts his feat, and vaults from one to one ;
And now to this, and now to that he flies :
Admiring numbers follow \vith their eyes."

^omc authors (fee RoUin's Anc. Hift. torn. v. p. 72.
«d. Amft.) have introduced an exercife like this into the

It A C

Olympic games, though Mr. Weft profefles himfelf difTatis-
fied with the authority upon which they depend : and fays that
in the books which he has confultcd, he can find no mention
of any other race of riding-horfes, bcfides thofe of the
Celcs and the Calpe. As to that particular branch of horfe-
manfliip, above defcribcd, Euflathius, in his comment upon
Homer, tells us, that in the old fcholia it is written, that
Demetrius fays he had leen a man, vaulting in the manner
delcribed by the poet, from the back of one horfe to another,
holding the bridles at the fame time, and keeping the horfes
to their fpecd, without any interruption or incumbrance.
This affertion implies that fuch a fight was very uncommon,
Riid confequently that no fuch exercife could ever have been
admitted into any of the games of Greece. The word
Kf\-!^{i(^:n, uicd by the poet in the beginning of this fimile, fays
Mr. Weft, may poflibly have induced fome people to ima-
gine, tiiat the riders of the horfes called KiXr',-,:, celetcs, were
accuflomed to leap from one horfe to another, as if that
word was a term of the manege, of which the verfes that
follow were merely an explanation. It is certain, however,
from a paflage in the Odyffey (E. v. 371.) that by itt'--;
K/Au:', Homer meant to fignify no more than a riding-horfe,
and confequently that by the word KsXrriiJrc, which is derived
from KeAd;, no more is to be underftood in this place than
fimply to ride. This interpretation of Y,i.:r,-, celes; may be
farther confirmed by the authorities of Pindar and Paufa-
nias, and particularly by a ftory related by the laft mentioned
author (lib. vi. c. 13.) of a marc, named Aura, belonging
to one Pliidolas, a Corinthian. This mare, fays the hifto-
rian, having accidentally thrown her rider foon after file had
flarted from the barrier, continued the race of her own ac-
cord, and turned round the pillar as if the rider had been
ftill upon her back ; upon hearing the trumpet, flie mended
her pace, till coming in before her antagonifts, fhe flopped
fiiort over-againft the judges of the games, as confcious of
having gained the victory. The viftory was accordingly
adjudged to her mailer Phidolas, who, by erefting in returii
a ftatue to her honour, intimated to whom the merit of that
vittory was due. In this ftory, there is no mention of any
other horfe or mare, that fhared the viftory with Aura, and
confequently that, in the race called Celcs, each competitor
made ufe of but one fingle horfe. Moreover, the victorious
Aura was of the feminine gender, and hence we may infer,
that in all the races, as well of riding horfes as of chariots,
mares or horfes were indifferently ufed ; excepting in the
race named Calpe, in which mares only were employed.
And further it appears, that though the rider was thrown
off in the very beginning of the race, yet the crown was
awarded to Phidolas, the mafter of Aura ; to whom cer-
tainly no lefs was due, than if his mare had conquered under
the conduct and difcretion of her rider. It appears alfo,
by the circumflance of Aura's mending her pace upon hear-
ing the trumpet, that the trumpet either did not found
during the whole race, but at the lalt round only, or that it
founded differently in different periods of the courfe. There
was, however, a meaning in the found of the trumpet, which
Aura, probably an old Itagcr, underftood.

The race of full-aged riding-horfes was inftituted in the
33d olympiad, and that of the riwAo; KiXr.:, or iinder-agcd
riding-horfes, in the 131ft. It is a well-known faft that
chariots were ufed in war above 1000 years before cavah-y
was introduced among the ancients. They feem to have had
a terrible notion of being mounted upon the back of a
horfe, and have accordingly made monfters of thofe whom
they firft beheld in that attitude, to which they were not
very fpcedily reconciled. Their amazement gradually dimi-
niflied : and their intercourfe with other nations not only
S f 2 rendered

R A C

R A C

rendered riding-horfes familiar to them, but convinced them
likewife of the advantages accruing from the ufe of cavabry.
Hence it came to pafs, that an order of equites, or horfe-
men, was inllituted in moll of their commonwealths ; to
whom, as in Athens, was allotted the fecond rank in the
Rate. Upon the fame principle, perhaps, the 'iVxoc KeXv,?, or
riding-horfe, was admitted into the Olympic hippodrome,
and held in fncheftimition, that although the race of riding-
horfes was neither fo magnificent nor fo expenfive, and con-
fcqucntly not fo royal, as the chariot-race, yet we fuid,
among the competitors in this exercife,the names of Philip,
king of Macedon, and Hiero, king of Syracufe. To the
latter is infcribed the iirlt Olympic ode of Pindar, in which
honourable mention is made of the horfe Pherenicus, whofe
fleetnefs gained for his mafter the Olympic crown. The
race of the Calpe was performed by mares. ( See CalpL)
The length of this race, and alfo that of the Celes, are not
afcertained ; but it is reafonable to fuppofe, that the latter,
diftinguillied, as we have already obferved, into two claifes,
one of full-aged, and the other of under-aged horfes, con-
fided of the fame number of rounds as thofe of the chariots,
diftinguifhed in like manner into two claffes. Mr. Weil
has not been able to determine the different ages that ranked
the horfes in one or the other clafs ; nor whether the weight
of the riders, or the fizes of the horfes, were taken into
confideration. Thefe points feem to have been left to the
difcretion of the Hellanodicks, who were appointed to exa-
mine the young horfes that were entered to run for any of
the equeilrian crowns (Pauf. 1. iv. c. 24.), and who were
fworn before the llatue of Jupiter Horcius, to give a true
and impartial judgment upon the matters left to their exa-
mination, without taking any reward ; and not to difcover
the reafons which difpofed them to rejeft fomc, and admit
others. Well's Diflertation on the Olympic Games.
Seft. 14. See Hippodrome.

Race, in Genealogy, a lineage, or extraftion, continued
from father to fon.

The word is French, formed from the Latin radix, root ;
as intimating the root of the genealogical tree.

In feverai orders of knighthood, as in that of Malta, &c.
the candidates mull prove a nobihty of four races or de-
fcents.

In fome republics the raagiftrates are to prove themfelves
of plebeian race, ts be quahfied.

The French reckon their kings by races ; as, the firft
race, the fecond race, the third race. We alfo fay the race
of the Ottomans, the Arfacidse, the Ptolemies, &c.
Race, in Natural Hijlory. See Cibdeloplacia.
Race, the mark made on timber, &c. by a tool called a
racing-knife.

Race, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the S.E. coaft of
Newfoundland. N. lat. 46^ "40'- W. long. 53^ 3' 30".

Race Point, a cape on the coaft of America, W. of
cape Cod. N. lat. 42 = 4'. W. long. 78° 12'.

RACEME, in Gardening, the long mode of clufter-
flowering and fruiting which takes place in fome forts of
plants and fruit-trees, as in the grape vine, and the different
kinds of cuiTants. See Racemus.

RACEMIFEROUS, in Botany, denotes bearing in
cluilers.

RACEMUS, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology, a cluf-
ter, is a mode of inflorefcence, in which feverai flowers, each
fupported on its own proper ftalk, are connefted by one com-
mon ftalk, either limple or compound. A bunch of Cur-
rants is a fimple racemus ; the inflorefcence of the Woody
Nightfhade, Sulanum Dulcamara, is a compound one. In
the American plant called ASiza racemofa, the clufters are

7

Ample, but aggregate. A racemus differs from zfpica, or
fpike, in having a partial llalk, as above dcfcribed, to each
flower ; it is moreover generally underllood to be droopmg
or pendulous, and to have the flowers expand all nearly at
one time. On the contrary, a fpike is moil frequently
ereft ; the flowers open in very gradual fucceflion, infomuch
that the lowermoft may have partly perfeftt-d their feeds,
before the uppermolt expand ; and efpecially, they are in-
dividually fL-ffile, at Icail at the tim-.' of their cxpanfion. To
thefe charafters may be added, that a fpike is crowded or
denfe ; a duller lax or fcattered. It mull be allowed
that botaniils, even of the firft rank, are incorreft in
the application of thefe terms. The male inflorefcence
of Quercus, the Oak genus, becaufe drooping and loofely
difpofed, with all the flowers in perfeftion nearly at the
fame time, is termed a racemus; though it poffeffes the
mofl clft-ntial charafter of a /pica, felTile flowers. On the
other hand, Veronica Jpicata, having a denfe upright feries
of flowers, expanding gradually, is faid to be fpiked, though
each feparate flower has a partial ftalk. A little latitude
mult neceffarily be allowed, though it is very dcfirable that
botanifts ftiould be more exaA in the ufe of thefe and other
terms, than they fometimes are. See Spica and Inflo-
rescence.

RACER, in Gardening, a name applied to a fort of
fward-cutter, or cutting implement, ufcd in racing out
or cutting through the furface of grafs fward, and divid-
ing it into proper widths, lengths, and thicknefs, for turf
intended to be cut up for laying in pleafure -grounds, or
other places, and always neceffary preparatory to the
work of flaying or cutting up the turf with the turfing-
iron. It is alfo ufeful for cutting and ftraightening the
edges of grafs verges in fuch grounds, as well as for many
other purpofes.

It is a tool which is very fimple in-its conftruftion, merely
confifting of a ftrong wooden handle, about four feet long,
having the cutter fixed at the lower end, in the form of a
half moon, with the edge downward, to cut into the
fward ; the handle fhould be about an inch and a half thick,
growing gradually thicker towards the lower end.

In ufing the tool, it is pulhed forward fo as to cut or
race out the fward in an expeditious manner. And in cut-
ting turfs with it, it is neceflar)- firil to mark out on the fward
the width of the turf intended, which fhould generally be a
foot wide, and a yard long, and about an inch or inch and
a half deep ; then ilrain a line tight, firfl lengthways,
ftriking the racer into the fward clofe to the line, running
it along expeditioufly, fo as to cut its way, and divide the
fward to a proper depth, afterwards placing a line a foot
farther, and racing it out as before, and fo on, to as many
widths as may be wanted ; and then, with the line placed
crofs-ways, to race out the fward accordingly in yard
lengths. The fward being thus raced out, the turf-cutter
with the turfing-iron fhould proceed to cut them up and flay
them off from the ground. This fmall implement is likewife
very convenient for many other little purpofes about plea-
fure grounds and'gardens, as thofe of cutting the edges of
the verges which are laid with turf, and ftraightening the
edges of the borders in different parts. See TuRF.
RACHA. See Raca.

Racha, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Leitmeritz ; 8 miles E. of Leitmeritz.

RACHELSDORF, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberg; 15 miles N. of Bamjjerg.

RACHETUM, from the Fr. racheter, redimere, the
compenfation or redemption of a thief.

RACHIA.

R A C

R A (■

RACHIA, in Geography, a town of Iftiia ; 7 miles N.E.

of Pedena.

RACHIALGIA, in Medicine, a term given by Allruc,
and adopted by the nof')logiils, to denote certain colicky
pains in the bowels, which were (uppofed to originate from
the nerves of the fpine, and cfpecially the colic from the
poifon of lead, or Colica Piclonum ; which fee. The
word IS from pax' , the fpine, znd a\yr, pnln. See Sanvages
NofoL Meth. clafs vii. gen. 29.

RACHIS, or rather Rhachis, in Botany, from p'^:;^!,-,
the back-hone, is the common ftalk, or receptacle, of the
florets, in the fpikelets of gralTes ; or of the fpikelets
themfelves in Lolium, Tnticnm, Secale, Hordemn, Rotlb'ollia,
&c. , The fame term is applied to the rib, or leaf-llalk,
of ferns, which is often winged or bordered. The Ra-
chis in both thefe inftances is frequently jointed ; by which
in the former, the ripe feeds of fuch grailes, wrapped
up m their huflvS, are the more readily difperfed. Tiie part
in quellion being in fome cafes fmooth, in others varioudy
hairy or bearded, affords excellent fpecific diftindlions ; wit-
nefs the genus Avena.

RACHISAGRA, a term ufed by fome phyficians for
the gout in the fpine of the back.

RACHITIS, in Medicine, from px^''. the fpine, (be-
caufe the fpinal marrow was fuppofed to be the feat of the
difeafe,) a malady corruptly termed in Engliflt the Rickets :
which fee.

RACH-KOKE,in G^Ofr^/'/jy,oneof the Kunllkoi or Ku-
rilly iflands in the Eallern or Paciiicocean : dillant from Muf-
fyr, another of the faid iflands, about 1 20 verlts. Its length is
about20 verfts, and its breadth the fame, and it prefents the
appearance of a lolitary mountain rifing upwards from the
fea. It was formerly covered with verdure, with (helves of
rocks, where fea-fowl in great number made their nefts :
but thefe rocky (helves have been demoli(hed by the erup-
tion of fubterraneous fires, which (plit the fummit of the
mountain, throwing up vail quantities of (lones and a(hes ;
and fince that time, the ifland has always continued burning.
At this eruption thofe places on the (hore where formerly
they had thirteen fathom water, were filled up with rubbi(h
and afhes into (hoals and banks.

RACHLIN, in Ancient Geography, the Ricina of Pto-
lemy, nearthe N.E. coall of Ireland, memorable as the re-
treat of Robert I. of Scotland.

RACHOL, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Soonda ; 16 miles S.S.E. of Goa.

RACHORE, a dillricl or province of Hindooilan, in
Golconda, bounded on the N. by the Kiftnah, on the E. by
Canoul, on the S. by Adoni, and on the W. by Sanore. —
Alfo, a town of Hindooilan, and capital of the above-
mentioned province, on the .S. fide of the Kiftnah, and not
far above the conflux of the Toombuddra with it, and below
that of the Beemah ; belonging to the Nizam. It is four days'
journey from Adoni, reckoning a day's journey at 22 Britifh
miles in road diftance, and 17 or 18 geographical miles ;
91 miles S.W. of Hydrabad. N. lat. 16^ 24'. E. long.
78=2'.

RACHOSIS, from pax w, lacero, a difeafe, in which the
'fcrotum is relaxed and excoriated.

RACHOUP-, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in the circar of Gurry Mundella ; 20 miles S.S.W. of
Gurrah.

RACHOURE, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ; 20
miles S. of Gurramconda.

RACHOW, a town of Poland; 36 miles S.S.W. of
Lublin.

RACINE, John, in Biography, an eminent French poet,

was born in 1639. He was educated at the convent of
Port-Royal, near Paris ; after this he went through a
couric of philofophy at the college of Harcourt, and then
made his appearance before the public in an ode on the
king's marriage. This effort was, through the mtercft of
Colbert, rewarded with a preient and a fmall penfion.
Elated vvith the fuccefs that crowned his firft effort, he
determined to follow poetry as a profeffion ; and, rejetling
tiie offer of an uncle, a prior, who offered to refign his
benefice to Inm, provided he would enter into holy orders,
he fixed his refidence at Paris. In 1664 he brought upon
the ftage his firll tragedy, entitled " La Thcbaide ou les
Frercs enncmis." It was written in the manner of Cor-
neille, which he foon after quitted for one of his own ; a
judicious change;, fays a critic, fince the character! ft ics of
thefe two raafters of the French drama were extremely dif-
ferent. He next publidied his <' Alexandre," whicli was
followed by his " Andromaquc." About this time he
was prefentcd to the priory of Epinay, but not being in
orders, he was, after a law-fuit, obliged to quit. His
" Andromaque," which eftablidied his characler as a tra-
gedian, was foon followed by the comedy " Les Plaideurs,"
which, though it obtained for him the praife of Moliere, and
was well received at court, was his only attempt in that
walk. Between the years 1670 and 1678, he publifhed his
" Britannicus," " Berenice," " Bajazet," " Mithridatc,"
" Ephigene," and " Phasdre." His popularity and well-
earned reputation excited a ftrong party again it him : the
chagrin which he underwent from the artifices of his enemies,
and the over-fenfibility to criticifm, which led him to con-
fefs, in the confidence of friendfhip, that the worft critique
made upon his works caufed him more uneafinefs than the
greatelt plaudits had given him pleafure, infpired him with
the refolution of renouncing poetry and turning Carthufian.
He was, however, perfuaded to change his plan, and to
marry : he accordingly formed an alliance with the daughter
of a gentleman in the treafury of Amiens, by whom he had
fevera! children. At the fame time he ceafed to write for
the ftage, and thereby reconciled himlelf with his old
friends of the Port-Royal. Racine now became a courtier,
and obtained the lituation of gentleman in ordinary to the
king, to whom he Kiade himlelf very ufeful. He was alfa
appointed to the office of hiftoriographer-royal, in con-
jundlion with his friend Boileau, which they made a com-
plete finecure. He was prevailed upon by madame Main-
tenon to write a dramatic piece on a fcriptural fubject, for
the ladies of her foundation of St. Cyr, and his " Either"
was performed by them in 1689, with great applaufe, iu
the prefence of the whole court. He followed it with
" Athalie," adted by the fame ladies in 1691. Madamr
Maintenon, deeply affefted with the miferies of the people
in the latter years of Lewis's reign, engaged Racine to draw
up a memoir on the fubjeft. This he did m fo free a manner,
as to give great offence to the king, who happened to obtain
a fight of it from a lady to whom it had been lent. Racine.
was excluded from the court, a circumftance that fo preyed
upon his mind, that he fell into a ftate of melancholy, of
which he died in 1 699, at the age of 60. For a character
of this writer we (hall be indebted chiefly to the General
Biography. He was polite in his manners, with the affected
foftnefs of a courtier, which was, however, a mafic to his
adtual difpofition, for, in reality, he had much gall and
fpleen in his charadter. Rehgion, however, correded, in
a good mcafure, thefe defefts, and in all the relations of do-
meftic life he was exemplary. As a dramatic writer he is
fuppofed to have ranked with Corneille, though in many
points he even furpaffed him. His charadteriftics are tender-

nefti,

R A C

nefs, elegance, corrcanefs, good taite, refined fentiments, and
tlie art of verfifying in a luprcme degree, fo that his country-
men find a charm in his lines, which diitinguiihes them trom
other Frencfi poetry. The critieifms of Boileau contributed
much to his excellence in this particular, and he is faid to
have taught him, as a great fecret, to write the fecond Imc of
a couplet firil. With refpcit to the proper dramatic merit,
Racine mud be judged by thofe who are formed to the
French fchool, and are not readily wearied with long fpeeches,
rather defcriptive of feeling than exprcflingit, and all refine-
ments of the tender paffion, often applied to charafters, to
which it is hiftorically unfuitable. Many parts of his heU
pieces, however, prove that his mind was well furnifhed with
elevated and dignified fentiments, which he probably derived
from an afiiduous (hidy of the ancients. Befidcs his drama-
tic works, Racine was author of " Cantiques," replete with
the ur.aion of tender devotion; ««L'Hiftoire de Port-
Royal;" " Idyllcfurla Paix ;" " Epigrams;" Letters;" and
fome " Opufcules." He was member of the French academy
from 1673, and asdireclor of that inftitution he pronounced
the eulogy of Corneille. The bell edition of his works is in
feven vols. 8vo. 1768.

Racine, Louis, fon of the preceding, alfo a diitin-
guifiied poet, was born at Pari%in 1692. He w^as, however,
not more dillinguifhed for his poetry than for his piety, and
adopted the ecclefiaftical habit. In a ftate of retkement,
in 1720, hs publilhed his poem " On Grace." The chan-
cellor d'Augedeau, during his own exile at Frefnes, brouglit
Racine again into the world, and cardinal Fleury afterwards
gave him a place in the finances. He married, and hved
very happily in his family, till the lofs of an only fon threw
him into a deep melancholy. His religious fentiments took
full pofTeffion of his foul, the fervour of which may be efti-
mated by the hne from TibuUus which he infcribed on the
crucifix whichever accompanied him :

<< Te fpedlem fuprema mihi cum venerit hora,
Te teneam moriens deficiente manu."

He died in 1763, at the age of 71. His poetical writings
are " Poems on Religion and Grace ;" " Odes," of which
the diftion is fplendid, and the fentiments elevated ; " Epif-
tles," and a " Tranilation of Milton's Paradife Lofl." In
profe he wrote " Reflexions fur la Poefie ;" " Memoirt?S fur
la Vie de Jean Racine ;" " Remarques fur les Tragedies de
J. Racine :" befides tliefe he contributed feveral difi'erta-
tions to the Memoires of the Academy of Infcriptions, of
which he was a member. His works were coUecled and
publiflied in 6 vols. 1 2mo.

Racine, Bonaventure, a learned French prieft and
ecclefiaftical hiftorian, was born at Chauny, in the diocefe of
Noyon, in the year 1708. He received an excellent edu-
cation at the Mazarin college at Paris, where he not only
Itudiedthe ancient languages, but entered pretty fully into
the different branches of philufophy, divinity, and the {In-
dies connefted with ecclefiaftical hiftoiy. At the age of
twenty-one he was entrufted by the archbiftiop of Alby, as
a fit perfon, to re-eftablifh the college of Rabaftens, a town
in his diocefe. To this defign he devoted his talents with
unwearied zeal and afliduity, and was abundantly compen-
fated by the fuccefs which attended his labours. The infti-
tution was, in a fliort time, crowded with ttudents, who
imbibed from his leftures a tafte for fcience and literature.
Thus ufefuUy engaged, he became an objeft of thejealoufy
of the witty Jefuits, who caufed him to be banifhed from
Rabaftens. He retired to Montpelier, where M. Colbert
pngaged him to undertake the direftion of the college of
JLuoel : from this place he was alfo driren by the fame per-

12

R A C

fecutors, and he found it neceffary to withdraw fecretly to
Paris, where he was invited to undertake the education of
certain young perfons at the college of Harcourt, in con-
ncdion with fome other ecclefiaftics. Here his old enemies
the Jefuits pnrfued liim, and an order was obtained from
cardinal Fleury, in 1734, to deprive him of his office of
tutor. In the following year M. de Caylus, bifliop of
Auxerre, nominated him to /a cauonry in his cathedral, and
ordained him prieft ; but his new dignity produced no al-
teration in his manner of living, nor in the diftribution of
his time, which was almoft wholly fpcnt in devotion and
ftudy. From this time he fet about preparing to publifh the
colleftions that he had made in ecclefiaftical hiftory, and in
1 748 he fent into the world the firft volumes of an " Abridg-
ment of Univerfal Hiftory, containing the principal Events
in every Century, with Refledtions," in izmo. Thefe were
followed by others, to the number of thirteen, the laft making
its appearance in the year 1754. This work, written in a neat,
perfpicuous, and fimple ftyle, was well received, and be-
came extremely popular. The labour which it coft him his
weak conftitution was unable to fuftain ; he funk under his
exertions in the 47th year of his age. He was charafterifed
bv the excellence of his manners and the amiablenefs of his
temper, and he had an ardent zeal for what he regarded as
truth, wliich approached to enthufiafm. Two other volumes
have been added fiuce his death to the Hiftory, but they are
the work of an inferior hand, and unworthy of being placed
in conjundlion with thofe of Racine. Moreri.

RACING, the riding of heats for a plate or other pre-
mium. Horfes for this ufe ftiould be as light as poflible,
large, long, and well-ftiaped, nervous, of great mettle, and
good wind, with fmall legs, and neat fmall-fliaped feet.

The firft thing to be confidered in this fort of gaming is
the choice of a rider ; for it is not only ncceftary that he
fhould be very expert and able, but he mull alfo be very
lioneft.

He muft have a very clofe feat, his knees being turned
clofe to the faddle (Icirts, and held firmly there, and the toes
turned inwards, fo that the fpurs may be turned outward to
the horfe's belly ; his left hand governing the horfe's mouth,
and his right the whip. During the whole time of the
race, he muft take care to fit firm in the faddle, without
waving or ftanding up in the ftirrups. Some jockies fancy
this is a becoming feat, but it is certain, that all motions
of this kind do really incommodi' the horfe. In fpurring
the horfe, it is not to be done by ilicking the calves of the
legs clofe to the horfe's fides, as if it were intended to prefs
the wind out of his body ; but, on the contrary, the toes
are to be turned a little outwards, that the heels being
brought in, the fpurs may juft be brought to touch tlie
fides. A iharp touch of this kind will be of more fervice
toward the quickening of a horfe's pace, and will fooner
draw blood than one of the common coarfe kicks. The
expert jockey will never fpur his horfe until there is great
occafion, and then he will avoid ftriking him under the
fore-bowels between the (houlders and the girt ; this is the
tendereft part of a horfe, and a touch there is to be re-
ferved for the greateft extremity.

As to whipping the horfe, it ought always to be done
over the fliouldcr, on the near fide, except in very hard run-
ning, and on the point of viftory ; then the horfe is to be
ftruck on the flank with a ilrong jerk ; for the flvin is the
moft tender of all there, and moil fenfible of the lafh.

When a horfe is whipped and fpurred, and is at the top
of his fpeed ; if he claps his ears in his pole, or whilks his
tail, it is a proof that the jockey heats him hard, and then
he ought to give him as much comfort as he can, by faw-

RACING.

ing the fnafHe backwards and forwards in his mouth, and
by that means forcing hini to open his mouth, which will
give him wind, and be of great fervice. If there be any
higli wind flirring in the tmie of riding, the artful jockey
will let Iiis adverfary lead, holding hard behind him, till he
fees an opportunity of giving a loofe ; yet in this cafe, lie
muft keep fo clofe beliind, tliat the other horfe may keep
the wind from him ; and that he, fitting low, may at onoe
(helter himfelf under him, and alfilt the ilrength of the
horfe. If the wind happen to be in their back, a jult con-
trary method is to be taken with it ; the expert jockey is
to keep direftly behind the adverfary that lie may iuive all
the advantage of tlie wind to blow his horfe along, as it
were, and at the fame time intercept it in regard to his ad-
verfary.

When running on level carpet -ground, the jockey is to
bear his horfe as much as the adverfary will give him leave,
becaufe the horfe is naturally more inclined to fpend him-
felf on this ground : on the contrary, on deep earths he may
have more liberty, as he will there fpare himfelf.

In riding up hill the horfe is always to be favoured, by
bearing him hard, for fear of running him out of wind ;
but in running down hill, if the horfe's feet and fhoulders
will bear it, and the rider dares venture his neck, he may
have a 'full loofe. If the horfe have the heels of the reft,
the jockey mull always fpare him a little, that he may
have a referve of ilrength, to make a pudi at tlie lall poll.

A great deal depends on the jockey's knowing the nature
of the horfe that is to run againil him ; for by managing
accordingly, great advantages are to be obtained : thus, if
the oppofite horfe is of a hot and fiery difpofition, the jockey
is either to run juft behind him, or cheek by joul with him,
making a noife with the whip, and by that means forcing
him on fader than his rider would have him, and confe-
quently fpending him fo much the fooner ; or elfe keep
juil before him, in fuch a flow gallop, that he may either
over-reach, or by treading on the heels of the fore horfe,
endanger tumbling over.

Whatever be the ground that the adverfary's horfe runs
worft on, the cunning jockey is to ride the moft violently
over; tliat by this means it will often happen, that in fol-
lowing he either ftumbles or claps on the back finews. The
feveral correftions of the hand, the whip, and the fpur, are
alfo to be obferved in the adverfary, and in what manner he
makes ufe of them : and when it is perceived, by any
of the fymptoms, of holding down the ears, or whifl'iing the
tail, or itretching out the nofe like a pig, that the horfe is
almoft blown, the bufinefs is to keep him on to this fpeed,
and he will be foon throv/n out, or diilanced. If the horfe
of the opponent looks dull, it is a lign his Ilrength fails hnii ;
and if his flanks beat much, it is a lign that his wind begins
to fail him, and his ilrength will foon do fo too.

After every heat for a plate, there mult be dry ftraw, and
dry cloths, both linen and woollen, ready to rub him down
all over, after taking off the fweat with what is called a
fweat-knife ; that is, a piece of an old fword-blade, or fome
fuch thing. Some advife the fl;eeping of the cloths in urine
and faltpetre the day before, and letting them be dried in
the fun for this occafion. After the horfe has been well
rubbed with thefe, he (liould be chafed all over, with cloths
wetted in common water, till the time of ilarting again.
When it is certainly known that the horfe is good at the
bottom, and will ftick at the mark, he (hould be rid every
heat to the befl; of his performance ; and the jockey is, as
niuch as poflible, to avoid riding at any particular horfe, or
itaying for any, but to ride out the whole heat with the

bed fpeed he can. If, on the contrary, lie has a fiery horfe
to ride, and one that is hard to manage, hard-mouthed, and
difficult to be hrld, he is to be ftarted behind the red of
the horfes with all imaginable coohiefs and gentlenefs ; and
when he begins to ride at fome command, then the jockey
is to put up to the other horfes ; and if they ride at their
eafe, and are hard held, they are to be drawn on fader ; and
if it be perceived that their wind begins to rake hot, and they
want a fob, the bufinefs is to keep them up to that fpeed ;
and when they are all come within three quarters of a mile
of the pod, then is the time to pufli for it, and ufe the ut-
mod fpeed in the creature's power.

When the race is over, the horfe is immediately to be
clothed up, and rode home ; and immediately on his coming
into the liable, the following drink is to be given him.
Beat up the yolks of three eggs, and put them into a pint
and a half of new milk made warm ; let there be added to
this three pennyworth of faflron, and three fpoonfuls of
fallad-oil, and let the whole be "-iven with a horn. After
this he is to be rubbed vi'ell down, and the faddle-place
rubbed over with warm fack, and the places where the
fpurs have touched, with a mixture of urine and fait, and
afterwards with a mixture of powder of jet and Venice tur-
pentine ; after this he Ihould have a feed of rye-bread, then
a good madi, and at fome time alter thefe as much hay and
outs as he will eat. His legs, after this, (hould be bathed
fome time with a mixture of urine and faltpetre.

For the preparation of the horfe before running, &C. fee
Plate.

We fliall here obferve, that horfe -races were a fpecies of
amufement known in England in very early times. Fitz-
Stephen, who wrote in the days of Henry II. record* the
great delight which the citizens of London took in the
diverfion. Races appear likewife to have been in vogue
in the reign of queen Elizabeth, and to have been carried
to fuch excefs as to have injured the fortunes of the nobi-
lity. Lord Herbert of Chcrbury (fee his Life by Mr.
Walpole, p. 51.) enumerates thefe among the fports which
he thought unworthy of a man of honour. " The exercife,"
fays he, " I do not approve of is running of horfes, there
being much cheating in that kind ; neither do I fee why a
brave man fliould delight in a creature whofe chief ufe is to
help him to run away." Jarvis Markham, who wrote on the
management of horfes in 1599, mentions running ho-'^:'? ;
but at this time there were only private matches made be-
tween gentlemen, who were their own jockies, and rode
their own horfes. However, in the following reign of
James I., public races were edablifhed ; and Garterly, in
Yorkfliire, Croydon, near London, and fometimes Theo-
bald's, near Enfield-chace, where the king redded, were the
courfes in which they were performed. The horfes ai uiis
time were prepared for running by the difcipline of food,
phyfic, airing, and fweats and clothing, which compofe the
prefent fydem. The weight alfo which each horfe was to
carry was rigidly adjuiied ; the ufual weight of the riders
being dated at ten Hones, who were put into fcales, and
weighed before they darted. Mod of the celebrated races
in the kingdom were called bell-courfes, the prize and re-
ward of the conquering iiorfes being a bell. To tnis pur-
pofe, Camden fays, that in 1 607 there were races neai- York,
and the prize was a little golden bell. Upon this Be-
renger offers a conjedlure, whether the phrafe of bearing
the bell, which implies being comparatively the bed or molt
excellent, and correfponds with the expreffion of bearing
the palm among the ancients, as a reward decreed to the
fwifteft horfe in a race, is cot more aptly deduced from this

cuftom.

It A C

cuftom, than from the mttliod of tying a bell round the
neck of the (hcop, which k-uds the- flock, and is, therefore,
counted the bell.

About the latter end of the reign of Charles I. it was
cultomary to have races performed in Hyde Park. See the
Comedy of the Merry Beggars, or Jovial Crew, written in
1641, in Dodfley's Colledion of Old Plays.

Racing was much encouraged by Charles II. after his
reftoration : he gave public rewards and prizes, and ap-
pointed races for his own amufemcnt at Datchet Mead,
when he refided at Windfor. But the molt dillinguifhed
fpot for thcle exercifes was Newmarket, which was at firll
frequented for the purpofe of hunting, and feems not to
have been deftined to be a horl'e-conrfe till fome time be-
fore the troubles of the reign of Charles I., when races
were difcontinued ; but they were revived foon after the
Relloration. The king attended in perfon, and eftablifhed
a houfe for his accommodation, and kept and entered horles
in his own name. Inllead of bells, a iilver bowl or cup, of
the value of a hundred guineas, was allotted for a prize ;
and upon this royal gift the exploits of the fuccefsful horfe,
and his pedigree, were generally engraved. The fum of
a hundred guineas is now given in lieu of the filver bowl.

When William III. was advanced to the throne, he not
only added to the plates given to different places in the
kingdom, but founded an academy for riding. Queen Anne
continued the bounty of her predecelTors, with the addition
of federal plates. George I., towards the end of his reign,
difcontinued the plates, and gave the fum of a hundred
guineas in their room.

In the thirteenth year of George II. an aft was palled
for the fuppreffion of races by poneys, and other fmall and
weak horfes, by which all matches for any prize under the
value of 50/. are prohibited, under a penalty of 2Co/., to be
paid by the owner of each horfe running, and 100/. by fuch
as advertife the plate ; and by wliich each horfe entered to
run, if five years old, is obliged to can-y ten ftone ; if fix,
eleven ; and if feven, twelve. It is alfo ordained, that no
perfon fhall run any horfe at a courfe, unlefs it be his own,
nor enter more than one horfe for the fame plate, upon
pain of forfeiting the horfes : and alfo every horfe-race muft
be begun and ended in the fame day. Horfes may run for the
value of 50/. with any weight, and at asy place. 1 3 Geo. II.
cap. 19. 18 Geo. II. cap. 34. Pennant's Brit. Zool.
vol. i. p. 6, &c. Berenger's Hift. and Art of Horfeman-
ihip, vol. i. p. 185, &c.

We thall here add, that at Newmarket there are two
courfes, the long and the round : the firft is exactly four
miles, and about three hundred and eighty yards, i. e.
feven thoufand four hundred and twenty yards. The
fecond is fix thoufand fix hundred and forty yards. Chil-
ders, the fwifteft horfe ever known, has run the firit courfe
in feven minutes and a half, and the fecond in fix minutes
forty feconds ; which is at the rate of more than forty-nine
feet in a fecond. But all other horfes take up at leaft
feven minutes and fifty feconds in completing the firll and
longeft courfe, and feven minutes only in the ihorteit,
which is at the rate of more than forty-feven feet in a
fecond, and it is commonly fuppofed that thefe courfers
cover,- at every bound, a fpace of ground in length about
twenty-four Enghfh feet.

RACITZA, in Geography, a town of Bukovina ; 7
miles N. of Czernaucii.

RACK, a fmall idand near the coaft of Virginia. N.
lat. 37° 19'. W. long, "jf 51'.

Rack, Lotuer and Upper, two fmall iflands near the coaft

R A C

of Virginia ; the former in N. lat. 37° 20'. W. long. 75''
Jo', and the latter in N. lat. 37'' 26'. W. long. 75" 45'.

Rack, an engine of torture furnifhed with cords, &c.
fjr extorting confeflion from criminals.

The duke of Exeter, conftable of the Tower under
Henry VI., with the duke of Suffolk, and others, having
a defign to introduce the civil law into England ; for a
beginning, the rack, or brake, allowed in many cafes by the
civil law, was firft brought to the Tower, where it is ftill
preferved ; in thofe days the rack was called the duke of
Exeter's daughter. 3 Inft. 35.

It wasoccafionally ufed as an engine of ilate, not of law,
more than once in tlie reign of queen Elizabeth. (Barr. 92.
496.) But when, upon the aftallination of Villiers, duke of
Buckingham, by Felton, it was propoied in the privy-
council to put the aflaflin to the rack, in order to difcover
his accomphces ; the judges being confulted, declared unani-
moufiy, to their own honour, and the honour of the Englifh
law, that no fuch proceeding was allowable by the laws of
England. Tiie uncertainty of this punilhment, as a telt
and criterion of truth, was long ago very elegantly pointed
out by Tully {pro Sulla, 28.) ; though he lived in a (late
in which it was ufual to torture (laves, in order to furnifh
evidence. " Tamen," fays he, " ilia tormenta gubernat
dolor, moderatur natura cujufque turn animi turn corporis,
regit qutefitor, fiectit libido, corrumpit Ipes, infirmat metus ;
ut in tot rerum anguftiis nihil veritati loci relinquatur."

The marquis Beccaria (ch. 16.), in an exquifite piece of
raillery, has propofed this problem, with a gravity and
precifibn that are truly mathematical : " the force of the
mufcles, and the fenfibility of the nerves of an innocent
perfon being given, it is required to find the degree of pain
neccflary to make him confefs himfelf guilty of a given
crime."

Rack, in the Manege, a pace in which a horfe neither
trots nor ambles, but (hufBes, as it were, between both.

The racking pace is much the fame as the amlle (which
fee) ; only that it is a fwifter time, and a ihorter tread.

Rack is alfo a wooden frame, made to hold hay or fodder
for cattle. There has lately been much improvement made
in the forming of all forts of racks, both for the ftable,
cattle-lheds, and field. See CATTLE^jeds, Stable, -and
SllEEP-houfe.

Rack, in Rigging, a ihort thin plank, with holes made
through it, containing a number of belaying-pins, ufed in-
(lead of cleats ; it is leized to the {hrouds, and nailed over
the bowfprit or windlafs. — Alfo, a long (hell, containing a
number of fheaves, formerly fixed over the bowfprit to lead
in the running rigging. At prefent, wooden faddles, with
holes in them, are nailed on the bowfprit for this purpofe.
being more out of the way, and lefs liable to be out of order,
See SllOT-raek, and SllROVD-raei.

To Rack Wines, &c. is to draw them from off their lees,
after their having ftood long enough to clear and fettle.
Hence,

^ ACK-Vintage, is frequently ufed for the fecond voyage
our wine-merchants ufed to make into France for racked
wines; whence they ufed to return about the end of De-
cember.

KACK-ffolelers, fuch tenants as hold their lands under
fuch leafes.

KACK-Lea/es, are fuch forts of leafes as are granted for
one or more lives, at the full rack rents, as in Cornwall,
and fome other counties. See Leases of Land.

RACK-Renl, is the full yearly value of land let by leafe,
payable by tenant for life or years, &c. See Rent.

Rack-

R A C

Rack, Sheep, a fort of long narrow crib, fixed upon
wheels, for containing hay for flicep, having a lid or co-
vering on the top. It is very ufeful in bad weather, in the
winter feafon, as preventing the hay from being walled, and
admitting the flieep to feed conveniently.

RACKAMA, in Geography, a lake of Syria, fouth of
Hella and the ancient Babylon, is about 30 miles long, and
flows into the Euphrates.

RACKEBY, a town of Sweden, in WcR Gothland;
40 miles N.E. of Uddevalla.

RACKET, a kind of bat for ftriking the ball at tennis ;
confifting ufually of a lattice, or net-work, of cat-gut,
Itrained very tight over a circle of wood, with a handle or
(haft of a moderate length.

The word is formed from the French raquetle, which
Menage derives from the Latin reletla, a diminutive of rete,
net ; whence alfo retlcum, and reticulum.

Pafquier obfcrves, that anciently they ufed no rackets at
tennis, but played with the palm of the hand : and hence he
conje&ures it is that the French call tennis play, jeu de
paume. He adds, that rackets were not introduced till a
little before his time.

Racket is alfo a machine which the favages of Canada
bind to their feet, to enable them to walk more conimo-
dioufly over the fnow ; made much in the manner of a
tennis-racket.

Its figure is a lozenge, of which the two obtufe angles
are rounded off. It is bound about with very fine thongs
of leather, and the mefhes of it are much fmaller and clofcr
than thofe of our rackets.

In the middle is fitted a kind of fhoe, lined witV wool,
or hair ; to be tied on to the ankle : by which means the
feet are prevented from finking in the fnow. Rackets
oblige the perfon to take very long fteps, and, as we fay,
to walk a great pace, to keep them from knocking againft
, each other.

" Racket, in Geography, a river of New York, which
runs into the St. Lawrence, N. lat. 45° 13'. W. long.

74° 42'-

RACKIBIRN, the name of a fmall ifland on the N.W.

coaft. of Ireland, fituated near Tiellen head, in the county

of Donegal. N. lat. 54° 39'. W. long. 8° 44'.

RACKING, in Sea Language, denotes the fattening of
two oppofite parts of a tackle together, fo as that any
weighty body fufpended by it (hall not fall down, although
the rope, which forms the tackle, (hould be loofened by
accident or negleft. This expedient is chiefly pradlifed
when the boats are hung up to the (hip's fide in the niglit,
in an open road or bay, lelt the rope of the tackle (hould be
untied by the inattention of fome of the crew, by which ac-
cident the boat might be confiderably damaged, and pro-
^Dably loR or dafhed to pieces. Falconer.

Racking Fruit Liquor, the operations of fining and
drawing it off. See Cyder.

RACKLIA, in Geography, a fmall rocky ifland in tlie
Grecian Archipelago, inhabited by two or three poor monks,
who take care of a few (heep and goats. N. lat. 36° 53'.
E. long. 25° 38'.

RACKNITZ, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ;
3 miles S. of Saxenburg.

RACKOON, or Raccoon, the urfus lotor of Linnaeus,
in Zoology, the name by which we commonly know an
American animal, called coati by the Brafilians. It is
{omething fmaller than the beaver, and is of the (hape of
the beaver m the body, and its legs are as fhort as in that
creature. The face, cheeks, and chin are white j the upper

Vol.. XXIX.

R A C

part of 1 lie body is covered with liair, long, foft, and thick ;
black at tlie ends, whitifli in tlie middle, and afli-coloured
at the root. Sometimes from this mixture of colour the
back appears plainly grey ; and Marcgrave mentions another
fpecies, which is of a deep yellow or ochre colour.

The head is very like that of the fox in (Jiape ; but that
the ears are fliorter, roundifh, and naked, and it has from
the forehead to the nofe a dufky line. The eyes are large,
and furrounded witii two broad patches of black ; the nofe
is black and (liarp-pointcd ; its tail is very bufliy, and annu-
lated with bk;,k. Its feet are each divided into five flender
toes ; by the help of which it climbs trees as expertly as a
monkey, nnd ufes the fore-feet as hands, to reach up its
food to its mouth. It is a very cleanly animal ; and if there
be water near, it always waflics its food, be it what it will,
before it cats it. It feeds on vegetables, but is alfo ver)'
fond of eggs, and will even feize birds if it can catch them.
It is alfo very fond of fweet things and ftrong liquors, and
will get exceilively drunk : at low-water it feeds much on
oyflers, watching their opening, and with its paw fnatching
out the fifli, and is fometimes caught in the (hell. It i.-
very common in the warm and temperate parts of America,
in the mountains of Jamaica, and in the ifles of Maria in the
South fea, and is a creature eafily tamed. It is hunted for
its flcin ; the fur, next to that of the beaver, being excellent
for making hats. Ray and Pennant.

RACLER, Fr., to fcrape, to rafp, or file 3 hard body.
It is faid, in derifion of a bad performer on the violin, or
any other indrument played with a bow, that he fcrapes or
rafps the (Irings ; becaufe, in faft, he draws a harfli and
difagreeable tone from his initrument, which refembles that
produced by fcraping or filing a hard body. Even good
players on the violin fometimes fcrape a little in the forte
parts of their performance. Suppl. to Encycl., i ft edit.

RACLERGUNGE, in Geography, a town of Bengal;
50 miles N.W. of Burdwan.

RACONIGI, a town of France, in the department of
the Stnra, containing four gates, with as many fauxbourgs,
well peopled. The king of Sardinia had a palace here.
The police is conduced by fifteen counfellors, from whom
two fyndics are chofen every four months, who aft as baihffs
or mayors of the town. It has two pariihes, and feveral re-
ligious houfes. The inhabitants are induftrious, and much
employed in making gauzes and filk fluffs ; 6 miles N. of
Savigliano.

RACOPILUM, in Botany, from pV.xo-, a rent in a gar-
ment, or a -wrinkk, and ^lAo;, a hat or cap, the name of one
of Paliflat de Beauvois's genera of moffes, whofe veil is torn
at the fide. It ought to be written Rhacopilum.

RACOUBEA, a name of Aublet's, of wkich we find
no explanation. See Ho.malium.

RACOW, Catechifm of, in Eccleftafiical Hiflory, a fyftem
of theology compiled by the moft eminent Socinian doftors,
andfirft publiflied at Racow, or Rakow, in Poland, in the year
1609, with a dedication to our king James I. This cate-
chifm, or a tranflalion of it, was committed to the flames in
England, in the year 1653, by order of parliament. A new
edition of it, correfted and enlarged, was pubhlhed at Stauro-
polls, in 1684. The Socinians confider this catecjiifm as the
great flandard of Socinianifm, and an accurate fummary of
the doftrine of that feft. However, Mofheim obferves,
that it is, in reality, no more than a colleftion of the po-
pular tenets of the Socinians, and by no means a jull repre-
fentation of the fecret opinions and fentiments of their doc-
tors. Hence he fays it never obtained among them the au-
thority of a public confeflion or rule of faith ; and hence
the doftors of that feft were authorifed to correft and con-

T t tradia

RAD

tradift it, and to rubftitutc another form of doftrine in its
place. But to this account it has been rcphed, that it
would hare been inconiiftent with the hberty, for which
they argue in tlic preface to this catechifm, to have hmited
their rchgious inquiries to this ftandard ; and by treating it
as a rule of faith, they would have violated their exprefs
declarations, that they diftated to no one, andaffumed no
authority. Mo(h. Eccl. Hift. See Rakow.

RACSON-COMPON, in Geography, a mountain of
Thibet. N. lat. 31° 50'. E. long. 86° 14'.

RADA, a town of Sweden, in Warmeland ; 33 miles
N. of Carlltadt.— Alfo, a town of Sweden, in Warmeland ;
35 miles S.E. of Carllladt. — Alfo, a town of Sweden, in
Weft Gothland; 5 miles W. of Gothenburg.— Alfo, a
river of Weftphalia, which runs into the Ocker, 5 miles
N.E. of Goflar.

RADANAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 32
miles E. of Ramgur.

RADANI, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ; 16
miles N. of Uddevalla.

RADAR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Chora-
fan ; 48 miles N. of Mefchid.

RADASALMI, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Savolax ; 20 miles N.N.W. of Nyflot.

RADAVITZA, a town of PrulTia, in the palatinate of
Culm ; 22 miles E.S.E. of Culm.

RADAUN, a town of Aullria ; 6 miles W.S.W. of
Vienna.

RADAUTZ, or Radentz, a town of Bukovina; 22
miles W.S.W. of Saczava.

RADAWAIR, a town of Hindooftan, in Candeifh ;
14 miles S.W. of Burhanpour.

RADBUZA, a river of Bohemia, that rifes in the S.W.
part of the circle of Pilfen, and runs into the Miza, near the
town of Pilfen.

RADCLIFFE, Joiiv, in Biography, an eminent and
eccentric phyfician, was born at Wakefield, in Yorkftiire,
■where his father polfefled a moderate eftate, in the year
1650. He received the rudiments of his claftical education
at a fchool in that town ; and at the age of 15, was fent to
complete his ftudies at Univerfity college, in Oxford. He
took Iiis bachelor's degree in arts in 1669, and removed to
Lincoln college, where he was eledlcd to a fellowfhip.
Having determined upon the profelTion of phyfic, he went
through the courfes of botany, chemiftry, and anatomy,
and was diftinguifhed by the rapidity of his attainments in
all tuefe purfuits. N.verthelefs he did not apply with zeal
or induftry to the ftudies of the clofet, and recommended
himfclf rather by his vivacity, acutenefs, and wit, than by
any extraordinary acquifitions in any department of know-
ledge. In the pnifecution of his medical inquiries, he con-
tented himfelf with looking into the works of Dr. Wilhs,
who was at that time praftifing in London with much re-
putation. He was podcffrd, indeed, of very few books ;
infomuch that when Dr. Bathurft, head of Trinity college,
afked him once with furprife where his ftudy was ? he
pointed to a few vials, a ftieleton, and a herbal, and faid,
" Sir, this is RadclifFe's library." He took the degree of
maftcr of arts in 1672, and in 1675 he proceeded hachelor
of medicine, and unmediately began to praftife in Oxford.
He profefTed to pay very little regard to the rules which
were generally followed, but cenfured them on many occa-
2ons with great Ireedom and acrimony ; a conduct which
did not fail to draw upon him the enmity of all the old
prudlitioncrs. Neverth lefs his reputation and his praftice
rapidly increafed ; and btfor he had been two years in the
world, be was very generally coufulted, even by thofe of

RAD

the higheft rank. About this time, in confequence of
fome witticifms, which he had launched with his accuftomed
freedom againft Dr. Marfliall, reftor of Lincoln college,
the latter unkindly oppofcd his application for a difpeiifatioti
for taking holy orders, which the ftstutes required, if he
retained his fellowlhip, and fliewed other tokens of in-
civility ; which induced Radcliffe to refign his fellowfhip,
quit the college, and take lodgings in the town. He con-
tinued to praftife at Oxford, iiicrcafing alike in wealth and
reputation, until 1684, having taken the degree of doftor
in 1682 ; and he then determined to remove to London, and
fettled himfelf in Bow-ftrect, Covei.t Garden.

His fuccefs in the metropolis was unufually rapid ; and
doubtlefs his wit and pleafantry, which rendered him a moft
entertaining companion, contributed fcarcely kfs than his
reputed flcill in his profeffion to forward his progrefs. In
lefs than a year he was in full praftice ; and in the focond
year, he was appointed phyfician to the princefs Anne of
Denmark. In 1688, when prince George of Denmark
joined the prince of Orange, and the princefs retired to
Nottingham, in a ttate of pregnancy, he was preffed by
biftiop Compton to attend her, in quality of his office ; but
he excufed himfelf on account of the multiplicity of his pa-
tients. After the revolution, he was confulted by king
William and the nobility about his court ; an honour which
he muft have owed entirely to his high reputation, for he
never (hewed any inchnation to be a courtier. By his rough
independence of fpirit and freedom of language, indeed, he
ultimately loft all favour at court. In 1699, when king
William returned from Holland in a ftate of fevere indif-
pofition, he fent for RadcliiTe, and ftiewing him his fwollen
ankles, while the reft of his body was emaciated, faid,
" What think you of thefe ?" — " Why truly," replied the
phyfician, " I would not have your majefty's two legs for
your three kingdoms." This freedom was never forgiven
by the king, and no interceffions could ever recover his fa-
vour towards Radclifte. In 1694, when queen Mary
caught the fmall-pox, and died, Radcliffe was accufed,
bifhop Burnet fays, of negligence and unfl<ilfu!nefs. He
foon afterwards loft the favour of princefs Anne, by negleft-
ing to obey her call from his too great attachment to the
bottle, and another phyfician was appointed in his pfece.
When queen Anne came to the throne, the earl of Godol-
phin exert'^d all his endeavours to reinftate him in his former
poft of chief phyfician ; but fhe refufed, alleging that Rad-
cliffi; would fend her word again, " that her ailments were
nothing but the vapours." Neverthelefs he is faid to have
been confulted in all cafes of emergency, in a private way.
In 1703 Dr. Radcliffe had an alarmir.g and dangerous at-
tack of pleurify, which he neglefted, and increafed m the
outfet bv drinking a bottle of wine : he had, however, lOO
ounces of blood taken from him by Mr. Bernard, the ferjcant
furgeon ; and the next day, in fpite of all intreaties, waB
carried to Kenfington. His efcape was almoft miraculous.
The queen afked Mr. Bernard how he did ? and when he
told her that he was ungovernable, and would obferve no
rules, fhe anfwered, that then nobody had reafon to take
any thing ill from him, fince it was plain he ufed other
people no worfe than he ufcd himfelf. During tliis ilLiefs
he made a will, by which he d.fpofed of the greater part of
his property for charitable purpofes, appropriating parti-
cularly fcveral thoufand pounds for the relief of fick feamen
fet on fhore. He recovered, however, and continued in
full occupation in his profeflion, incrtafing in wealth and
iiifolence to the end of his days, and waging a perpetual
war with his brethren ; who, in their turn, rcprefented him
as an aftivc, ingenious, adventuring empiric, whom couftant

■ praftice

RADCLIFFE.

prafticc had brought at length to feme fkill in his profefrioo.
His caprice in tht performance of his profefTional duties ap-
pears to have been unbounded ; and many anecdotes arc re-
lated of his refufal to attend on perfons of diitinftion, if he
happened to be engaged in pleafant company, or liad any
perfonal pique againll the individuals, or if lie conceived
himfelf in any way affronted. Thus he fet off fuddenly for
Bath in 1704, while attending the lady of i'lr John Trevor,
becanfe that gentleman fent to Oxford for Dr. Breach to
confult with him ; which he had done as a compliment to
Radcliffe, rather tiian join any of the London phyficians
witli him. When Mr. Harley was ftabbed by Guifcard,
Swift complains, that by the caprice of Radcliffe, who
would allow none but his own furgeon to be admitted, " he
had not been well looked after ;" and adds in another place,
" Mr. Harley has had an ill furgeon, by the caprice of that
puppy Dr. Radcliffe, which kept him back fo long." On
the other hand, he attended the lady of fir John Holt in a
bad ilhiefs, v.-ith unufual diligence, out of pique to the Imf-
band, who was not fuppofed to be over fond of her. In
the laft lUnefs of queen Anne, he was fent for to his
coUntry-houfe at Carfhalton about noon, by order, as one
account affirms, of the privy council ; but he returned an
anfwer, that " he had taken phyfic, and could not come."
It has been itated, however, on the other hand, that he was
only fent for on this occafion by lady Mariham, without any
order from the queen or the council ; which is countenanced
by the following circumllances. On the 5th of Auguft,
four days after the queen's death, a friend of the doctor's
moved in the houfe of commons, that lie might be fum-
moned to attend in his place, (Dr. Radcliffe had been
elefted a member for Buckingham in 1713,) in order
to be cenfured for not attending on her majefty. A letter
is prefervcd, faid to have been written by the doftor to one
of liis friends, on this occafion, in which he fays, " I know
the nature of attending crowned heads in their lall moments
too well, to be fond of waiting upon them, without being
fent for by a proper authority. You have heard of pardons
being figned for phyficians before a fovereign's demife ;
however, ill as I was, I would have went to tlie queen in a
horfe-litter, had either her majefty, or thofe in the commif-
fion next to her, commanded me to do fo." Whatever was
the true ftate of the cafe, it is certain that Dr. Radcliffe be-
came fo much the objeft of popular refentment, that he was
appreheniive of being affafiinated, as appears from a letter
addreffed by him to Dr. Mead, which is extant. " Nor
fliall I be at any time from home," he fays, " becaufe I
have received feveral letters, which threaten me with being
pulled to pieces, if ever I come to London." He furvived
the queen but three months, and died at Carfhalton, on the
lil of November 1714, at the age of 64. It was beheved,
that the dread which he had of the populace, and the want
of company in his retirement, which he did not dare to lea%'e,
contributed to accelerate his death. He was carried to Ox-
ford, and buried in St. Mary's church in that city.

It does not appear that Dr. Radcliffe ever attempted to
write, and probably he would not have fucceeded as an
author. He was believed, indeed, to have been very little
converfant with books ; which made Dr. Garth humoroufly
fay, that "for Radcliffe to inltitute a library, was as if an
eunuch ftieuld found a feraglio." He was often the fubjeft
of the attacks of ridicule from poets and wits, and even was
not fpared on the llage ; having been feverely fatirized in a
piece aftcd in 1704, loon after a legal difpute with an apo-
thecary, which was attended by the ladies of the court, and
in which the paffagcs affronting the doftor were much ap-
plauded. Swift, m Martinus Scriblerus, and Steele in the

Tatler, levelled their ridicule at the doftor ; ar.d the fol-
lowing fevere portrait of him was drawn by Dr. Mandeville,
in his Effay on Charity Schools. " That a man with fmaU
flcill m phyfic, and liardly any learning, fhould by vile arts
get into practice, and lay up great wealth, is no mighty
wonder ; but that he fhould fo deeply work himfelf into the
good opinion of the world as to gain the general efteem of
a nation, and eftablifii a reputation beyond all his contem-
poraries, with no otiier qualities but a perfcft knowledge of
mankind, and a capacity of making the moft of it, is fomc-
thing extraordinary. If a man arrived to fuch a height of
glory, (liould be almofl diftrafted with pride, fometimes
give his attendance on a fervant, or any mean perfon, for
nothiiig, and at the fame time negleft a nobleman that givei
exorbitant fees ; at other times, refufe to leave his bottle for
his bufinefs, without any regard to the quahty of the per-
fons that fent for liim, or the danger they are in ; if hf

Ihould be furly and morofe, affeft to be a humourift, treat
his patients like dogs, though people of diftinftion, and
value no man but what would deify him, and never call in
queftion the certainty of his oracles :— if he (liould infult all
the world, affront the firft nobility, and extend his infolence
even to the royal family : — if, to maintain as well as to in-
creafe the fame of his fufficiency, he (hould fcorn to confult
with his betters on what emergency foevcr, look down with
contempt on the moft deferving of his profeffion, and never
confer with any other phyfician but what will pay homage
to his fupcrior genius, creep to his humour, and never ap-
proach him but with all the flavilh obfequioufnefs a court
flatterer can treat a prince with : — if a man in his hfe-time
(hould difcover, on the one hand, fuch manifeft fymptoms
of fuperlative pride, and an infatiable greedinefs after
wealth at the fame time ; and on the other, no regard to
religion, or affeftion to his kindi-ed, no compaffion to the

poor, and hardly any humanity to his fellow-creatures : if

he gave no proofs that he loved his country, had a public

fpirit, or was a lover of arts, of books, or of literature :

what mult we judge of his motive, the principle he afted
from, when after his death we find that he has left a trifle
among his relations, who ftood in need of it, and an ira-
menfe treafure to an univerfity that did not want it."

Whatever may be the motives of the endowers of fplendid
inftitutions for the public ufe, the natioii is at all events
benefited for ages, by fuch noble eftabhfhments as the
library and infirmary which he founded at Oxford, and
which bear his name. He alfo endowed two travelhng feU
lowfhips, with an annual income of 300/. attached to each.
He had previoufly caufed the beautiful eail window, over
the altar, in Univerfity college, to be put up at his own
expence ; and likewife given the money, which was paid
for the ereftion of the mailer's lodge there, making one fide
of the ealtern quadrangle. He was certainly avaricious to
the extent almoll of fpunging, and never could be induced
to pay bills without much following and importunity. A
piece of waggery would fometimes conquer this difpofition.
A pavior, alter long and fruitlefs attempts, once caught
him jull getting out of his chariot, at hij own door, in
Bloomfbury fquare, and fet upon him. " Why, you
rafcal," faid the doftor, " do you pretend to be paid for
fuch a piece of work ? Why, you have fpoiled ray pave-
ment, and then covered it over with earth to hide your
bad work." — " Doftor," faid the pavior, " mine is not
the only bad work the earth hides." — " You dog you,"
faid the doctor, " are you a wit ? You muft be poor ;
come in :" and he paid him. He told Dr. Mead, that the
great fecret by which he might make his fortune was to
" ufe all mankind ill." Dr. Mead, however, adopted the
T t 2 contrary

RAD

RAD

contrary axiom, and fuccceded even beyond his advifcr.
Notwithftandinjr that RadclifFc fcems to have literally prac-
tifed this principle, in his dealings both with his patients
and his brethren ; and notwithftanding the fevere acciifa-
tions of ignorance and empiricifin, which were every where
levelled againft him ; the univcrfal reputation, which he ac-
quired and maintained, feems to fanftion the teilimony of
Dr. Mead, that " he was defervedly at the head of his pro-
fefljon, on account of his great medical penetration and ex-
perience." See Atterbury's Epiitolary Correfpondence.
The Richardfoniana. Pope's Works, vol. vii. Swift's
Works, vol. xix. Hutchinfon's Biographia Medica.

RADDELE, in Geography, a town of Ceylon, on the
eaft coafl ; 5 miles N.E. of Trincoli.

RADDINSDORP, a town of the duchy of Holftein ;
6 miles E.S.E. of Eutyn.

RADDLE, in /Igricullure, a red ochre of iron, which,
according to Dr. Darwin, lias been found ufeful as a ma-
nure in the northern parts of Staffordfhire. Its properties
have not, however, been yet chemically examined as they
relate to manure. See Reddle.

RADEBURG, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in
the margraviate of Mcilien ; 10 miles N.E. of Drefdcn.
N. lat. SI-" 8'. E. long. 13° 53'.

RADECHAU, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 9 miles S.E. of Trautenau.

RADEGATZ, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Anhalt-Dcifau ; 13 miles S.S.W. of DefTau.

RADEGURRY, a town of Hindooftan, in Canara ;
24 miles S.S.E. of Mangalore.

RADENTHAL, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ;
13 miles E. of Saxenburg.

RADERAN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Kaurzim ; 3 miles N.E. of Kaurzim.

RADERMACHIA, in Botany, a name originally given
to the Bread-fruit, (fee Artocarpus,) by Thunberg, in
honour of one of his great patrons, Joachim Cornelius
Matthew Radermacher, a member of the Dutch council,
and Prefident of the Society of Sciences, at Batavia. The
author, in his Nova Genera, p. 25, reprefents this gentle-
man as a molt dillinguifhed Macenas, and encourager ot
Natural Hiftory. Neverthelefs, the above name has, by
common confent, given way to the expreflive one of Forfter,
Artocarpus, which is precifely fynonimous with Bread-
fruit.

RADERSBERG, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the principality of Culmbach ; 7 miles E. of Bayreuth.

RADES, a town of Tunis, on the N.E. coail ; 5 miles
S.E. of Tunis.

RADESCHE, or RATSCirACii, a town of Lower
Carniola, on the Save ; 10 miles N.W. of Gurckfcld.

RADHA, in Mythology, is the name of the confort of
the Hindoo deity Krifhna. As Kriflina was an av.atara, or
incarnation of Vilhnu, lo Radha is underllood to be limilarly
an avatara ef Viflinu's confort Laklhmi ; thus incarnated
to accompr.uy her lord in this, his moft fplendid terreltrial
manifeftation. Under the articles Krisiin'A andLAKMiMi
fome notice will be found on the fubjecJt of this. Radha is fecn
very frequently pourtrayed and alluded to in the paintings
and writings of India : Krilhna is, indeed, feldom feen with-
out her. She is reprefented of perfect beauty, and is warmly
eelebr.aled in the amatory poetics of Hindooltan. In the
elegant work of Jayadeva, entitled Gita Govinda, a paftoral
drama exhibiting the loves of Kriibna and Radha, the lovely
nymph is thus defcribed after a quarrel with her frolickfome
and fickle lord, in the morning after the night of reconcili-
ation, when alfliclion ceafed, and ecltacy crowned therecol-

leftion of pall forrows. " In the morning fJie arofe, dif'
arrayed, and her eyes betrayed a night without (lumber,
when the yellow-robed god, who gazed on her with tranl-
port, thus, m his heavenly mind, meditated on her charms :
' Though her locks be diflufed at random ; though the luftre
ot her lips be faded ; though her garland and zone be fallen
from their enchanting (lations ; and though fhe hides their
places with her hands, looking towards me with baflifui
lilcnce ; yet, ev'ii thus difarrayed, file iillb me with ecltatic
delight.' But Radha, preparing to array herfelf before the
company ot nymphs could fee her confufion, fpakethus with
exultation to her obleqnious lover.

' Place, O fon of Yadu ! with fingers cooler than fandal
wood, place a circlet of muil< on this breait, which refembles
a vafe ot coniecrated water, crowned with frefh leaves, and
fixed near a vernal bower to propitiate the god of love.
Place, my darling ! the gloffy powder, which would make
tlie blackell bee envious, on this eye, whofe glances are
keener than arrows darted by the hufband of Reti. (See
Rkti.) Fix, O accomplifhed youtV. ! the two gems,
which form part of love's chain, in thefe ears, whence the
antelopes of thine eyes may run downwards and (port at
pleafure. Place now a trefh circlet of mufl<, black as the
lunar Ipots, on the moon ot my forehead ; and mix gay
floivers on my trelfes with peacock's feathers, in graceful
order, that they may wave like the banners of Kama. Now .
replace, O tender hearted ! the loofe ornaments of my
veilure ; and refix the golden bells of my girdle on their
deftined llation, which refembles thofe hills where the god
with five fhatts, who dcftroyed Sambara, keeps his elephant
ready for battle.' While fhe fpake, the heart of Yadava
triumphed; and obeying her fportive behei\s, he placed
mufl-cy fpots on her bofom and forehead ; dyed her temples
with radiant hues : embelliihed her eyes with additional
blacknefs ; decked her braided hair, and her neck, with
fredi garlands ; and tied on her wrifts the loofened bracelets,
on her ankles the beamy rings, and round her waill the zone
of bells, that founded with ravilhing melody."

But we muft recollect, fays the author of the Hindu
Pantheon, whence this article is chiefly taken, that the
feemingly amorous conflitls of thefe ardent lovers are mere
mydical defcriptions of " the reciprocal attraftion between
the divine goodncfs and the human foul." This is the em-
blematical theology that Pythagoras admired and adopted ;
that the Sufi poets, Hafez, Sadi, and many others among
the Peril ans, and Solomon alfo, in his fine Song, fo beauti-
fully inculcates. Like the enthufiafls of other days, and
in a manner not eafily comprehended by the unenlightened,
nor believed by them to be permanently chaile, however in-
nocent its commencement, " they profefs eager defire, but
without carnal afleftion ; and circulate the cup, but no
material goblet : in their feft, all things are fpiritual, all is
myilery within myftery." See fir W. Jones's admirable
Eilay on the Myftical Poetry of the Perfians and Hindoos,
in tlie third volume of the Afiatic Refearches, in which a
tranflation of the Gita Govinda of Jayadeva is introduced.
Under the article Jayadeva of this work is a brief notice
of his poem ; and under Maiiesa is an extraft from it,
defcriptive of the perfons and loves of this intereiling
couple. (See alfo Prabiia.) The reader defirous of
feeing what has been faid and believed on the curious
fubjecl of myftical or emblematical theology, may coirfult
our articles under Mystery, Mystics, and thofe thence
referred to.

Returning to Radha, we have to obferve that among the

fc6t ot GokalalUia (lee Sects of Hindoos^ fhe is deemed a

perl'onitication of rchgion, and fometiraes called Rulmeni.

12 (Seo

RAD

RAD

(See that article.) There is a feft faid to worfhip her ex-
cluJively, and called Radha-ballabhi : tliey confidcr her as
the Sakti, or aftive power of Viftinu or Krifhna. (See
Sakti.) The followers of this fcft have afcribed to them
the iingular practice of making their own wives pcrfonatc
Radha, and of prefenting to or through them the oblations
propitiating the goddcfs, or Lalifhmi, of whom, as before
laid, file is an incarnation. There is no end to the whimfi-
calities in the modes of human worfliip, to give them no
harfher name, wherever, to ufe an oriental cxpreffion, we
fufFer our necks to (lip out of the collar of reafon. Thus in
India, as hath been the cale in other countries, there is,
with feveral fetts, a right -han(hil and a left-handed mode of
worfhip ; one meaning a decent, the other an indecent mode.
Thofe among tlie feft in quel\ion, who follow the lelt-
lianded path, require their wives to he naked, when attend-
ing them at their devotional abominations. She is fome-
times called Radhika, and Krifhna, Radhikefwara, or lord
of Radhika ; and fometimes the name of Kantamati is given
both to her and Rukmeni. See Rukmexi and Y(ys(.

In Radha may be recognized the Grecian .luno, and of
courfe in her hufband Krifhna, or Vifhnu, the amorous Jove
of that imitative race. On this point we iliall quote a para-
graph from the Edinburgii Review, "W xxxiv.

" We tranflatca paflage from the Purana, entitled Brahma
Vaivartica, to dcmonftrate the identity of chara<fter afcribed
to Jupiter and Vilbnu ; only premifmg, that in conformity
to the peculiar tenets of its autlior, Viflinu is here flilcd
Kriflina, and his goddels, Radha. Gangfi (the Ganges)
was originally a nymph of wonderful beauty, who inhabited
Paradife. She became enamoured of Kriflma, and, con-
cealing her face with her robe, Itood immoveable in his pre-
fence, licr eyes fixed on his radiant countenance. The jea-
loufy of Radha (Juno) was excited. Followed by her in-
numerable attendants, file repaired to tha prefence of the
god, and feated herfelf on her throne of gems. The timid
•Ganga trembled at her afpcdt, and diffolved with terror.
The goddefs fpeaks : " Who is this nymph, lord of the imi-
verfe, who, with half concealed vifage, and eyes fparkling
defire, thus gazes on thy facred perfon ? This is not the
firil time the ikies have witneffcd the infidelity of their lord.
When I detefted thee dallying ni a grove of iandal with Vi-
raja, the figure of a quadruped concealed thy Ibame, and
llie was changed into a river. Still purfued by thee (lie be-
came the mother of the mighty ocean. The fame foretl was
the fcene of thy amours with the nymph Sobha, (beauty).
Again thou aflumedil the form of an animal ; whilft her
fpirit fled to the moon, and thou divideft her body amongft
gems, flowers, and black -eyed damfels. The woods of
Vrindavan afforded thee a retreat with the fhepherdefs
Prabha (lultre. ) On my an-ival, her fpirit tranfmigrated
to the folar orb ; of her body thou madeft a diitribu-
tion : the god of fire obtained a part ; and fome, as gold,
give brightncfs to the crowns of tiie kings of the earth.
When I found thee, unexpeftcdly, on abed of vernal buds,
reclined in company with the fair Xam.l (patience), alarmed
at my voice, thou gath^redll as they lay difperfed, thy yel-
low robes, thy lyre, thy necklace of flowers, and thy creil
of gems. Thee I forgave when tliou beftowedlt a portion
of her body on the piouu anchoret, a portion on the fick,
and a portion on the ffudious."

Such of our readers as have obtained a fliarein the latter
portion, may, in the endeavour to expound this folar alle-
c;oi"y, be repaid perhaps for ther pains ; in perufing the
Gita Govindti and the article in which it iscompvifed, above
referred to, they afiuredly will.

RADHJKA, a name of Radhu, confort of the Hin-

doo deity Krithna, as fufliciently noticed under thofe
articles.

RADHOST, in Geography, a mountain of Moravia, in
the circle of Prerau ; 12 miles E. of Mcfcritch.

RADIIUA, a mountain of Arabia; 30 miles W. of
Medina.

RADIiEUS, in Anatomy, an epithet applied to parts
about the radius, and equivalent to radial'u ; which fee.

RADIAL CunvES. See Curves.

RADIALIS, in Anatomy, a name given to parts in the
fore-arm, iituated near the radius. The adjcftive radial is
alfo employed to denote the edge, furface, or afpeft of any
part, which is towards the radius ; and in this way, with
the term ulnar, aflords the means of defcribing the organs
much more accurately and intelligibly, than the indefinite
exprcfiions of outer and inner, which vary conftantly in the
changing attitudes of tlie limb.

Radialis Arleria, is the artery of the wrifl, in which
the pulfe is commonly felt. See Artkhy.

Radialis Carpi Extenfor, Longior l^ Brevior. See
Carpi.

Radialis Carpi Flexor. See Carpi.

Radialis Extemus, Longior iif Brevior, fynonyms of
the cxtcnfores carpi radiales, longior & brevior. See
Carpi.

Radialis Internus, a fynonym of the flexor carpi radi-
alis. Sec Carpi.

Radialis Nervtis. The large nerve which goes behind
the humerus, between two heads of the triceps, is called
radial by fome anatomiits : others give this name to the
nerve which lies parallel to and over the brachial artery.
The tirll of thefe is called alfo the niufcular fpiral nerve, the
fecond the median. See Nhrve.

Radialis Fena, the vein correfponding to the radial
artery. See Vein.

RADIANT Heat. See Heat.

Radiant Point, or Radiating Point, is any point of a
vifible objciil, whence rays proceed.

Every radiant point dilFufes innumerable rays all round ;
but only thofe radiants are vifible, from which right hnes
may be drawn to the pupil ; becaufe tlie rays are all right
lines.

All the rays proceeding from the fame radiant continually
diverge ; the cryllalline collects or reunites them again.

RADIATED, in Botany, an epithet applied to round
flat flowers, confifting of a dillc, and a lingle row of
longifh pointed leaves, ranged all around it in manner of
rays, or fpokcs.

Radiated flowers are properly fuch as have feveral femi-
florets fet round a diflc, fo as to refemble a radiant ftar:
fuch are daifies, chamoniile-flowers, fun-flowers, &c. Thefe
are fometimes alio called radiated difcous Jlo-wers.

A radiated flower has two parts ; its middle part, which
13 called the dillv, and whieli is wholly made up of flofcules ;
and the other part, which is called the circle or border,
vvhich is wholly made up of femi-flofcules, or elfe of plain
flat leaves -, but that is Icfs common. The flofcules and
femi-flofcules both iifnally adhere to the embryos, and to
the thalamus of the flower, being contained in one general
cup. Thefe embryos finally ripen into feeds ; fometimes
furniflied with down, fometimes with fohaceons heads, and
fometimes without either, and lometimes marginated. Of
thefe feeds fome are wrapped round witli a kind of cafe or
capfule, others are feparated from one another by fmall per-
pendicular leaves.

Radiated Leaf. See Leaf.

The word is alfo uled in fpeaking of medals, and in

heraldry.

K A 1)

K A D

heraldry, where the ancient crowns are called radiated
crowns, coronse radial:E. See CuowN.

RADIATION, in Phyfici, the adlion of a body diirufing
rays of hght as from a centre.

Every vifible body is a radiating body ; it being only by
means of its rays that it afFcfts the eye.

The fnrface of a radiating body may be conceived as
confifting of radiant points.

Radiation, Place of. See Place.

Radiation', or Inndiation, is ah'o ufed by lome authors
to exprcfs the manner of the motion of the animal fpirits ;
on a fuppofition ihat they are diflufed from the brain to-
wards all parts of the body, throngli tlie little canals of the
nerves, as light is from a lucid body. But in lieu of a
radiation, the moderns rather incline to the opinion of the
circulation of the fpirits.

RADICAL, Radkams, in Phyjic, l^c. fomething ferv-
ing as a bafis or foundation ; or which, like a root, is the
fource or principle whence any thing arifes.

The fchools talk much of a radical moifture inherent in
the feeds of all animals, which nouridies and preferves the
vital heat or flame, as oil does a lamp ; and wiiich, when
exhaufted, life is extinguifhed.

Dr. Quincy obferves, that this radical moifture is a mere
chimera ; unleis we thereby mean the mafs of blood, which
is the promptuary whence all the other juices and humours
are derived ; and which, while it circulates, fullains life, &c.

In grammar, we ufe the term, radical words, for roots
and primitives ; in oppohtion to compounds and derivatives.
In the Hebrew language, the letters of the alphabet are
divided into radical and fertile. The tirll conltitute pri-
mitive or original words, which, by a fignificant metaphor,
are called rooti, C^'tl'TSl'- ^^ ^^ ^^ letters of the
alphabet may be radicals ; i. e. primitive words may confid
of any of thefe letters ; but the following 1 1 letters pro-
perly claim this title, becaufe they can never be fcrijiles ;
viz. J, -\, ^, n. p' D' y> £3' V' P' "1- Of whatever let-
ters any word confills, it muft. at leaft contain one of a
radical charafter. (See Root.) For an account of the
fervile letters, fee Servile.

Radical Numbers, Numeri Rudicales, in the Italian mufic,
are 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and fometimes 10, which are often
met with in mufical compofitions, to denote the accords of
the thorough bafl'es : 2 itands for the fecond and its dupli-
cates ; 3 for the third ; 4 for the fourth, &c.

Radical Leaf, among Botani/h. See Leaf.

Radical i'/j«, in /llgebra, tlie figu or charafter of the
root of a quantity.

v' is the charafter of radicality, and expreffes the fquare
root ;

\/ the cube root, &c.

RADICANS, in Botany, rooting, a term applied to a
ftem which throws out ilbres as it extends itfelf, whether
thofe fibres be true radicles, by which the plant imbibes
Bourifhment, and is generally increafed ; or whether they
ferve only for the fupport of the ftem againft walls, rocks,
or neighbouring trees. Of the firil kind, the Strawberry
affords a familiar example ; of the latter, the Ivy, the Vir-
ginian Creeper {Hedera, or rather Vitis, qumquefoUa), and
the Bignonla radicans, are inftances.

RADICATION, the acfion by which plants take root,
or fhoot out roots.

The French Royal Academy of Sciences have made a
great number of curious obfervations on the germination
and radication of plants.

RADICLE, in Agriculture, that part of the feeds of
plants which, upon vegetating, becomes their nafcent roots.

It is, in faft, the main organ or medium of nutrition, and
the means by whicii food is imbibed or drank up from the
furrounding Ibil or earth. The radicles, together with th'-
leaves, therefore, conilitute the ahforhent organ of plaiiti.
See Radicula, and lioor.

RADICOFANl, in Geography, a town of Etruria, near
which are two caflks, one built by Didier, laft king of the
Lombards, and the other by Culmo 1. j 55 miles S. of
Florence.

RADICONDOLI, a town of Etruria ; 24 miles N.E.
of Florence.

RADICULA, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfwlogy, the
radicle, or fibre of the root. (See Root.) This term ifc
ufed by Dillenius, in his Nova Genera, 121. t. 6, as a
generic name, for a fet of plants referred by Linnxus to
SlKYMiiKii M. See that article.

RADII Pronator Qjiadralus, in Anatomy, a mufcle of the
fore-arm. See Pronator.

Radii Pronator Teres. See Pronator.

Radii Supinator Brevis, \ mufcles of the fore-arm. See

Radii Supinator Longus, \ Supinator.

Radii Pinnarum, in Ichthyology, the little (lender bones
fupporting the membrane, formmg the fins in fiflies, and
called by Artedi oflicula radiata pinnarum, from their run-
ning from the bafe to the lummit in the form of rays. See
Fin, and Anatomy of Fisii.

RADIMPOUR, in Geography. See Radunpour.

RADIOLA, in Botany, fo called by Dillenius, becaufe
the cells of the ripe capfule fpread like the rays of a Uttle
wheel. The plant having been referred by Linna;us to the
genus Linum, the above became its fpecific name ; but it is
now reftored to the rank of a genus by the late profeflbr
Gmehn of Gottingen, as well as by the author of Flora
Britannica. — Dill. Nov. Gen. 126. t. 7. Gmel. Syft. Nat.
Linn. V. 2. 289. Sm. Fl. Brit. 201. Prod. Fl. Grsc.
Sibth. V. I. no. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 1. 282. — Clafs and
order, Tetrandria Tetragynia. Nat. Ord. Gruinaks, Linn.
Caryopbyllaccis, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, cut about
half down into four equal, permanent, wedge-fhapedfegments,
each of which is three-cleft. Cor. Petals four, obovate,
about the length of the calyx, alternate, with its principal
fegments. Stam. Filaments four, awl-fhaped, ereft, the
length of the calyx ; anthers roundirti, of two lobes. Pijl-
Germen fuperior, roundifh, with four grooves ; ftyles four,
terminal, very fhort ; ftigmas capitate. Peric. Capfule
roundift), bluntly five-fided, of eight cells and eight valves.
Seeds folitary, elliptical, comprefled, ver)' fmooth.

Efl. Ch. Calyx in many fegments. Petals four. Cap-
fule fuperior, with eight valves and eight cells. Seeds
fohtary.

I . R. millegrana. Thyme-leaved Flax-feed. Engl. Bot.
t. 893. (R. vulgaris ferpyUifolia ; Dill, in Raii Syn. 345.
t. 15. f. 3. Jacob. Faverfli. 92. Linum Radiola ; Linn.
Sp. PI. 402. Fl. Dan. t. 178. Linocarpum Serpylli foho,
multicauie et multiflorum ; Mich. Gen. 23. t. 21. Mille-
grana minima ; Raii Syn. ed. 2. 207. Ger. Em. 569.
Chamsehnum vulgare ; VaiU. Parif. t. 4. f. 6.) — Native
of fandy groHnd, overflowed by clean frefh water, throughout
Europe, flowering in July and Auguft ; but not a very
general Englifli plant. The root is annual, fmall, and
fibrous. Stem an inch or two high, repeatedly forked,
coryinbofe, fpreading, leafy, round, nearly fmooth, many-
flowered, often reddifh. Leaves oppofite, feflile, ovate,
entire, fmooth, fcarcely a quarter of an inch long.
Flowers fmall, white, on (hort, fimple, fohtary ftalks from
the forks of the ftem. — Gmelin has erred confiderably in
I the

•RAD

the generic cliarafler and name, as well as in his reference to
Linnxus. Tlio ralyx is many-cleft, not compofi-d of four
diftini't leaves; the plant has hardly any thing of the afped't
of a I.inum, and therefore cannot properly be called ImrAtles ;
neither has it been publiflied as a genus, under the name
of Radiola, by Linnxus, as Gmclin's reference to tlie i2th
edition of Sylt. Nat. indicates.

RADIOMETER, a name which fome writers give to
ihe radhis ajlronomicui, or Jacob's llaff. See Fore-stakf.

RADISH, in TJo/anj'. (See Rapha.vus.) The radifh
is much grown, according to the author of the Agricul-
tural Survey of the County of Kent, on the bell rich loamy
foils of the Ide of Thanet, and in Eaft Kent, for the fupply
of the London feedfmen. The forts ulually cultivated for
this ufe are, the early fhort top, the falraon, and the turnip-
rooted radilh.

The land for the growth of this fort of crop (hould be in
a fine ftate of preparation, by benig ploughed to a great
depth in the early part of the winter, and broken well down
by harrowing, fo as to render it perfeftly clean from weeds,
being previoufly tilled with well reduced manure. The
ground being brought into this tine condition, the feed is
fown on furrows about ten inches apart, in a dry time in the
month of March, about two or three gallons per acre. And
as foon as the plants appear, every other row is cut up with
a horfe-hoe, leaving the rows twenty inches apart. When
the plants get two or three rough leaves, they are hoed out
in rows, and are then kept clean by repeated horfe and hand-
hoeing, when necefl'ary, leaving the plants at about eighteen
inches diftance. It is added, in the above Report, that the
crop is (eldom fit to reap till October, and fometimes is out
in the fields till Chriilmas, without receiving injury from wet
weather ; it being neceffary that it fliould have much rain to
rot the pods, that it may thrafh well. In refpeft to the
produce, it is from eight to twenty-four bufiiels /><■>■ acre :
and it is fold to the London feedfmen, who fend it to all
parts of the kingdom for retailing to the gardeners.

It is probable that this fort of crop might be grown in
many other diltridts near the metropolis, or other large
towns, with equal fuccefs, where the foil is of a rich loamy
nature, as it is very eafy in its culture, and requires but
little labour or trouble. As it is neceflary for it to remain
out fuch a length of time, however, it will be proper,
efpecially in wet feafons, to keep the Hems from falling
too much upon the ground, as they ami tlie feed may be
injured by being too much in contatl with it. If kept up
in this way, the Italks, feed-hutks, and other oflal parts, may
alfo form a good cut food for fome forts of live-ftock, as is
the cafe with fome other fimilar forts of crops.

Radish, Horfe. See Cochleakia Armoracla,
• RADIUS, in yfnatomy, that bone of the fore-arm which
extends from the humerus to the wriil, in the line carried
from the external condyle of the former bone to the thumb.
See Extremities.

Radius, Dlflocntlons mid FraSures of. See Frac-
ture and Luxation.

Radius, in Botany and Vegetable Phfjiology, means the
aggregate marginal florets, ot compound flowers, each gene-
rally of an oblong form, and all fpreading from the centre,
or difl^, like rays. Such are the white florets of the Daify,
and blue, purple or red ones, for the moit part, of the jijhr.
The ufual fhape of the limb or border of fuch florets is ligu-
late ; either linear, or elliptical ; rarely, as in Achillea, Ihort
and roitiidifli ; the extremity having three or five teeth. In
fome compound flowers the radius confifts of tubular florets,
as in Centaurea ; and thofe are neuter, defliitute of organs of
frutlitication. The hgulate radiant florets above-mentioned

RAD

are either female, producing perfect feed ; or they are abor-
tive, with more or lefs imperfedt traces of a piftil. Many
of them have no figns of a Ryk- or iligma, but none is without
fo much of a germen, as ferves for the bafis, tliat fupports
the petal itfelf:

A radius is occafionally alTumed by fome flowers, natu-
rally deltitute of one, as in the genus Bidcni, each fpecies
of which, by fuch an acquifition, becomes a Cweopfti, and
changes its order in the Syngenefia, from Polygamia 4tqimlu,
to P. fuperjlua. Tin's change is an approach towards a
double flower, in that clafs ; being a transformation of
a certain number of the perfect, or united, florets into female
ones. If fuch a transformation be total, and all the tubular
florets become ligulate, the whole flower is double, and un-
produftive of feed, like the double Chamomile.

Radius, Ray, in Geometry, the femidiameter of a circle-
or a right line drawn from the centre to the circumference.

The word is derived from the Greek ^'a'5'oc,-, rod. Fleta
ufes the word radius, for a furrow.

The radius is alfo called, efpecially in trigonometry, /7n«j-
tolus ; the whole line.

It is implied in the definition of a circle, and it is apparent
from its coiiltrudion, that all the radii of the fame circle
are equal.

Radius, in the Higher Geometry, Radius of the evolule,
Radius curvedinis, or Radius ofculi, called alfo the radius of
concavity and the radius of curvature, is a right line repre-
fenting a thread, by whofe evolution from off the curve on
which it was wound, the curve is formed ; or it is the
radius of a circle that has the fame curvature in a given
point of a curve with that of the curve in that point. See
Curvature and Evolute, under which articles the me-
thod of finding this radius may be feen.

Radius Ajlronomicus, an inltrument ufually called Jacob's
ilaff^, the crofs-ilaff, or fore-ftaff.
Radius, in Optics. See Ray.

Radius, in Mechanics, is applied to the fpokes of a wheel;
becaufe ifluing like rays from its centre.

Radius VeSor, is alfo ufed for a right line drawn from
the centre of force in any curve in which a body is fup-
pofed to move by a eentripetal force, to that point of the
curve where the body is fuppofed to be. See Central
Force.

Radius, among the Romans, a name given to the iron
rod with which tlie boys rolled the trochus.

Radius Articulatus, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by
Mellius, Gmelin, and fome other authors, to a kind of
figured foflils, of which there are a great many very different
fpecies, fome of which have been defcribed by authors
among the belemnitje, under the names of alveoli bclemni-
tarum. Mr. Gmelin, who has taken great pains to inform
himfelf, as well of the nature and figure of thefe Hones,
from the fubjefts themfelves, as of their hitlory, and the
various accounts of them from other authors, obferves, that
the place where they are moft frequent is Sweden, and that
there they are no where fo common as in the ifle of Oeland.
Volkman figures fome alfo which he found in Silefia, and
Helwing others which he collected in Pruflia : he alfo
found great numbers of them himfelf in Ruflia.

They are ufually immerfed in hme-ltone, and though at
firll fight they may all appear alike, yet, on a careful exami-
nation, they will be found to differ very greatly. The
molt obvious general diltindtion, ellabliflied by Gmelin, is
tkat fome of them are. itraight, and others crooked. The
ftraight ones may be divided into two genera. The firft
of thefe comprehend, according to this gentleman, two
fpecks ; the firlt imooth, and with a converging alveolus.

The

HAD

R A 1)

The rofrular and nice configuration of thefe bodies fhews
very plainly tliat they cannot be of mineral origin ; but the
feveral patellie of which each is compofed, the fipliunculus
of communication, obvious in feveral, and the flielly matter
yet found remaining on many, prove them to have been
once (hell-fifh of the univalve or tubular concamerated kind;
the dofcription of which, fo far as it can be gathered from
thefe remains, mud have been this. The ftiell mull have
been either cylindric or conic in figure, of a fmooth furface,
and divided into feveral chambers or cells ; but this fo that
the fcpta which form the concamerations are not continued
and whole, but in feme part of the periphery are cut in, in
the fliape of a crefcent. Through thefe crefcents, which,
iUnding all together, make a continued canal, there has
paffed another fhelly body of a cylindric or conic figure,
alfo divided into concamerations, and that in fuch a manner,
that the fepta which form the cells are pierced with a fmall
aperture on one fide, which grows gradually fmaller as the
fhell extends in length ; and finally, through thefe aper-
tures, in the concamerations, there pafles another (hell pointed
at the end, and, like the relt, divided into its concamerations,
and pierces along its middle with a fiphunculus. Mem.
Acad. Petrop. vol. iii. p. 263.

This (hell is, therefore, a compages of three fheHy bodies,
enclofed one within another ; and, it muft be fuppofed, in
order to carry an analogy with other (hell-fi(h, thefe three
(helly bodies have communication with one another, by
means of certain (lips or perforations. The communication
of thefe, one with another, feems all evident, from their
being all found in their folTile (late, filled with the fame (tony
matter ; this has, doubtlefs, been all received in at the
fiphunculus of the inner fhell, aod thence has been thrown
into the fecond, and from this into the third (hell, fo as to
fill up all the concamerations of the outer, as well as of the
inner parts. This muft have been the cafe with thefe ; and
the feveral various fpecics that are at this day found foffile,
muft have owed their origin to as many different fpecies ©f
the (hells. The crooked and twifted, or wreathed kinds,
which have the fiphunculus ufually placed near the fide,
greatly approach in their ftrudture to fome of the cornu
ammonis.

RADIX, in Botany and Vegetable Phyfwlogy. See
Root.

Radix is ufed among forae anatomifts for the fole of the
foot.

Radix Carlo Sanffo ; this root is found in temperate foils,
in Mechoacan, a province of America. Its bark is eafily
feparated from it, is of an aromatic fmell, and of a bitter
and fomewhat acrid tafte. The root itfelf confifts of very
(lender fibrils, which are eafily feparated from each other.
The bark is accounted fudorific, and corroborates the (k)-
mach and gums : if chewed, it procures an agreeable breath.
It is good for fcurvies, catarrhs, epilepfies, haftening deli-
veries, and removing hernias, and the fmall-pox, if taken
either in powder or in the form of a decoAion. The Spa-
niards have called it by the name of St. Charles, on account
of its uncommon virtues.

, Radix Entrochorum, the root of the entrochi, a name
given by fome authors to a folTile fubftance, ufually found
among the entrochi, and feeming to have been the bafis from
which they have grown. It is plainly a part of the ftella
marina arborefcens petrified, as thofe ftones alfo are. This
fodile is rarely found whole, but the fragments of it are very
common. When entire,' it is about the fize of a walnut ; the
top of it being flat, and in fome degree refembling the end of
anentrochus, with a central hollow, but not having the leaft
;)ppearance of the rays of thofe ftones. Thefe foITils, though

not properly judged of as to their origin, have yet been de-
(cribed by a great number of authors. Agricola, in particular,
compares the form of them to a wheel. The body of thi»
kind well refenibles indeed the nave of a wheel, the (Kape
of it being conical [toward one end, till you come to tlie
top, and then a little flattened, with a hole in it. There is
alfo a like hole in the oppofite broad end of the fame fo(ril,
feeming fit for an axle to pafs through ; and there are five
hollow (lilts, or feet, iduing fideways, at equal diftances from
the broad bottom, and equally carried on in the fame direc-
tion, fo as notamifsto reprefent the (pokes. At the end of
each of thefe rays or fpokes, there is a hollow, of the fame
nature with thofe in the middle of the common entrochi,
but this is cut acrofs, by a feam, or ftreak of the fame ftone,
which pades direftly over its centre, and covers about a third
part of it ; this goes no farther than the mouth of the hole,
but it cuts it into two, and (hews it in the form of two eyes.
Thefe radii or fpokes are very feldom found fo perfeft as
here defcribed. Lifter mentions them as being formed
like crefcents at the end, which may very eafily happen
from the breaking o(f a part of the terminating portion.
Phil. Tranf. N= 129.

Radix /llba, a word ufed by Diofcordes, to exprefs the
root of the dracunculus.

Radix, among Grammarians. See Radical, and Root.

Radix, in Mathematics, the fame as root ; but ufed in a
different fenfe by different authors : we fay the root of an
equation, but the radix of a fyftem of logarithms, the ra-
dix of a feries, the radix of notation, &c. meaning in all
thefe cafes the fundamental quantity on which the fyftem is
conftrutted, or that whence it has been derived, or that by
means of which all other things of a like kind are com-
pared.

Radix of a Syjlem of Logarithms, is that number which-
involved to the power denoted by the logarithm, is equal to
that number. Thus, under the article Logarith.ms it is
(hewn, that if r = a, then x is the logarithm of a, and r is
called the radix of the fyftem. This radix in the common
or Briggs's logarithms, is 10, and in the Neperian or hyper-
bolic logarithms, it is 2.71828128, &c. and generally the
radix of any fyftem of logarithms, is that number whofe
logarithm in that fyftem is unity.

Radix of a Syjleni of Notation, is that number which in-
dicates the local value of the figures, and is in all fyftems
reprefented by a unit and cipher ( 10), which is /<?« in the
common fyftem, ttvo in the binary fyftem, three in the ter-
nary, twelve in the duodenary, and fo on. See Nota-
tion.

Radix of a Series is ufed, by fome authors, as a term of
comparifon between any finite funftion, and its expaflfion or
developement : thus, the radix

of I -

of I -

of I -

of I -

r

1

+ r

I

+ -

4

— r'
I

I

+ 76

&c. is

2

1 +T

+ I

+ 4

4- I

&c. is

°^2^- 4 +"8

16 &c.

— -f- — &C. IS

16 32

of I + .r -f *r' -f- *' -f x' &C. is

I +1

I

I + a

I

2 + J

I

I + *

of

R A D

of 1 4- 2x + 3.-c' + 4;

of I +

— +

2

3x*

+

16

+ 5-^'

+

•' &c. is

(7'- ^)"'

&c.

See aU'o our

' See Dr. Hutton's Trafts, vol. i. p.
article Series.

RAD-KNIGI-ITS. See Rkdmaxs.

RADL, in Geography, a mountain of Stiria ; eight miles
S.S.W.of Landfperg.

RADLER See, a lake of Carinthia ; fix miles N. of
Saxenburg.

RADLSTEIN, a town of tlie duchy of Carnolia ; fix
miles W. of LaiuUlrafs.

RADLSTHAL, a town of Aullria ; nine miles E. of
Krottau.

RADMANS. See Redmaks.

RADMANSO, in Gengrapby, a finall ifland in th- Baltic,
near the coail of Sweden. N. lat. 59" 4;'. E. long.

x8'44'-

RADNAGUR, a town of Bengal ; 32 miles S. of

Burdwan.

RADNITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of I'illcn ;
10 miles N.E. of Pilien.

RADNOR, New, or Maes-TfeiU a borovigh and market-
town in the cwmwd of Swydd Wynogion, Cantref y Clawdd,
(now called the liberties of the town of New Radnor, ) county
of Radnor, South Wales, is fituated near the river Somcr-
gill, at the diilanceof feven miles N.W. from Kington, and
156 miles W.N.W. from London. In remote times, this
town was a place of great importance, as appears from its
having given name to the county, but it has now dwindled into
comparative poverty and infignificance. Caradog informs
lis, that about the year 990, Meredydd ab Owain di-lh-oyed
Radnor, in a ferocious contcll with his nephew, who had
been affilling the Engliih to ravage South Wales. It re-
covered, however, from this difallcr, and continued to flou-
rifh till the union of Wales with England, when it began to
decline, in confequence of its ceafing to be fortilicd and gar-
rifoned as a frontier town. Before that period, it was lur-
rounded by a lofty wall,_ and a deep moat, loine remains of
which are dillinftly vifible on the weft and fouth fides. The
walls, when Handing, ai-e traditionally laid to have been of
great height. The area inclofed by them was an oblong
Iquare, containing about twenty-fix acres of ground, laid
out into three longitudinal ftreets, which were interfefted
by five tranfverfe ones. Of thefe at preient feveral have no
buildings ; and others are only foot paths. But though
thus decayed, Radnor flill preferves its privileges as a bo-
rough. The corporation confilts of a bailift, twenty-five
capital burgeffes, two aldermen, a recorder, a coroner, a
town-clerk, and other inferior officers. The bailiff and
aldermen are chofen annually from among the capital bur-
geffes, and are jullices of the peace. The baiUff of the pre-
ceding year is alfo a jultice of the peace ; and there are be-
fides three additional perfons nominated out of the capital
burgefles, who are invefted with fimilar authority. The
dillrift over which they prefide, and fupcrfede the jurifdic-
tion of the county magiftrates, is confiderable ; compre-
Iiending a circle round the town nearly ten miles in diameter.
The bailiff's courts and the petty fefiions are regularly held
every Monday, when the bailiff, aldermen, and town-clerk
attend to tranfaft bufinefs relating to the borough, and have
power to determine all fuits for lums under forty Ihillings.
The quarter-feffions for the borough are held on the Mondays
after the county quarter-feffions at Prelleigne ; and the
fheriff's county courts for the recovery of fmall debts, are

Vol. XXIX.

R A D

holdcu every alternate month liere, and at the tOivn taft
mentioned. Tlie reprefentative for the borough is chofeii
by the burgeffes of New Radnor, in conjuiiftion with thofe
of the boroughs of Knighton, Rhaiadar, Cefn Llys, and
Cn wclas ; the bailiff' being tiie returning officer. As nothing
but the circumftance of receiving parochial relief difquali-
fies any pcrfon from becoming a burgefs, the number of
voters is confiderable ; thofe of New Radnor arc fuppofcd
to exceed 300, and the whole number, including thofe of the
contnbutary boroughs, is eftimat-d to be about 1300. To be
a capital burgefs of New Radnor, however, adlual refidence
within the iurifdiclion is effential, which is not the cafe as to
the contributary boroughs : and if a capital burgefs becomes
non-refident he lofes his privileges as fuch. A benefit fo-
ciety,eilablifliedhere in 1778, at prefcnt cOnfiftsof above lOO
members, v,ho hold their annual meetings on the 6th of
January.

Weekly markets were formerly held here on Tuefdays,
but thefe are, at prefent, only noniuial, notwithdanding fome
late attempts to rcllorc them. There arcitill, however, live
annual fairs, and there is alfo an annual wake on the third
Sunday in the month of Augult. The parifh of Radnor is
divided into three portions, of which the town of New
Radnor is the principal, containing, according to the par-
liamentary returns of 181 1, 75 houfcs, and 380 inhabitants.
The public buildings here are the town-hall, the prifon, and
the church. The lafl confifls of a nave, fouth aifle, and
chancel, with a tower at the weft end.

Radnor caftle flood on an eminence commanding the town.
Of this once majeftic pile, a few fragments of walls only
rcm.iin, but the entrenchments are ftill entire ; the outer
ward, called Baili-Glas, or the Green Court -Yard, is yet
diftincl from the inner one, or keep, and is nearly in
its original form. In 1773, on digging within the area
of this caftle, fix or feven fmall " Gothic arches of
good mafonry were difcovered," befides a variety of an-
cient inftruments. The forefl of Radnor extends feveral
miles to the north of the town, covering the flope of a lofty
eminence, from the funimit of w hich are very extenfive
profpetls. The principal feats in the vicinity are Downton-
hall, the feat of Percival Lewis, efq. and Harpton-court,
a feat belonging to Thomas Frankland Lewis, efq. Both
thefe manfions are furrounded by beautiful fcenery, and are
highly ornamental to this diftrift. About two miles weft-
ward from the town is a celebrated water-fall, called Water-
break-its-neck, fsventy feet in perpendicular height ; but it
is extremely defective in water, except during the time of
floods, when the effeft produced is truly grand. At the
weftern extremity of the parifh is an intrenched dyke,
which formerlv extended acrofs the whole vale of Radnor.
War-clofe, a field to the eaftward of the town, is traditi-
onally faid to have been the fcene of fome mihtary conteft,
but no particulars refpefting it arc preferved.

Old Radnor, or Pen-y-Craig, is a fmall village, fituated
about three miles to the fouth of New Radnor. Camden
fuppofes it to have been the Magnos of Antoninus, which
was garrifoned by the Phacienfian regiment in the reign of
Theodofius the younger ; and there feems every reafon to
believe that it was a place of note in the Romo-Britifh pe-
riod. Tiie Roman road paffed clofe to the bafe of the hill
upon which the village Hands. The church here is a vene-
rable old edifice of ilone, with a maffive fquare tower at
one end. A curious fcreen, richly carved in wood, extends
aci-ofs the nave and fide aifles. Here are various monuments
to the memory of members of the Lewis family of Harp-
ton. Carlifle's Topographical Diftionary of Wales, 4to.
1 8 13. Lipfcomb's Tour through Wales.

U u Radnor,

RAD

Radnok, a finall plcafant town of America, in Delawatc
county, Pennfylvania. The place was originally called
"Amilel" by the Dutch, who began to build here. The
number of inhabitants is 925.

Radnor, a town of South Carolina ; 10 miles S.W. of
"Edniondlbury.

RADNORSHIRE, an inland county of South Wales,
is bounded on the north by the counties of Montgomery
and Salop, on the eait by the county of Hereford, and on
the fouth and well by the counties of Brecknock and Car-
digan. According to Mr. Clark, it contains 510 fquare
miles, or 346,000 acres, and is pohtically divided into fix
hundreds, and fifty paridies ; fonie of which are within the
diocefe of Hereford, and the remainder within that of St.
David's. The parliamentary returns of 18 1 1, ilate the num-
ber of its houfes at 4194, and of its inhabitants at 20,900.
It fends two members to parliament ; one for the county,
and one for tlie borough of New Radnor, with itscontri-
butary boroughs. The face of the country is extremely
mountainous and bleak in every part of it, but it is inter-
fered by fevcral valliea, which are watered by the Wye, the
Teme, the Lugg, the Ithan, the Eddow, and their refpecl-
ive fubfidiary ftreams. Thefe vallies afiord a confiderable
extent both of meadow and arable land ; efpecially the Vale
of Wye-Side, and the Vale of Radnor, fome portions of
which are very fertile, and have a good foil and a congenial
climature. In the other parts of the county, however, a
barren foil, and a chilly atmofphere, are the predominant
charafterillics. Nearly two-thirds of its whole extent being
either in a ftate of commonage, or lying whslly walte, agri-
culture has hitherto made little comparative progrefs here.
Cattle and (heep confequently conftitute the chief produce
of the county. The number of the latter is indeed very
great. Hence Radnorfliire is famed for its fupply of wool;
but notwithllanding this circumftance, fingular to fay, the
manufa&ure of woollen goods is totally difregarded. The
raw material is fold to the manufafturers of the north, by
whom the inhabitants of this county are in return furnifhed
with cloth.

Radnorlhire contains three rsarket-towns ; Prefteigne,
Rhaiadar, and New- Radnor. The market at the laft, how-
ever, is only nominal. The county courts are held at Pref-
teigne, which is now the moll important and flourifliing town
in the county. (See Presteigne.) Thechief remain of anti-
quity within its limits is Offa's Dyke, which commencing at
thejriver Wye, near Hay, fkirts the counties of Radnor and
Hereford, and pafles into Montgomeryfhire at Pwll-y-P)'od,
a hkmlet on the road between Bifliop's-caftle and Newtown.
The only religious houfe in the county was the abbey of
Cwm Hir, founded in 1 143, for monks of the Ciftertian
order, by Cadwathelan-ap-Madoc, which, at the diflblution,
was valued at 28/. 17^. 41^. per annum. Of this monaftery a
confiderable part of the buildings is yet Handing, though in
a very ruinous and dilapidated condition. Leland, in his
Itinerary, (vol.v. p. 13.) fpeaks of its church as the longeil
in Wales, and informs us, that it was " fpoiled and defaced
by Owen Glendowr." The principal caftles in Radnorfhire
were thofe of Colewine, Tynbont, Aberhedow or Aber-
Edwy, Ewenlles, Radnor, Rhaiadar, and Pain's-caftle.
Several antiquaries, among whom are Camden, Gale, and
Ward, place the Roman ilation Magnos, or Magna, at Old
Radnor, as is mentioned above ; but Baxter contends that
it fhould be fixed at Ledbury, in Hcrefordlliire, and Harris
at Gaer, near Brecknock. In this county, particularly on
the fummit of Gwaftedin hill, are feveral of thofe coUettions
of ftones called in South Wales harneu, in North Wales, kar-
fiedheu, in Scotland, cairns, and in Ireland, duns.

RAF

Radnor was creeled into an earldom by Charles 11., in
the perfon of John Robarts, lord Robarts of Truro, but
that title became extindl in 1757. It was revived, hovix-ver,
ip 1765, in the perfon of William Bouverie, baron Long-
ford, and vifcount Folkftone, whofe fon Jacob, now earl of
Radnor, enjoys his privileges. General View of the Agri-
culture of the County of Radnor, by John Clark, 410.
Skrinc's Tours in Wales. Camden's Britannia. Pennant's
Tour in Wales, 8vo.

RADNOTH, a town of Tranfylvania, on the river
Maros ; 23 miles W. of Scherburg.

RADOE, a fmall ifland in the North fea, near the coaft
of Norway. N. lat. 60^^ 35'.

RADOFFIN, a town of Moravia, in the ciicle of Iglau ;
21 miles E. of Iglau.

RADOLFZELL, or Ratoi.fzeil, or Zell, a town
of Germany, in Auilrian Swabia ; fituated on the Unterfee,
or lake of Lille; 10 miles N.W. of Conllance.

RADOM, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of San-
domirz ; Jo miles N.N.W. of Sandomirz.

RADOMISCHL, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Prachatitz ; four miles N. of Strakonitz.

RADOMISL, a town of Poland, in the palatinate o.

Lublin ; 45 miles S. of Lublin Alfo, a town of Poland,

in the palatinate of Kiev ; 56 miles N.W. of Kiev.

RADOMSK, or Radomi.ski, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Siradia ; 32 miles S.E. of Siradia.

RADONITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Saatz ; 13 miles W.S.W. of Saatz.

RADOSCHITSCH, a town of Poland, in the pala-
tinate of Sandomirz ; 20 miles N.E. of Malogocz.

RADOSKU, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate of
Culm; 10 miles W. of Lautenburg.

RADSTADT, a town of the archbilhopric of Salz-
burg ; 36 miles S.S.E. of Salzburg.

RADT vor dim Waldt, a town of the duchy of Berg,
where Roman Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinifts, have,
each of them, a church ; 25 miles E. of DalTeldorp.
RADULA. See Raspatory.

RADUNPOUR, or Radimpour, in Geography, a town
of Hindooftan, in the country of Agimere, on the river
Puddar, or Butlafs ; 1 7 1 miles N. of Surat. N. lat. 23° 58'.
E. long. 71^48'.

RADZANOW, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 30
miles N.E. of Ploczko.

RADZIECZOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Belcz ; 24 miles W. of Belcz.

RADZIEJOW, or Rodschowa, a town of Poland,
in the palatinate of Brzeftye ; 25 miles W. of Brzeftye.

RADZIVILOW, a town of Lithuania; 50 miles
E.N.E. of Minlk.

RADZYMIN, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 12
miles N. of Warfaw.

RAEMSDONCK, or Ramsdonck, a fmall but ftrong
place of Brabant ; three miles E. of Gertrudenberg.

RAEPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Gohud, on the Jumnah ; 38 miles E.N.E. of Lahaar.

RAERDORP, a town of HoUand ; five miles N.E. of
Amfterdira.

R.3ilTVIK, a calcareous mountain of Sweden, the height
of which is eftimated by Bergman at 6000 feet above the
fea, obferving alfo, as a fingularity, that upon this moun-
tain, and that of Rodaberg, are found vaft blocks of reddifh
felfpar, mingled with quartz and brown mica.

RAFAEL, Cape, a cape on the E. coaft of the ifland
of Hifpaniola. N. lat. 19° 2'. E. long. 69° 46'.

Rafael, 5/.j a town of South America, in the province

of

R A F

of Caraccas ; 40 miles S. of Caraccai. — Alfo, a town of
South America, in the province of Moxes ; 210 miles E.
of Santa Cruz dc la Sierra la Nueva. — Alfo, a town of New
Navarre; 105 miles S.W. of Cafa Grande.

RAFAH, a town of Egypt ; 57 miles N.E. of Catieh.

RAFALSO, a fmall iiland in the gulf of Finland. N.
lat. 60° 20'. E. long. 26'" 12'.

RAFFAELLE da Urbino, in Biography. See
Raphael.

RAFFLING, a fort of game with three dice, in which
he who throws the greateft pair, or pair royal, in three calls,
wins the pri/.e or ftake.

The word probably comes from the bafc Latin, r'lejlare,
to rifle, plunder, take all aivay.

The raffle is properly the doublet or triplet : a raffle of
aces, or duces, carries it againll mere points.

Raffling is alfo ufed when a company of ])erfons club
to tlii? purchafe of a commodity, or make fmall dcpofits,
amounting in the whole to its full value ; and he that throws
the higheft on three dice, or who has the highcit number by
means of balls thrown on a bagatelle or porto-bello table,
takes it.

RAFICA, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the government of Diarbekir ; three miles S. of Raca.

RAFLUNDA, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Skone ; 17 miles S. of Chriilianftadt.

RAFNIA, in Botany, a genus of plants, feparated from
the Linnxan Crotalaria and Liparia, augmented with feveral
new fpccies from the Cape, and named by its author, pro-
feflbr Thunberg, in the fecond part of the preface to his
Prodromus Plantarum Capenfium. De Theis is completely
in the dark as to the perfon commemorated in tliis name,
who can be no other than Mr. C. G- Rafn of Copenhagen,
author of a Flora of Denmark and Holftein, in the Danifh
language, publidied in the years 1796 and 1800, in oftavo,
making two volumes, which include the firft ten clafTes of
the Linnasan fyftem. We know not whether any more has
appeared. The fame botanift has written a work on the
phyfiology of plants ; and feveral papers for the Academy
of Sciences at Copenhagen. See Sims and Konig's Ann.
of Bot. v. I. 6 — Thunb. Prodr. 123. pra;f. n. 48. Willd.
Sp. PI. v. 3. 949. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 261. — Clafs and
order, D'ladelph'ta Decandr'ia. Nat. Ord. Papilionacen,
Linn. Legum'inofit, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-
fliaped, five-cleft, ringent ; the upper lip in two broadifh
diftant fcgments ; lower divaricated, in three acute ones,
the middle one fmalleit. Cor. Papilionaceous. Standard
large, heart-fhaped, acute, fpreading, depreffod at the fides.
Wings ovate, about half as long as the ftandard. Keel
acute, the length of the wings. Stam. Filaments ten, all
united into a linear tube, fplit along the bafe ; five of them
rather the fhorteft ; anthers fimple. P'ljl. Germen ftalked,
linear ; flyle fimple, bent upwards at nearly a right angle ;
ftigma obtufe. Perk. Legume ftalked, oblong-lanceolate,
comprefled, of one cell and two valves. Seeds feveral,
ftalked, roundifli-kidney-ftiaped.

Efl. Ch. Stamens all united. Ca}yx ringent ; upper lip
divided ; lower divaricated, in three fegmcnts, the middle
one fmalleft. Legume ftalked, lanceolate, compreded.

Obf. The firft fpecies in Willdenow, perfoliata, Crotalaria
ptrfnliata of Linnxus, figured in Smith's Infefts of Georgia,
y. 2. t. 67, is Baptifia perfoliata of Brown, in Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 3. 5, a genus adopted from Ventenat, and belong-
JHg to tlie Decandria Monogynia.

I. R. amplexicaulis. Orbicular Rafnia. Th\nib. Prodr.
J33. Willd. n. 2. (Crotalaria amplexicaulis ; Linn. Sp,

R A I-

PI. 1003. Genilta perfoliata, orbieulatisfoliis ; Seb. The-
faur. V. I. t. 24. f. 5. Linn.) — Leaves reticulated, orbicular,
clafpmg the ftcm, alternate ; tlie floral ones oppofite, co-
loured.— Native of the Cape of Good Hope. A fmooth,
handfome, hrancheA Jhrub, clothed w'ith entire leavei, from
one to two inches acrofs, finely reticulated with innumerable
vems; the upper ones, which accompany ^hvfonuers, fmaller,
and pale ycllowifli. Flowers folitary, nearly feflile, yellow,
fmaller than the floral leaves.

2. R. eUiptica. Elliptical Rafnia. Thunb. ibid. Willd.

n. 3, excluding the reference to Andrews Leaves flightly

veined, elliptic-ovate, acute, alternate ; the floral ones op-
pofite, not longer than the flowers Native of the Cape.

Confounded by Linnxus with the foregoing, from which it
difl'ers in having mucli fmaller kavcs, fefTile, not clafping the
ftem, quite deftitutc of reticulated veins. Flowers of a
deeper yellow, as long as the floral leaves.

3. R. cuneifolia. Wedge-leaved Rafnia. Thunb. ib,

Willd. n. 4. (Spartium ovatum ; Berg. Cap. 197.)

Leaves obovate, fomewhat wedge-fliaped. Branches au-
gular. Flowers raccmofe, terminal. — From the fame coun-
try. Stem arborefcent. Branches rather angular, Itriated,
fmooth. Leaves numerous, alternate, ovate, pointed, fuc-
culent, fmooth, above an inch long ; contrafted at the bafe,
and tapering down into hroddfoo^alis. Flowers purphfti-
yellow, in terminal, corymbofe clufters. Bergius.

4. R. tr'iflora. Three-flowered Rafnia. Thunb. ib.
Willd. n. 5. Ait..n. I. Venten. Malmaif. t. 48. (Cro-
talaria trifiora ; Linn. Sp. Pi. 1004. Curt. Mag. t. 482.
Borbonia cordata ; Andr. Repof. t. 31, excluding the fyno-
nym.) — Leaves ovate, fmooth. Branches angular. Stalks
fingle-flowered, three together. - Native of the Cape, where
it was gathered by Sparrmann and Thunberg, and from
whence its feeds were fent to Kew garden, in 1786, by Mr.
Francis Maffon. The plant is bieimial, requiring to be fliel-
tered in winter, and flowering in June and July. Stem
branched, about a yard high, moft leafy in the upper part,
fmooth, and of a glaucous green, as well as the leaves,
which are numerous, alternate, almoft fefhle, more or lefs
ovate, but varying in fize and breadth. Flotvers abundant
at the fummits of the branches, large, yellow, axillary,
ftalked, three together, the floral leaves fmaller than the
reft, and often tinged with purple.

5. R. eppofua. Oppofite-leaved Rafnia. Thunb. ib.
Willd. n. 6. (Crotalaria oppofita ; Linn. Supp!. 322.
Liparia oppofita; Linn. SyiL Veg. ed. 13.554. Spartium
capenfc ; Sp. PI. 995. Cytifus capenfis ; Berg. Cap. 217.)
— Leaves eUiptic-lanceolate ; the upper ones moftly oppo-
fite. Flowers lateral, on fliort folitary ftalks Native of

the Cape, apparently unknown in our gardens. Linnxus
and his fon confounded many different things under this fpe-
cies, fome of which being marked in their herbarium as
having been gathered by Thunberg, we prefume to be
among thofe he has defined ; yet it is not poflible to deter-
mine them all by his fliort charadfers, feveral of which un-
fortunately contradift the fpecific names. The Jlem of the
prefent is defcribed by the younger Linnxus as fimple, he
confidering as Jlo-wer-Jlalhs the copious, alternate, leafy
branches, three or four inches long, on which one or two
pair of the lower leaves are oppofite ; the proper floral
leaves, like thofe of the ftem, being alternate : all the leaves
are elliptic-lanceolate, or fomewhat obovate, acute, entire,
lingle-rihbed, an inch or more in length. Flotuers either-
lateral or axillary, among the uppermoft leaves, folitarv,
each on a (im-p\ejlali about the length of its calyx. Corolla
yellow, not half fo large as the laft fpecies.

6. R. axillaris. Axillary Rafnia. Thunb. ib. WiUd.

U u 2 n. 7.

R A F

n. 7 " Leaves lanceolate, alternate or oppofite. Flowers

terminal." — This and all the following were gathered by
profclFor Thiinbcrg, at the Cape. In the I^innaean her-
barium is a fpecimen, by whom gathered does not appear,
which fcems to anfwcr to the above character, (except the
Laves being linear-lanceolate, ) and which may perhaps ex-
plain the paradoxical contrariety between the Ipecific name
and charatter. In tliis fpecimen the /lowers are really ter-
mlnal, being folitary at the ends of copious, ftiort, leafy,
lateral branches, which are axillary. The whole Jeliage has
a HylTop-likc afpeft.

7. R. aiigulata. Angular Rafnia. Thunb. ib. WiUd.
n. 8. — " Leaves lanceolate, alternate. Flower-ftalks lateral.
Stem angular."

8. K. fpicata. Spiked Rafnia. Thunb. ib. Willd.

n. 9 " Leaves lanceolate, alternate. Flowers axillary,

racemofe." — Of this fpecies alone, it feems, Willdenow had
feen a dried fpecimen, and we regret that he did not give us
ferae account of il.

9. R. angujlifolia. Narrow-leaved Rafnia. Thunb. ib.
Willd. n. lo. — " Leaves lanceolate, alternate. Flower-
ftalks lateral. Stem round."

10. K. Jilifrjlia. Thread-leaved Rafnia. Thunb. ib.
Willd. n. II. — " Leaves linear-lanceolate, alternate. Flovv-
ers axillary." — The Linnxan herbarium contains two fpe-
cimens, fpccifically different, which we prefume belong to
this and the lall, but no human fagacity can appropriate
them ; except that one of them, with large and feemingly
purplirti Jloivers, having rather the narrowed leaves, may
be taken iox jUtfolia. This is marked as gathered by Thun-
berg. The other has much fmaller and yellow Jloiuers.
l.'hejle/n is round in both.

11. R. relrujlexa. Bent Rafnia. Thunb. ib. Willd.
n. 12. — "Leaves obovate. Branches reflexcd backwards
and forwards." — A fpecimen from Thunberg anfwers to the
above name and charafter, except the leaves being rather
linear-lanceolate than obovate. Their colour is fomewhat
glaucous. Flowers moftly terminal, folitary, on fhort

Jlalks, with an awl-fiiaped bradea, or abortive leaf, at the
bafe of each ilalk.

12. R. ereSa. Upright Rafnia. Tiiunb. ib. AVilld.
n. 13. — " Leaves oblong. Flowers lateral. Stem erecl."

i^. R. diffufa. Prollrate Rafnia. Thunb. ib. Willd.
n. 14. — " Leaves ovate, fmooth. Stem decumbent."

All the fpecies turn more or lefs black in drying. For
Rafnia rctiifa of Ventenat, Malmaif. t. 53, fee Temple-
TONIA hereafter, and Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 4. 269.

RAF30, in Geography, a fmall idand on the E. fide of
the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 61° 37'. E. long. 21^12'.

RAFSUND, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Jamptland ; 28 miles S.E. of Frofon.

RAFT, in Sea Language, a fort of float formed by an
affemblage of various planks, or pieces of timber, faltened
together fide by fide, fo as to be conveyed more commo-
dioufly to any fiiort diitance in a harbour or road, thin if
they were feparate. The timber and planks, witli which
merchar.t-fliips are laden in the different parts of the Baltic
lea, arc attached together in this manner, in order to float
them off to the (liipping.

This means of conveying timber to navigable fituations
may be advantageoufly praftifed in many places. It is
found of great utility in many of the northern parts of tiie
ifland as well as others, near canals and waters, where a
cheap conveyance for fuch articles is required.

Thebalfaor catsmaran ufcd by the Indians and Spaniards
in South America, is only a raft made of the trunks of the
balfa ; far an account e£ which, fee the article Boat.

5.

U A G

They have one malt, on which is lioifteJ a large fquare fail ;
and a pair of (heers, whofe heels red on each fide the raft.
When a fore-ftay fail is fet, a pair of fheers is rigged fur-
ward. Thefe rafts were the firll conveyance by water, w ,
dvjubt, long before veffels ot a better conltruftion wer
thought of; and what is rather lurprifing, they arc made to
fail with foul winds, and lleer, as well as any ottier kind of
vellel, by means of an inventit>u fimilar to, and perhaps th(r
original of, that which is now called "a fliding-keel."
They have for this pnrpofe planki about ten feet long, and
fifteen to eighteen inches wide, which Hide vertically in the
fpaces between the trunks which form the raft. It is only
neceflary to immerge them more or lefs, and put down a
greater or lefs number at the fore or after part of the raft,
to make it either luff-to, or fall-off from the wind, tack,
veer, lie -too, and perform every neccffary manoeuvre. The
number of thefe planks is five or fix, and if one of thefe
planks be drawn up forward, the raft will keep away ; and,
if one is raifed abaft, it will come to tlie wind. This fort
of raft, from the fimplenefs of its conllruftion, might per-
haps be well adapted to many cafes of emergency, after (hip.
wreck upon coalts, dtftitute of all other materials for ihip-
building.

Rai-t-Po;7, in a Ship, a fquare hole cut through the fut-
tocks of fome (hips, immediately under the counter, to re-
ceive the planks or pieces of timber which are brought to
lade her for tranfportation ; and which, on account of their
great length, could not be received aboard otherwife.

RAFTERING, in jigriculture, a provincial term ufed
for a fort of ploughing in narrow ridges, or fmall ridglets.
It is ufeful fin- expofing a large furface of earth to the in-
fluence of the atmofphere.

RAFTERS, in Building, are pieces of timber, which,
ftanding by pairs on the rcafon-piece or raifing-piece, meet
in an angle at the top, and form the roof of a building.

It is a rule in architetlure, that no rafters fhould ftand
farther than twelve inches from one another.

For the fizea or fcantlings of rafters, it is provided by
aft of parliament, that />r/m/^«/ rafters from 12 feet 6 inches
to 14 feet 6 inches long, be c inches broad a-top, and 8 at
the bottom, and 6 inches thick. Thofe from 14, 6, to
1 8, 6 long, to be 9 inches broad at the foot, 7 a-top, and
7 thick. And thofe from 18, 6, to 21, 6, to be loinches
broad at the foot, 8 a-top, and 8 thick.

Single raftei-s, 6 feet 6 inches long, to be 4 and 3 inches
in their fquare.

RAFTY, a provincial term fignifying damp and mufty,
as corn or hay in a wet feafon.

RAG, or Rake, among Hunters, denotes a company or
herd of young colts.

Rag, or Ragg, Rowley, in Mineralogy. See Ferri-

LITE.

Rag, a torn piece of cloth of any fort. See the nest
article.

Rags, Woollen, as well as the clippings of pitch marks upon
(heep, are good manure. The rags fliould be chopped fmallj
about an inch or two fquare, and fcattered on the earth at
the fecond ploughing ; for being thereby covered they will
begin to rot by feed-time. They imbibe the moifture of
dews and rain, retain it long, and, according to Dr. Home,
keep loofe dry foils in a nioift date. They formerly coft
about fourpence a bufhel at London, from whence many
loads were fer.t every year to Dundable, which is thirty-
three niiles, where they are laid on even diff lands, jud after
the fowing of the corn, allowing to the acre four facks, of fix
bufiiels each 5 they are much higher now, at more than

double

RAG

RAG

double this price, and no quantity of any preat account
to tie procured. Sec- Man uUK, and Toi'-dre//in^.

Tiic farmers in Oxfordlhire mnke ufe of rags of this fort,
procuring them from London and other places, at the rate
of from eight to nine pounds the ton, which, with the car-
riacre, Hand them in upon the farms from nine pounds ten
(hillings to ten pounds. By fome they are fpread upon
the clover lands, lays or layers for wheat, in the proportions
of from three or four to iix hundred weight to the acre.
Tried with dung in this way, in the tjuanlity of feven him-
dred weight to the acre, the dung is found the better dref-
fnig. They are alio applied for turnips, for which crop
ihey are ploughed in before the winter, as foon as the wheat-
lowing is over : if ploughed in at the time of lowing tur-
nips, they will not work for that crop. Some for this
crop give half a coat of rags, and half a coat of flieep-fold.
When applied on the clovers they feldoni lall longer than
two years. Others think that half a coat of rags, and half
a coat of dung, is the moll benelicial method of applying
this fort of manure. Some think rags are more durable
than any other manu.-e. Rags are occafionally brought
from Whitney to this diftrift, at from feven fhilhngs and
fixpence to eight fhillings and fixpence the hundred weight,
and five hundred weight fpread upon the acre : they com-
monly lall only one crop, but fomctimes for two, and are
found fuperior to any thing for wheat. They arc ploughed
iu ; and if the feafon be very dry, do not anfwer fo well.
They are fuppofed to do belt on a fummer fallow for that
crop.

In Sullex rags are chiefly of fervice in the hop grounds,
for which they are thought an excellent manure. Vei-y
great benefit is faid to have been derived from the appli-
cation of thefe rags, in contributing to preferve this fort
of plantation in a llate of conilant moiiture and vegetation
in the dneft feafons, when grounds whicli have been manured
with dung, have been dried up, and the hop crops have failed.
Rags have likewile been found very ufeful on the mowing
grounds in fome parts of Lancallin-e, when laid upon them in
a pretty full proportion. When cut or chopped fuffieiently
fmall, they readily fink down upon the lurface of the land,
and do not aiford any fort of interruption to the fcythe, while
they ablorb and keep in the moiiture, which is of material
benefit to fuch grafs lands as are inclined to be drv.

Rag, in a Ship. See Bolts.

RAGAL, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Pludentz ; lo miles E. of Plndentz.

RAGALBUTO, a town of Sicily, in the valley of De-
mona ; 23 miles S. of Cefalu.

RAGALMATO, a town of Sicily, in the valley of
Mazara ; 8 miles N. of Naro.

RAGAMMEE, a town of Ceylon, near the W. coaft ;
58 miles S. of Columbo.

RAGANELLO, a river of Naples, which runs into
the gulf of Tarento, near Civita Mandonia.

RAGAPILLY, a town of Hindoollan, in Golconda,
near the left bank of the Godavery ; 5 miles S.E. of Ba-
drachiUum.

RAGATZ, a town of Switzerland, in the county of
Sargans ; 5 miles S.S.E of Sargans.

RAGAY, a town on the S. coall of the ifland of Lu-
5on. N. lat. 13° 50'. E. long. 122^40'.

RAGGED, in Heraldry. See Raguled.

Ragged Haivh, in Falconry, is a hawk that hath its fea-
idiers broken.

Ragged Robin, in Botany, See Lychnis.

Ragged Harbour, in Geography, a bay on the E. coail
«f Newfoundland, being a part ot Catalina bay ; 2 leagues

N. of Catalina harbour. N. lat. 49" 45'. W. Ion"-, eoo
40'.

Raccf.d Helmet, a fmall ifland in the Mergui Archipe-
lago. N. lat. 10'^ 9'.

Kagv.va-) IJland, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,near
the ifland of Paraguay. N. hit. ii'^ 24'. E. long. 119° 30'.
— Alio, a fmall ifland among the Bahamas. N. lat. 22° 27'.
W. long. 77° 16'.

Ragged Point, a cape on the E. coaft of the ifland of

Borneo. S. lat. 2° 13'. E. long. 116^40' Alfo, a cape

on the N. coall of the ifland of St. Chrillophcr. N. lat.
17° 30'. W. long. 62" 42'.

RAGGIVOLO, a town of Italy, in the department of
the Mincio ; 19 miles S. of Mantua.

RAGHU, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of the an-
ceftor of Rama, one of tiieir deified heroes, wlio is hence
fometimes called Raghuva, or fon of Raghu. Budha, or
Boodha, another of the Indian deities, is laid to have had a
Ion alfo of this name.

RAGHUVA, a name of the Hindoo deified hero Rama,
fignifying a defccndant of Raghu, a warlike charadler. All
thefe names are llill very common among Hindoos : whether
confined to the feft who, as chiefly worfliipping Rama, arc
called Ramauuj, or more extenfively given, we are not in-
formed. See Rama.

RAGIAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Farfittan ; 130 miles N.W. of Schiras. N. lat.
30° 40'. E. long. 50" 8'.

RAGLAND, a fmall village of Monmouthfhire, here
mentioned on account of its caflle, the ruins of which
evincing its grandeur and magnificence, command the atten-
tion of travellers. During the rebellion it was held for the
king, and defended to the lall extremity by the marquis of
Worcelter ; 8 miles W. of Monmouth.

RAGMAN'S Roll, or Ragimund's Roll. See Roll.

RAGNIT, in Geography, li town of PrufTian Lithuania,
on the river Memel, endowed with tlie privileges of a town
in theyear 1722. Its ancient callle was famous even in the
times of Paganifm. The knights of the Teutonic order re-
built it, with additional works, in 1255 ; but being deltroy-
ed in 1355, it was rebuilt a fecond time, and called Landf-
huth ; but afterwards it obtained the name of Ragnit from
the river which paffes by it ; 56 miles E.N.E. of Kbnifberg.
N. lat. 55° 5'. E. long. 22'' 18'.

RAGOGNA, a town of Italy, in Friuli ; 16 miles
N.W. of Udina.

RAGOOGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the Malwa
country, and circar of Kitchwana ; ll6miIesN.E. of Ou-
gein. N. lat. 24° 23'. E. long. 77° 30'.

RAGOTSKI, FuANCLS, in Biography, the fecond of
the name, prince of Tranfylvania, diltinguifhed by hi-; cou-
rage and patriotilm, was born in 1676, at the callle of
Borfhi, in Hungary. When he was only a year old he lofl
his lather, prince Francis, and was left to the care of his
mother, Helena Sereni, who afterwards married count Te-
keli. During his education he was carefully watched by the
houfe of Aullria, and his correlpondence with his mother,
who had retired to Copllantinople, was entirely broken off.
He was now fulFcred to t. avel to moll of the courts of Eu-
rope, and to contraft a marriage with the princefs of Heffe
Rhiiiftlds. Zealoufly attached to the independence of his
country, which was kept in a llate of great degradation by
the Imperialifts, he fecrelly entered into a negociaiion with
the French king, Lewis XIV., but being betrayed by one of
his confidents, he was arreiled, and a charge of treafon
was preferred agaiiifl him. The fentence of guilty was ioon
pronounced, and he was committed to the cuftody of an

ofHcer,

RAG

officer, who, however, connived at his elcape, and he ar-
rived in a dragoon's habit at the frontiers of Poland.
Here he received aifuranccs of airillance from France, and
immediately publiflaed an eloquent manifefto, calling upon
the nation to free itfelf from the Auilrian yoke. Numbers
joined him ; being, however, but half armed, he was fearful
of truiling his caule in their hands, and withdrew to the
frontiers of Poland, where he was joined by fre(h recruits.
With thefe he ventured to make fome progrefs ; Itormed
feveral fortreffes ; and took a fevere revenge upon the Impe-
rialifts, who had given no quarter to the Hungarian in-
furgents.

Ar this period the crown of Poland was vacant, through
the depofition of Auguilus by Charles XU. of Sweden,
and tlie Poliih chiefs were defirous of placing it upon the
head of Ragotlki. But he had no fuch ambitious views :
his great objett was to liberate his country, and he refufed
to defert its caufe for any other profpefts. He accordingly
purfued his fuccefles, and by the reduftion of Tokay, ob-
tained the fubmiffion of almoll the whole of Lower Hungary.
So high was his reputation, that the diet of Alba Julia, in
1704, proclaimed him prince of Tranfylvania, with which
dignity he was afterwards folemnly invelled. He obtained
likewife the title of proteftor of Hungary, and Lewis XIV.
fent to him a pubhc embalTy. He foon began to feci the diffi-
culty of fupporting a popular infurreftion agaiiill the arms
and policy of a powerful fovereign, as well by the abandon-
ment of fome of his allies, as by the defertion of his troops.
He had another opportunity of giving a refufal to the crown
of Poland, which was offered him by the czar Peter, (hew-
ing thereby his fincere attachment to the caufe of his
country, and he employed all the refources of valour and
good conduft to fupport a declining caufe. In 1711, a
treaty was concluded between the Hungarian flates and the
emperor, into which he refuted to enter, although the firft
article fecured his life and property, with the title of prince
of Tranfylvania. Mortified by the failure of his patrio-
tic exertions, he withdrew to Turkey, renouncing his great
eftates, and preferring an honouralile poTCrty to a fplendid
fervitude. He afterwards pafTed fome time in France, then
returning to Turkey, he fixed his final refidence at the caftle
of Rodofto, on the fea of Marmora. " There," fays his
biographer, " a Chriftian among Mahometans, and a philo-
fopher among barbarians, he tranquilly clofcd his life in
1733, at the age of 61." He left " Memoirs of his Life,"
which were publilTied in the " Revolutions de Hongrie,"
printed at the Hague in 1739. Li 1751 there appeared a
work, entitled " Teftament politique et moral du Prince Ra-
gotfki," the authenticity of which is doubted. Moreri.

RAGOUT, or Ragoo, a fance or feafoning, intended
to increafe or recover the appetite when languifhing, or

loft.

The term is French, but naturalized. It is alfo ufed for
any high-feafoned di(h, prepared of flefh, fifh, greens, or
the like, by ftewing them with the addition of bacon, fait,
pepper, cloves, and the hke high-flavoured ingredients.

We have ragoos of beef, of cray-fifh, of giblets, of af-
paragus, of endive, of cocks-combs, of gammon, of celery,

&c.

The ancients had a ragout, called garum.

RAG-PAVING. See Paving.

RAG-STONE, a name given by our artificers to a kind
of ftone, which they ufe for fetting an edge upon knives,
chiffels, and other tools. It is a greyifh-coloured flone, con-
taining a large quantity of talcky particles, and fplits eafily
into thin flakes. It is a foft Hone, and is ufed only to finifh
the fetting an inftrument after the edge has been prepared by

12

RAG

grinding or rubbing the tool upon fome other (lone of a
coarfer texture. We l^ave this from Newcaftle and mauy
other parts of the north of England, where there arc very
large rocks of it in the hills. This kind of flonc is in fome
dif^ridls confiderably blended and intermixed with the fub-
foil, rendering it of a more barren and unfertile quality.

RAGUENET, l'Abbe, in Biography. In 1702 the
publication of a pamphlet, entitled " Paralelc des Itahens
et des Francois en ce qui regarde la Mufique et les Operas,"
by this author, a man of talle and intelligence, who had rc-
fided fome time at Rome, gave birth to a long, but ineffec-
tual controvcrfy, concerning the degrees of perfedlion, and
fuperiority of French and Italian mufic. The book was
licenfed by Fontenelle, who faid in his teflimony, that " he
thought it would be very agreeable to the public, provided
they were capable of equity." This, declaration, however,
did not prevent Frencufe, the continuator of Bonnet's
" Hifloire de la Mufique," from attacking the author and
Italian mufic in a moil furious manner, treating both with
equal contempt and obloquy.

The French, after this period, feem to have enjoyed their
lyric fommei/s in great comfort and tranquillity till 1752 ;
when the performance of Pergokfi's " Servu Padrona" at
Paris, by a company of burletta fingers from Italy, let the
mufical republic in a flame which has not yet been extin-
guifhed.

There had, indeed, been a/en/ation excited, that was ra-
ther turbulent, and tending to a civil war, on the firft ap-
pearance of Rameau as a dramatic compofer in 1733, who,
by new liarmonies and accompaniments, had given offence to
the true believers in the worfhip of I>ulli ; but 'his foon
fubfided, and the nation not only heard his compofitions
wiih rapture, but reverenced him as " a theorill, to whom
mufic was as much indebted as phyfics and philofophy to
Newton."

This little work was publiflied in Englifh in 1709, and has
been faid to be tranflated by Galliard. If tk'.s Vvortliy pro-
feflor was the tranflator, it was before he had made liimfelf fo
completely mailer of the Enghfh language, as he appeared to
be afterwards, in his tranflation of " Tofi on florid Song."
The Englifii of this parahle is feeble and inaccurate ; many
of the notes, hov.ever, are good, and mariifeft a perfon
who had been in Italy, and well knew the ftate of mufic in
that country, as well as in England, at the beginning of the
laft century, during our firft attempts at operas, before the
arrival of Handel.

RAGUIER, Le, the name given by the French failors
to a wind peculiar to the gulf ot Alexandretta or Scande-
roon, which, rufhing from the fnowy fummits of the moun-
tains, frequently forces fhips to drag their anchors feveral
leagues.

RAGULED, or Ragged, in Heraldry, is applied to
an ordinary, e. gr. a crofs, whofe outhnes are jagged or
knotted.

He beareth fable, a crofs raguled, or, by the name of
Sloivay.

Ragged differs from indented, as the latter is regular, and
the former not.

The bearing is very ancient : Julius Caefar gave for his
badge, a boar's head, on a ragged ftaff.

Raguled is fometimes alfo ufed in the fenfe of truncated,
or couped, and applied to a branch that is fawed from the
tree ; or a ftock fawed from its root.

RAGUN, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Anhalt-DelTau, on the Mulda ; 9 miles S. of
Deflau.

RAGUND.A., a river of Sweden, which rifca in the

kke

R A G

Jake Storfio, and in tlie province of Medclpadia, changes
its name to Indal.

RAGUSA, a fnuU republic, fituated on tlie caftcrn
fliorcof tile Adriatic, and nevertliclefs regarded as an Italian
ftate. It has a population of about 56,000 perfons, on an
extent of 352 fquare miles. As tliis llate is adjacent to the
territory formerly belonging to the Venetians in Dalmatia,
its government was formed on tlie model of the Venetian
ariitocracy. Its religion is the Catholic, and its language
the Slavonic, though mott of the inhabitants Ipeak Italian.
The fee is archiepilcopal, with fix fuffragans, and its com-
merce is confiderable. The chief magillrate of the arifto-
cracy in this.ifland, called the " reftor," is changed every
month. Here is alio a council of ten, and a great council
compofed of all the nobles above twenty years of age, and
thefe nominate the " Prcgadi," a fenate of fixty, which
fuperintends all llate affairs, receives and deputes ambafla-
dors, and confers offices. The revenue of Ragn fa was for-
merly ettimated at a ton of gold, or about 10,000/. llerling.
This fmall republic has found it neceffary to engage the pro-
teftion of the Turks, for which it pays a tribute of about
20,000 fequins ; though the commerce is beneficial to the
Ottomans, in fupplying them with am.munition. Jealoufy of
their neighbours induces the Ragufans to (hut the gates of
their city, except for a few hours in tlie day. The capital is
Ragufa ; audit has been lately annexed, together with Dal-
rsatia, to the kingdom of Italy. It now (1814) probably
waits for a new allotment. The Ragufans have many coun-
try-houfes at Gravofa, another fea-port town. Stagno is
another little town, fubjedl to Ragufa. Of the Ragufan
ifles, the chief is Milet, or Melada, fertile in oranges, le-
mons, and good wine. On the north there is a tolerable
haven, with a town of the fame name. Three or four little
ifles in that neighbourhood alfo acknowledge the fovereignty
of Ragufa.

Ragusa, the capital of the above-mentioned ifland, is an
ancient city, being the Ragufium of the Romans, and in
the tenth century it became the metropolis of Dalmatia.
In the 13th century it was conquered by the Venetians, and
afterwards for a time fubjedt to the crown of Hungary.
It is a well-built city, and its commerce is not inconfiderable.
The harbour might be rendered capable of a firm defence ;
and the circumjacent ifles are beautified by nature and art.
Earthquakes, however, have been terrible ; and that of
,1667 dedroyed 6000 perfons ; 248 miles N.W. of Saloniki.
N. lat. 42° 58'. E. long. 18° 18'.

Ragufa keeps accounts in ducats of 40 groffetti, each
groffetto being divided into 6 foldi ; but at the public, offices
accounts are moftly kept in perperi of 12 grofletti. For-
merly the ducat reprefented a real coin ftruck at Ragufa, and
had a fixed value ; but fince it has become a money of ac-
count, it is always equivalent to the Turkifli piaftre, and
therefore liable to a change of value. At Ragufa no gold
coins are Itruck ; its fdver are the old tallari or d611ars, com-
monly called Viflini or Ragufine, weighing i oz. 7 car.
(Ragufa wt.), containing 17 parts of pure filver to 13 of
alloy, and reckoned at i-i ducat, or 60 grofletti; but on
account of the depreciation of the ducat, the value of the
tallari has been proportionably raifed in weight. The new
tallari, called libertine, weighing i oz. 10 car. and "contain-
ing 9 parts of pure filver to 6 of alloy, was valued at
So groffetti. But fince the year 1796, ducats have been
coined of 40 groffetti, weighing i an ounce ; alfo perperi
of 12 grofletti, weighing 20 carats, and half perperi in pro-
portion : thefe three coins contain 9 parts of pure filver,
and 1 1 of alloy. The grofletti, none of which have been
lately coined, are ftill in circulation ; they weigh the 60th

II A II

part of an ounce, and bear the fame value with the paras
of Conltantinople. The dncat of 1796 is worth l^^J.
fterling, which is nearly the value of the Tarkifh piallrc.
The tallaro, or Ragnfiiia of 1759, '» worfethan the Enghfli
itandard 40Z. zdwt.; its weight is i8dwt. 7^ gr., con-
tent in pure filver 256.4 gr., and its value in fterling 2s. 1 if </.
That of 1794 is worfe 3 oz. i9dwt., its weight 18 dwt.
17! g""-! its content in pure filver 267.6 gr., and value in fter-
ling 3J-. lie/. The ducat of 1797 worfe 5 oz. 11 dwt. ; its
weight 8 <lwt. r/Jgr., content in pure filver 97 gr., and va-
lue in fterling u. l-^J. The tallaro or Ragufina has upon it
the head of the chief magiilratc, or reftor ; legend rector
REip. KiiACUsiN : reverfe, arms of the city, legend, nucAr.
ET SEM. REIP. RAC, 1. e. ducat and half of the republic of
Ragufa. Pieces of 1 794, &c. bear the head of a woman, with
RESPUBL. RHACUs., revcrfe, a fhield, with the word liber-
TAS, inclofed by two branches, over which is a crown, le-
gend, nucE dec fide et just. The ducat bears the whole
length of a bifliop, legend, auspicils tuis a dec : reverfe,
arms of the city, legend, ducat itEip. hhacu.sin.t;.

The pound with which gold and filver are weighed at Ra-
gufa confilts of 12 ounces ; the ounce is divided into 6 faggi ;
the faggio into 22 carats, and the carat into 4 grains. But the
pound of commercial weight is equal to 5607 Englifh grains,
or 12 oz. I3dr. avoirdupois ; the former being 5062I Eng-
lifh grains. The ell of Ragufa meafures 227^ J'rench lines,
or 20i Englifli inches. Kelly's Un. Cambift.

RAGWORT, in Botany. See Othonna, Senecio,
and SoLiDAGO.

Ragwort, in Agriculture, a very pernicious plant of
the weed kind, which is fometimes termed feagrim. It has
a green ftalk in its early ftate, but, as it advances in age, in-
clining to violet or purple, efpecially downwards. Its
flowers are yellow, and thick-fet, and compofed each of a
number^pf fmall pointed leaves. It runs to feed in the latter
end of fummer. The fmell, both of the ftalk and leaves,
which are jagged, as well as the flower itfelf, are fo offen-
five to animals, as that hardly any will feed upon it, except
when almoft ftarved.

It has been propofed to deftroy it by picking out the
roots, and feeding the land clofe with fheep. It moftly af-
fefts meadows and pafture lands when the foils are good.
RAHA, in Geography. See Jericho.
RAHABAH, or Rabba, town of Arabia Deferta,
near the Euphrates, on the road by which caravans travel
from Syria to the Arabian Irak ; no miles S.W. of Moful.
N. lat. 35° 5'. E. long. 40° 21'.

Rahabah Melil Ben Tauk, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in the province of Diarbekir, on the Euphrates ; 50 miles
S. of Kerkifich.

RAHABY, a town of the defert of Syria, containing
about five or fix thoufand inhabitants, fituated on a plain,
furrounded with date-trees ; 70 miles N. of Mefghid Ali.

RAHANPOUR, a town of Bengal ; 42 miles N.W. of
Nattore.

RAHAPA, a fmall iiland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the
E. coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 4° 58'. E. long. 114^4'.

RAHAS, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome authors
to the torpedo, or cramp-ii(h.

RAHEINA, in Geography, a bay on the W. coaft of
Mowhee, one of the Sandwich iflands. N. lat. 20° 50'.
E. long. 203'' 19'.

RAHEMAT, a large lake in the Arabian Irak, 90
miles in circuit, near Mefghid AH.

RAHENSTEIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Saatz ; 19 miles S.W. of Saatz.

RAHMANIE', a town, or rather village, of Egypt,

huilt

K A H

built on the W. bank, at the ontraiicc of the canal of Da-
manhour, which is na\ iguble only at tlic rife of tlie Nile ; 9
miles S. of Fno,u ; wliich lee. ^ „ ^ . ,

RAHMETABAD, a town of Perfia, m the province
of Irak ; 20 miles N.E. of Confar.

RAHNIS, or Ranis, a town of Saxony, in the circle
of NeuRadt ; 10 miks S. W. of Neuftadt. N. lat. 50° 33'.
E. long. iT-' 40'.

RAHNY, a town of Bengal ; 25 miles N.W. of Di-

nagepour. . , , r 1

RAHON, a town of France, in the department ot the

Jura ; 6 miles S. of Dole.

RAHOON, a town of Hindooftan, in the fubah of

Lahore ; 108 miles S.E. of Lahore. N. lat. 3 1° 7'. E. long.

75° 42"

who will pay them-
rajahs in his fcrvicc

R A l\

The Great Mogul has feveral of thefe

I

Tlic chief lords of the Moguls, vi%. the vice-roy», go-

RAHU, in AJlronomy, is the Hindoo name of the planet
of the afcending node, or dragon's head. Ketu is the
name of the other node ; and a fable, in the ufual llyle of
mythological allegory, is given under that article, of their
origin and milhap. The malignant Rahu was decapitated,
and Ketu was his head. In one painting of the Hindoo zo-
diac, the hcadlefs Rahu is repreiented of a black colour, in
red clothing, mounted on an owl, and holding a lotos in his
hand : in another, he holds a fpear, and Hands on a tortoifc.
In the fable given under Ketu it is related that Viflmu was
the decapitator of Rahu : other accounts affign that office
to Narayana. Among the Hindeos, as we have had occa-
fion to remark in feveral articles, their fciences, as well at
their hiftory and religion, are enveloped in a mafs of mytho-
logical allegory : a farther inftancc of which, connefted with
the fubjeft of this article, is feen under Eclipse {Note.
A reference being made from the article Ketu to this, we
take the opportunity of correfting two typographical er-
rors in that article. In its early part, for Karyapa, read Ka-
fyapa ; and in the fourth line of the fecond column, for or
read a.)

RAHWAY, in Geography. See Rawa.
RAI, or Rae, an ancient town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Irak, before Ifpahan the capital of Perfia. This
was once a grand and proud city ; and its ruins ftill cover
a great extent of country. It holds a diilinguidied place in
the annals of Perfia : it is mentioned by Arrian and Dio-
dorus Siculus, as the capital of the province of Riiages, fo
called from the calamities brought upon this part of the
empire by the earthquakes to which it formerly was, and is
ftill fubjett. It is frequently mentioned in the wars of the
renowned Haroun al R;^(hid ; it was the capital of this part
of Perfia, in the reign of Alp-Arflan, and continued to
flourilh untilit was facked by the generals of Jenghis Khan.
Its ruins are fituated five miles S. of Tehraun, the prefent
capital of Perfia ; and in the centre of them is a village,
called Sheik Abdul Azzecm, from a fon of the feventh
Imam, to whofe memory a noble mofque and maufoleum
have been erefted.

RAJA, denoting Itlng, an appellation given in Hindoo-
ftan, or the empire of the Mogul, to princes defcended from
thofe that ruled there before the conqueil of the Moguls ;
who exercifed all rights of fovereignty, only paying a tri-
bute to the Great Mogul, and obferving tiie treaties by
which their ancefturs recogniz.ed his fuperiority.

There are fome rajahs who Hill retain a more independent
fovereignty in the mountains : the Indians call them rai ;
the PerRans, plurally, raian : our travellers rajahs, or ra-
gias. Thefe have under their command foldiers, called raja-
poots, or perlons defcended from rajahs, who are a robuft
and brave people, and who enter into the fervice of thofe

veniors of provinces, and chief minillers of ftate, F. L;a-
trow obferve^, are called omhras ; and the idolatrous rajahs,
or Indian lords who governed petty Hates before the con-
quell of their country, held the fame rank at court with thr
omhras.

All the difference was, that the children of the mjalis luc-
ceeded their fathers in the (how of the fovereignty left them ;
whereas the children of the Mahometan lords lofe all in lofing
their fathers.

The Indians account four ages from the beginning of thf
world: and in the fecond, which lalted 1,296,000 years,
tliey hold the rajas or kcliatrys had their rife ; a noble call,
though inferior to the Bramins. Vice then, they fay, be-
gan to creep into the world ; men only lived to 300 years,
and their ilature was reduced, &c.

RAIA, the Ray, in Ichthyology, a genus of fifties of the
order Chondroptcrygia, of which the generic charafter is,
that it has five oblique fpiracles on each lide, placed beneath
the neck ; the head is fmall, pointed, and not diftincl from
the body ; the mouth is beneath tranfverfe, toothed ; the
body is broad, thin, and fist.

The individuals of this genus are all inhabitants of the
fea only : they keep at the bottom, and in winter cover
themfelves with fand and mud : they feed on teftaceous ani-
mals, fifh, or any animal fubllances which they may happen
to meet with. They grow to a large fize, fometimcs ex-
ceeding 20olbs. in weight. The females are the larger, and
produce their young alive, only one at a time, which, hke
the {hark tribe, are inclofed in a quadrangular, black, horny
(liell, the comers of which end in flender incurved points,
but not extending into long filaments, like thofe of the fhark :
the eyes are half covered with a thin membrane, oblong,
placed on the upper part of the head : above thefe, in the
place of noftrils, is a broad fulcus or groove, divided by a
reticulate membrane, confifting of crelled folds, and clofed
with a valve : behind this fulcus are two fmall femilunar ori-
fices : the tongue is vsrry broad, fhort, and fmooth. The ven-
tral fins are'covered with a thick flcin, and furrounding the
body ; the ventral at the bafe are connecfed with the anal ;
the fleih is generally eatable ; the liver is large, and producing
a great quantity of pure oil.

Of this genus there are nineteen fpecies, divided into
three feftions : -vi^. A, comprifing the eleftric ray, or tor-
pedo and fl<ate3: tliefe have ftiarp teeth. B, including the
fting-ray and thornbacks, having obtufe teeth. And C, which
are denominated uncertain, comprifing five fpecies, which
inhabit the Red fea, or about the Cape of Good Hope, but
which have not yet been fufficiently examined.

Seaion A.—Withjharp Teeth.
Species.

* Torpedo ; Eleclric Ray. The body of this fifti is
entirely fmooth and flat. The fpecies inhabits the Mediter-
ranean, and grows to a large fize : fome have been taken
that have weighed from 60 to 8olbs. each, but the average
weight is lefs than 2olbs. It is of a dirty clayilh colour ;
the head and body are round, and but indiitinftly ieparated.
The body is extremely thin ; behind the eyes are two wide
foramina, which have been fuppofed to be intended by na-
ture for conveying found ; they are befet with fix cutaneous
fingers on their inner circumference, and communicate with
the mouth. The torpedo can live about twenty-four hours
out of the fea, and a fliort time longer, if put into frefti

water :

RAIA.

water ; it inhabits tliofe places where the boUum is fandy,
and buries itfelf iuperficially by flinging the fand over its
back with a fort of vibration, which it gives to its extremi-
ties. It is in this filuation that the torpedo aflunilhes and
terrifies the unwary paflenger, who inadvertently treads upon
it, by the exertion of its eleftrical or benumbing faculty.
This power is fcrviceable to the animal in two important re-
fpeCls ; as a means of defence againll voracious fidics, and
as a method by which lie is enabled to procure his fubiiftence
from among the fmaller tribes ; for the former, when elt.c-
trificd, are deprived of all poffibility of feizing their prey ;
and the latter, after having unwarily approached the tor-
pedo, and received the fliock, are incapable of making their
efcape. (See Torpedo.) The food of the torpedo is fur-
mullets and plaife ; the former are fo fwift, that it is impoi-
fible for the torpedo to take them by purfuit, and as this
fifh has been found in its ftomach, it is prefnmed that it was
taken by means of tlie eleftrical ihock. The torpedo has
been taken off Pembroke, at Torbay, and near Waterfurd
in Ireland. It is caught like other flat fifh, with the trawl,
and is commonly found in water forty fathom deep, in com-
pany with other fpecies of this genus.

* Bads ; the Skate. This Ipecies is varied ; the middle
of the back is fmooth ; the tail is befet with a lingle row of
fpines. [t inhabits the European ocean, and is thought to
be the largeft lifli of the genus : the body above is cinereous,
fometimes with a few black lines, beneath white, with waved
lines of black dots ; round the eyes are numerous fmall,
hooked fpines ; in the males the fins are full of fpines. Of
all the larger filhes, the llcates are the moil numerous, and
their numbers are in a great meafure owing to their fize, and
to the proteftion afforded them by thofe frightful fpines
which nature has afforded them. There is not one of the ra-
pacious tribes, excepting, perhaps, the cachalot and white
(hark, that has a fwallow fufficiently large to receive them,
and evcnthele are probably deterred from their purpofes of
deftruftion by the armour with which their prey is covered.
Of fome the fize is fuch as to defy all powers of deftruftion
which even the fhark himfelf poffefies. In England fome
of the fpecies have been taken, weighing upwards of two
hundred weight, but even this is far inferior to their enor-
mous bulk ia other parts of the world. Near the ifland
Guadaloupe, a i-ay was killed more than twenty-five feet
long, and almoff fourteen broad. After all, tlie fifties of
this tribe probably attain a much larger fize than that of any
individual which has ever yet been examined. It is only the
fmalleft of the kind that approach the (hores ; the largefl
continue for ever prowling at the bottom in the unfathomable
caverns of the ocean, where they continue perhaps to grow
for a century.

The fifhes generate in March and April, at which time
they fwim near the furface of the water, feveral males pur-
fuing one female. The females call their purfes, as they
are called, in May, and continue to produce till September :
they are very prolific, not lefs than three hundred eggs having
been found in the bouy of a fingle female. The rays gene-
rally frequent thpfe parts of the fea where the bottom is
black and muddy, where they devour every thing indifcri-
minately, but they are more delicate with regard to a baited
hook. They devour any putrid fubftances whatever, but
if the bait has been taken up and fuffered to lie tor any
time in the open air, they will not touch it ; they appear to
perceive the line, and to dread it ; but the impulfe of hun-
ger overcomes th-ir caution, and even though they perceive
the danger, if thoroughly hungry, they devour the bait, as
if regardlefs of the confeqnences. See Skate.

OxYRiNCHUs ; Sharp-nofed Raia. Varied ; middle of
Vol. XXIX.

the back with ten fpinous tubercles. This is fimilar in fliapc
to the fkate, but with a longer and /harper fnout : the co-
lour of the whole upper i)art is cinereous, with feveral pale
or whitiih fpots, intermixed with a few (light dulky (Ireaks
or variegations ; beneath it is white, with duflcy or blueifh
flreaks ; down the back and tail runs a fingle row of fpines,
and a few others arc placed about the region of the eyes : the
fides of the tail arc alfo fometimes furnilhed with a row «f
fmaller or weaker fpines than thofe on the upper part ; the
eyes are large, as is alfo the mouth. This fpecies, like the
flcate, fometimes, but not often, is taken of a very confi-
derable fize. It is a native of the Mediterranean and
Northern feas.

MiKALETus. This fpecies has a fmooth belly and back :
it has fpines near the eyes, and a triple row of them on the
tail. It inhabits the Mediterranean ; the body above is
marked with an occellate fpol.

* FuLLONiCA ; the Fuller Ray. The back is covered with
fpines ; the eyes with a fingle row ; pedoral fins and tail
with a triple row. It inhabits the European feas ; grows
to a large fize ; the body above is cinereous, with mimcrous
black fpots ; beneath it is white. The fnout of this fifli is
fhort and pointed ; the niclitant membrane is frino-ed ; the
teeth are fmall and fharp ; and the tail is flender." It has
been thought by fome authors that this is only a variety of
the next fpecies.

* RuBU.s ; Rough Ray. The back of this fpecies has a
fingle fpine ; and the tail is befet with a triple row of fpines.
This is greatly allied to the thornback, but covered with
more numerous fpines, every part of the fliin on the upper
furface being muricated with fliarp curved aculei of different
fizcs : of thefe, one row of the largeft runs down the middle of
the back, and three, or fometimes five, along the tail ; others
are difperfed about the eyes and the flaps of the pettoral
fins ; the general colour isayellowifh or whitifli-grey, fome-
times variegated with dufky or brownilh clouds and flreaks ;
the under fide is white, and befet with very numerous fcat-
tered fpines, but lefs llrong than thofe on the upper fide.
It is about the fize of a thornback. Mr. Pennant mentions
one that meafured nearly three feet from the nofe to the tip
of the tail. It is a native of the Mediterranean and other
feas.

V>. -Teeth obtufe.
Species.

Sephen. Body nearly round ; tail twice as long as the
body, winged beneath, and with two long fpines above, fer-
rate on eacli fide. It inhabits the Red fea, and isfometimei
fo large, as to reach three yards acrofs ; body above brown,
with three rows of large hemifpherical tubercles down the
middle of the back ; beneath it is quite flat and fmooth, and
it is of a reddifli-white. It is from the iliin of this fpecies
that the beautiful fubllance called Galuchat is prepared by
the French, and which, being coloured with blue, green,
or red, according to the fancy of the article, and afterwards
polifhed, is fo frequently ufed for various kinds of cafes, te-
lefcope tubes, &c. For this purpofe the fmaller or younger
Ipecimens are preferred ; the tubercles in the more advanced
or full-grown animals being too large.

There is a variety of this fpecies : the length of the fpe-
cimen defcribed by IDr. RufTeli was about g\ inches ; the tail
is about two feet nine inches long ; the colour of the whole
animal is a dull leaden above, with a deep blue tail ; beneath
it is dufliy white ; en the middle of the back there are only
two pearl-formed tubercles inftead of three ; the tail is fur-
nilhed with a fharp fpine and a fin beneath. It is a native of
the Indian feas,

X X Aqitila.

RAIA.

Aqtjii. "V. The body is fmootli ; the tail is pinnate, with
nloiiir ferrate fpine. This fpecics is of a rliomboidal fhape,
but witli a conliderable Jihitatioii : the peftoral liiis approach
to a (ubfalcateJ form : ttie colour is cinereous above ; pale
or whitidi beneath : the head is rather large, and the fnout
produced : the eyes are large and prominent, with yellow
irid*s : the tail is long, (lender, fliarp-pointed, and furnifhcd
about the middle with a fpine iimilar to that of tiie iling-
ray. This fpecies grows to a very great fr/.e, fomctimcs
meafuring ten, twelve, or even fifteen feet in length, and
weighing upwards of three hundred pounds. It is found in
the Mediterranean, Atlantic, and Indian feas, and is faid
to fwim in a flower manner than moll other rays ; it preys
on fmaller fillies, and is fuppofed to ilrikc and kill, or at
leaft difable its prey with tiie caudal fpine : when taken, it
is obferved to vibrate the tail with great ftrength and rapi-
dity in all diredions. It is not reckoned among the edible
fifhes ; but the liver, which is very large,' is faid fometimes
to be eaten, though it is more frequently ufed for the pur-
pofe of preparing from it a clear oil, which it affords in great
plenty.

* Pastixac'A ; Sting-rav. The body of this fpecies is
fmooth ; its tail has a long (harp fpine, ferrate on t!ie fore
part, and another on the back : there arc two other varieties,
of which the one has a fmooth body ; the back is befet with
two fpines, ferrate on the fore part ; the body of the other
is covered with fpots.

This fpecies is defcribed as having a body fomewhat ap-
proaching to the ovate, the peftoral fins lefs pointed than
in fome other fpecies of this divifion. The fnout is pointed ;
the body more convex than ufual ; the colour of the wliole
animal above of a yellowilh-olive, but the back ii fometimes
foimd to approach to a bluei(h-brown ; beneath it is whiti(h ;
the tail is of a confiderable length, and without a fin, very
thick at the bafe, and gradually tapering to the extremity,
which is very (lender : near the middle it is armed, on the
upper part, with a very long, flattened, and (harp-pointed
bone or fpine, finely lerrated in a reverfed direction on both
fides ; with this the animal is capable of infliiiling very fe-
vere wounds on fuch as incautioufly attempt to handle it ;
and it anfwers the purpofe both of an offcnfive and defenfive
weapon. This weapon is annually call, and as it frequently
happens that the new fpine has arrived at a confiderable fizc
before the old one has been caft, the animal is occafionally
found with two, in which ftate it has been fometimes erro-
iieoufiy confidered as a diftintl fpecies. This fifli is faid not
to grow to a very large lize. It is found in the Mediterra-
nean, Atlantic, and Indian feas, and is numbered among
the edible rays. On account of the danger attending the
wfiunds infiiited by the fpine, it is ufual with the fifhermen
to cut oft the tail as foon as the fifh is taken. In fome conn-
tries it is faid to be illegal to fell the fi(h with the tail ad-
hering to it.

It was formerly thought that the fpine of the fi(h po(re(r-
€d a venomous quality, by infufing into a wound made by
it fome very aftive poifon ; this is now proved to be com-
pletely erroneous, and the effcfts fometimes produced by
it arife entirely from the dtcpnefs of the punAure and lacera-
tion, which, if taking place in a tendinous part, or among
the larger nerves and blood-vefTels, have often proved fatsl.
It may not be aniifs to obferve, that fome ancient writers
have defcanted upon the effefts of this animal's powerful
weapon in terms of confiderable luxuriance ; it was fuppofed
to be not only poifonous in the living animal, but to pre-
ferve its poifon when taken from the filb, and affixed to the
head of an arrow or a fpear ; it was faid even to deftroy
the mod healthy ajid fiourifhing plant by its touch, and

7

even to caufe trees to die by (Irikiiiff the bark with i-
point. It formed the head of the fatal fpear prefented
by Circe to her fon Telegonus, by which he was rcn-
dered fuperior to his enemies, and with which he, at
li;ngth, unconicioufly, (lew his father Ulyiles. The general
habits of this fpecies are fimilar to thofe of the rell (;f tlie
genus, often lying flat, and in ambnfcade on the foft mud at
the bottom of the fhores which it frequents, and feizing its
prey by furpcize ; at other times it will purfue it through
the depths of the ocean.

* Ci.AVA TA ; Thornback. The body of this fpecies is
fpinous ; the teeth tiiberculate ; acrofs the belly is a ftrong
femilunar cartilage. This fpecies grows to a very confider.
able fize, though rarely equal in magnitude to the (kate al-
ready defcribed ; in its general appearance it refembles that
fi(h, but is fomewhat broader in proportion, and is readily
difHngui(hed from the (l<ale by the very ftrong, curved fpines
with which its upper furface is covered ; thefe are moil con-
fpicuous down the middle and on each fide of the back,
where four or fix, of much larger fize than the relt, are ge-
nerally feen ; the remaining parts being furniflied with many
feattered fpines of a fmaller fize, intermixed with ilill more
minute ones, and the whole (kin is of a rough, or (hagreen-
like furface ; the back is marked with an uncertain number
of pale or whitifli nnnid fpots of different fizes, and which
are commonly furrounded with a blackilh or dark coloured
edge ; thefe fpots are faid to be caufcd by the fliedding of
the fpines at different intervals ; along the middle of the
back runs a fingle row of ftrong fpines, continued to the tip
of the tail ; the colour of the (kin is a brownifh-grey, vvitli
irregular blackiih or dufky variegations ; the under part is
white, with a fight caft of^ flefn-colour, and about the mid-
dle of the body, as well as on the fins, are difpofed feveral
fpines fimilar to thofe on the upper fide, hut lefs ftrong.
The thornback is an inhabitant of the Mediterranean and
other feas, and is held in fome efteem as food, though not
confidered equal to the (kate in goodnefs.

RiiiNOBATos. Body long, tapering ; fnout lengthened.
This is reckoned a very remarkable fpecies, and is thought
to connetl in fome degree the genera of raia and fqualus,
the body being much longer than in the preceding kinds
of ray ; the fnout is lengthened, but notj very (harp ;
and the body, which is moderately convex above, and flat
beneath, gradually tapers from the (houlder to the tail,
which is furniflied above with two fins, of an oblong (hape,
and lituated at a confiderable diftance from each other : the
tip of the tail is alfo dilated into an oblong fin. The colour
of the whole fi(h is of a dull earthy brov/n, paler beneath,
and the (kin is every where roughened by minute tubercles.
This fill is faid to grow to the length of about four feet,
and is a native of the European feas. It is very frequently
feea about the coatts of Naples.

DjiDDENsis;. Tail-fin two-lobed ; fpines in a triple row
at the beginning of the back, and afterwards in a fingle
row ; the firft dorfal fin is above the ventral. It inhabits
the Red fea, and is about two yards long. The body is a
little rough, and of a pale a(h colour ; above it is varied
with v.'hitilh fpots ; beneath it is whitilh ; behind the vent
are a few brown and white ftripes.

Ly.mma. Body oval, fmooth, teftaceous, with blue
fpots ; pinnate tail with a fingle fpine. It inhabits the Red
fea ; is hardly a loot long ; the fpots oval, unequal, beneath
whitilh. It is much allied to the eagle-ray, and is of a
reddi(h-brown colour above; the tail is fomewhat longer
than the body, marked above, for half its length, with two
longitudinal blue ftripes, and is furniflied r.bout the middle
with one, and fometimes with two, large and ferrated fpines,

which

R A I

R A 1

wliich arc covered at their bafo by a bluei(h-brown flvin ; the
under part of the body is pale or whitifh.

AiiNAK. Body orbicular, filvery ; tail round, witho\it
a fin, and furniflicd with two fpines. It ir.habits the Red
fea ; the teeth are

Nat. Ord. Sarnuntaecx, Linn, ^j'pa

granulate.

C. Uncertain.

OM.MivS«ni;i[|T. Tail round and fpoUed. It inhabits
the Red fea, and very much refembles the R. p.iftinaca.

T.A.rAUA. Tail round; body beneath fnowy. It in-
habits the Red fea. When juft taken, it beats violently
with its lins.

ScilouKiE. Body u ith a feu- remote fpines. It in-
habits the Red fea. Tiic Arabians ma.kc fcabbards for
tlieir fwords out of its (Icin.

MuLA. Beneath fnowy ; tail round, variegated. It in-
liabits the Red fea, and approaches the fhores by night.
The fpine on its tail inflifts a danir^rous wound.

Rapk.n.sis. Back witli a fingle fni ; the tail is fhort,
pinnate at the end ; the body is imooth and unarmed ; and
the fnout is a little obtufe. It inhabits near the Cape of
Good Hope, is fhaped fomething like the torpedo, except
that it has a fin on the back. The body is fmall and orbi-
cular ; above it is convex, beneath flat.

RA.TABARRY, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; lo
miles S. of Dacca. N. lat. 23^ 24'. E. long. 90^ 2^6'.

RAJACOTTY, a town of Thibet ; 60 miles N.N.W.
of Sirinagur.

RA.TAGUNGE, a town of Affam ; 16 miles S. of
Gentiah.

RAJAGIIR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 35 miles
• W.S.W. of Gayah. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in
Guzerat ; 10 miles N.E. of Champaneer.

RAJAHUN, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Cicacole ; 12 miles W. of Cicacole.

RAJAKERA, a town of Hindooftan, in tlie province
, of Agra.

RAJAMUNDRY, a circar of Hindooftan, bounded
on the N. by the cn-car of Cicacole and Golconda, on the
E. by the bay of Bengal, on the S. by the circar of Ellore,
and on the W. by Golconda. It is croffed by the Bain
Gonga from N. to S. — Alfo, the capital of the above-
mentioned circar, fituated between Ellore and Cicacole, on
the Godavery. Its principal riches confift of forefts of
teak-wood. N. lat. 17°. E. long. 81° 57'.

RAJANAGUR, a town of Bengal ; 25 miles S. of
Dacca — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Ra-
jamundry ; 7 miles N.E. of Rajamundry.

RAIANIA, in Botany, fo called in honour of our im-
mortal naturalift, the Rev. John Ray, the moft accurate in
obfervation, the moft philofophical in contemplation, and
the moft faithful in defcription, amongft all the botanifts of
his own, or perhaps any other, time. His life will be given
hereafter, in its proper place. Plumier, who eftabUftied
this genus, finding the name Rata preoccupied by zoolo-
gifts, contrived to call the plant Jan-i?tf!a; which Linnaeus
turned about into Re!Jama,.^\\\ retaining the idea of the
Chriftian name, combined with the other. But fuch an
idea is ludicrous to Englifh ears, and is happily not, in
general, perceived. We prefume to alter the orthography
in one letter, writing the word as it is always pronounced,
and deducing it regularly from the Latin Ralus, by which
name the perfon commemorated is known all over the
literary world. — Plum. Gen. 33. t. 29. Linn. Gen. 525.
Schreb. 692. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 4. 788. Mart. Mill.
Did. V. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 5. 391. Juft'. 43. La-
marck Illuftr. t. 818. Gaertn. t. 14.— Clafs and order.

Dinfcia Hcxandila.
ra^'i, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Male, C,d. Perianth bell-fhaped, in fix deep,
oblong, pointed fegmcnts, moft fpreading in their upper
part. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments fix, briille-lhapeu,
ihorter than the calyx ; anthers finiple.

Female, Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, bell-fliaped,
in fix deep fegments, permanent, withering. Cor. none.
Ptjh Germcn inferior, comprefTod, with a prominent bor-
der at one fide, three-celled ; ft vies three, the length of the
calyx ; ftigmas obtufe. Pcric. Capfule membranous, of
three cells, without valves, crowned by the calyx ; two of
the cells barren, almoft obliterated, without wings ; the
third fertile, comprefi'ed, extended into a very large, half-
ovate, membranous wing. Seed folitary, nearly elliptical,
compreftl-d.

EfT. Ch. Male, Calyx in fix deep fegments. Corolla
none. Female, Calyx in fix deep fegments. Corolla
none. Styles three. Capfule membranous, with one wing.
Seed folitary.

Seftion I . Leaves fimpk.

\. R. hnjlnta. Halberd-leaved Raiania. Linn. Sp.
PI. 1461. (Jan-Raia fcandens, folio oblongo, angullo et
auriculato ; Plum. Gen. 33. Bryonia fru6tu alato, foliis
auriculatis ; Plum. Amer. 84. t. 98.) — Leaves haftate ;
fonievvhat heart-fhaped at the bafe. — Gathered by Plumier,
about Port-de-paix in the ifland of Hifpaniola. Root peren-
nial, fometimes large and ovate ; fometimes four or five
inches longj, and two thick, round at each end, like a fau-
fage. Its fubftance refembles that of a radifii, without any
internal fibres ; the bark thin, afh-coloured, a little rugged
and warty ; the flefii very white, tailing like a bean. This
root throws up only one very {lender, long, climbing,
fm'ooth, knotty Jlem, thickeft at the bafe, where it is ac-
companied by feveral fibrous radicles. We prefume it to
be annual. I^eaves fcattered, fpreading, on fhort ftalks,
fmooth and membranous, about three inches long ; heart-
ftiaped, dilated, abrupt, and feven-ribbed at the bafe ; then
fuddenly elongated into a nearly linear, entire, central,
three-ribbed lobe, bluntirti, with a fmall point ; the under
fide paler, and rather downy. Supulas in pau-s, awl-(haped,
minute. Flo-wcrs fmall, whitifh, in fimple, axillary, droop-
ing clufters. BraSeas minute, ovate, acute, folitary at the
bafe of each partial ftalk. Fruit, as Plumier fays, Lke half
that of a maple-tree, of a filvery hue when young, but after-
wards tawny.

2. R. cordata. Heart-leaved Raiania. Linn. Sp. PI.
1461. Ait. n. I. (Jan-Raia fcandens, foliis tamni ; Plum.
Ic. 148. t. 155. f. I.) — Leaves ovate; fomewhat heart-
fhaped at the bafe ; feven-ribbed. — Native of the Weft
Indies, from whence it was lent to Kew garde.n, in 1786,
by Mr. Alexander Anderfon. It flowers in the ftove in
July, and we cannot but wi(h fome .accurate botanift would
publifh a good figure and defcription of the plant, out of
refpeft to its name. Plumier reprefents the habit of the
root, Jlem, &c. much hke the foregoing ; but the haves are
regularly ovate, pointed, more or lefs heart-fhaped at their
bale, and fumifhed with feven ribs continued from that part
to the point. Thefe ribs are connected by numerous tranf-
verfe veins. Inflorefcence, flowers, and fruit, much as in
R. hajlata, but having feeo no fpecimen, we can fay nothing
refpefting the Jlipulas or braSeas, none of which are noticed
in the plate.

3. R. ovata. Ovate-leaved Raiania. Swartz Ind. Occ.

V. I. 638. Mart. Mill. Dia. n. 4. — " Leaves ovate,

pointed, three-ribbed." — Native of bufhy places, on the

hills of Hiipaniola. Stevi ftirubby, twining, thread-fliaped,

X X 2 ' fubdivided}

11 A 1

II A J

Subdivided ; with flondtr, fmooth, leafy branches. Leaves
rather dilbiit, italkcd, fmooth on both fides, pointed, en-
tire, three-ribbed, veiny ; ovate at the bafe. Fotjijlalh
round, fmooth, often as long as the leavers. CJuJlen axil-
lary, numerous, longer than the leaves, (lender, many-
flowered, rather zigzag. Flowers dioecious ; the males in
compound dujlers ; females in fimplc ones, all (talked, and
turned toward one fide. Corolla very mmute, yellowidi-
grecn in the male, reddi(h in the female bl,o(l'om3. Califule
comprelTed, with an ovale, falcate, membranous wing.
Stuartz.

4. R. angujlifolia. Narrow-leaved Raiania. Swartz
Ind. Occ. v. I. 639. Mart. n. 3.—" Leaves linear-
lanceolate ; rounded at the bafe, three-ribbed. — Native of
extremely dry budiy places, in the well part of Hifpaniola,
where it climbs upon high trees, flowering in May. Root
annual. Stem thread-fhaped, round, twining, flaccid, fub-
divided, fmooth. Leaves nearly a fpan long, entire, three-
ribbed, veiny, fmooth. Footjlalhs fmooth, red, twilled
according to the direftion of the ft;em. Clujhrs axillary, in
pairs, the length of the leaves, pendulous, (lender, many-
flowered ; Xhi^ Jloiuers very minute, nearly feflile, red, poly-
gamous, five or fix on each of the alternate partial llalks,
all leaning one way. BraSeas very minute, acute, blood-
red, under the flowers. On fome plants the latter are en-
tirely male, with fix nearly feffile anthers ; on others all her-
maphrodite, with fix perfecl Jlamens, a triangular oblique
germen, no Jlyle, but three minute _/?ifmfl.f. Capfule as in
the relt of the fpecies. Siuartz.

5. R. quinquefolia. Five-leaved Cluftered Raiania. Linn.
Sp. PI. 1462. (Jan-Raia fcandens quinquefoha ; Plum.
Ic. 149. t. 155. f. 2.) — Leaves five together at each joint,
elliptic-oblong. Cluilers lateral, between the joints. — Na-
tive of the Welt Indies, but hitherto obferved by Plumier
only. This feems to have the habit of all the foregoing,
except that the Jlem has tumid joints, at each of which
ftand five elliptic-oblong, obtule, entire, three-ribbed leaves,
about three inches long, on fliort footjlalks. The clujlers
are reprefented not axillary, as in the others, but lateral
and alternate, from the (paces of the Jlem between the
joints.

Seftioa 2. Leaves compound.

6. R. quinata. Five-leaved Umbellate Raiania. Thunb.
Jap. 148. Mart. n. 6. — Leaves five on a common llalk,
emarginatc. Umbels axillary. — Obferved by Thunberg
.ibout Nagafaki and in Kofido, in Japan, flowering in April
and May. Tlie Japanefe call this plant Fagi Kadfura,
and jlkebi. Stem twining, round, fmooth, a(h-colonred,
branched. Leaves fevcral' together, axillary, (talked,
fmooth, of five fepsrately (talked, umbellate, ovate, entire
leaflets, each from three-quarters of an inch to an inch and
a half long, emarginate with a point. Common footjlalks
thread-lhaped, fmooth, two inches or more in length ;
partial half as long as the finger nail. Floivers in umbels,
from the fame buds as the leaves, on flcnder (talks as long
as the footftalks ; partial it.ilks capillarv, the length of the
nail. This fpecies differs from the lalt in has-ing compound
leaves, and umbellate ^o-ztw-j. Thunberg.

7. R. hexaphylla. Six-leaved Clufl:ered Raiania. Thunb.
Jap. 149. Mart. n. 7. — Leaves fix on a common flalk,
oblong, acute. Flowers racemofe. — Native of the country
of Fakoftia, in Japan, among bnlhes, flowering in April.
Its vernacular names are Akebi, Mte Kadfura, and Tfti So.
The Jiem is round, (triated, fmooth, climbing. Leaves al-
ternate, fmooth, fix on a ilalk, umbellate, on (lender partial
(talks, oblong, acute, entire, veiny, two inches long ; pale
at the back. Common footjalis round, bent, three or four

u

inches long, fwclling at each extremity. Flonvers in axil-
lary chillers, fnow-white. Differs from R, quinata in havinj;
inoftly fix leaflets on a ftalk, which are acute, reticulated
with veins at the back, and larger than in that fpecies. The
flowers moreover grow in clulters, not umbels.

RAJAPILLA, in Geography, a town of Hiiidooffan,
in Myfore ; 1(4 miles N.N.E. of Anantpour.

RAJAPORUM, a town of Hindooltan, in Barramaul ;
35 miles S. of Darcmpoury.

RAJAPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar oi
Hiil'ar ; 48 miles W. of Miliar. — Alfo, a town of Hin- j.
dooftan, in the circar of Goliud ; 10 miles W. of Janfi. — -H
Alfo, a fea-port of Hindooftan, in Concan, where the ■'
Englidi and French had formerly failories. The place has
a good harbour, but it is not now frequented ; 6 miles N.
of Geriah. — Alfo, a town of Bengal ; 16 miles S. of Sil-
het. — Alfo, a town of Bengal ; 50 miles N.W. of Burd-
wan. — Alfo, a town of Hindooltan, in Bahar ; 27 miles
W. of Arrah.

RAJARAJESWARI, in Mythology, a name of the
Hindoo goddefs Parvati. It means, in Sanfcrit, confort
of the lord of the king of kings. In the mafcuhne it is
Rajrajefwara, and is then a name ot her lord Siva. See
that article.

RAJARSHI, is one defcription of faint or fage, of
whom four forts are comprehended in the more general term
of Ri(hi. Rajarflii means a royal fage, and is the lowelt of
the four ; the Devar(hi, or divine fage, being, as may be
fuppofcd, where Brahmans are the givers of dignity, the
firit. See more hereon under Maharshi and RisHl.

RAJASEE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Gohud ; 10 miles S.W. of Datteah.

RAJASERAT, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Sirhind ; 17 miles E.S.E. of Sirhind.

RAIBACH, a town of Bavaria, in the territory of
Rothenburg ; 7 miles S. of Rothenburg.

RAIBAUG, a town and circar of Hindooftan, in Vi-
fiapour ; 23 miles S. of Mafritch. N. lat. 16^ 35'. E. long.
74° 52'.

RAIBOLINI, Francesco, in Biography. See Frav-
riA, II.

RAJBLTLHAUT, in Geography, a town of Bengal ;
30 miles S. of Burdwan. N. lat. 22° 45'. E. long.
88° 7'.

RAICAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ;
15 miles N.E. of Hamadan.

RAICZ, a town of Hungary ; 6 miles S.S.E. of Bo-
le(l<o.

RAIDURGAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic ; 15 miles W. of Tricolore.

RAIDY, a tov^n of Bengal ; 25 miles S.W. of Doefa.

RAIE, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the province of
Diarbekir ; u8 miles S.W. of Diarbekir.

RAJEEATA, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 78
miles W. of Gogo.

RAJEE-BEDUROO, a town of Hindooftan, in La-
hore ; 27 miles E. of Jummoo.

RAJEGAUT, a town of Bengal ; 24 miles S.S.E. of
Ifiamabad.

RAJEGUR, a town of Bengal ; 26 miles S. of Burd-
wan.— Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Gang-
pour ; 23 miles S.W. of Gangpour.— Alfo, a town of
Hindooftan, in Mewat ; 20 miles E. of Cotputly. — Alfo,
a town of Hindooftan, in the circ.ir of Gohud; 27 miks
S.W. of Narwa. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in the <Hr-
c.-ir of Bundelcund ; 22 miles S.E. of Chatterpour. — Alfo,

a town

il A I

Jc A 1

a town of Hindooftan ; 20 miles E.S.E. of Allahabad.
N. lat. 24° 49'. E. long. 80° 17'.

RAJEGUSDAR, a town of Hindoolbn, in Lahore;
35 miles E.N.E. of Brhiibiir.

RAJEHAUT, a town of Bengal; 16 miles N.W. of
BifTunpour. N. lat. 23' 13'. E. long. 86' 40'.

RA.IEMAL, a circar of Bengal, bounded on the N.
by Purncah, on the E. by Purneali, Maiildah, Dinagepour,
and Raujefljy, on the t). by Sultanabad, and on the W. by
Hindooa and Boglipour.— Alfo, the capital of the above
circar, lying on tlic W. bank of the Ganges, nearly in the
parallel of Mauldah, and about 20 miles from it ; at the foot
of the chain of hilh; which projefts into the river at Siely-
gully and Terriagiilly. It is in a ruinous ftate, although
not above li century ago the refidence of the viceroy ; and
has hardly the population of an ordinary market-town at
prefent. Its fituation is romantic, but not pleaiant ; for in
Hindooftan, the hills and eminences being always covered
with wood, tliat beautiful fwelling of the ground, which is
fo julUy admired in European landfcapes, is loll ; and the
fancy is prefented at bell with nothing beyond a wild fcene ;
which can only be relilhed by being contratted with foft and
beautiful ones. It is more than thirty miles above the head
of the delta of the Ganges, and therefore M. d'Anville
placed it erroneoufly by ailigning its fituation at this place.
N. lat. 25° 2'. E. long. 87° 56'.

RAJEMATCHY", a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour;
37 miles N.W. of Poonah.

RAJEMITNGALUM, a town of Hindooft.in ; 16
miles S. of Tinevelly.

RAJETEA, one of the South-fea iflands, named alfo
Ul'ictea; which fee.

RAJETPOUR, a town of Bengal; 15 miles S. of
Rogonatpour.

RAJEWICE, a-town of Lithuania ; 42 miles S.S.E.
of Brzefe.

RAIGIRI, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda ; 10
miles S.E. of Beder.

RAIGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Snm-
bulpour ; 1 5 - miles N. of Sumbulpour.

RAJHC, a town of Syria, on the Euphrates ; 18 miles
S. of Bembig.

RAIL, in jlnhiteBiire, is applied varioufly ; particularly
to thole pieces of timber which lie horizontally between
the pannels of wainfcot, and over and under them.

The word is alfo applied to thofe pieces of timber which
lie over and under ballufters in balconies, Itaircafes, &c.

Alfo, to the pieces of timber that lie horizontally from
poft to poll in fences, with pales or without. See Fence.

Rails, in a Ship, are long narrow pieces of fir, or oak,
with mouldings of regular members of architefture itruck
on them, which are fattened, or fometimes wrought from
the folid plank, as ornaments to the (hip's fides. The
former are now difcontiiiued in the navy, as they were found
to rot the fides very much ; the latter, wrought from the
folid plank, are ufed in merchant fhips. The rails of the
head and ftern are pieces of oak timber handfomcly wrought
with mouldings. The lower rail along the fide is named
the. ivii'ift-rail, and the next above it the Jheer-rail, whicli are
generally placed parallel to the top timber line, the (heer-
rail with the top of the fide amidfliips, and the waift-rail
about twenty inches below it ; the rails next above and pa-
rallel to the Iheer-rail are called drift-ratli, and the rails
above the plank-lheer, if any, ihe ffe-rath. The rails of the
head are diltinguidied by the upper or main-rail, the miildle
and the lotuer-rciil ; and the rails of the ftern take their names
from the parts to which they are fixed, as the tuck-rail, lo-wer

counter-rail, upper counter-rail, foot fpace-rail, breajl-rail,
tqffiirel-rail, and tajfard fife-rail. (See Plate 1. Ship-luUding.)
To thefe may be added the thwartfhip pieces of the framing
of the great cabin bulk-lieads.

Rails of the head are certain curved pieces of timber, ex-
tending from the bows on eacli fide to the continuation of
the (hip's item, to fupport the knee of the head, and the
ornamental figure fixed upon it.

Rail, or Water-Rail, in Ornithology, the name of the
rallus aqualicus of authors, which is a bird of a long (lender
body, with (hort concave wings. The bill is (lender, (lightly
incurvated, and one inch three quarters long : the upper
mandible black, edged v/ith red, the lower orange-coloured ;
the irides red ; the head, hind-part of the neck, the back
and covert of the wmgs and tail are black, edged with an
olive-brown ; the bafe of the wing is white ; the quill-
feathers and ffcondaries duflcy ; the throat, brcaft, and upper
part of tl:e belly, are a(h-colourcd ; the fides under the wings,
as far as the rump, finely varied with black and white bars;
the tail is- very (hort, confiding of twelve black feathers ; the
ends of the two middle tipt with ruft colour; the feathers
immediately beneath the tail white ; the legs are placed far
behind, and arc of a duiky flefh colour ; the toes very long,
and divided to their origin : though the feet are not webbed,
it takes the water, will Iwiir. 011 it with much eafe, but is
often obferved to run along the furfnce. It delights k-is in
flying than in running, which it does very fwiftly along the
edges of brooks covered with rulbes. When it runs, it
every now and then flirts up its tail, and in flying hangs
down its letrs. Pennant.

o

This bird, fays Mr. Pennant, is properly _/«? ^^nmj-, agree-
ing with no other, but forming a feparate tribe ; though
M. BrilTon and Linnsens place it with the land-rail, and
Mr. Ray with the water-hens. It is a well-tafted bird.

RaiL; Land, the rallus crex of Linnxus, is a migrating
bird, with a (hort, ftrong, thick bill ; always found among
corn, grafs, broom, or furze. It leaves this kingdom be-
fore winter. They have long legs, and a fingular note,
refembling the word crex, often repeated. The feathers on
the crown of the head, hind part of the neck, and the back,
are black edged with bay colour ; the coverts of the wings
of the fame colour, but not fpotted ; the tail is (hort and
of a deep bay, the belly white, and the legs afli-coloured.
They are in greateft plenty in Anglelea, where they appear
about the 20th of April, fuppofed to pafs over from Ire-
land, where they abound. "They are found in moil of the
Hebrides, and the Orkneys. Pennant.

RAILING, in Rural Economy, a fort of fence con-
flrudled with pofts and rails. It is often made ufe of in
protefting young hedge fences, from the cropping of cattle
or other animals. Any fort of conrfe timber does very well
for this laft purpofe, fuch as outfide planks, and the boughs
or loppings of timber plantations. See Fence.

RAILLERY, as Dr. Jwhufon hath defined it, denotes
flight fatire, or fatirical merriment ; and a beautiful writer
compares it to a light which dazzles, and which does not
burn. It is fometimes, what it always ought to be, inno-
cent and pleafant, but it is too frequently offenfive. Rail-
lery is of various kinds ; ferious, ievere, and good-humoured ;
there is a kind which perplexes, a kind wliich offends, and
a kind which pleafes.

It has been juftly obferved, that in order to rally well,
kindnefs fliould prevail in every thing that is faid, as the cha-
rafter of a friend (hould be maintained to warrant freedom
with a perfon wh.o is addrefled, efpecially in this way. Al-
lufions to paft follies, and hints th.-it tend to revive what a
perfon wiihes for ever to forget, (hould never be introduced

as

R A I

K A I

as fubjefts of raillery. It is below the charafter of perfons
of humanity and good brecdnig, to indulge mirth, while
any one in the company is fuffering, as the .cfFeft of that
mirth, pain and n-.ortiiication.

RAILWAY, Tram or Dram-ioacI, or JVaggon-'way, in
Rural Economy, a track conftruCted of iron. Hone, timber,
or other material, upon the level furfaceof an inclined plane,
or other fituatioii, for the purpofe of diminifliing fridUon,
and thus ferving for the eafy conveyance of heavy loads of
any kind of articles. See Plate IV. Canals, figs. 3 I to 35.
See alfo Canal.

It has been remarked, that railways have hitherto been
confined, almoll cxcluilvely, to coal-works, and other mines ;
and that niventions, whofe only recommendations are fim-
plicity and ufefulnefs, arc often fuflered to lie long in a
ftate of public negleft ; while others, perhaps, of no real
utihty, but of more impofing afpeft, and being pertina-
cioudy blazoned forth by interelted or blinded partifans,
are readily adopted ; and ba(k, for a while, in the funfhine
of public favour. The time has, however, at length ar-
rived, when carriages moving on level furfaces, or on gently
inclining planes, with little fridtion, and 'without obftruftion?,
are fad fpreadlng over the face of the country. It has
been obferved that there may be many lime-works, as well
as other forts, from which railways may be laid, in different
direftions, with great benelit to their proprietors and the
furrounding neighbourlioods in general. .

With tiie view of dmiinifliing horfe labour, it has been
fuggetled by Dr. Andcrfon, in his Recreations in Agricul-
ture, that where internal canals cannot be eilablifhed, this
may be effedted, and intercourfe facilitated, by means of
railways, which have not yet been introduced mto general
praftice. It is further Hated, that they were firfl folely
employed for tranfporting coals to a moderate diftance from
the pits, to the places where they could be fliipped, being
unWerfally made of wood. And long, fays he, had they
been applied to this ufe, without any idea having been enter-
tained that they could be employed for more general pur-
pofea. By degrees they were, however, carried to a farther
extent ; the fcarcity of wood, and the expence of their re-
pairs, fuggelled the idea of employing iron for the purpofe
of improving tlicfe roads. At thefirlt, flat rods of bar-iron
were nailed upon the original wooden rails, or as they were
technically called, Jlcepers ; and this, though an expenfive
procefs, was found to be a great niiprovement. But the
wood on which thefe reiled being liable to rot and give way,
fome imperfedt attempts were made to make them of call
iron, but thefe were found to be liable to many objecfions,
until the bufinefs was taken in hand by Mr. Outram, engi-
neer, at Butterly Hall, Derbyfliire, who contrived at the
fame time, fo far to diminifh the expence, and improve the
llrength of the road, as to bring them to a degree of per-
feftion, that no one who has not feen them can eafily con-
ceive could have been done. And it is added, that this
having been carried into execution in a few cafes, and found
to anfwer, has been improved upon and fimplified by prac-
tice, till it is now brought to fuch a ftate of perfeftion as
to have given proofs, that it admits of being carried much
beyond the limits of what was for many years conceived to
be poffible, and to aiFord demonftrative evidence, that it
may be in future employed to a wider extent ftill, to which
no hmits can be at prefent affigned or forefeen.

There are a gre.at number of railways in Derbylhire,

Shropfhire, Lancadiire, and many other parts of the country.

In the firlt of the above counties, there are railways of

very different lengths ; one of five miles in length, leading

from the town of Derby to the collieries in the vicinity ;

another, from the lime-ftone rocks on the Cranford canal,
called the Crick railway, which is about one mile and a half
in length ; a third from the Beggarlue colliery to tlie fame
canal, denominated Barber and Walker's railway, of fimilar
length ; a fourth from the lime-works in the neighbourhood
of Bofton, to the canal near Whaley bridge, termed tlie
Peak-foreil railway, which is about fix miles in length ; a
fifth called the Marple railway, of about one mile and a
half long, on the Peak-forcll canal ;• fixthly, railways over
Blifworth-hill near Nottingham, on the Grand Junction
canal, which are three miles and a half in length, and con-
ftrutted in a double manner ; a feventh, whicli has the name
of the Afhby de la Zouch railway, has four miles of doublr
and eight miles of fingle rails. Some of thefe railways are
formed in a very complete manner, efpecially thofe which
have been made fince the various improvements of them were
introduced. They have been of prodigious utility and
advantage to the county, both in regard to its agricultural
improvements and its maiiufadluring intereils and concerns.

Thefe forts of railway roads have likewife been intro-
duced into many parts of the county of Salop, with vali
benefit and fuccefs to the different intereils of the diltridt.
They liave here had a new application, in being employed
for the puipofe of conveying heavy weights from different
levels on canals.

Speaking of the great utility of canals in the carriage of
various articles in tkis county, it is obferved by Mr. Telford,
an able engineer, that another mode of conveyance has fre-
quently been adopted to a confiderable extent ; which is
that of forming roads by means of iron rails laid along
them, upon which materials are carried in waggons, which
contain from fix to thirty hundred weight ; experience. Ire
thinks, has now convinced us, that in countries the furfaces
of which are rugged, or where it is difficult to obtain water
for lockage, where the weight of the articles of the produce
is great in comparifon with their bulk, and where they are
moilly to be conveyed from a higher to a low-er level, that
in thofe cafes, iron railways are in general preferable to
canal navigation.

It is fuppofcd, that on a railway well coaflrucled, and
laid with a declivity of fifty-five feet in a mile, one horle
will readily take down waggons containing from twelve to
fifteen tons, and bring back the fame waggons with four
tons in them. This declivity, therefore, fuits well, when
the imports are only one-fourth part of what is to be ex-
ported. If the empty waggons only are to be brought
back, the declivity may be made greater ; or an additionaj
horfe applied on the returning journey will balance the m-
creafe of declivity. If the lengtJi of the railways were to
be confidered, it may, it is fuppoled, without much incon-
venience, be varied from being level to a declivity of one
inch in a yard, and by dividing the wliole diftance into fcpa-
rate ftages, and providing the number of horfes fuitable for
each portion of railway, according to the diftance and de-
gree of declivity, the wliole operation may be carried on
with regularity and difpatch.

It is upon the whole believed, that this ufeful contrivance
may be varied fo as to fuit the furface of many difficult
countries, at a comparatively moderate expence. It may
be conftrudted in a much more expeditious manner than
navigable canals ; it may be introduced into many diftridls
where canals are wholly inapplicable ; and in cafe of any
change in the working of mines, pits, or manufacfories,
the rails may be taken up and laid down agaiu in new fitua-
tions, at no very great expence or trouble.

It is alfo further noticed, that fome parts of this and
the neighbouring counties, in which canals had once been

intended

RAILWAY.

"intended to be formed, have fincc been looked over ard exa-
mined with the view of having iron railways inftead of navi-
gable cuts ; and in many cafes this may be the moll advifable
and proper, particularly in all fituations where difficulties
arde in the conllrutting of navigable canals, or other forts
of works for water carriage.

The county of Laucallcr, too, has a great many of thefc
iron railways for the convenience, accommodation, and ad-
vantage ot the ditterent collieries, manufaftories, and other
works, where heavy loads are to be tranfported. The coal
work near St. Helans, in the vicinity of Liverpool, has a
double railway fome miles in length ; and at the iron-works
of lord Belcarras, near Wigan, as well as his cannel coal
pits near the fame place, there are double railways of very
Confiderable length. To the fouth of the town of Preiton,
at a fmall dittance from Bamber bridge, there is likewife one
communicating with the Lancafter and Kendal canal, which
is alfo double and of great length ; ferving to convey the
coals from the fouthern parts ot the county to that canal,
in order to their diftribution in the northern parts, and the
adjoining diftritls.

On the eaft fide of the fame county they alfo prevail in
many places, and are found of the greateil nfe, being the
means of difpatching much bufinefs in a ready manner and
without much expenee of labour.

The utility of thefe railways has been found to be ex-
tremely great in other coal-works and canals, where they are
at prefent very cxtenlivcly employed ; and it has been fug-
gelled, that tiiey may be applicable in other cafes, as for
(horteiiing the team labour of a fann fo as to bring it withm
one day's journey, where more than one were formerly ne-
ceflary, by which a great faving in labour and expenee may
be made. Alfo, in rendering the bufinefs of lime works
more eafy and expeditious in different inilances. It has
likewife been hinted by Mr. Beatfon, in the tiril volume of
Communications to the Board of Agriculture, that they
might be had recourfe to on i-oads where there are unavoid-
able rifes or falls, for taking up or letting down heavy loaded
waggons or other carriages. It is oblerved, that near Cole-
brook Dale there is one at a fmall ddtance from the iron
bridge, upon which loaded boats are drawn up to a canal,
two hundred and twenty feet above the level of the river
Severn, and let down in a fimilar manner into it, by which
means twenty-two locks are favcd, and the work executed
in an expeditious maimer. It is fuppofed, that this is tlie
greatefl inclined plane in Europe, or perhaps in the world,
for though tlicy arc much ufed in China in the place of locks,
he has never heard of any oi them being equal m height to
this. The rails are belt made of iron. It is added, that
they have been found ufeful in improving foft, moify, boggy
lands, on which horfes cannot travel ; a rail road of this
fort having been formed through a peat mofs near Man-
chefter by Mr. Wakefield, v.-hile it was under improvement,
at the expenee only of about three hundred pounds a mile,
on which a fingle horfe was capable of drawing with the
greateil iacility feven waggons at once, each being loaded
with about leven liundred weight of marie, bearing in tlie
whole forty-nnie hundred weight, and with the weight of
the waggons upwards ol three tons. This was performed,
it is obferved, over a place where a tew months before a dog
could hardly venture without the danger of being f'wamped.
On the Ketley and other canals in the county of Shroplhire,
vaft advantages have been derived from laying railways upon
inclined planes, and letting down and drawing up the dif-
ferent articles by means of machinery, as may be feen in the
very able Agricultural Report of that diflricl, where cx-
ceUent repi-efcntations of them are given.

Bcfidcs, thefe different cafes of railways, another has been
fuggeflcd by the wriu^ of the Annals of Agriculture, which
is that of having them laid from the flack-yards to tlie thrafh-
ing machines, by which the grain may be conveyed to them
at any time with cafe and convenience, as well as any parti-
cular flack that may be wanted.

It is further ftated by the ingenious Dr. Anderfon, that
the bell idea he can give of the benefit that may refult to
the community from the ufe of this kind of railways, will
be from flating f<mie fafts refpedting them, which were
lately communicated to the Society of Arts by Mr. Wilkes,
of Meafham, near Loughborough, in Leiccflerlhire ; a
fpirited and judicious agriculturift. He had a railway of
tliis fort made, which was about five miles in extent, leading
from a coal-mine to a market. He found it fo fully to
anfwer his expedlations after it wasfiniflied, that he commu-
nicated to the above focicty an account of tome trials he
had made of it, requefling that fuch of the members of
that rcfpeftable inflitution as were defirous of information
on that head, would do him the honour to witnefs fome
experiments that he wifhed to make upon it, for the informa-
tion ot tjie public. A committee of the members was ac-
cordingly deputed for that purpofe, and before them he
fhewed that a moderate fized horfe, of about twenty pounds
value, could draw upon it with eafe down hill (the defcent
being one foot in a hundred) thirty-two tons, and without
much difficulty forty-three, and feven tons up hill, inde-
pendent of the carriages. The dodlor concludes from thefe
tacls, that upon a perfedl level a horfe could draw with eafe
from ten to twenty tons. It is obferved, that Mr. Wilkes's
railway, on which the experiments were made, was, from
local circumllances, laid upon wooden fleepers, and is not fo
perfcft as thofe done upon ilone. But it is added, that
twenty tons are the load which fuch a horfe could draw with
eafe, travelling at the ufual waggon rate, in boats upon a
canal ; fo that the number of horfes required in this way
will not be much, if at all, greater than on a canal. Cer-
tain advantages attach to this mode of conveyance, which
do not fo well apply to a canal, and vice •verfa; but it is
not his intention to draw a parallel between thefe two modes
of conveyance. Nobody can entertain any doubt, he thinks,
about the utility of canals where they are eafily practicable.
He only wilhes to point out this as an eligible mode of con-
veyance wliere can;ds cannot be conveniently adopted.

It is further remarked, that it was cnllomary at the firft,
to put the whole load to lie drawn by one horfe upon railways
into one waggon ; but now, when the load is to much aug-
mented. It has been found eligible to divide it into many
parts, fo that no one waggon fliall carry more than one or
two tons ; by this method tiie weight is fo divided, that the
preffure is never fo great upon one pouit as to be in danger
of too much cruthing the road ; the carriages can be made
much more limber and light in all their parts, and they are
much more eafily moved, and more manageable in all refpefts
than they otherwife would have been. And another advan-
tage of this arrangement, which deferves to be particularly-
adverted to, is, that it admits of (hifting the carriages fo
as to leave a load, as it were, in parcels at different places
where they may be required, without trouble or expenee.
This, when it comes to be fully underllood and carried into
praftice, will, he thinks, be a convenience of ineflimable
value, a thing that has been aKvays wanted, and never yet
has been found though it has been diligently fought for.
The able writer has here endeavoured to illullrate its import-
ance and utility in traiifporting goods from the wet docks
now forming on the Ifle of Dogs to London, and in carry-
ing roads to different diftant parts of the country ; in which

cafes,

RAILWAY.

cafes, and in all wlierc there is much bufinefs to be done,
they would require to be double, one for going, and the
other for coming upon, to prevent interruption and inter-
ference.

And he afterwards offers a few remarks, tending to ihew
the prafticability of the mcafurc, and to guard againll letting
out upon a bad plan, which might, he fuppofe^, ni time to
come, frullrate the good that might have refiilted from the
undertaking ; merely premiiing, that he pi-opofes thefe rail-
ways folcly for the purpofe of conveying weighty loads,
leaving the roads, as at prefent, open for coaches and light
carriages.

Alfo with a view to difcover how far it may be praAica-
ble to introduce thefe iron railways into general ufe, he has
made fome inquiries refpeftmg the expence of making them ;
and althougli this muil vary accordmg to the abundance
and goodnefs of materials, and other circumllances, the fol-
lowing ftatement may ferve to give fome general notions on
that head. In the moll eligible fituation, where materials
are abundant and good, and circuniilances favourable, the
loweft expence at which a fingU railway of this lort can be
made, will be about one thoufaad pounds a mile. But as
a fmgle railway mull be hable to great uiconveniencies, un-
lefs under very particular circumllances, double railways
ought to be confidered as the only ufeful fort. Thefe, for
pubhc purpofes, according to the opinion of the niventor,
fhould be %-ery fubllantially made. The metal ufcd fhould
be of the ftoutefl. fort, and of fubllance enough, not merely
to carry the weiglits propofed, but to be equal to bear almall
any blow or Ihock that they may be likely to experience ;
and, thus made, what they will lofe by ruft or wear, will
be long ere it materially weakens them. Made after fuch a
manner, in favourable lituations in the country, a double
railway may, he thinks, coll about two thoufand pounds a
mile, but in the neighbourhood of London, where the
charge of every thing is high, and where they fliould be of
the itrongell fort, we fliould fuppofe they might coll nearly
three thaufand pounds a mile. It is bad economy, he thinks,
to fave on articles of this fort at the lirll ; for the httle ex-
pence thus laid out then will fave much in repairs : how fmall
thefe repairs are, may be imagined from this circumllance,
that when a road is thus made, the undertaker does
not fcruple to fupply all that are broken, free of charge,
for the firft three years. Say then that fuch a road coil
three thoufand pounds a mile, this would bring a charge
upon the turnpike of 150/. a-year ; fay 50/. more for annual
repairs ; this is, in all, 2Co/. per annum. Compare this with
the expence of keeping the prefent roads in repair. It
has been fuggefted to him, that there is annually laid out in
repairs upon the road from Hyde Park Corner to Hounflow,
confiderably above one thoufand pounds a mile ; fo that the
difference of expence is, even at the beginning, very much
in favour of railways : and were the money thus at firil
expended to be gradually paid off, the tolls might thus be
lowered ahnod to nothing. And, he thmks, that a turn-
pike road cannot be made in almoll any fituation for lels, as
he is told, than 1000/. per mile ; but where it is of confider-
able width, as near great towns, it will run from 1500/. to
2000/. /«■ mile ; and in annual repairs, including the pur-
chafe price of materials, carting them on the road, fpread-
ing, raking off, and carting away again, from 100/. to 1000/.
a mile. Say 1500/. prime coll, theintereJl 1575/. and 150/.
for repairs, the annual charge of fuch road will be 225/.
This is an expence of 100/. a-year more than the other.
But for the prefent, let us fuppofe that they will be equal,
the extra charge for purchafing ground for a new waggon-
way, &c. being equal to that furplus ; let us now fee what

would be the difference of charge to the employers of thefe
waggons in the two cafes. Suppofing the road to be fo
much employed as that 100 waggons (or loaded carriages
to the fame amount ) pafs each day, carrying (ix tons each,
drawn by eight horfes ; theie, at one (hilling each waggon
for toll (or two-pence a ton), would produce 5/. 3 day, or
1825/ a-year; which, at the rate of eight miles for each
turnpike, would be 228/. per mile, the furplus being pro-
duced by road horfes and light carriages. The charge then
to the employer, for this ilage, mull be 1825/. and the keep
of 800 horfes, bcfides fervants, incidental charges, and
owner's profits forthetranfportingof 6ootonsof goods a day.
Say that the fame horfes travel two ftages a day, the turnpike
money would be doubled; that is, ^6^ol. per annum ; the
keep of 800 horfes, at 2s. fach per diem, is 29,200/. Thefe
fums added make 32,850/. ; owner's profit and incidental
charges, fay 10 per cent., 3285/.; in all 36,135/., or, on
2 1 9,000 tons (being 600 tons a day), about one-fourth ^«-
ton. And fuppofing the fame quantity of goods carried
on the railway, and the fame turnpike money paid, and
that,each horfe drew only fifteen tons, this would require
only, he thinks, forty horfes ; the keep of whicli, at
2s, a day, would be 1460/., add the toll, 1825/. is 3285/.
per annum. Owner's profit, &c. upon this fum 10 per cent.
as above, 328/. ; in all 3613/., or about four-pence a ton,
juft one-tenth part of the charge in the other cafe. He
thinks, that when the objeft comes to be confidered in this
point of view, few meafures that can be propoled will hold
forth fuch an important national improvement as this would
be. Confidered with regard to the confumption of thi
produce of the earth (an object at prefent deferving th..-
fullell attention, as this improvement can be applied to
aimoft every part of the country), it would, he luppoft:,
reduce the number of heavy road horfes to one-eighth pail
of what they are at prefent, and of courfe augment the number
of cattle or other confumeable provifions in a proportionate
degree, fo as greatly to lower the price of the neceflaries ot
life. It would, in the next place, lower the price of the car-
riage of goods of all kinds to an amazing extent ; and lallly, as
a confequence of that, it would give fuch encouragement to
agriculture, as no other meafure that can be contrived could
ever efieft, and that without colling one (hilling expence
to any one individual, or to the ftate. On the contrary,
by inducing cheapneis of provifion, and affording fuch effi-
cacious encouragement to manufaftures and to agriculture, it
would produce a general profperity, which, by augmenting
the confumption of taxable commodities, would augment
the public revenue ; while, at the fame time, every indivi-
dual would feel himfelf reheved from the prefTure of many
taxes that prove diflrefsfu! to him at pi-efent. After juftly
reprobating every fort of gambling fpeculations by monied
men in undertakings of this nature, and (hewing the nume-
rous evils that attend them, he adviies it, as highly necef-
fary to prevent thefe railways from ever becoming private
property, on any account, to keep them open and patent
alike, to all who (hall choofe to employ them as a king's high-
way, under fuch regulations as it (hall be found neceffary to
fybjefl them to by law. In (hort, they (hould, he thinks,
be put upon the fame footing, in all refpefts, as pubhc roads
are at prefent, only under the direilien of a dillinft fet
of commiffioners, who (hould have the fuperintendance of
every thing that concerns this fpecies of roads only. Thefe
commiflioners (hould be veiled with authority under an aft
of parliament, to erect turnpikes upon thtm, to levy certain
flipulated tolls, and to mortgage the produce of thefe tolls
for the purpofe of raifmg money to be applied in the necef-
fary purchafes of land, and making the roads. In the aft it

(houid

RAILWAY.

fliDiild bt' cxprcfsly ftipulated, that the produce of thefe
ti)ll3 fhoiild be apphc-d folcly to keeping the road in repair,-
paying the iiitereil of fnms borrowed, and clearing ofl the
principal as fad as the colleftions would admit ; and when the
whole money borrowed was thus paid oft, tlie tolls (liould
be fo lowered as only to produce money fufiicient to keep
the roads in a Itate of continually good repair. Thus
would the expence of tranfporting goods be annually di-
minilhing, and the profperity of the country be thereby aug-
menting from day to day. He adds, that he is particularly
earnefi: in this bufinefs, as he lias not been an nuconcerned
obferver of the eftctts that have refulted from the eltablifh-
ment of turnpike roads in Scotland, which were begun
within his recoUeftion ; and theie eftefts have been fuch
as no man who had not feeu it would have believed could ever
have taken place. Diftance may be laid to be thus dimi-
niflied from place to place ; lands that were originally far
beyond the influence of the town as a market tor any thing
elfe than live-ftock, are thus brought, as it were, dole to its
gates ; and the value of the produce ot many articles is
thus to them augmented fourfold, while they are at the
fame time diminidied to the public. Not oidy is the value
of produce railed, but the quantity alfo of that produce is
augmented exceedingly by means of manures which become
then acceflible. Folhle manures, fuch as chalk, lime, and
marie, which were formerly confined to a narrow fpot, ex-
pand themfelves as if it were by a magical power, and by that
expanfible influence diffufe around fertihty, riches, and plenty.
Coals and other weighty articles that may be ufeful in arts
or manufaAures of various kinds, which never were, nor
ever could have been of any value to the owners of them,
fo long as the expence of tranfportation exceeded a certain
fum, find a ready market to any extent as foon as the price

falls below that rate, thus contributing not only towards the adopted, fo as to render the other parts of the railway eafy.
enriching of the owners, but to the furnifhing of employment On fuch inclined planes the defcending loaded waggons bein«-
to the various perfons who muft be engaged in preparing or applied to raife the afcending empty, or partly loaded ones',
tranfporting them to market, and the univerfal accommoda- the necefTity of fledging the wheels is avoided ; and the labour
tion of the whole. Around every market you may fuppofe a of the horfe greatly reduced and leffened.
number of concentric circles drawn, within each of which In order to obtain the defired levels, gentle dcfcents, or
certain articles become marketable which were not fo be- fteep inclined planes, and to avoid (harp turns, and circuitou*
fore, and thus become the fource of wealth and profperity tracks, it will often be found prudent to crofs valleys by
to many individuals. Diminifh the expence of carriage but bridges and embankments ; to cut through ridges of land ;
one farthing, and you widen the circle ; you form, as it and in very rugged countries fhort tunnels may, he thinks,
were, a new creation, not only of itones, and earth, and fometimes be neceffary. The line of railway being fixed,
trees, and plants, but of men alfo, and what is more, of and the plans and feftions by which the fame is to be exe-
induftry, of happinefs, and joy. ^ It is added, that by cuted and fettled, the ground for the whole muft be formed

meafure, that would tend fo efTechially to lower the price
of the neceffaries of life, and reftore abundance.

In what regards the method of forming and conftruding
thefe railways, it is obferved by the fame writer, that the
following has been given by the inventor as the mod improved
plan : firif, that the belt line the country affords fhould be
traced out, having regard to the dircdion of the carriage
of articles or trade to be expefted ; and if fuch trade be
both ways in nearly equal quantities, a line as nearly hori-
zontally level as pofTible fhould be chofen. If the trade is
all in one direftion, as is generally the cafe between mines
and navigation, then the mod defirablc line is one with a
gentle gradual defcent, fuch as diall make it not greater
labour for the horfes employed to draw the loaded wag-
gons down, than the empty ones back ; and this will be
found to be the cafe on a railway defcending about one
foot rertical in one hundred feet horizontal. Or, if the
railway and carriages arc of the very bed conftriiaion, the
delcent vertical may be to the length horizontal as i to
50, where there is little or no upgate loading. In
cafes between mines and navigations the defcents will often
be found greater than could be widied. On a railway on
the improved plan, where the defcent is more than as i
to 50, fix or eight waggons, loaded with thirty or forty
hundred weight each, will have fuch a tendency to rundown-
wards, as would require great labour of one horfe to check
and regulate, unlefs that tendency was checked by fledging
fome of the wheels. On fuch, and deeper roads, iron
flippers are applied, one or more to a gang of waggons, as
occafion may require. Each flipper being chained to the
fide of one of the waggons, and, being put under the wheel,
forms a fledge. Where the defcent is very great, fteep in-
chned planes, with machinery, may, it is obferved, be

making thefe roads the property of the public, and free to
every perfon to bring his own waggons upon them wherever
he pleafed, farmers, when near them, would make bye roads
of the fame fort leading into thefe from their refpeftive pre-
mifes ; the inhabitants of villages and country diilrifts would
join together, and at one common expence make roads of the
fame fort leading to a greater diilance inwards, as they now
make bye roads for themfelves. Thus would all be accommo-
dated ; thofe who had bufinefs enough to furnifh a fufficient
load for one horfe might go to market with it when they
pleafed : thofe who had dealings on a fmaller fcale could have
one, two, or more waggons of their own conjoined with
thofe of others to make up a load for one horfe : and thofe
of ftill fmaller means could have one waggon loaded with the
joint articles belonging to two, three, or more. A ton

and effeftually drained. The breadth of the bed for a fingle
railway, diould be, in general, four yards ; and for a double
one fix yards, exclufive of the fences, fide drains, and
ramparts.

That the bed of road being fo formed to the proper in-
clination, and the embankments and works thereof made
firm, the furface muft be covered wilh a bed of dones broken
fmall, or good gravel, fix inches in thicknefs or depth. On
this bed muft be laid the fleepers, or blocks to faden the
rails upon. Thefe fhould be of ftone in all places where it
can be obtained in blocks of fufficient fize. They fhould be
not lefs than eight, nor more than tw.'lve isches in thicknefs ;
and of fuch breadthf circular, fquart, or triangular,) as fliall
make them ijolbs. or zoolbs. weight each. Their fhape is
not material, fo as they have a flat bottom to reft upon,

weight might then be pufhed before a man to market for and a fmall portion of their upper furface level, to form a

many miles, as a wheelbarrow is now. It is fcarcely pofTible,
he fuppofes, to contemplate an inftitution from which would
refult a greater quantum of harmony, peace, and comfort,
to perfons living in the country, than would naturally refult
from this arrangement. In faft, he knows, he fays, no one
Vol. XXIX.

firm bed for the end of the rails. In the centre of each
block fhouid be drilled a hole, an inch and a half diameter,
and fix inches in depth, to receive an oftagonal plug of dry
oak, five inches in length ; for it fhould not reach the bot-
tom of the hole ; nor fhould it be larger than fo as to put in
Y y eafily,

R A I

eafily, and without much driving ; for if too tight fitted it
miijht when wet bi.rll the ilone. Tiiele phigs are each to
receive an iron fpike or large nail, with a flat point and long
head, adapted to lit the counter-funk notches in the ends ot
two rails, and thereby to fallen them down in the proper
pofition, or fituation in which they are to lie.

With regard to the rails, they Ihould be of the lloutell
caft-iron, one yard in length each, formed with a flanch on
the inner edge, about two niches and a half high at the ends,
and three and a lialf in the centre ; and (hapcd in the bell
manner to give ftrcngth to the rails, and keep the wheels in
their track. The folcs of the rails, for general purpoles,
fhould not, he thinks, be lefs than four inches broad ; and

Jl A I

virtues, are well known to our country, after a refidencc in
it ot more than tiilrty years, is honourably mentioned by
Ernll Ludwig Gerber, the continuator of WaltlK-r's Mu-
fical Lexicon, in 2 vols. 8vo., 1792. He lays, that this
exprellive and pleafing performer on the violin, and agree-
able compofer for his inftrumcnt, was born in Italy, a
fcliolar of Barbella, fettled at Amtterdam in 1 772, where
he remained the principal violin during twelve years, having
fucceedcd the famous Lccatelli. He had publiflied nine dif-
ferent works for violins at Berhn and Amlterdam, before the
year 1785. About the year 1773 he arrived in London,
fince which time he has publiihed many pleafing compoh-
tions, particularly his " Battaglia," which is the bed imi-

the thicknefs proportioned to the work they are intended tative inllrumental mufic of that kind that has come to our
for On railways for heavy burdens, great ufe, and long knowledge.

- ■■ ■ " ■ '' -"-- RAIMPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooltan, in

Rohilcund ; 30 miles S. of Bereilly.

RAIN, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat, on the gulf
of Gutch ; 45 miles W. ot Noanagur. — Alfo, a town of
Bavaria; 16 miles N. of Augfburg. N. lat. 48'' 37'. E.
long. 10'^ 52'.

Rain, or Old Rain, a town of Scotland, in Aberdeen-
thire, near which are t'hc remains of a palace of the former
bilhops of Aberd' -n ; eight miles S.E. of Inverary.

Rain, the dilliUation of water which deicends from ti.e
atmofphere in drops of various fizes. By thiscircumilance
rain is dillinguiihed from dew or fog ; in the former of

duration, the rails (hould be very itout, weighing 4olbs.,
or, in fome cafes, nearly half an hundred weight each. For
railways of lefs confequence, lefs weight of metal will do ;
but it will not be prudent to ufe them of lefs than 3olbs.
weight each, in any fituation expofed to breakage above
ground. But it is obferved that in mines, and other works
under ground, where very fmall carriages only can be em-
ployed, very light rails are ufed, forming what are called
train roads, on a fyftem introduced by Mr. Carr ; and thele
kinds of light railways have been much ufed above ground
in Shropihire, and other counties where coals and other mi-
nerals are obtairted

It is added, that in fixing the blocks and rails great atten- which the drops are fo fmall, that they are qui'e invifible ;

and in the latter, though they are of a larger fize, they
fcem to have Uttle more fpecific gravity than the atmofphere
itlelf, and may therefore be reckoned hollow fpherules ra-
ther than drops.

Rain is, apparently, a precipitated cloud ; as clouds ai'e
nothing but vapours raifed from moifture, waters, &c.

And vapours are demonftratively nothing elfe but little
bubbles or veficulae detached from the furface of the terra-
queous globe by the power of the folar or lubterrancous heat,
or fome other caufe. Thefe veficuls, being fpecifically

tion 15 required to make them firm. No earth or foft ma-
terials (hould be ufed between the blocks and the bed of Imall
ftones or gravel, on which the rails muft all be fixed by an
iron gage, to keep the fides at a regular diltance, or parallel
to each^other. The beft width of road for general purpofes
is four feet two inches between the flanches of the rails ; the
wheels of the carriages running in tracks about four feet fix
inches afunder. Rails of particular forms are necefl'ary
where roads branch out from or interfeft each other ; and
where carriage roads crofs the railways ; and, at turnings of

the railways, great care is required to make them perfectly lighter than the atmofphere, are buoyed up by it, until they
eafy. The rails of the fide forming the inner part of the arrive at a region where the air is in a juft balance witli them ;

curve Ihould be fixed a little lower than the other ; and

the rails ihould be fet a little under the gage, fo as to

bring the fides nearer together than in the llraight parts :

thefe deviations in level and width to be in proportion to the

ftiarpnefs of the curve. The blocks and nils being fixed and

fpiked fait, nothing more remains to be done than to fill the

horfe-path, or fpace between the blocks, with good gravel,

or other proper materials ; a little of which muft alfo be put

on the out fide of the blocks to keep them in their proper

places. This gravel Ihould always be kept below the fur-
face of the rails on which the wheels are to run, to keep the

tracks of the wheels free from dirt and obftruftions. The

form of the rails muil be fuch as will free them from dirt if

the oravelling is kept below their level.

And in the conftrufling of the carriages great attention

to avoid friftion is neceflary, particularly in the formation
of the wheels and axles, which muft be adapted to the fort
of railways and kind of loading ; but for which general
direftions cannot be given in a narrow compafs. It is pro-
bable that this valuable invention may alfo be applicable to
many other purpofes in agriculture or manufadlures, as it
becomes more fully underftood, and the facilities which it af-
fords are better known. Sec Canal.

RAIMALPOUR, \n Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Vifiapour ; 15 miles E. of Sattara.

RAIMONDI, Ignatius, in Biography. This worthy
mulical profefl'or, whofe performance, charadler, and private at the bottom of the hill the drops are much larger, and

the

and here they float, tiU by fome new agent they are con-
verted into clouds, and thence either into rain, fnow, hail,
mill, or the like.

But the agent in this formation of the clouds into rain, and
the vapours into clouds, has been much controverted. Some
philofophers have fuppofed that the cold, which conftantly
occupies the fuperior regions of the air, chills and condenfes
the veficula:, at their arrival from a warmer quarter ; con-
gregates them together, and occafions feveral of them to
coalefce into little malies : and by thefe means their quantity
of matter increafing in a greater proportion than their fur-
face, they become an overbalance to the thin air, and ac-
cordingly defcend in rain.

Dr. Derham accounts for the precipitation thus ; that
the veficulas being full of air, when they meet with a colder
air than that they contain, this internal air is contradled into
a lefs fpace ; and confequently the watery (hell, or cafe,
is rendered thicker, fo as to become heavier than the
air, &c.

It has, however, been objefted to this hypoth^Tis, that
rain often happens in very warm weather ; and though it be
allowed, that the condenfation may be owing to the cold
of the upper regions, yet the drops acquire a confiderable
increafe of fize as ttiey defcend. E.G. On the fummit of a
hill they are fmall and occaCon only a drizzling fhower }
but in defcending the hill it bt comes more confiderable, and

RAIN.

the rain is impetuous. Hence it appears that the vapours
are condcnfcd when the atmofpherc is warm as well as when
it is cold.

Others only allow the cold a part in the aftioii, and afcribe
a (liare of it to the winds, alleging, that a wind blowing
againft a cloud will drive its vcficuhc upon one another, by
which means fever;il of them, coalefcing as before, will be
enabled to defcend ; and the cffeft will be Hill more con-
fiderable, if two oppofite winds blow together toward the
fame place. To which they add, that clouds already formed,
happening to be augmented by frcfli acceflions of vapourj
continually afcending, may on this account be enabled to
defcend.

Againft the above ftated hypothcfis of Derham, it has
been objeiSled that the veficulse of vapour, if they be fuch,
are filled, nst with air, but tire or heat in a latent ftate, and till
they part with this heat, the vapour cannot be condenfed.
Cold is not always fufficient to produce this efTeft, for in
the moft feverefrofts the air is ferene, and parts with little
or none of its vapours, for a confiderable time. It is alfo
alleged, thit the winds have no confiderable agency, fince
blowing upon vapour is fo far from condenfing it, that it
unites more clofely with the air ; and wind is known very
much to promote evaporation. Sec Vapour.

Yet the grand caufe, according to Rohault, ftill remains :
that author conceives it to be tlie heat of the air, which
after continuing for lome time near the earth, is at length car-
ried up on high by a wind, and there thawing the fnowy
villi, or flocks of the half-frozen velicul^, reduces them
into drops ; which coalefcing, defcend, and have their
diflolution perfeAed in their progrefs through the lower and
warmer ftages of the atmofphere Others, as Dr. Clarke,
tie. afcribe this defcent of the clouds rather to an altera-
tion of the atmofphere than of the veficulx ; and fuppofe
it to arife from a diminution of the fpring, or elaltic force
cf the air.

This elafticity, which, as they fay, depends chiefly or
wholly on the dry terrene exhalations, being weakened, the
atmofphere finks under its burden, and the clouds fall, on
the common principle of precipitation.

Now, the little veficulac, by any or all thefe means, being
once upon the defcent, will perfift therein, notwithltanding
the increafe of refiftance they every moment meet with in
their progrefs through ftill denfer and denfer parts of the
atmofphere. For, as they all tend toward the fame point,
viz. the centre of the earth, the farther they fall, the more
coalitions will they make ; and the more coalitions, the
more matter will there be under the fame furface ; the
furface only increafing as the fquares ; but the folidity as
the cubes ; and the more matter under the fame furface,
the lefs friftion or refiftance there will be to the fame
matter.

Thus if the cold, the wind, &c. happen to aft early
enough to precipitate the afcending veficula:, before they
are arrived at any confiderable height, the coahtions being
few in fo fliort a defcent, the drops will be proportionably
fmall : and thus is formed what we call de^u. See Dew.

If the vapours prove more copious, and rife a little higher,
we have a mi/l or fog ; which fee refpeftively.

A little iiigher ftill, and they produce a fmall rain, kc.
If 1 hey neither meet with cold, nor wind enough to con-
denfe or diflipate them, they form a heavy, thick, dark flcy ;
which lafts fometimes feveral weeks. Tliis hypothefis ot
the diminution of the atmofphere's elafticity, requires a
more fatisfaftory exphcation of the caufe of this diminution.
By afcribing it to terrene exhalations, we only folve one
difficulty by introducing another ; for we are totally un-

acquainted with the nature and operation of thefe cxhala-
tibns. But let the caufe be what may be fuppofcd, if
it aft equally, and at once, upon all the vapour in the air,
all that vapour muft be at once precipitated ; and the con-
fequcncc muft be, that, inftead of gentle fliowers continuing
for a confiderable time, wo muft have copious watcr-fpouts,
lafting only for a few minutes or feconds, which, inftead of
refrediiiig the earth, would drown and lay it wafte.

Thofc who admit either of the above hypothcfoj, account
for many of the phenomena of the weather ; e. gr. why a
cold is always a wet fumnier, and a warm a dry one ; be-
caufe the principle of precipitation obtains in the one cafe,
and is wanting in the other. Why we have ordinarily moft
rain about the equinoxes ; becaufe the vapours arife more
plentifully than ordinary in the fpring, as the earth becomei
loofened from the brumal conitipations ; and becaufe, as
the fun recedes from us in autumn, the cold increafing, the
vapours that had lingered above during the fummer heats,
are now difpatchcd down, &c. Why a fettled, thick, clofe
Iky fcarcely ever rains till it have been firft clear ; becaufe
the equally diff'ufed vapours muft firft be condenfed, and
congregated into feparate clouds, to lay the foundation of
rain ; by which means the reft of the face of heaven is left
open, and pervious to the rays of the fun, &c.

For other phenomena of rain, as they relate to the
vveather-glafs, fee Barometer, and Weather.

It cannot be doubted, that there is a conneftion between
the defcent of the barometer and the fall of rain ; but no
latisfaftory reafon has yet been afligned for the circumftance ;
nor is it poflible to foretell with certainty that rain will follow
any changes in the height of the barometer that have been
obferved. The immediate dependence of rain, or of any
other atmofpherical phenomena, on the influence of the
moon, appears to be rendered highly improbable, not only
by mathematical calculations of the effefts of the moon's
attraftion, but alfo by the irregularity of the obfervation*
which have been adduced in favour of a fuch a conneftion.
(See Injluence of the MooN.) But however uncertain the
ultimate caufes of rain may be in general, their effefts in
fome places are fufficicntly conftant, to be attributed
to permanent local circumilances, and in pattjcular to the
periodical recurrence of fimilar winds.

For a more particular account of other theories, for
explaining the afcent of vapours, the formation of clouds,
and the fall of rain, fee Vapoui:.

Befides the caufes of rain, mentioned above, Defaguliers
thinks it owing to the lofs of eleftricity in the vapours of
which they were formed.

Other writers, in the progrefs of this part of philofophical
fcience, have confidercd rain as an eleftrical phenomenon :
or at leaft they have fuppofed, that the powers of eleftri-
city may concur with other caufes in producing it. Sir-
nior Beccaria, whofe obfervations on the general ftate of
eleftricity in the atmofphere have been more extenfive and
accurate than thofe of any other perfon, reckons rain, hail,
and fnow, among the efiefts of a moderate eleftricity in
the atmofphere. Clouds that bring rain, he thought, were
produced in the fame manner as thunder clouds, only by
a moderate eleftricity. He defcnbes them at large, and
the refemblance which all their phenomena bear to thofe of
thunder-clouds is very rtriking. He notes feveral circum-
ftances attending rain without lightning, which render it
probable, that it is produced by the fame caufe as when it
is accompanied with lightning. Light has been feen among
the clouds by night in rainy weather ; and even by day-
rainy clouds are fometimes feen to have a brightnefs evi-
dently independent of the fun. The uniformity with
Y y 2 which

11 A IN.

which the clouds are Ipread, and with which die rain falls,
he thought, were evidences of an nniform caiile like that
of elettricity. The intenfity alio of electricity in his ap-
paratus generally correfponded very nearly to the (juan-
tity of rain that fell in the fame time. Sometimes all the
phenomena of thunder, lightning, hail, rain, fnow, and
wind have been obfcrved at one time ; which Ihews the
connedion they all have with fomc common caufe. Signior
Beccaria, therefore, fuppofes, that, previous to rain, a
quantity of eleftric matter efcapes out of the earth, m
fome place where there was a redundancy of it ; and in
its afcent to the higher regions of the air, coUefta and con-
dufts into its path a great quantity of vapours. The fame
caufe that collects, will condcnfe them more and more ;
till, in the places of the neareft intervals, they come ahnoll
into contaft, fo as to form fmall drops ; whicli, uniting
with others as they fall, come down in rain. The rain will
be heavier in proportion as the elafticity is more vigorous,
and the cloud approaches more nearly to a thunder-
cloud. He imitated the appearance of clouds that 'bring
rain, by infulating himfelf between the rubber and con-
dnttor of his electrical machine ; and with one hand
dropping colophonia into a fpoon fattened to the conductor,
and holdnig a burning coal, while his other hand commu-
nicated with the rubber. In thefe circumltances tlie finoke
fpread along his arm, and, by degrees, all over his body,
till it came to the other hand that communicated witli the
rubber. The lower furface of this fmoke was every where
parallel to his clothes, and the upper furface was fwelled
and arched hke clouds replete with thunder and rain. In
this manner, he fuppofes, the clouds that bring rain diffufe
themfelves from over thofe parts of the earth which abound
with eledtric fire, to thofe parts that are exhaulted of it ;
and by letting fall their rain, rellore the equihbrium between
them. Signior Beccaria alfo thought, that the elettricity
communicated to the air, which both receives and parts
with it flowly, would account for the retention of vapours
m a clear iky ; for fmall disjointed clouds, not difperfed
into rain ; for the fmaller and lighter clouds in the higher
regions of the air, whicli are but little affected by elec-
tricity ; and alio for the darker, heavy, and duggiih clouds
in the lower regions, which retain more of it. He even
imagined that fome alteration in the weight of the air might
be made by this eleftricity of it : the phenomena of rain,
he thought, favoured tlie fuppofition, that the elcftric
matter in the air did, in fome meafure, leflen its preffure :
for when the eleftric matter is aftually in the air, collecting
and condenfing the vapours, the barometer is lowed. When
the communication is made between the earth and the
clouds by the rain, the quickfilver begins to rife ; the
eleftric matter, which fupported part of the prelTure, being
difcharged. Lettere dell Elettricifmo. Prieftley's Hift.
&c. of Elcftricity, vol. i. p. 427, &c. 8vo.

Dr. James Hutton's theory of rain is Hated and amply
illuftrated in the ill volume of the Edinburgh Tranfaftions,
p. 47, &c. It is well known that atmofpheric air is capable,
with a certain degree of heat, of difl'olving a given quantity
of water. (See Vapour.) Dr. Hutton afcertains the
ratio of the diffolving power of air, in relation to water,
with different degrees of heat ; and thus, by mixing a por-
tion of tranfpareiit humid warm air with a portion of
cold air, the mixture becomes opaque, and part of the
water will be precipitated ; or, in other words, the va-
pour will be condenfed into rain. Hence he obferves, that
iince the capacity of air for moilture increafes fafter than the
temperature, there mult be a depofition of moifture when
two faturated portions of air at different temperatures are

mixed. Dr. Hutton fuppoles that heat and folutioii do not
increafe by equal increments; but that, in reality, if heat

be fuppofed to increafe by equal increments ahmg a (Iraigiit
line, lolution will be expreffed by ordinates to a curve,
whofe ctmvex lide is turned towards that line. That the
power of folution is not increafed in the fame ratio witii
heat is, however, hypothetical, except when we rife pretty
high in the fcale, when its proportional increafe is fome-
what doubtful ; nor has our author fupported it by expe-
riment. The condenfation of the breath in air is not to
the purpofe, unlefs we fiippofe the air to be already fatu-
rated with vapour. In any view, it can only amount to
this, that to render it viiible, the heat mull be diminifhed in
a greater proportion than can be compenfated by the power
of folution in the body of air, in which the pclrticm expired
is at tirll immerfed. In order to explain the origin of rain
from this caufe, we mult always fuppofe a conitant dimi-
nution of heat to take place at the moment of the conden-
fation of the vapour ; but we actually find, that the change
from a ilate of vapour to the fluid Hate is attended with
heat ; fo that rain muft at once oppofe its own caufe, and
continued rains would be impoflible without the aid of other
cauies. Dr. Hutton endeavours, from his own fyftem, to
explain the regular and irregular fealons of rain, with regard
eitiier to the generality of its appearance, or the regularity
of its return. And to obviate the apparent exceptions of
tlie tlieory, from the generality of rain, he explains the pro-
portional quantities of rain, and adds a comparative eflimate
of chmates, in relation to rain with the meteorological ob-
fervations made in our own climate. As our limits will not
allow our doing full juftice to our author's reafoning, we muft
refer to his own paper on the fubject.

Mr. Dalton, in his " Meteorological ElFays," (Eff. vi.)
expreffes his approbation of Dr. Hutton's theorj' in
general ; to this purpofe, he fays, " the principles of none
appear to me to be more plaufible and confiftent with
fafts." Dr. Hutton, as we have above (hewn, confiders
the varieties of heat and cold, affefting the folvent power
of the atmofphere, as the fole caufes of rain ; and Mr.
Dalton obferves, when we confider that evaporation and
the precipitation of vapour are diametrically oppofite, it
ia realbnable to fuppofe that they fhould be promoted
by oppofite caufes : and as heat and dry air are favour-
able to evaporation, fo cold, operating upon air replete
with vapour, promotes its precipitation. Dr. Hutton,
however, feems to confider water as chemically com-
bined with the atmofphere, and that cold produces preci-
pitation in a manner limilar to what it does in water fatu-
rated with fait, or in other chemical procefles ; whereas
Mr. Dalton fuppofes, that a portion ot the vapour, con-
fidered as a diftinCt and peculiar fluid, is condenfed into
water by cold ; but the effects refulting from the two
theories will be the fame. See METEOROLeGY, and Va-
pour.

M. de Luc, in the 2d volume of his " Thoughts on
Meteorology," has direCt:ed particular attention to the
various circumltances that attend rain. He has alfo exa-
mined the feveral hypothefes of different authors, and
concludes, that they are altogether infufficient to ac-
count for the formation of it. In this inquiry the
grand queftion under difcullion is, what becomes of the
water that rifes in vapour into the atmofphere ? or what
is the Itate in which it fubfiils there, between the time
ef Its evaporation, and its faUing down in rain ? If it
continues in the ftate of watery vapour, or fuch as is
the immediate produdt of evaporation, it mull poffefs
the dillinttive characters effential to that fluid j it muft

make

RAIN.

make tlie hygrometer move towards humidity, in pro-
poition as the vapour is more or lefs abundant in the air :
on a diminution of heat, the humidity, as ftieu'n by tlie
hygrometer, mull intreafe ; and on an increafe of the heat,
the humidity mull diminifli ; and the introdudtion of other
hygrofcopic fubllances, drier than the air, mud have the
fame efFedl as an augmentation of heat. Thcfe are the pro-
perties of vapour, on every hypothefis of evaporation ; and,
therefore, all the water that exifts in the atmofphere, with-
out poflefling thcfe properties, is no longer vapour, but
mult have changed its nature. M. de Luc (hews, that
the water which forms rain, though it has ever been
confidercd and reafoned upon as producing humidity, does
not pofTefs tliis property, and mull, therefore, have palled
into another Hate. As he thinks tliat the vapour padcs
into an invifible ftate in the interval between evaporation
and its falling again in rain, and that in this Hate it is not
fenfible to the hygrometer, he confiders the laws of hydro-
logy as infulEcient for explaining the formation of rain ;
but he does not pretend to have difcovered the immediate
caufe of tlie formation of clouds and rain. If it is not in
the immediate produft of evaporation that rain has its
fource ; if the vapours change their nature in the atmo-
fphere, fo as no longer to be fenfible to the hygrometer, or
to the eye ; if they do not become vapour again till clouds
appear ; and if, when the clouds are formed, no alteration
is perceived in the quality of the air ; we muft acknowledge
it to be very probable, that the intermediate ftate of vapour
is no other than air, and that the clouds do not proceed
from any diftinft fluid contained in the atmofphere, but
from a decompofition of a part of the air itfelf, perfeAly
iimilar to the reft. For other obfervations on the afcent
and nature of vapour, and the fubfcqucnt formation of
rain, we refer to the articles Meteorology, and Va-

POUH.

As to the general quantity of rain that falls, and its pro-
portion in feveral places at the fame time, and in the fame
place at feveral times, we have many obfervations, journals,
&c. in the Memoirs of the French Academy, the Philof.
Tranf. and many other publications ; from which we (hall
make the followmg extrafts.

Upon meafuring the rain falling yearly, its depth, at
a medium, is found as m the following table.

the whole quantity of ram at London, in each of the
years fpecificd below, was as follows : viz.

Inches.
26.328

24-083

20.354

'774
'775
1776
1777
1778
1779
1780

25-371

20.772
26.785

'7-3'3

Proportid

Medium of thcfe fevcn years 23.001

1 of the Rain of the feveral Seafons
another.

to one

1708.

Dejith at

Depth at

Depth at

Pifa.

Upjuinlter.

Zurich.

Ii.ihcs.

Inches.

Inches.

January

6.41

2.88

1.64

February

3.28

0.46

1.65

March

2.65

2.03

I.5I

April

1.25

0.96

4.69

May

3-33

2.02

I.9I

June

4.90

2.32

5.91

July

0.00

I. II

3-5°

Auguft

2.27

2.94

3- '5

September

7-21

1.46

3.02

Oftober

5-33

0.23

2-44

November

0.13

0.86

0.62

December

0.00

i.o;

2.62

Half Year

36.76

19.24

32.66

See Philof. Tranf. abr. vol. iv. pt. ii. p. 81, &c. and alfo
Meteorological Journal of the Royal Society, publifhed
annually in the Phil. Tranf.

As rain-gages have been fixed of late years in almoft;
every part of the kingdom, we are enabled to determine,
with confiderable exadlnefs, the depth of water whicli the
rain yields in any given place. It may be obferved, luiwever,
that inland counties have lefs rain than maritime ones, efpe-
Deptli of Rain falling yearly, and its Proportion in feveral cially thofe which border on the weltern feas. But ftill a

Places.

Inches.
At Townley, in Lancafliire, obferved by Mr. Townley 42^
Upminfter, in Ellex, by Dr. Derham ... - ig^
Zurich, in Swilferland, by Dr. Scheuchzer - - - 32^;
Pifa, in Italy, by Dr. Mich. Ang. TiUi - - - 43^
Paris, in France, by M. de la Hire - . - . . ig
Lifle, in Flanders, by M. de Vauban 24

greater difference feems to take place between a mountainous
country, and a champaign or flat country. In the former
there often falls double or triple the quantity of rain in a
year that there does in the latter, and never lefs than an
equal quantity. It is alfo obferved, that thofe winds bring
moft rain that blow from the quarter in which is the molt
and neareft fea ; as are well and louth-weft winds. The
rain-gage alfo fliews, that more rain is collefted in the
inftrument, as it is placed nearer the ground ; without any
appearance of a difl^erence, between two places, on account
of their difference of level above the fea, provided that the
inftrument is as far from the ground at the one place, as it
is at the other. Thefe efletls are noticed in the Phil. Tranf.
for 1769 and 1771, the former by Dr. Heberden, and the
latter by Mr. Daines Barrington. Dr. Heberdeen fays,
" A compai-ifon having been made between the quantity of
rain which fell in two places in London, about a mile
diilant from one another, it was found that the rain in one
of them conftantly exceeded that in the other, not only
every month, but almoft every time that it rained. The ap-
paratus ufed in each of them was very exadl, and both made
From the Meteorological Journal of the Royal Society, by the fame artift ; and upon examining every probable
kept by order of the prefident and council, it appears that caufe, this unexpedled variation did not appear to be owing

to

At Up

minfter.

At Paris

Inches.

Inches.

1700

19.03

21-37

1701

18.69

27.77

1702

20.38

17-45

1703

23-99

18.51

1704

15.80

21.20

1705

16.93

14.82

Mediums 19.14

20.19

RAIN.

to any miftake, but to the conflant elfeft of feme circum- years afterward, Daines Barrington, efq. made the foUow-

ftance vvliicli, not being fuppofed to be of any moment, had ing experiments and obferyatioiis, to fhew that this efi'eft,

never been attended to. The rain-gage in one of thefe witli refpedl to different places, refpedted only the feveral

places was fixed fo higli, as to rife above all the neighbouring heights of the inftruments above the ground at thofe places,

chimnies ; the other was confidcrably below them ; and without regard to any real difference of level in the ground

there appeared realon to believe, that the diflcrence in the
quantity of rain in thefe two places was owing to this dif-
ference in the placing of the vellel in which it was received.
A funnel was, therefore, placed above the higheft chimnies,
and another upon the ground of the garden belonging to
the fame houfe, and there was found the fame difference
between thefe two, though placed fo near one another,
which had been between them, when placed at fimilar
heights in different parts of the town. After this faft was
fufhciently afccrtained, it was thought proper to try whether
the difference would be greater at a much greater height ;
and a rain-gage was therefore placed upon the fquare part
of the roof of Weftminfler Abbey. Here the quantity of
rain was obferved for a twelvemonth, the rain being meal ured
at the end of every montii, and care being taken that none
Ihould evaporate by paffing a very long tube of the funnel
into a bottle through a cork, to which it was exaftly fitted.
The tube went down very near to the bottom of the bottle,
and therefore the rain whi.ii fell into it would foon rife
above the end of the tube, lo that the water was no where
open to the air except for the fmall fpace of the area of the
tube : and by trial it was found that there was no fenfible
evaporation through the tube thus tilted up.

The following table fhewsthe refult of thefe obfervations.

at thofe places.

Mr. Barrington caufcd two other rain-gages, exaftly
like tliofe of Dr. Hebcrden, to be placed, the one upon
mount Rennig, in Wales, and the other on the plane below,
at about half a mile's diflance, the perpendicular height of
the mountain being 450 yards, or 1350 feet ; each gage
being at the fame iieight above the furface of the ground
at the two itations.

The refults of the experiment are as below :

1770.

Bottom of tlie

Top of the

mountain.

mountain.

Inches.

Inches.

From July 6 to 16

O.7C9

0.648

July 16 to 29

2.185

2.124

July 29 to Aug. 10

0.610

0.656

Sept. 9, botli bottles had run over.

Sept. 9 to 30

3-234

2.464

Oft. 17, both bottles had run over.

Oft. 17 to 22

0.747

o.88y

Oft. 22 to 29

1.281

1.388

Nov. 20, both bottles were broken
by the fro It.

8.766

8.165

From July the 7th, 1766, to July the 7th, 1767, there fell
in a Rain-gage, fixed

1766.

From the 7th to
the end of July
Augufl
September
Oftober
November
December

1767, January
February
March
April
May
June
July 7

Below the top
of a houfe.

Upon the top
of a houfe.

lnch:-s.

Inches.

3-591

3.210

0.558

0.479

0.421

0-344

2.364

2.061

1.079

0.842

1. 612

1.258

2.071

1-455

2.864

2.494

1.807

1-303

1-437

1. 213

2.432

•-745

1.997

1.426

0-395

0.309

22.628

Upon Weft-
ninfter Abbey

Inches.
2. 311

I 0.508

1. 416
0.632
0.994

I-C35
1-335
0.587
0.994
1. 142

" The inference to be drawn from thefe experiments,
Mr. Barrington obferves, feems to be, that the increafe of
the quantity of rain depends upon its nearer approximation
to the earth, and fcarcely at all upon the height of places,
provided the rain-gages are fixed at about the fame dif-
tance from the ground.

" PofTibly alfo a much controverted point between the
inhabitants of mountains and plains may receive a folution
from thefe experiments ; as in an adjacent valley, at leaft,
very nearly the fame quantity of rain appears to fall within the
fame period of time as upon the neighbouring mountains."

Dr. Heberden alfo adds the following note. " It may
not be improper to fubjoin to the foregoing account, that,
in places where it was tirft obferved, a different quantity of
rain would be coUeftad, according as the rain-gages were
placed above or below the tops of the neighbouring build-
ings ; the rain-gage below the top of the houfe into which
the greater quantity of rain had for feveral years been
found to fall, was above fifteen feet above the level of the
other rain-gage, which, in another part of London, was
placed above the top of the houfe, and into which the leffer
quantity al.vays fell. This difference, therefore, does not,
as Mr. Barrington juftly remarks, depend upon the greater
By this table it appears, that there fell below the top of quantity of atmofphere through which the rain defcends :
a houfe above a fifth part more rain than what fell in though this has been fuppofed by fome, who have thence
the fame fpace above the top of the fame houfe ; and that concluded that this appearance might readily be folved by
there fell upon Weftminfler Abbey not much above one- the accumulation of more drops, in a defcent through a
half of what was found to fall in the fame fpace below the great depth of atmofphere.''

.145

18.139

12.099

tops of the houfes. This experiment has been repeated in
other cafes with the fame refult. What may be the caufe
of this extraordinary difference, has not yet been dif-
covered ; but it may be ufeful to give notice of it, in
order to prevent that error, which would frequently be
committed in comparing the rain of two places without
attending to this circumftance."

Such were the obfervations of Dr. Heberden on firfl

In the examination of the refults from meteorological
tables, it (hould be obferved, that feveral years' account of
the rain at any place is required, before a medium yearly
quantity can be obtained with fufficient accuracy. The
following table, formed by Mr. Dalton, and pubhfhed in the
tirfl part of the fifth volume of Manchefler Memoirs, gives
us the largefl coUeftion of accounts of rain fallen in dif-
ferent places in England that has to our knowledge hitherto

announcing this circumflance, T'iz. of different quantities of appeared. They are chiefly taken from the Tranfaftions of
rain falling at different heights above the ground. Two the Royal Society, and of other focieties.

Cumberland

RAIN.

Mean

annual

Counties (MarUlme).

Places.

Dei

ill in

IllC

l.c-s.

COMBEKLAND

Kefwick, 7 years

.

67.5

Carlifle, i year

-

20.2

Westmoreland

Kendal, 1 1 years

.

59.8

Fell-foot, 3 years

-

55-7

Waith Sutton, 5 years

-

46

Lancashire

Lancalter, 10 years

-

45

Livi^rpool, 18 years

-

34-4

Mancheller, 9 years

-

3.3

Tovviilcy

-

41

Crawihawbootli, near Haf-7
linffdeii, 2 years - - ^

60

Gloucestershire

Briftol, 3 years

-

29.2

Somersetshire

Bridge water, 3 years

-

29-3

Cornwall

Ludguan, near Mount
Bay, 5 years

•:}

4'

Another place, 1 year

-

29.9

Devonshire

Plymoiitli, 2 years

-

4C.5

Haaipsiiike

Selbourne, 9 years ^

-

37-2

Fyfield, 7 years

-

25.9

Kent

Dover, 5 years

-

37-5

Essex

Upmii.lh-r

-

19.5

Norfolk

Norwich, 13 years

-

25-5

Yorkshire

Barrowby, near Leeds,

6

27.5

years

Garfdale, near Sedburgh, ^
3 years - - - )

52-3

Northumberand

Widdrington, i year

-

21.2

Counties (luland).

Place?.

Means.

Middlesex

London, 7 years

.

23

Surrey

South Lambeth, 9 years

-

22.7

Hertfordshire

Near Ware, 5 years

-

25

Huntingdonshire

Kimbolton, 7 years

-

25

Derbyshire

Chatfworth, 15 years

-

27.8

Rutlandshire

Lyndon, 21 years

-

24-3

NOHTHAMPTONSHIRE

Near Oundle, 14 years

, General mean

23

35-2

The general mean of 35.2 inches is, as our author appre-
hends, a little above the medium for England and Wales,
as the greater number of places are thofe where much rain
falls. If we take up a mean for each of the above-mentioned
counties, (where more than one place in a county is given,)
and then a general mean from the counties, the refult is a
reduced mean of 31.3. Even then it may be objected, that
the greater part of the counties are maritime ; but it muft
be obferved, that there is no account of rain in Wales ; and
we may fafely conclude, that the rain in Wales would ex-
ceed the lail-mentioned mean as much as the inland counties
of England, not in the above lift, would fall (hort ; becaufe
Wales is both a mountainous country, and expofed to the
fea.

We will, therefore, conclude, that the mean annual depth
of rain in England and Wales, deduced from thefe twenty
counties, is 31 inches: a quantity which fublequent ob-
lervations, our author is confident, will not diminifh, and
probably not increale much.

The editors of the Encyclopedia, under the article
Weather, from 16 places of obfervation, make the annual
mean for Great Britain 32.53 inches; and M. Cotte, in the
Journal dc Phyfique for 1791, gives a mean derived from
147 places, in different parts of the world, equal to 34.7
inches.

If we take the dew (fee Dew) at 5 inches annually, we

fliall have 36 inches of water at a medium annually, on the
furface of the earth, in England and Wales, reckoning 31
for rain and 5 for dew. Admitting the computation of
Guthrie, the area of England and Wales is 46,450 fquare
miles. This, reduced to Iquarc Ret, gives 1,378,586,880,000;
wh:ch, multiplied by 3 feet, the annual depth of rain and
dew, gives 4,135,760,690,000 cubic feet of water, =
153.176,320,000 cubic yards, or 28 cubic miles =. 1 1 c
thoufand millions of tons in weight, nearly. This immenfe
mafs of water is difpofcd of partly by the fupply of rivulets,
and the foaking into the earth a (mail way, lo as to break
out again in lower ground in the form of fprings, and
thence make ics way to fome river, by which it is conveyed
to the fea; and partly by being raifed nito the atmofjjhere
in the procefs of evaporation. The decompofition of water
by vegetables is not noticed, becaufe it is prelumed, that
in the courfc of nature the principles are combined, and
water formed again. See RivER, Spring, Evaporation,
and Vapour.

As to the ufe of rain, we may obferve that it moiftens
and foftens the earth, and thus fits it for affording nourifh-
ment to plants : by falling on high mountains, it carries
down with it many particles of loofe earth, which frrve to
fertilize the furrounding valli>s, and purifies the air from
noxious exhalations, which tend in their return to the earth
to meliorate the foil ; it moderates the heat of the air ; and
is one means of fupplying fountains and rivers. However,
vehement rains in many countries are found to be attended
with barrennefs and poornefs of the lands, and mifcarriage
of the crops in the fucceeding year : and the rcafon is plain ;
for thefe exceffive itorms wafh away the fine mould into the
rivers, which carry it into the fea, and it is a long time be-
fore the land recovers itfelf again. The remedy to the fa-
mine, which fome countries are fubject to from this fort of
mifchief, is the planting large orchards and groves of fuch
trees as bear efculent fruit ; for it is an old obfervation, that
in years, when grain fuccecds worlt, thefe trees produce
moll fruit of all. It may partly be owing to the thorough
moillening of the earth, as deep as their roots go, by thefe
rains, and partly to their trunks flopping part of the light
mould carried down by the rains, and by this means fur-
niftiing themfelves with a coat of new earth. Phil. Tranf.
N" 90.

The water afforded by rain is found highly refrefhing to
almoft all forts of vegetable crops, and to promote tlieir
growth in a rapid manner, when not produced in too great
abundance at a time. This efieft, which may often be per-
ceived to take place in a fudden manner, after warm {howers
in the early fpring months, is probably caufed by the large
proportion of oxygen that is contained in rain-water, as well
as from the ncceiiary moifture being afforded to the fibres of
the roots of the plants. Too much rain may be injurious,
however, by leffening the neceffary cohefion and compaft-
nefs of foils, by which they may not afford proper firmnefs
to the roots of growing vegetables. And another injury
may be produced by the too frequent occurrence of hafty
fhowers, by which a large proportion of the decompofing
vegetable and animal materials of lands, which are foluble
or diffufible in water, may be conveyed away into the
ditches, rivers, and ultimately into the fea, and of courfe
prove the caufe of infertility. In hilly fituations, this effedl
may arife from even flight fhowers ; on which account, they
have been advifed to be ploughed in a flanting diredlion, as
by that means the rains may be more perfectly detained in
the foils. And it has been iuggelled by Dr. Darwin, that
as the foliage or buds of plants require more moifture for
their vigorous growth than their flowers, in this climate,
continued rains may be liable not only to wafli off the farina
1 from

RAIN.

from the burfting anthers, and in that way prevent the im-
pregnation of the piltillum, but alfo delay the ripening of
the feeds or fruit, from the want of a due evaporation of
their pcrfpirable matter, as well as from tlie Ids iolar light
in cloudy fcafons. On this account it is, lie fuppofes, that
in the north of Scotland the oats are laid feldom to ripen
till the froll commences, with the dry feafon which accom-
panies it.

Thus, as the eflefts of rain are fo very confiderable on
vegetation, it would be highly \ifeful to afcertain the quan-
tity or depth of rain that falls annually in different diflrifts,
and the difference in the effecls which are produced by it.
See Water and Weather.

The vail quantities of rain which fall in fome diflrifts,
from the peculiar nature of their fituations, elpecially where
they are of the grazing or paflure kind, as thofe of Chefhire,
I,ancafhire, and fome others, are often highly beneficial to
their general fertility ; the natural grafs paflurcs of which
diflrifts, though frequently of inferior qualities to thofe in
many other places, are, in confequence of this circumflance,
rendered fupcrior in their abundance of grafs, the flrength
of its vegetation, and the richnefs of its quality. The
former of the above counties may indeed, without any im-
propriety, be reckoned one of the moil produftive grafs-
land diflrifts in the kingdom, as is fully evinced by the great
abundance and fuperiority of its dairy produfts. The grafs
lands in this traft of country moflly retain their full verdure
during the moil fultry and parching feafons, except where
they are of a fandy or gravelly nature in their under flrata.
Where they are near to the fea, however, in this as well as
other parts, they are liable to become mofTy, or be covered
witli the mofs plant, either in confequence of fo much of the
fpray from it falling in the manner of flight rain, or fome
other caufe of that kind.

The quantity of rain falling upon land has much influence
upon its temperature, or Rate of heat, and, of courfe, great
effeft on vegetation in that vv'av ; and the nature of its mix-
ture with it, or the manner in which it is diilributed through
its parts, or combined with its different earthy materials, is
another means by which it becomes of great importance, as
it relates to the fupplying of nourifhment and fupport to
vegetables as crops.

Rain falling in large quantities, on particular forts of re-
tentive foils, is a frequent caufe of that kind of injurious
wetnefs, which Hands fo much in need of furface-draining to
remove it. See SvRFACE-Draining.

The nature and caufes of fhowers and rain are extremely
curious and interefling in feveral different points of view,
both to the agriculturiil and the philofcphical inquirer.

Rains, Preternatural. We have numerous accounts in
hiftorians of preternatural rains, fuch as the raining of
flones, of dull, of blood, nay, and of living animals, as
young' frogs, and the like. We are not to doubt the truth
of what thofe who are authors of veracity and credit relate
to us of this kind, fo far as to fuppofe that the Falling of
Stones (which fee) and dull never happened ; the whole mif-
take (if it be fo with regard to the firfl inftance) is the
fuppofing them to have fallen from the clouds ; but as to
the blood and frogs, it is very certain that they never fall
at all, but the opinion has been a mere deception of the
eyes. Men are extremely fond of the marvellous in their
relations ; but the judicious reader is to examine ilriftly
whatever is reported of this kind, and is not to fuffer him-
felf to be deceived.

There are two natural methods by which quantities of
ftones and dull may fall in certain places, without their
having been generated in the clouds, or fallen as rain.
The one is by means of hurricanes : the wind which we fre-

quently fee tearing off the tiles of houfcs, and carrying them
to confiderable diltances, being equally able to take up a
quantity of flones, and drop them again at fome other place.
But the other, which is much the mofl powerful, and pro-
bably the mofl ufual way, is for the eruptions of volcanos,
and burning mountains, to tofs up, as the)' frequently do,
a vafl quantity of ftones, aflies, and cinders, to an immenfe
height in the air ; and thefe being hurried away by the hur-
ricanes and impetuous winds, which ufually accompany
thofe eruptions, and being in themfelves much lighter than
common flones, as being half calcined, may eafily be thu5
carried to vafl diilanccs, and their falling in places where
the inhabitants know nothing of the occaiion, they cannot
but be fuppofed by the vulgar to fall on them from the
clouds. It IS well known, tliat in the great eruptions of
jEtna and Vefuvius, fliowers of afhes, duft, and Imall cin-
ders, have been feen to obfcure the air, and overfpread the
furface of the fea for a great way, and cover the decks of
ftiips ; and this at fuch a diftance, as it fhould appear fcarce
conceivable that they fhould have been carried to ; and pro-
bably, if the accounts of all the fhowers of thefe fubftances
mentioned by authors be collefted, they will all be found to
have fallen within fuch diftances of volcanos ; and if com-
pared, as to the time of their falling, will be found to cor-
refpond in that alfo with the eruptions of thofe mountains.
We have known inflances of the afhes from Vefuvius having
been carried thirty, nay forty leagues, and peculiar acci-
dents may have carried them yet farther.

The raining of blood has been ever accounted a more ter-
rible fight, and a more fatal omen, than the other preter-
natural rains already mentioned. It is very certain that
nature forms blood no where but in the vefTels of animals,
and therefore fliowers of it from the clouds are by no means
to be credited. Thofe who fuppofe that what has been
taken for blood, has been aftually feen falling through the
air, have had recourfe to flying infefts for its origin, and
fuppofe it the eggs or dung of certain butterflies difcharged
"rom them as they were high up in the air. But this feems
a very wild conjefture, as we know of no butterfly whofe
excrements, or eggs, are of fuch a colour, or whofe abode
is fo high, or their flocks fo numerous, as to be the occafion
of this.

It is moft probable that thefe bloody waters were never
feen falling, but the people feeing the ftanding waters
blood-coloured, were afiured, from their not knowing how
it fhould elfe happen, that it had rained blood into them.
A very memorable inilance of this there was at the Hague
in the year 1670. Swammerdam, who relates it, tells us,
that one morning the whole town was in an uproar, on find-
ing their lakes and ditches full of blood, as they thought,
and having been certainly full of water the night before,
they agreed it mufl have rained blood in the night ; but a
certain phyfician went down to one of the canals, and taking
home a quantity of this blood-coloured water, he examined
it by the microfcope, and found that the water was water
flill, and had not at all changed its colour, but that
it was full of prodigious fwarms of fmall red animals, all
alive, and very nimble in their motions, whofe colour and
prodigious number gave a red tinge to the whole body of
the water they lived in, on a lefs accurate infpeftion. The
certainty that this was the cafe, did not however perfuade
the Hollanders to part with the miracle ; they prudently
concluded, that the fudden appearance of fuch a number of
animals was as great a prodigy as the raining of blood
would have been ; and are afiured at this day, that this
portent foretold the fcene of war and devaflation which
Lewis XIV. afterwards brought into that country, which
had before enjoyed forty years uninterrupted peace.

The

R A 1

R A 1

The animals, wliich thus colour tlie wattr of lakei and
ponds, are the puUccs arborefcenles of Swammerdatn, or the
water-fteas with branched horns. Tlii-fe crcaturc-s are of a
reddifh -yellow, or flame colour ; they live about tiie fides
of ditches, under weeds, and anionjr the mud, and are
therefore the lefs vifiblc, except at a certain time, which is
in the end of May or beginning of June : it is at this time
that thefe little animals leave their recedes to float loofe
about the water, to meet for the propagation of their
fpecies, and by that means become vifible in the colour they
give the water. Tliis is vifible, more or leis, in one part or
other of alniofl: all Handing waters at this feafon ; and it is
always at this feafon that the bloody waters have alarmed
the ignorant.

The raining of frogs is a thing not lefs wonderful in the
accounts of authors who love the marvellous, than thofe of
blood, or of Hones ; and this is fuppoied to happen fo often,
that there are multitudes who pretend to have been eye-wit-
nefles of it. Thefe rains of frogs always happen after
very dry fcafons, and arc much more frequent in the hotter
countries than the cold ones. In Italy they are very fre-
quent ; and it is not uncommon to fee the ftreets of Rome
fwarming both with young frogs and toads in an inft;ant, in
a ihower of rain ; they hopping every where between the
people's legs, as they walk, though tliere was not the lealt
appearance of them before. Nay, they have been fecn to
fall through the air down upon the pavements. This feenis
a ilrong circuinitance in favour of their being rained down
from the clouds, but when flriftly examined, it comes to
nothing ; for thefe frogs, that arc feen to fall, arc always
found dead, lamed, or bruifed by the fall, and never hop
about as the reil ; and they are never feen to fall, except
clofe under the walls of houfes, from the roofs and gutters
of which they have accidentally flipped down.

To the raining of frogs ue ought to add the raining of
grafs-hoppers and locufts, which have fometimes appeared in
prodigious numbers, and devoured the fruits of the earth.
There has not been the leall pretence for fuppofing that
thefe animals dcfcended from the clouds, but that they ap-
peared on a fudden in prodigious numbers. The naturalilt,
who knows the many accidents attending the eggs ot thefe,
and other tho like aiiinials, cannot but know that fome fea-
fons will prove particularly favourable to the hatching of
them, and the prodigious number of eggs that many infedls
lay, could not but every year bring us Inch abundance of the
young, were they not liable to many accidents, and had not
provident nature taken care, as in many plants, to continue
the fpecies by a very numerous flock of feeds, ot which per-
haps not one in five hundred need take root, in order to con-
tinue an equal number of plants. ,

The raining of fifhes has been a prodigy alfo much talked
of in France, where the itreets of a town at fome dillance
from Paris, after a terrible hurricane in the night, which
tore up trees, blew down lioufes, &c. were found in a man-
ner covered with filhes of various fizes. Nobody here made
any doubt of thefe having fallen from the clouds ; nor did
the abfurdity of fifti, of live or fix inches long, being gene-
rated in the air, at all ftartle the people, or fliake their be-
lief in the miracle, till they found upon enquiry that a very
well-!locked fifh-pond, which Hood on an eminence in the
neighbourhood, had been blown dry by the hurricane, and
only the great filli left at the bottom of it, all the fmaller
fry having been tolfed into their ftreets.

Upon the whole, all the fuppofed marvellous rains have
been owing to fubttances naturally produced on the earth,
and either never having been in the air at all, or only carried
thither by accident.
Voi. XXIX.

Rain, Freezing. See Freezing.

RA1S-Jiit\/, in Oniitholo^y. See CucULt's Pluviaiis.

KAiN-Fn'zu/, an Englifh name given by many to the com-
mon green woodpecker, or picui ■viriJis, from aa obferva.
tion that it is always mofl clamorous when rainy weather is
coming on. The Latins liave, for the fame reafon, called
It the pluviaiis avis. See Picus.

Rain-Gj^c, called alfo Omirometrr and Pluviometer, an
inftrument for meafuriiig the quantity of rain that falls.
That which is mentioned under the jaticle Ombromkter,
confifts of a tin funnel d { Pklc XXIV. Mifcellany, fg. 2.),
whofe furface is an inch fquare, a flat board a a, and a glalu
tube b h, fct into the middle ot it in a groove, and an index
witli divifions c, c ; the board and tube being of any length
at pleafvire. The bore of the tube is about half an inch,
which, fays Mr. Pickering, the inventor, is the bell fize.
This machine is fixed in fome free and open place, as the
top of the houfe, &c.

The rain-gage employed in llie houfe of the Royal vSo-
ciety, is defcribed by Mr. Cavendifh in the Phil. Trnnf.
for 1776, p. 384. The vcfTel which receives the rain is a
conical funnel, Itrengthened at the top by a brafs ring, twelve
inches in diameter. The fides of the funnel, and inner lip
of the brafs ring, are inclined to the horizon, at an angle ot
above 65-, and the outer lip at an angle of above 50^ which
are fuch degrees of fteepnefs, that there feems to be no pro-
babihtv cither that any rain which falls within the funnel, or
on tile inner lip of tlie ring, (hould dafli out, or that any
which falls on the outer lip (hould dafh into the tunnel. A
vertical fedlion of the funnel appears in Plate XXIV.
Mifcellany, fg. 3 ; A B C and a b c being the brafs ring,
B A and b a the inner lip, and B C and b c the outer. This
ved'el is placed on fome flat leads, 0:1 the top of the fociety's
houfe. It can hardly be fcreened from any rain by the
chimnies, as none of them are elevated above it in an angle
of more than 25", and as it is raifed 3^ feet above the roof,
there feems no danger of any rain dafliing into it by rebound-
ing from the lead.

In fixing rain-gages care fiiould be taken that tlie rain
may have free accefs to them, without being impeded or
overfliaded by buildings, &c. and therefore the tops of
houfes are to be preferred. Alfo, when the quantities
of rain coUefted in them, at different places, are compared
together, the intlruinents ought to be fixed at the fame
height above the ground at both places ; becaufe at different
heights the quantities are always different, even in the fame
place. And hence alfo, any regifter or account of rain m
the gage ought to be accompanied with a note of the lieight
at which the inllrument is placed above the ground. Dal-
ton found the rain of a gage 50 yai'ds high, in fummer
two-thirds, and in winter one-half as much as that of a
gage below. Mr. Dalton obferves, that a flrong funnel,
made of fheet iron, tinned and painted, with a perpen-
dicular rim, two or three inches high, fixed horizon-
tally in a convenient frame, with a bottle under it to re-
ceive the rain, is fufficient for this purpofe.

The rain-gage is an invention which fhould be in the pof-
fefhon of every correft farmer in every part of the kingdom,
and which would thereby have much tendency to the im-
provement of agriculture as contributing to the knowledge
of the degree of moiiture which prevails in thi foils, after
fhowers cr heavy rains, with greater accuracy and correft-
nefs than has been hitherto the cafe.

It is noticed by Mr. Naifmith, in his Agricultural Survey
of Clydefdale, that profeflor Anderfon, of the univerfity of
Glafgow, has invented, perhaps, themoft ingenious and ac-
curate rain-gage of any that has yet been known. It receive!"
Z 2 the

R A I

R A I

the rain at a little more than one hundred feet above the level
of the fea ; accounts of which have been regularly kept
fince the year 1781 ; but previoufly to that period the rain
was mealured by an old rain-gage. It is to be regretted,
however, that theexaft nature of this invention is not more
fully explained ; and that other cheap plain inventions of
this nature are not better known to the farmer.
RAiN-Z^a/cr. See Water.

Rains, in the Sea Language, denote all that traft of
fea to the northward of the equator, between four and
ten degrees of latitude ; and lying between the meridian of
Cape Verde and that of the eaftcrnmoil iflands of the fame
name.

It takes its name from the almoft: continual calms, con-
ftant rains, and thunder and lightning, to a great degree, al-
ways found there. The winds, when they do blow, are
only finall uncertain gufts, and (hift about all round the
compafs ; fo that (hips are fometimes detained here a long
while, and can make hut very little way.

RAINANGBONG, in Geography, a town of the Bir-
man empire, fituated near a river in which there are feveral
wells of petroleum, whence its name lignifying a town
through which flows a river of earth-oil. N. lat. 20° 26'.
E. long. 94'^ 46'.

RAINBOW, Iris, or, fimply, the bonv, a meteor in
form of a parti-coloured arch, or femicircle, exhibited in
a rainy Iky, oppofite to the fun, by the refradlion of his
rays in the drops of falling rain.

There is alfo a fecondary, or fainter bow, ulually feen
invefting the former at fome diftance. Among naturalifts,
we alfo read of /unar rainbows, marine rainbows, &c.

The rainbow, fir Ifaac Newton obferves, never appears
but where it rains in the lun (hine ; and it may be reprefented
artificially by contriving water to fall in little drops, like
rain, through which the fun (hining, exhibits a bow to a fpec-
tator placed between the fun and the drops ; efpecially if a
dark body, e. gr. a black cloth, be difpofed beyond the
drops.

That the rainbow is oppofite to the fun, has always been
obferved. It was, therefore, natural to imagine, that the
colours of it were produced by fome kind of refleftion of
the rays of light from drops of rain or vapour. The regu-
lar ordi-r of tl>e clouds was another circumilance that could
not have efcaped the notice of any perion. But though
mere refleftion had in no other cafe been obferved to produce
colours, and it could not but have been obferved that refrac-
tion is frequently attended with that phenomenon, fo that
fome of the ancients, as we Icain frcm Ariilotle's traft on
meteors, knew that the rainbow was caufed by the refraftion
of the fun's light in drops of falling rain ; yet no perfon
feems to have thought of having recourfe to a proper re-
fra^ion in this cafe before one Fletcher of Breflaw, who, in
a treatife which he publifhed in 157 1, endeavoured to account
for the colours of the rainbow by means of a double refrac-
tion, and one refledtiou. But he imagined that a ray of
light, after entering p drop of rain, and fuffering a refraftion,
both at its entrance and exit, was afterwards reflefted from
another drop, before it reached the eye of the fpeftator. He
feems to have overlooked the refleftion at the farther fide of
the drop,orto have imagined that all the bendingsof the light
within the drop would not make a fufiicient curvature, to
bring the ray of the fun to the eye of the fpe£tator. An-
tonio de Dominis, hifhop of Spalato, whofe treatife, " De
Radiis Vifus et Lucie," was publiflied by I. Bartolus, in
l6il, was the firll perfon who advanced, that the double
refraftion of Fletcher, with an intervening reflcftion, was
fufiicient to produce the colours of the rainbow, and alfo to

bring tlie rays that formed t'nem to the eye of the ipefta-
tor, without any fubfequent refle6tion. He diiliiiftly de-
fcribes the progrefs of a ray of light entering the upper
part of the drop, wliere it fuffers one refraction, and after
being thereby thrown upon the back part of the inner fur-
face, is from thence refli ited to the lower part of the drop ;
at which place undergoing a fecond refradf ion, it is thereby
bent fo as to come dinftly to the eye. To verify this hy-
potliefui, he procured a fm.ill globe of folid glafs, and view-
ing it when it was expofcd to the rays of the fun, in the
fame manner in which he h%d fuppofed that the drops of
rain w ere fituated with refpeft to them, he actually obferved
the fame colours which he had feen in the true rainbow, and
in the fame order. The tiitory of A. de Dominis was
adopted, and in fome degree improved, by Defcartes.
Philofophers were, however, for a long time at a lofs when
they endeavoured to afiigii realons for all tlie particular co-
lours, and for the order of them. Indeed, iiotiiing but the
doftrine of the different refrangibihty of the rays of light,
which was a difcovery rcferved for tlie great fir Ifaac New-
ton, could furnifli a complete folution of this difficulty.

Dr. Barrow, in his " Leftioncs Optica," (Left. 12.
n. 14.) fays, that a friend of his, meaning Mr. Newton, com-
municated to liim a method of determining the angle of the
rainbow, which was hinted to Newton by Slufuis, witliont
making a table of tlie refraftions, as Defcartes did. The
dodlor fliews the method, with other curious particulars.
But the fubjeft was given more perfeftly by Newton after-
wards, in his " Optics," prop. 9 ; where he makes the
breadth of the interior bow to be nearly 2° 15', that of the
exterior 3"^ 40', their diilance 8° 25', the grcatell femidiame-
terof the interior bow 42^ 17', and the lead of the exterior
50^ 42', when their colours appear ftrcng and perfcft.

Rainbow, Theory of the. To conceive the origin of the
rainbow, let us confider what will befall rays of light
coming from a very remote body, e. gr. the fun, and
falling on a globe of water, fuch as we know a drop of rain
to be.

Suppofe, tlien, A D K N ( Plate XVIII. Optici, Jig. 1.)
to be a drop of rain, and tl;e lines E F, B A, ON, to be
rays of light coming from the centre of the fun ; which, on
account of the immenfe diltance of the fun, we conceive to
be parallel.

Now the ray B A being the only one that falls perpen-
dicularly on the furface of the water, and all the reft ob-
liquely, it is eafily inferred, that all the other rays will be
refracted towards the perpendicular. (See Refraction.)
Thus the ray E F, and others accompanying it, will not
go on ftraight to G ; but as they arrive at H I, they
will defleft from F to K ; where fome of them, probably,
efcaping into the air, the reft are reflefted upon the line
K N, fo as to make the angles of incidence and refleftion
equal.

Farther, as the ray K N, and thofe accompanying it,
fall obliquely upon the furface of the globule, they cannot
pafs out into the air, without being refrafted, fo as to recede
from the perpendicular L M ; and, therefore, they will not
proceed ilraight to Y, but will defieft to P.

It may be here obferved, that fome of the ray?, arriving
at N, do not pafs out into the air, but are again reflefted to
Q ; where being refrafted, like the reft, they do not pro-
ceed right to Z ; but, declining from the perpendicular
T V, are carried to R ; but iince we here only regard the
rays as they may affeft the eye placed a little below the
drop, e. gr. at P, thofe which defleft from N to Q, we
fet afide, as ufelefs ; becaufe they never come to the eye.
On the contrary, it is to be obferved, that there are other

rays,

RAINBOW.

rays, as 2 3, and the like ; which, bciiijT refrnftcd from
3 to 4, and refleftcd to j, and from 5 to 6, may at length,
by refraftion at 6, arrive at the eye 7, placed beneath the
drop.

Thus much is obvious ; but to determine precifely the
quantities of rcfraftion of each ray, there mull be a calcu-
lation ; by fucli calculation it appears, that the rays wliich
fall on the quadrant A D, arc continued in hncs, like ihofe
here drawn in the drop A D K N ; wherein there are tlircc
things very confidcrable : firft, that the two refrattions of
the rays, in their ingrefs and egrefs, are both tlie fame way ;
fo that the latter does not deftroy the effe£l of the former.
Secondly, that of all the rays palfing out of A N, N P,
and thole adjoining to it, are the only ones capable of affeft-
ing tlie fenfe, as being fnfficiently clofe and contiguous, and
becaufe they come out parallel ; wliereas the reft are diverg-
ing, and difperfed too far to have any fenfible effedi, at leaft
to produce any thing fo vivid as the colours of the bow.
Thirdly, that the ray N P has (hade or darknefs under it ;
for, fincc there is no ray comes out of the furface N 4, it
is the fame thing as if the part were covered with an
opaque body. We might add that the fame ray N P has
darknefs above it ; fince the rays that are above it are
ineffeftual, and fignify no more than if there were none
at all.

Add to this, that all the elTeftual rays have the fame point
of refleftion, /. c the parallel and contiguous rays, which
alone are effeftual after refraftion, will .ill meet in the fame
point of the circumference, and be reflected thence to the
eyes.

Farther, it appears, that the angle O N P, mcludcd be-
tween the ray N P, and the line O N drawn from the centre
of the fun, is the angle by wliich the rainbow is diftant from
the oppofite point of the fun, and which makes the femi-
diameter of the bow. The method of determining it ivill be
feen in the fcquel of the article. But fince, bcfides thofe rays
coming from the centre of the fun to the drop of water,
there are many more from the fevcral points of its furface ;
there are a great many other efteftual rays to be confidered,
efpecially that from the uppermoft, and that from the
loweft part of the fun's body.

Since, then, the apparent femidiameter of the fun is
about 16 minutes, it follows, that an effeftual ray from the
upper part of the fun will fall higher than the ray E F by
16 minutes: thus does the ray G H (f^. 2.) which, be-
ing refraftod as much as E F, deflefts to I, thence to L,
and at length emerging equally refrafted with the ray N P,
proceeds to M ; and makes an angle O N M with the line
O N. In the like manner, the effeftual ray Q R coming
from the loweft part of the fun, falls on the point R, 16
minutes lower than the point F on which the ray E F falls ;
and this, being refrafted, dechnes to S, whence it is re-
fleAed to T ; where, emerging into the air, it proceeds to
V ; fo that the line T V, and the ray O T, contain an angle
whofe magnitude will be afcertained. Again, upon com-
puting the deflexions of the rays, which like that 23 {Jig. i.)
coming from the centre of the fun, and being received into
the lower part of the drop, we have fuppofed fo be twice
refleAed, and twice refrafted, and to enter the eye by lines
like that 67 {fig. 3.) we find that which may be accounlrjd
effeftual, as t"] with the line 86 drawn from the centre of
the fun, contains an angle 867 ; whence it follows, that the
efFeftual ray from the highell part of the fun, with the
fame line 86, includes an angle lefs by 16 minutes ; and
that from the loweft part of the fun, an angle greater by 1 6
minutes.

Thus, fince A B C D E F is the path of the cfScacious

ray from the higheft part of the fun to the eye in F, the
angle 36 F becomes of a certain magnitude afcertained
below. In like manner, fince GHIKLM is the way
of an efledual ray from the loweft part of the fun to the
eye, the angle 86 M becomes greater than the former by 1 6
minutes.

Since, then, we admit f-veral rays to be cffeftual, befidej
thole from the centre of tl.e fun, what we have faid of thr
(liade will need fome tlteration ; for of the three rays
delcribed (^^-f. 2 and 3.), only the two extreme ones will
have a iliadow joined to them, and that only on the outer fide.
Hence it i.s evident, that thcfe rays are perfedtly difpofed to
exiiibit all the colours of the prifm.

Fur the great quantity of denfe or intenfe light, i. e.
the bundle of rays coUedled together in a certain point, v.^r.
in the point of refletiion of the effeftual rays, may be ac-
counted as a lucid or radiant body, terminated all around by
(hade. But the feveral rays, thus emitted to the eye, .ire
both of different colours ; that is, they are fitted to excit?
in lis the ideas of different colours ; and are differently re-
frafted out of the water into the air, notwithftanding their
falling alike upon the refrafting furface.

Hence it follows, that the different or heterogeneous rays
will be feparated from one another, and will tend fcparatc
ways ; and the homogeneous rays will be collefled, and tend
the fame way ; and, therefore, this lucid point of the drop
in which the refraftion is effefted, will appear fringed or
bordered with feveral colours ; that is, red, green, and
blue colours vvill arife from the extremes of the red, green,
and blue rays of the fun, tranlmitted to the eye from fe-
veral drops, one higher than another, after the fame
manner as is done in viewing luCid or other bodies through a
prifm.

Thus, adds fir Ifaac Newton, the rays that differ in re-
frangibility, will emerge at different angles ; and, confe-
quently, according to their different degrees of refrangibility,
emerging moft copioufly at different angles, they will exhibit
different colours in different places.

A great number, then, of thefe little globules being dif-
fufed in the air, will fill the whole fpace with thefe dif-
ferent colours ; provided they be fo difpofed as that effeftual
rays may come from them to the eye ; and thus will the rain-
bow, at length, arife.

Now, to determine what that difpofit'ton muft be, fuppofc
a right line drawn from the centre ot the fun through the
eye of the fpeftator, as the line VX [Jig. 2.) called the
line of aj'pell, or axis of vi/ion ; being drawn from fo remote
a point, it maybe elteemed parallel to all other lines drawn
from the fame point ; but a right line, tailing on two parallels,
makes tlie alternate angles equal.

If, then, an indefinite number of lines be imagined drawn
from the fpeflator's eye t© a part oppofite to the fun where
it rains ; which lines make dificrent angles with the line of
afped, equal to the angles of rcfraftion of the differently
refrangible rays, thcfe lines, talluig on drops of rain illu.
mined by the fun, will make angles of the fame magni.
tude with rays drawn from the centre of the fun to the fame
drops. And, therefore, the lines thus drawn from the eye
will reprefent the effeftual rays that occafion the fenfation of
any colour.

Now it is known, that the eye, being placed in the ver-
tex of a cone, fees objefts upon its furface, as if they were
in a circle ; and the eye ot our fpectator is here in the com-
mon vertex of feveral cones, formed by the feveral kinds of
efficacious r-ays, with the line of afpeft. Now in the furface
of that whofe angle at the vertex, or eye, is the grcateft, and
in which the others are included, are tliofe drops, or parts

Z z 2 oi

RAIxMBOW.

of drops, which appear red ; and in the furfacc of that cone
whofe angle- is Icait, arc tlie purple drops ; and in the in-
termediate cones, arc the green, blue, &c. drops. Hence,
then, feveral kinds of the drops mud appear as if difpofed
into fo many circular coloured fafcix, or arches, as we fee
in the rainbow. (Rohault's Syftcm of Nat. Phil. vol. ii.
part iii. cap. 17.) Tliis part of the folution fir Ifa.ic New-
ton exprcfles more precifely, thus : fuppofe O {ftg. 4.) the
eye, and O P a line parallel to the fun's rays ; and let
PO E, POF, be angles of 40^ 17', and 42° 2'. And
fuppofe the angles to turn about their common fide O P,
with their other fides O E and O F, they will defcribe the
bounds, or verges, of the rainbow.

For if E, F be drops placed any where in the conical
furface defcribed by O E, O F, and be illuminated by the
fun's rays S E, S F ; the angle S E O being equal to the an-
gle P O E, or 40° 17', (hall be the greateft angle in which
the moll refrangible rays can, after refleftion, be refrafted
to the eye ; and, therefore, all the drops in the line O E
(hall fend the mod refrangible rays moft copioufly to the eye,
and therefore ftrike the fenfes with the deepeil violet colour
in that region.

And in like manner the angle S F O being = to the an-
gle P O F = 42° 2', (hall be the greateft in which the Icall
refrangible rays after one refleftion can emerge out of the
drops ; and thefe rays (hall come moft copioufly to the eye
from the drops in the line O F, and (Irike the fenfes with the
deepeft red colour in that region.

And, by the fame argument, the rays which have inter-
mediate degrees of refrangibihty, fliall come moft copioufly
from drops between E and F, and fo ftrike the fenfes with
the intermediate colours, in the order which their degrees of
refrangibihty require ; that is, in the progrefs from E to F,
or from the infide of the bow to the outiide, in this order ;
violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, red ; though the
■violet, by the mixture of the white light of the clouds, will
appear faint, and incline to a purple.

Here it may be obferved, that all the rays but the violet
in the line S E will emerge from E in a greater angle than
S E O made by the violet, and confequently will pais below
the eye ; and all the lays but the red in the line S F will
emerge from F in a Icfs angle than S F O made by the red,
and confequently will pafs above the eye ; by which means
only red will appear in the line S F, and only violet in the
Hne S E. .

And, fince the lines O E, OF, may be iituated any
where in the above-mentioned conical furface ; what is laid
of the drops and colours of thefe lines, is to be under-
ftood of the drops and colours throughout the whole fuper-
•icies. Thus is iht: primai-y or inner how formed.

Rainbow, Sfcmdar^, or Outo: As to the fecondary, or
fainter bow, ufually lurrounding the former, in affigning
what drops would appear coloured, we excluded fuch as
lines drawn from the eye, making angles a little greater than
42° 2', fliall fall upon, but not fuch as ftiould contain angles
much greater.

For, if an indefinite number of fuch lines be drawn from
the fpeftator's eye, fome of which make angles of 50^ 57',
with the line of afped, f. gr. O G ; other angles, of 54" 7',
-. gr. O H ; tliofe drops on which thefe lines fall niuil of
aecelfity exhibit colours ; particuharly thofe of 50° 57'.

£. gr. The drop G will appear red ; the line G O being
the fame with an effeftual ray ; which, after two reflections,
and two rcfraftions, exhibits a red colour. Again, thofe
drops which receive lines of 54° 7', e. gr. the drop H, will
appear purpk ; the line O H being the fame with an effec-

tual i"ay ; which, after two refleflions and two rcfraftions-,
exhibits purple.

Now there being a fufficient number of thefe drops, it is
evident there muft be a fecond rainbow, formed after the like
manner as the firft.

Thus, according to fir Ifaac N.'wton, in the leaft refran-
gible rays, the leaft angle at which a drop can fcndefteftual
rays after two rcfleftions, is found by computation to be
50^ 57' ; and in the moft refrangible, tiie leaft angle is found

54" 7'.

Suppofe, then, O the place of the eye, as before, and

P O G, P O H, to be angles of 50^ 57', and 54^ 7' ; and
thefe angles to be turned aV^out their conunon fide OP; with
their other fides O G, OH, tin y will defcribe the verges,
or borders, of the rainbow C H D G.

For, if G, H be drops placed any where in the conical
fuperficies defcribed by O G, O H, and be illuminated by
the fun's rays, the angle S G O, being equal to the angle
P O G, or ^d' 57', ftiall be the leaft angle m which the
ihen leaft refrangible rays can, after two refleftions, emerge
out of the drops ; and, therefore, the leaft refrangible rays
(hall come moll copioufly to the eye from the drops in the
line O G, and ftrike the fenfes with the deepeft red in that
region.

And the angle S H O being equal to P O H, 54" 7',
fliall be the leall angle in which the moft icfrangible rays,
after two refleftions, can emerge out of the drops ; and,
therefore, thofe rays fhall come moft copioufly to the eye
from the drops in the line O H, and fo ftrike the fenfes with
the deepeft violet in that region.

And, by the lame argument, the drops in the region, be-
tween G and H, (hall ftrike the fenfes with the intermediate
colours, in the order which their degrees of refrangibihty
require ; that is, in the progrefs from G to H, or from the
infide of the bow to the outer, in this order : red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.

And fince the lines O G, O H, may be fituated any where
in the conical furface ; what is faid of the drops and colours
in thefe lines is to be underftood of the drops and colours
every where in this fuperficies.

Thus are formed two bows, an interior and ftronger, by
one reflection ; and an exterior m\A fainter, by two ; the light
becoming weaker and weaker by every reflection.

Their colours will lie in a contrary order to one another ;
the firft having the red without, and the pnrple within ; and
the fecond, the purple without, and red within ; and fo of
the reft.

Rainbow, Artificial. This doftrine of the rainbow is con-
firmed by an cafy experiment ; for upon hanging up a glafa
globe, full of water, in the fun-fhine, and viewing it in
fuch a pofture as that the rays, which com.e from the globe
to the eye, may, with the fun's rays, include an angle either
of 42% or 50° ; if, e. gr. the angle be about 42°, the fpec-
tator, fuppofcd at O, will fee a full red colour in that fide
of the globe oppofite to the fun, as at F. And if that
angle be made a little lefs, fuppofe by deprefling the glo-
bule to E, the other colours, yellow, green, and blue, will
appear fuccelTively, in the fame fide of the globe, alfo ex-
ceedingly bright.

But if the angle be made about 50°, fuppofe by raifing the
globule to G, there will appear a red colour in that fide
of the globe towards the fun, though fomewhat faint ; and
if the angle be made greater, fuppofe by raifing the globe
to H, this red w'ill change fucceffively to the other colours,
yellow, green, and blue.

The fame thing is obferved in letting the globe reft, and

raifing or deprefling the eye fo as to make the angle of a juft

1 1 magnitude.

RAINBOW.

magnitude. Newton's Optics, part ii. prop. 9. prob. 4.

p. i47> ed. 3.

Rainbow, Dimenfum of the. — Defcartcs firft determined
its diameter by a ttntnlive and indirett method ; laying it
down, that the magnitiulL- of the bow depends on the degree
of refraftion of the fluid ; and aduming the ratio of the fine
of incidence to tiiat of refratlicii to be in water as 250 to

'87-

But Dr. Halley has fince, in the Philofophical Tranfac-

tions, N"^ 267, given us a fimple direft method of deter-
mining the diameter of the rainbow from the ratio of re-
fraftion of the fluid being given ; or, 'u'lce "verfi, the dia-
meter of tiie rainbow being given, to determine the refrac-
tive power ot the fluid.

The principles of Dr. Halley's confirmation for this pur-
pofe, illullrated and tacihtated by Dr. Morgan, bifhop of
Ely, will be underllood from the following view of them.
Let SN, sn, {Piatt XVIII. Optics, f^\^. 5.) be two of the
efficacious rays incident upon a drop ol rain ; thefe, when
refrafted to the (ame point F, and thence reflefted to
G, g, will have the parts within the drop on one fide N F,
n F, equal to thofe on the other fide FG, F^, from the
nature of the circle, and becaufe the angles of incidence
CFN, CF«, are equal to the angles of refleftion CFG,
CF^. And fince the parti within the drop are equal and
alike fituated, they will be fimilarly fituated with regard
to the drop itfelf ; and, confequently, as the incident rays
SN, S n, arc fuppofed to be parallel, the emergent rays
G R, % ry vvill be aHo parallel. From C, the centre, draw
the radii CN, C«, C F, then will C N F -= C FN be the
angle of refraction, and the fmall are N;; is the nafcent in-
crement of the angle of incidence B C N ; and as it meafures
the angle at the centre NCn, it is double of the angle at the
circumference upon the fame arc, v'fz. NF«, which is the
nafcent increment of the angle of refraftion NFC. Far-
ther, let the ray S N [fig. 6. ) enter the lower part of the
drop, and be twice reflefted within the drop at F and G ;
then is the ray N F equal to the ray F G, and the arc N F
= the are FG. Draw fg parallel to FG, and it will be
the refletled part of fome ray s n, whofe obliquity to the
drop makes it crofs the ray NF in its refradlion ; tlien will
the part nf = fg, and the arc nf = fg, and the fmall arc
F/ - Gg. Therefore, 2 F/ = (F/ + Gg ^ the arc
FG — fg = NF — "f — ) Nn'— F/; confequently
N « = 3 F/, i. c. the nafcent increment of the angle of
incidence is equal to three times that of the angle of re-
fraftion. After a like manner it may be fhewn, that after
three, four, five, &c. refleftions, the increment of the
angle of incidence will be four, five, fix, &c. times greater
than that of the angle of refrattion. Hence, in order to
find the angle of incidence of an efficacious ray, after any
given number of refleftions, we are to find an angle vvhofe
nafcent increment has the fame ratio to the increment of
its correfponding angle of refraftion, generated in the fame
time, as the given number of refleftions (n) increafed by
unity has to unity ; i. f. as n + I to I. But thele incre-
ments are as the tangents of the refpeftive angles direftly.
For, let A CD, ABD (fg. 7.) be the angles of inci-
dence and refraftion propofcd ; and if we fuppofe the line
AC to move about the point A in the plane of thofe angles,
the extremity of it, C, will defcribe the circular arc C c ; and
when AC is arrived at the fituatiou A c, the line BD will be
thereby removed into the fituation B (/. Draw r D, then is
the angle ACD = ABC ^ CAB, and the angle A <: ^ =
A B f -i- c A B ; therefore the excefs of A r </ above A C D,
or the increment of A C D, is equal to both the angles C B c
and C A :. But fince the angle A c C differs infinitely little

from a right one, a circle defcribed on the diameter A C
fhall pafs through the points D and c ; and, therefore, the
angles C A f, C I) c, (infilling on the fame arc Cfofthe
faid circle) will be equal ; and, therefore, the increment of
the angle ACD is .equal to CBc -f- CDf = D c d.
But the nafcent angles \) c d and D B c are as their fines,
that is, as their oppofitc fides B D and D c -- D C, tlie
angle CD r being infinitely fmall ; but BD : CD :: DE
: Da (the line BE being parallel to AC) :: tangent of
the angle EBD — ACD : tangent of the angle ABD.
Therefore the increment D c</ of the angle ACD is to tiie
increment C B c of the angle ABD (generated in the fame
time) as the tangent of the former to the tangent of the
latter dire£tly. Hence the praxis is as follows :

Firit, The ratio of the fine of incidence I, to the fine of re-
fradion R, being given; to find the angles of incidence, and
refradion of a ray, which becomes effectual after any given
number («) of nfidions. — Siippofe any given line, as A C
(fg. 8.) which divide in D ; ib as that AC : AD :: I :
R ; and again divide it in E, fo that AC may be to AE
as the given number of refleftions, increafed by unity, is to
unity; /. e. as « + 1 : i. Upon the diameter CE de-
fcribe a femicircle C B E, and from the centre A, v.ith the
radius A D, defcribe an arc D B interfecting the femicircle
ill B ; then drawing A B, C B, and letting fall the perpen-
dicular A F on C B produced ; A B C, or its complement
to two riglit angles, A B F, will be the angle of incidence ;
and A C B the angle of refrattioii required. For, draw-
ing B E parallel to A F, the triangles A C F and E C B
are fimilar. Now, the fine of the angle ABC, or A B F,
is to the fine of A C B as A C to A B = AD, /'. e. as I
to R ; therefore if A B F be the angle of incidence, A C F
will be the angle of refraction. Moreover, the nafcent in-
crement of A 15 F is to that of A C B (generated in the
fame time) as C F : B F :: C A : A E, on account of the
fimilar triagles ; i.e. as n + I to I, by conft;ruftion. The
ratio, therefore, of the nafcent increment of the angle of
incidence A B F to that of the angle of rcfraftion A C B,
is that ft'hich is required in the angles of incidence and re-
fraftion of an efficacious rav, after a given number of re-
flexions ; confequently the angles A B F and A C F are
thofe required. From this confl;ruftion we may eafily de-
duce fir Ifaac Newton's rule for finding the angle of inci-
dence A B F. See his Optics, p. 148, 149.

For A C : A B :: I : R; whence A C = -=- x A B;

and C F : B F :: n + 1 : I ; therefore C F = « + I x
B F ; or (putting n + i = »i)CF^»j x BF; and, on
account of the right angle at F, A C — C F" = A B" —

B F' ; and,

confequently,

B F

/ 1 1 - R R „

_ — \ / ;^^ i, • Hence, becaule

A B V m' R' - R^

in the firft bow, the ray emerges after one refleftion, we have
n = I, m = 2, ni' = 4, and w" — 1=3; therefore,

v^T^R R : v'll - RR :: A B : B F :: radius : cofine
of the angle of incidence. In the fecond bow, where there

are two reflexions, ni' — 1 = 8; whence -v/ 8 R R :

s' II _ R R :: A B : B F. In the third bow, after three

refleatons, m' - i = 15 ; and \' 15 R R : \'' II — R R

:: AB

RAINBOW.

K A B : B F, and (o on for any given number
Wherefore, fuppofiiijr the ratio of refraAion
Ifa.ic Newlon has determined it, viz. as Io8
red rays, and as 109 to 8 1 in the violet rays ;
I (in the lead refrangible rays) = 1 08, 11 =
R = 81, and R R = 6561, and V —

x/ 3 R R = 140.3, and v^ I' - R'^ = 71-4
As -/ 3 R R = 140.3, whofe logarithm
Is to V I' _ R' =71.4
So is radius

To the cofme of the angle of incidence, 7 706868

BAF = 30^37' - -\ . ^

Hence the angle of incidence A B F is 59° 23' m the

red ravs.

Secondly, Having given the angle of incidence, and the
ratio nfl toR, or of refradion; tofnd the angle which a ray
ef light emerging out of a refratiing fphere, after a given num-
ber '/ refraitions, malts with the axis of vifion, or an inci-
dent ray ; and, confequently, tofnd the diameter of the rainbow.
The angle of incidence, and the ratio of refraftion, being
given, the angle of refraftion is given ; which angle being
multiplied by double the number of refleclions increafed
by 2, and double the angle of incidence fubtrafted from the
produft, the angle remauiing is the angle fought.
In order to find the angle of refraftion, fay
As I — 108, whofe logarithm is - 2.033424

Is to R = 81 - - - 1.908485

So io the fine of incidence 59" 23' - 9-934798

To the fine of the angle of refraftion 40" 1 2' 9.809859
Then, making the angle CNF (fg- 9-) = 4°" .'2',
N F will be the refrafted ray, which at F is reflefted into
F G, and at G emerges in G R. Produce the incident and
emergent rays S N and R G, till they interfeft each other
at X, and as C F bifefts the angle N F G, it will, if pro-
duced, bifeft the angle S X R. Then C F N = C X N
+ F N X ; but F N X = C N X - C N F, or C F N ;
therefore CFN^-CXN +CNX-CFN; that is,
2CFN-CNX = CXN;or8o°24'-59°23'= 21° i'
= C X N ; therefore 2 C X N = S X R = 42^ 2', which
is.the meafure of the angle that the incident and emerging
rays, . which are the leaft refrangible, contain with each
other. If inftead of the ratio 108 to 81, we take that of
109 to 81, we (liall find the values of a' 3 R R. and

v'l' — R , fuch as will give the angle of incidence B C N,
and the arc B N ^ 58" 40', and the angle S X R = 40° 17',
for the molt refrangible, or extreme violet rays.

If the ray be twice reflected, vi-z. at F and G, as in the
produftion of the extreme bow, and emerges at H in the
direftion H A, intcrfefting the incident ray S N in Y, we
may find the angle AYS thus : produce A H till it meets
G X, produced in R ; then in the triangle H G R, the ex-
ternal angle H G X = H R G + G H R. But becaufe
of equal angles of refleftion at F and G, G H R = F G X,
therefore HGX - FGX = HGF ^ HRG =
3CGF, orCNF. ButSXR = 4CNF-2CNX;
therefore in the triangle Y X R we have the two internal
angles R + X = 6CNF- 2CNX--= the external
angle at Y, viz, A Y N. In this cafe, to find the angles

of incidence and refraftion, we have \'' 8 R R : "v I — R'
:: radius : cofine of the angle of incidence; whence the
faid angle will be found 71° 50' = C N X. And as 108 :
gi :: tir.e of 71050' : fine of 45° 27' = C N F, the angle

JO

ofrefleftions. of refraftion ; therefore 6 x 45^27' — 2 x 71° 50' -::i

to be, as fir 129° 3' = A Y N ; and, th»;refore, its complement AYS

to 81 in the _; jq'"' 57', the angle required for the leaft refrangible rays.

we (hall have gut for the moft refrangible rays, where I : R :: 109 : 81,

- 11664; and we have the angle of incidence 71° 26', and the angle of

R' = 5103, refraftion 44° 47'; and, therefore, the angle AYS -

♦V, f i-n ?4° 7'- I" the fame manner the fame angles are calculated

; inereiore, ^'t ' , - n :,■

alter three or tour retleCtions.

2.147045 From the preceding problems we obtain the following re-

1. 853913 fults, viz.

10.000000 T D„:..K \ Ked 42"

40

50

54
If the angle made by a ray, after three or four refleftioni,
were required, and therefore the diameters of the third and
fourth rainbow ( which are fcarcely ever feen, on account of
the great diminution of the rays, by fo many repeated re-
fleftions) they will be found.

I. Rainbow,

II. RainboW;

f Red

I Violet
y Red
I Violet

2
17
57

]\

The fpeftator's
back being turned
to the fun.

LII.

Rainbow, J vf^,^^

IV. Rainbow, J y'^jg^

The fpeftator
being turned to-
wards the fun.

Dr. Morgan's Differtation upon the Rainbow, among
the notes upon Rohault's Syfteni of Philofophy, part iii.
chap. xvii.

Hence, the breadth of the rainbows is eafily found : for
the greatelt femi-diameter of the firil bow, i. e. from red to
red, being 42° 2', and the leaft, viz. from violet to violet,
40^ 17', the breadth of the fafcia or bow, meafured acrofs
from red to violet, will be l°45' ; and the greatell diameter
of the fecond bow being 54" 7', and the leaft 50° 57', the
breadth of the fafcia will be 3= 10'. And hence the diftance
between the two will be found 8° 55'.

In thefe mJafures the fun is only efteemed a point; where-
fore, as his diameter is really about 30', or 32', fo much
muft be added to the breadth of each fafcia or bow, from
red to violet, and fo much mull be fubtrafted from the
diftance betvreen them.

This will leave the breadth of the primary bow, 2° 15' ;
that of the fecondary bow, 3° 40' ; and the interval be-
tween the bows, 8^ 25' ; which dimenfions, deduced by cal-
culation, fir Ifaac Newton ail'ures us from his own obierva-
tions, agree very exaftly with thofe found by aftual men-
furation in the heavens. Optics, p. 153. ed. 3.

Rainbow, Particular Phenomena of the. From this
theory of the rainbow, all the particular phenomena of it
are eafily deduced : hence we fee why the iris is always of
the fame breadth ; becaufe the intermediate degrees of refran-
gibility of the rays between red and violet, which are its
extreme colours, are always the fame. See Apparent Mag-
nitude,

Secondly, Why it is more diftinftly terminated on the
fide of the red than on that of the violet ? there being nc
efficacious rays in the fpace adjoining to the red drops, i. e.
to the fpace between the bows, whence it terminates ab-
ruptly ; whereas, in the fpace on the fide of the violet ones,,
there are fome rays emitted to the eye, which, though too
feeble to affeft it ftrongly, yet have this effeft, that they
foften the violet edge infenfibly, fo that it is difficult to de-
termine precifely where it terminates.

Thirdly, Why the bow (hifts its fituation as the eye does;
and, as the popular phrafe has \\., jlies from thofe who follow
it; and follows' thofe that fy from if:' the coloured drops being
difpofed under a certain angle about the axis of vifion, which

RAINBOW.

is different in different places : whence alfo it follows, that
every different fpcftator fees a different bow.

Fourthly, Wliy the bow is fometinies a larger portion of
a circle, fomcti-nes a lefs ? its magnitude depending on the
greater or lefs part of the furface of the cone, above the
hirface of the earth, at the time of its appearance ; and
that part being greater or lefs, as the line of afpeft, or axis
of vifion, is more inclined or oblique to the furface of the
earth ; which inclination, or obliquity, is greater as the fun
is higher : whence, alio, the higher the fun, always the lefs
the rainbow.

Fifthly, Why the bow never appears when the fun is
above a certain altitude ? the furface of the cone, in which
it Ihould be feen, being loll in the ground, at a little diltance
from the eye, when the fun is above 4.2^ high-

Sixthly, Why the bow never appears greater than a femi-
circle, on a plane ? fincc be the fun ever fo low, and even
in the horizon, the centre of the bow is ftill in the line of
afpeft ; which, in this cafe, runs along the earth, and is
not at all raifed above the furface.

Indeed, if the fpcftator be placed on a very confiderable
eminence, and the fun in the horizon, the line of afpeft,
wherem the centre of the how is, will be notably raifed
above the horizon (confidcring the magnitude of the circle
whereof the bow ufes to be a part). Nay, if the eminence
be very high, and the rain near, it is poflible the bow may
be an entire circle.

Seventhly, How the bow may chance to appear inverted,
i. e. the concave fide be turned upwards ? ws. a cloud hap-
pening to intercept the rays, and prevent their fhining on
the upper part of the arch : in which cafe, only the lower
part appearing, the bow will feem as if turned upfide down ;
which, probably, has been the cafe in feveral prodigies of
this kind, related by authors.

Indeed the bow may appear inverted from another caufe:
for, if when the fun is 41° 46' high, his rays fall upon the
fmooth furface of fome fpacious lake, in the middle of which
a fpeftator is placed ; and if, at the fame time, there be
rain falling, to which the rays may be reflected from the
lake, it will be the fame as if the fun fhould fhine below the
horizon, and the line of view be extended upwards : tluis
the furface (.-f the cone, wherein the coloured drops are to
be placed, will be wholly above the furface of the earth.

But fince the upper part will tall among the unbroken
clouds, and only the lower part be found among the drops
of rain, the arch will be inverted.

Eighthly, Why the bow fometimes appears inclined? the
accurate roundnefs of the bow depending on its great
diftance, which prevents us from judging of it exaftly ; if
the rain, which exhibits it, chance to be much nearer, we
(hall fee its irregularities ; and if the wind, in that cafe,
drive the rain fo that the higher part be farther from the eye
than the lower, the bow will appear inclined.

Ninthly, Why the legs of the rainbow fometimes appear
unequally diilant ? if the rain terminate on the fide of the
fpeftator, in a plane fo inclined to the line of afpeft as to
make an acute angle on the left hand, and an obtufe anglr
on the right, the furface of the cone, which determines
what drops will appear, will fall upon them in fuch manner
as that ihofe on the left hand will appear farther from the
eye than thofe on the right. For the line of afpeift being
perpendicular to the plane of the bow, if you fuppofe two
reftangular triangles, a right and left, the cathetus of each
to be the line of view, and the bafe of the femi-diameter of
the bow, inclined as above ; it is evident, fince thofe angles
of the triangles, next tlie eye, muft always be the fame
(viz. 43° in the inner bow), the bafis of the right-hand

triangle will, in this cafe, appear much longer than that of
tlie left.

Dr. Langwith, in the Phil. I'ranf. N" 375, defcribes a
remarkable rainbow, in which lie obfirved feveral feries of
colours, which incrcafed the bow to a breadth far exceeding
what had been determined by calculation. The colours of
the primary rainbow, he fays, were as ufual ; under tliib
was an arch of green, and then alternately two arches of
reddifh-purple, and two of green, and under all a faint ap-
pearance of another arch of purple. Tlie order of the
colours was, i. Red, orange, yellow, green, liglit blue,
deep blue, and purple. 2. Light green, dark green, and
purple. 3. Green and purple. 4. Green, and faint vanirti-
ing purple.

M. Bouguer frequently faw a phenomenon of this kind,
when he was upon the mountains of Peru, where the fky
is often extremely ferene. Similar appearances have been
alfo obfervcd by others. Dr. Pemberton has attempted to
explain them by means of the Newtonian dodlrine of fits of
eafy refledlion and tranfmiiiion ; but he goes upo/i the fup«
pofition that the differently-coloured rays have their feparate
fits, on tlieir arrival at the furface of any medium, without
any regard to the thicknefs of it ; whereas it is plain,
that, in fuch a cafe, all kinds of rays are reflefted or tranf-
mitted promifcuoufly. It is mod probable that lliefe co-
lours are formed in very minute drops of water or vapour,
intermixed witli the larger drops, that their formation de-
pends upon the fame principle with the colours of thin
plates, and that they arc fimilar to thole of feveral kinds of
halos. Dr. Pemberton himfelf obferves, that it is moll
likely that thefe additional rings of colours are formed in
the vapour of the cloud, which the air, being put in motion
by the fall of the rain, may carry down along with the large
drops. This, he fays, may be the reafon why thefe colours
appear under the upper part of the bow only, this vapour
not defcending very low. As a farther confirmation of this,
thefe colours, he obferves, are feen ftrongeit when the rain
falls from very black clouds, which caufe the fiercefl rains ;
by the fall of which the air will be moll agitated. Phil.
Tranf. abr. vol. vi. p. 140. prielUey on Light and Co-
lours, p. 593.

It has been a fubjeft of controverfy among biblical critics,
whether the antediluvian atmofphere prefented any fuch
phenomenon as a rainbow. The occafion of this debate is
a pailage in Genefis, ch. ix. 12 — 17. Mr. Whiteiiurlt, in
his " Inquiry into the original State and Formation of the
Earth, &c." attempts to eftablifh the probability that the
antediluvian atmofphere was fo uniformly temperate, as to
be fubjeft to no llorms, tcmpefts, or rain. The opinion is
by no means probable, nor does the above-cited paflage
warrant any fuch conclufion. The rainbow was then made
the fign or token of God's covenant with Noah, that no
fuch calamity fiiould again take place. ^Mi denotes a fign
or token, and in this fenfe it is ufed in the cafe of Cain,
Gen. iv. 15. The mark fet upon Cain was, as Shuckford
conceives, a fign or token (nX) given to him, that he
(hould be prefervcd from the evil which he deprecated.

Rainbow, Lunar. The moon fometimes alfo exhibits
the phenomenon of an iris, or bow, by the refraftion of her
rays in the drops of rain in the night-time.

Arillotle fays, he was the firft that ever obferved it ; and
adds, that it never happens, /'. e. is never vifible, but at the
time of the full moon ; her light, at other times, being too
faint to affeft the fight after two refractions, and one re-
flection.

The lunar iris has all the colours of the folar, very dif-
tindl and pleafant ; only faint, in comparikin of the other ;

both

R A I

both from tli' difFtrent iutL-nfity of the rays, and the dif-
ferent difpolitioii of the medium.

In that mentioned, Philofophical Tranfadtions, N" 331,
Mr. Thorefoy obferves, the largeiiefs of the arcli was tiot
fo mucli lefs than that of the fun, as the different dimcnfions
of their bodies, and their dillances from the earth, (liould
feem to require ; but as to its ciitirenefs, and the beauty of
Its colour, it was admirable. This continued about ten
minutes before the iaterpofition of a cloud liindered its ob-
fervation.

Rainbow, Marine. The manne or fea-bow is a pheno-
menon fometimes obferved in a much agitated fea ; when
the wind, fweepmg part of the tops of the waves, carries
them aloft ; fr) that the fun's 'rays, falling upon them, are
refraifted, &c. as in a common fhower, and paint the co-
lours of the bow.

F. Bourzes, in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, obferves,
that the colours of the marine rainbow are lefs hvely, lefs
diilinft, and of lefs duration, than thofe of the common
bow ; that there are fcarce above two colours di'.linguilhable,
a dark yellow on the fide next the fun, and a pale green on
the oppofite fide.

But thefe bows exceed as to number, twenty or thirty
being fometimes feen together : they appear at noon-day,
and in a pofition oppofite to that of the common bow, i. e.
the concave fide is turned upwards, as indeed it is neceffary
it (hould be, from what we have (hewn in accounting for the
phenomena of the folar bow. A coloured bow is always to
be feen in tiie fcattered water of a jet, a broken cafcadc,
and the like, wht-n the fun and the ipectator are in proper
fituations.

To this clafs of bow s may be referred a kind of white or
eolourlefs rainbows, which Mentzelius, and others, affirm
to have feen at noon-day. M. Mariotte, in his fourth EfTai
de Phyfique, fays, thefe bows are formed in mills, as the
others are in fhowers ; and adds, that he has feen feveral,
both after fun-rifing, and in the night.

The want of colours he attributes to the fmallnefs of the
vapours which compofe the mift ; but we ihould rather ac-
count for it from the exceeding tenuity of the little veficulae
of the vapour ; which being, in effedt, only little watery
pellicles bloated with air, the rays of light undergo but little
refraftion in pafPmg oiit of air into them ; too little to fepa-
rate the differently-coloured rays, &c.

Hence, the rays are reflefted from them, compounded as
they came, that is, white.

Rohault mentions coloured rainbows on the grafs, formed
by the refraftions of the fun's rays in the morning dew.
Trait, de Phyf.

Rainbows have been alfo produced by the refleftion of the
fun from a river ; and in the Philofophical Tranfaftions,
vol. 1. p. 294. we have an account of a rainbow, which
mull have been formed by the exhalations from the city of
London, when the fun had been fet twenty minutes, and
confequently the centre of the bow was above the horizon.
The colours were the fame as in the common rainbow, but
fainter.

The beft way of forming a refemblance of a rainbow is to
fatten a number of fmall folid glafs balls, or a number ot
fniall glafs bubbles full of water, upon a dark board, and
to prefent the board thus furnifhed to the fun at a proper
inclination, which experience eafily finds, whilft you turn
your back to the fun, and look at the board.

RAINFELDEN, in Geography, a town of Auftria ;
) miles W. of Hainfelden.

RAINHAM, a tewnfhip of Norfolk county, in Upper

RAJ

Canada ; being the firft towndiip fronting on lake Eric,
weft of the grand river Lands.

RAINSBRON, a town of Germany, in the margraviate
of Anfpach ; 3 miles N. of Creglingen.
RAINY Lake. See Le Pj.uk.

RA.IODE, a tovvn of Hindoodan, in Malwa; 3omile»
E. of Tandla.

RAJOORA, a town of Hindooftan, in DowUtabad ;
18 miles W.N.W. of Kondur. — Alfo, a town of Bengal;
65 miles N. of Dacca.

R A JOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore ; 36 mile»
N.W. of .lummoo.

RA.TOWLY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 3oniile»
S. of Bahar.

RA.IPOOTANA, a country of the Rajpoots, generally
denoting Agimere (whicli fee), and the original country of
the founder of the NJ^hratta ftate, whofe rulers, about half
a century ago, afpired at univerfal empire in Hindooftan ;
but they have been reduced to tlieir prefent low ftate, by
the depredations of Malir.itta detachm.ents, which, being
compofed of light horfe, and accuftomed to feparate into
fmall parties, have, by their delultoi-y movements, at once
fpread defolation, and eluded the attacks of the inhabitants.
Tliis is the faft with regard to the open paits of Rajpoo-
tana ; the mountainous parts remaining free from th. ir iu-
curfions.

Rajpootana was divided into three great principahtie;,
under the names of Oudipour, Joodpur, and Ambeer (or
Amere), now better known by that of Joinagur, or Jyc-
nagur. (See each refpedlively.) In Acbar's divifion of .
the empire, thefe principalities were clafled at belonging to
the foubah of Agimere, fometimes called Marwar. It i»
not eafy to aflign the precife limits and dimenfions of thele
principalities, which occupy the fpace between the weftern
confines of Agra and the north-eaft part of Guzerat, and
between the fandy defert (or Regiftan) and Malwa ; that
is, an extent of 330 Britifh miles from N.E. to S.W., and
200 broad in the wideft part. Jyenagur or Jyepour lies to
the N.E., Oudipour to the S.W., and Joodpour to the
N.W., bordering angularly on the olher two. Pere Wen-
dell's MS., cited by Rennell, ftates the revenues of Oudi-
pour at 10 lacks of rupees, Marivar at 40, and Jyenagur
at 40, ptr annum, in the year 1779. The whole revenue of
the foubah of Agimere, in the time of Acb-r, appears to
have been only about 75 lacks. Aurungzebe is faid to
have doubled the land-tax on the Rajpoots, and accordingly
in Mr. Frafer's account, Agimere is ftattd at 163 lacks of
rupees. The two former, w'z. Oudipour and Marwar, are
very mountainous, with a fandy foil in tlie rallies ; the latter
is the moft fertile, and was, about the middle of the lail
century, in a high ftate of improvement, under the govern-
ment of the celebrated rajah Jyefing, or Jeffiug, who
founded the new ca: ital of Jyepour, whence the name of
the province was changed to that of the capital. Jyepour
was a place of great wealth and commerce in 1779, heing
the entrepot of the principal part of the goods that are
brought from every quarter of India. The rajah built an
obfervatory in his capital ; but the confufjons that have fo
long prevailed in this province, muft have greatly reduced
the wealth and importance of the capita?. Sindia, as Ren-
nell informs us, received the tribute of all the three Raj-
poot provinces, and converted it to his ufe ; and he alfo
made confiderable conquelts in them, particularly in Jyena-
gur. In early times the whole Rajpootana probably con-
ftituted one entire kingdom, or empire, under the rana or
prince of Oudipour, the head of the Rajpoot ftates ; the
aO'tiquity of whofe houfe may be inferred from the name

Rhannt

R A i

R A I

Rhniwic appearing in Ptolemy, nearly in its proper pofition,
as a province. See OiiDirouu.

The province of Agimere in. general (iec Agimi;kk) has
ever been tlie country of the Rajpoots ; that is, the warrior
tribe among the Hindoos, and which are noticed in Arrian
and Diodoriis ; and Cheitore, or Oudijxjur, (conlidered by
Rennell as fynonimous,) is, in his opinion, reckoned tlie
lirll among the Rajpoot ftates. (See CiiKi roiiK.) From
tlie Ayin Acbarce we derive fome new ideas refpe61:ing the
divifion of the foiibah of Agimere. It confifted at that
time of three grand diviiions, Marwar, Meywar, and Ha-
dowty (or Nagore) ; and theic contained Icven circars or
fnbdivifions, Agimere, Cheitore, Rantampour, Joudypour,
Sirowy, Nagore, and Beykecner (or Bicaneer). Marwar,
as including the circar and fortrefs of Agimere, has become
almoll lynonnnou's with Agimere, in common acceptation.
The extent of this province, as given by the fame book, is
l6f> coffes, or about 320 Britifli miles, from E. to W. ;
and 150 coffes, or 285 Britidi miles, from N. to S. Such
is the province of the Rajpoots. From the indulgence
granted to this tribe throughout India, v'fz,. that of feeding
on <i-oats' fledi, it may be inferred, fays Rennell, that the
culiom originated in this mountainous country. The grain
cultivated there is chiefly of the dry kind. The taxes
amounted, in the time of Acbar, to no more than a feventh
or eighth of the produce of the harvcll. Rcnnell's Me-
moir.

RAJPOOTS, the inhabitants of Rajpootana ; which
fee. They were not confined entirely to the foubah of
Agimere ; as fome inferior tribes of them are fettled in
Bundelcund, and in Gurry-Mundella. Others, according
to Thevenot, are fettled in Moultan ; and indeed he repre-
fents Moultan as the original country of the Kuttries, from
whom the Rajpoots fprung.

The Kuttries or Catries, who formed a particular feci of
Hhidoos at Moultan, were the Catheri of Uiodorus, and
the Catl'.ei of Arrian, with whom Alexander carried on war,
on the borders of the Malli. The Rajpoots are ordinarily
divided into two tribes or claffos, ii/'s. thofe of Rathore,
and Chohan or Seefodya. Marwar, or the N.W. divifion
of Agimere, is the proper country of the former ; and
Meywar, or Oudipour, of the latter. The Rathore tribe
were originally the moft numerous of the two ; and it has
been faid by colonel Dow, among others, that the Mahratta
chiefs had their origin from the Rathore tribe : and in proof
of this it has been alleged, that the etymology of the name
Mahratta has been deduced from Rathore, prelixing to it
" maha," or great. (See Mahkatta.) The Rajpoots
are reprefented by Thevenot as having fprcad from Moul-
tan, their proper country, over all the Indies. Diodorus
Siculus dillinguiflies them by the culiom of their women
burning themlelves ahve, on the funeral piles of their huf-
baiids ; which is indeed a culiom among them, as well as
fome other Hindoos, at this day. Rennell.

RAJFOUR, a town ot Bengal, on the bank of the
Ganges; 10 miles N.N.E. of Curruckdeagh.

RAISE, in the Manege, is ufed for working. See
Raising.

Raise is likewife ufed for placing a horfe's head right, and
making him carry well, and hindering him to carry low, or
to arm himfelf.

Raise TacLs and Sheets, in Sei Language, the order to
let them go in the article of tacking, that the fails may be
fet on the contrary tack they were on before.
To K.Kisv.afietre. SeeSiEGE.
RAISED Ams. Sec Air.
Raiskd Plan. See Px-AX.
Vol. XXIX.

RAISEEN, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Malwa ; 15 miks S. of Bilfah. N. lat. 2?" 16'. E. lone.
77° 49'- ...

RAISER, in Buildhig, a board fet on edge under the
forefide of a Hep, a Hair, &:c. See Stair, &c.

RAISIN, ill Geography, a river of America, which
runs into lake Michigan, N. lat. 43° 12'. W. long. 8y°4z'.
— Alfo, A river of America, which runs into lake Erie,
N. lat. 43° zo'. W. long. 82° 55'.

Raisin IJland, a fmall ifland in lake St. Francis. N.
lat. 45° 6'. W. long. 74^27'.

Ralsin, or Raifen, Market, a fmall market-town in the
call divifion of the wapentake of Walfhcroft, parts of
Lindfey, and county of I.,incoln, England, is fituatcd on
the banks of the river Raifen, whence it derives its name, at
the dillance of 15 miles N.K. from Lincoln, and 141^ miles
N.W. from London. According to the population returns
of 181 1, it contains 164 houfes, and 964 inhabitants.
Here is a weekly market on Thurfday, and there are fairs
every alternate Tucfday, after Palm Sunday, and on the
25th of September. The church is an ancient (Iruclurc,
and is remarkable for the peculiar form of the upper win-
dows in its embattled tower. Thefe have a pointed arch,
divided into two pointed lights, and a qnaterfoil head. Up
the centre runs a Itrong mullion, croffed by a tranfom, ter-
minating at the iinpolls, as happens in the church of Yar-
borough, near Louth, which renders it probable that both
edifices were creeled by the fame architedl. The living is a
vicarage in the gift of the crown ; and by the endowment
the vicar is entitled to the unufual tythe of ale. Befides the
church, there are in Raifin a Roman Catholic chapel, and a
Methodiil's mecting-houfc ; alfo a free-fchool, and an hof-
pital for poor old men.

At a fhort diftance from Market-Raifin, are the villages
of Middle and Well Raifin. Middle Raifin was formerly
divided into two parifiies, called Drax and Tupholm, but
theie are now united. At Tupholm Hood an abbey of Pre-
monftratenfian canons, which was founded in the reign of
Henry II., by Alan de Neville, and his brother Gilbert.
Previous to the diflolution, it was inhabited by nine monks,
whole annual income, according to Speed, amounted to
119/. 2s. ^d. The church is a fmall, but ancient building,
confining of a nave and chancel, which are feparated by ele-
gant fcreen work, beneath a pointed arch, fupported by cir-
cular columns. The nave appears to have had fide-aifles, as
the pillars and pointed arches itand in relief from the prefent
wall.

The principal feats in tliis vicinity are Willingham-houfe,
a ieat of the Boucherett family ; and Thurgundy, the pro-
perty of lord Middleton. The latter anciently belonged to
the Willoughbys. The houfe is fituated on an eminence,
commanding an exteiifive view over the vale to Swinhop, and
is fiirrounded by pleafure -grounds, finely varied by wood
and lawn. Bei-mties of England and Wales, vol. ix. by
John Britton, 1807.

RAISING, in the Manege, one of the three aftions of
a horfe's legs ; the other two being the ftay, and the tread.
The ra'fing ©r lifting up of his legs in caprioles, curves, Sec.
is elleemed good, if he perform it hardily, and with
eafe ; not eroding his legs, nor carrying his feet too
much out or in ; yet bending his knees as much as is
needful.

Raising the Land, in Sea Language. See Laying the
Land.

Raising a Purchafe, denotes the act of difpofing certain

inilruments or machines in fuch a manner, as that, by their

mutual efforts, they may produce a mechanical force luffi-

3 A cient

11 A I

cient to overcome the weight, or refiftance, of the objeA to
which the machinery is apphed.

RiUait^G-Pieces, or Riafon-pieces, in Arch'tteBure, arc
pieces that lie under the beams, and over the polls or
puncheons: thofe lying on the brick-work arc called plat-
bands.

RAISINS, grapes prepared by drying them in the fun,
or in the air ; to fit them for keeping, and for lome medici-
nal purpofes.

Of thefe there are various kinds : as, raifms of Damaf-
cus, thus called from the capital city of Syria, in the neigh-
bourhood of which they arc cultivated. They arc much
ufed in the compofition of ptifaus, together with jujubes
and dates ; they are brought flat, and feeded, of the fize
of the thumb ; whence it is eafy judging of the extraordi-
nary bulk of the grape, when fredi. Travellers tell us of
bunches weighing twenty-iive pounds. Tlieir tafte isfaintifh
and difagreeable.

Raifms of the fun are a kind of raiiins brought from
Spain, of a reddilTi or blueiflt colour, feeded, and very
agreeable to eat.

There are various other forts, denominated either from the
place where they grow, or the kind of grape, &c. as raifins
of Calabria, Mufcadine raifins, &c.

The fined and beit raifins are thofe called in fome places
Damafcus and jube raifins. Thefe are the fruit of tlie 'vit'u
Damafcenn, and are diftinguirtiable from the others by their
largenei's and figure ; they are flat, and wrinkled on the fur-
face ; foft and juicy within, near an inch long, and femipel-
lucid, when held againfl; a good light ; they have a fweet,
agreeable, and vinous talte ; and when frefli, and growing
on the bunch, are of the fize and fhape of the large
olive.

The common raifins are the fruit of feveral fpecies of
grape, which are better or worfe, according as they have
been more orlefs carefully cured. The raifins of the fun, or
jar-raifins, fo called, becaufe they are imported in jars, are
all dried by the heat of the fun ; and thefe are the forts ufed
in medicine.

The common way for drying grapes for raifins is to tie
two or three bunches of them firmly together, while yet on
the vine, and dip them into a hot lixivium of wood-aflies,
with a little ohve oil in it. This difpofes them to fhrink and
wrinkle ; and after this they are left on the vine three or four
da^'s, feparated on ilicks in an horizontal fituation, and then
dried in the fun at leifure, after being cut from the tree.
Some raifins are dried by the heat of an oven ; and the dif-
ference between thefe and fuch as are dried in the fnn, is ob-
vious ; the latter are fweet and pleafant, but the former have
a latent acidity with the fweetnefs, that renders them much
lefs agreeable. See Currakt.s.

All the kinds of raifins have much the fame virtues ; they
are nutritive and b,-ilfamic, but they are very fubjeft to fer-
mentation with juices of any kind ; and hence, when eaten
immoderately, they often bring on colics. They are allowed
to be attenuant, and are given in cafes where the humours
are too thick and vifcid, and they are faid to be very good
in nephritic complaints ; they are, however, too familiar
ta our foods, to be much rcj.'-arded at prefent as a medi-
cine. They are an ingredient, indeed, in our peftoral de-
coftions, and in fome other medicines of that intention ; in
which cafes, as alio in others where allringency is not re-
quired of tliem, they fliould have the ftones carefully taken
out. The are ufed in fome compofitions rather with an in-
tent of taking off the naufeoiis tafte of other ingredients,
and for obtunding their acrimony, than of doing any extra-
ordinary fervice themfclves

R A 1

K\Km-Brandy, a name given by our diftillcrs to a very
clean and pure Ipirit, procured from raifins fermented only
with water. Thus treated, they yield a fpirit, fcarce at all
dillinguifhable from fome of the wine-fpirits ; for there are
as many kinds of wine-fpirits as there are of grapes. The
coarfer the operation of diftilling is performed in this cafe,
the nearer will be the refemblancc of the wiiie-fpirit ; that
is, there will be moft of this flavour in the fpirit, when as
much as can be of the oil is thrown up with a galloping
heat.

l"he diftillers are very fond of the wiiie-fpirit, with which
they hide and difguife the tafte of their naufeous malt, and
otiier fpirits ; and in defeft of that fpirit, this of raifins,
made in this coarfe manner, will go almoft. as far. It is in-
deed furprizing how extenfive the ufc of thefe flavouring
fpirits is, ten gallons of raifin-fpirit, or fomewhat lefs of the
wine-fpirit, being often fufficient for a whole pipe of malt-
fpirit, to take off its native flavour, and give it an agree-
able vinofity. It is no wonder, therefore, that the diftillers,
and ordinary reftifiers, arc fo fond of this, as it is a good
cloak for their defefts, and the imperfeftioii of their pro-
celies.

When raifin-brandy is intended for common ufe, the fire
fliould be kept flower and more regular in the diftillation ;
and the fpirit, though it hatli lefs of the high flavour of the
grape, will be more pleafant and more pure.
KMnis-Wme. See Wine.

RAIT, in Rural Economy, a term ufed to fignify the
procefs or operation of diflTipating the fap of vegetables, by
expofure to moifture, or the influence of the atmofphere.
It is moftly applied to hemp, flax, or other fimilar fub-
ftances, and fometimes to hay, when it has been much ex-
pofed to alternations of wet and dry weather.

When the procefs is performed by means of water, as is
moftly the cafe with hemp, frequently but not always with
flax, and occafionally with other articles of the fame nature,
it is ufually denominated water-raiting, and the article is faid
to be iL'ater-raited ; but where it is eff^efted by expofure to
the air, upon the ground, when fpread out, it is generally
called ground-raiting, and the fubftance is faid to be ground-
raited. In the performance of thefe operations or procefles
with hemp, flax, and fuch like fubftances, there is great
nicety and attention required to fee that they are carried to a
fufficient length, without going too far, fo as to injure thetex-
turesof the fubftances in their cortical parts. This may pro-
bably be accompliflied with the greateft certainty by the fre-
quent examination of the materials themfelves ; keeping them
perfectly under the water in the former cafe, and frequently
turned with new furfaces to the atmofphere in the latter, never
having the grafly furface (jn which they are fpread out of
too great a length. The effects of heavy rains, when long
continued, ir.ult likewife be carefully attended to in this
latter inftance. See Flax, Hemp, and WATER-ra/inj-.

RAITAPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,

in the circar of Rajamundry ; 12 miles N. of Rajamundry.

RAITCH, in Rural Economy, a term fignifying aline

or lift of white, down the face of a liorfe. It is a very

common mark in the faces of horfes.

RAITENBACH, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the principality of Culmbach ; 8 miles E.N.E. of Won-
fiedel. — Alfo, a town of Bavaria, in the bifliopric of Aich-
ftadt ; 8 miles N. of Aichftadt.

RAITENBURG, a town of the duchy of Carmola ; 3
miles N. of Rudolfswerth. >

RAITING, Ground, in Rural Economy, that method of
raiting or accomplifhing the feparation of the bai'ks or co-
verings of the ftems of flax, hemp, and other fimilar plants,

by

R A K

by means of fpreadinci; thciii oat in a thin manner upon clolo
graiiy furfaccs, inflead of pulling them into ponds or pools
of itagnant water, in order that they may be expoled to the
atmofphere. It is occafionally employed for (lax and other
fmall ilalked plants, but feldom or never for hemp and thofe
which have large ones. It is a praflice which ihinds in need
of confiderablr attention and maaagement. See Rait.

RAJUAPOUR, in Geography, a town of Mocaum-
pour ; 1 8 miles S. of Bargao.

RAIVATA, in Hindoo Mythological Hiftory, one of the
faints or fages included in the denomination of Menus. Rai-
vata is faid to have been the fon of Agni, the regent of fire,
alfo called Pavaia, (which fee), and Mtnu.

RAJYA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Ba-
har ; 20 miles'E.S.E. of Bahar.

RAKAPORAH, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Jufhpour ; 10 miles N.E. of Odeypour.

RAKAS, a town ot Tranfylvania, on the Alaut ; 16
miles N.W. of Cronftadt.

RAKE, in ylgriculture, a tool of the toothed kind, made
ufe of for many purpofes of hufbandry, as for collefting to-
gether hay, corn, ftubble, roots, leaves, and other fmiilar
lorts of materials. It is a very ufeful and convenient kind
of tool in all fuch intentions. There are many defcriptions
of this fort of implement.

Rake, Bcan-Stubbk, a tool of the rake kind, conflrufted
for the purpofe of clearing bean-llubhles. It is employed
on fome farms in Eflex, as by Mr. Ketcher, at Burnham,
where it is found to be well adapted to this ufe, and to do
its work in a perfeft manner. The head, which is feven
feet eight inches in length, is formed with a very (light
curve, having teeth fet in it in rather a clofe manner, which
are one foot and a half in length, beading or curving a little
forwards at the points. It is attached by a frame to the
axle of the wheels, which is three feet two inches long ; and
the wheels are two feet fix inches in their diameter. The
hooks and ihafts for the horfe are four feet in length. This
is a very fimple conilrudlion of this nature, and one which
is capable of eafy application. The teeth ftiould be made
ftrong, whether they are of wood or iron. This is an im-
plement which wants to be better known in other diftritts.

Rake, Corn, a large ftrong rake, made ufe of in dif-
ferent diftridts for bringmg together the mown grain crops.
It is fometimes conftrudted with wooden teeth, but 1 better
mode is to have them of iron, being a little bent forward,
having the length of feven or eight inches. As it requires
much exertion to perform the work with them, they fliould
always be made as light as poffible, fo as to have fufficient
power to perform the work. It has been ftated by Mr.
Somerville, in his Agricultural Survey of the Diftridt of
Eaft Lothian, that though the common hay-rake is moftly
ufed there, a different kind for grain has been partially tried,
and found to anfwer the purpofe much better. In this, the
length of the head is from ten to fifteen feet, the handle
about feven feet, with a piece of wood acrofs the end of it,
by which it is drawn by two men. The teeth are of wood
or iron ; the laft are the beft, as well as the moft durable,
and are a little bent forward at the point, which gives them
the power of retaining and carrying the cars along with
them, r.-iuch better than they would otherwife do. To
make clean work, efpecially if the ridges are gathered, the
field is raked acrofs : in that way, every thing is taken up.
But when it is preferred to draw the rake in the diredlion
of the ridges, it may be confiderably improved, by cutting
the head into two or three lengths, and joining them with
hinges, which will allow it to bend and accommodate itielf
to the curvature of the ridges. The advantage of this kind

R A K

of rake has been found confiderable, even in cafes where
every pofTible attention has been paid to the cutting of the
crop ; but it frequently happens, that, owing to the damp-
nefs, greennefs of the ftraw, or a foul grad'y bottom, it is
necellary to leave the crop unbound for a day or two, during
which, if it be overtaken by a high wind, much of it wiu
be fcattered and loft, unleis confiderable pains are taken to
gather it by hand-raking, or otherwife. Where the long
rake is ufed for that purpofe, the expence will in no in-
ftance, he thinks, exceed four-pence fterling per acre. An
experiment made on a field of 30 acres, will convey fome
idea of the benefit that may be derived from the ufe of that
inftrument. The field was in barley, and the rakings, when
threfhed, yielded

£ s. d.

71 bolls, fold at 28^. per boll - - 10 lO O

150 ftones ftraw, fold at 6^/. ^cr Hone - 3 ij o

Total produce 14 5 o

Expence of raking 3 1 acres, at /\.d. per acre
Bread and beer to the rakers
Carting from the field, ftacking, &c.
Threfliing --....

Total expence

0 10 4
016
026
076

1 I 10

Which deducted from 14/. 5^., leaves a profit of 13/. 3^-. 2d.
fterhng. It is neceflary to obferve, that about ten acres of
the field were left unbound, and a good deal difordcred by
a high wind ; but as confiderable pains were taken in the
binding, the proportion obtained from thefe ten acres did
not greatly exceed what was got from the reft of the held,
tlie whole of which was cut with a gi-eat deal of care.

But though this mode of working the rake affords con-
fiderable profit and advantage, they would be a great deal
more, by having recourfe to horfes in the draught of them.
One horle in each would do as much labour as fevcral men,
in a given time; and by having fliafls and low wheels fixed
to the tool, it could be readily adapted to this method of
being wrought.

Rake, Couching, a large fort of ftrong horfe-rake, with
long round tines or teeth, crooked or bent forward in a
gentle manner, and placed about two inches diftant from
each other ; and a fmall beam in the middle, with fide
pieces, and an apparatus for attaching the horfe to it. It
is found very ufehil in bringing together the roots of couch,
and other weeds, in order to their being burnt, or carried
off the land, aud in other ways deftroyed. See CoucH-
RiiLe, QviTCH-Raie, and RAKK-Twiuh.^^

Rake, Dew, a fort of large rake, or hand drag, fo
named from being ufed before the dew is off the ground, or
other fort of harveft work can be begun. It is a powerful
convenient fort of implement for harveft work.

Rake, Garden, a well-known fort of tool for raking
the ground, as well as for putting in feeds, &c. \u
order to fuit every kind of gardening work with rakes, there
fliould be three or four different fizes, from about fix to
eighteen inches long in the head, having handles from fix to
eight feet in length, and the heads toothed with iron teeth
two or three inches long, being placed from one to twc
inches afunder, according to their refpedlive fizes. The
firft or largeft rake fliould have the head about fifteen to
eighteen inches long, the teeth three inches, and placed twc
inches afunder, which is proper for raking ftubborn ot
rough dug ground, and for putting in large kinds of feeds,
raking off large Aveeds after hoeing, and many other pur-
3 A 2 pofe<^

R A K

R A K

pofes in large gardens. The next fize fliould have the head
twelve inches l«ng, the teeth three inches, being placed one
inch and half afunder, which is proper for all common
raking in ordinary light ground, and for raking in moil
kinds of fmall feeds, as well as other pnrpofes. A third
fort of fmall rake fhonld have the head about nine inches
long, the teeth two and a half, being placed one inch afun-
der ; proper for fine-raking beds, borders, &c. and raking
in fome particular line feeds ; as well as between rows, &c.
of certain plants occafionally, where larger rakes cannot be
introduced. And the fmallell fort (hould liavc the head fix
inches long, the teeth two and n half, and placed one inch
afunder ; being very ufeful for raking between Imall plants
in beds and borders, and other fmall parts, where the plants
ftand clofe, as well as feveral other purpofes of that kind.

It may be noticed, that all thefe forts of rakes arc con-
ftrufted both with wooden heads and iron teeth, and with
the heads and teeth wliolly of iron in both ; of whicli the
teeth are generally flattened, the back edge rounded oft, and
narrowing gradually to the point ; the other Itraight, and
placed on the heads edgeways acrofs, with the back edge
eutward, and with the points all inclining very moderately
fnward, in a regular manner : the wooden-headed rakes hav-
ing each end of the head hooped with a thin flat iron ring,
to fecure it from fplitting. It is very feldom that wooden
teeth are employed in this way, or for thcfe ufes.

Thofeof the iirfl fort are generallythe lighteltand cheapeit,
being proper for any kind of garden raking ; but the latter, or
iron-headed rakes, when made neat and as light as poffible,
with the teeth well fet, in a proper pofition, and tirmly faf-
tened, are equally proper, and in lome cafes preferable, as
in fome wettitli or moift foils, as not being liable to clog fo
much as wooden rakes, and at the fame time more durable.
They are, however, more proper for middling and fmall
rakes than for large ones ; as, in flrong raking, the teeth
are more liable to get loofe than in the wooden-headed rakes.
Both the forts, in their different fizes, are fold at the prin-
cipal ironmongers' (hops, both with and without handles.

And rakes having the heads, teeth, and handles, wholly
of wood, may fometimes be ufed for particular purpofes ;
fuch as raking in light kinds of kitchen- garden feeds in
light ground, and taking off large hoed-up weeds in wide
clear fpaces, raking up fwarths of mowed fliort grafs before
the fweepers, alfo fallen leaves of trees in autumn, and clip-
pings of hedges, &c. as well as ieveral other ufes about the
pleaiure-garden.

Rake, Hay, a well-known tool, with (hort teeth and a
long handle, made ufe of in making hay. It is ufually made
of willow, or fome other fimilar wood, in order that it may
be light and handy. The teeth flaould not be too long, as,
when that is the cafe, they are apt to hang and pull among
the ftubs of the grafs in raking with them, and thereby re-
tard the operation, as well as caufe much fatigue to the
labourer.

Different improvements have been made on this imple-
ment. A late ufeful alteration is the making the teeth to
fcrew into the head, and fatten with fcrew nuts, by which
the inconvenience of their dropping out in dry feafons is ob-
viated. It has been obferved, that with the fpring-toothed
rake, the operator is capable of performing much more
work than by the common one. They are likewife capable
of being conveniently made ufe of both for hay and corn.
They were originally made and fold by Mr. Cort, of Lei-
cetter.

Another improvement is mentioned in Young's Agri-
cultural Report of Norfolk, which is the addition of wheels.
It is itated, that the " hand whcel-rake" of Fkg 13 an ex-

cellent implement for both hay and corn : it is to anfwer
the purpofc of the common hay-rake, and is about four feet
long in the rake ; and the two wheels, of nine inches dia-
n.eter, fo fixed, that the teeth are kept in any pofture, at
the will of the holder.

In (ome parts of Lancadiire, they make ufe of a large
hoile-rake for coUefting the hay together, and raking it up
from the ground, which is found to be highly convenient
and beneficial ; as one horfe, in one of thefe rakes, will per-
form as much labour as a great number of men, in a certain
fpace of time ; and befides the expedition, the work is con-
liderably better done, in confequence of the greater weight
of the implement.

The head of the rake has fomething of a large eafy half
circular form, into which two ftrong pieces ol wood are faf-
tened, which conttitute the fliafts for the horfe. There arc
two low wheels beliind, and the head lias long teeth, curving
a little forward, iixed into it at two or three inches from one
another. The teeth may be made cither of wood or iron,
and fhould liave confiderable llrcngth. The whole has no
very great weight, though it mutt obvioufly be confidcrably
heavier than the common rake ; which is found of much ad-
vantage in its working, as has been hinted at above.

Rake, Horfe, an implement ufed in Norfolk and Suffolk,
on the large and middling-fizcd farms, and, from its great
utility, extending itfelf into other diilrifts. It is employed
for barley and oat crops, being drawn by a horfe. And it
has been ftated by Mr. Young, that one man and a horfe,
driven by means of a line or rein, are capable of clearing
from twenty to thirty acres, in a moderate day's work ; the
grain being depofited in regular rows or lines acrofs the
field, bv fimply lifting up the tool, and dropping it from
the teeth, without the horfe being flopped. It coit from
four to five pounds.

Figures of it maybe feen in the above Agricultural Re-
ports. Horfes have now been employed for working other
forts of rakes, and found of great advantage, as has been
already feen.

Rake, Horfe Stubble, a large heavy kind of horfe-rake,
having ftrong iron teeth, fourteen or fifteen inches in length,
placed at five or fix inches from each other, and a beam tour
inches fquare, and eight or ten feet in length. In drawing
it, two horfes are moftly made ufe of, by which it is capable
of clearing a confiderable quantity of Hubble in a fhort time.
Tools of this fort are highly ufeful on corn farms, for col-
lefting this ufeful material, and fhould be much more fre-
quently employed than they are at prefent.

Rake, Tzuitch, a large horfe-rake, employed in certain
cafes for clearing lands from the roots of couch, twitch, or
quitch-grafs, as well as thofe of other forts. It is con-
ftrufted in different ways, as with one or two rows of teeth ;
but the latter is probably the beft method, as by placing
one row oppofite the intervals of the other, it muft be ren-
dered a very effeftive tool.

Rake of a Ship, is fo much over her hull as overhangs at
both ends of her keel.

That part of it which was before, is called the rake for-
ivard-on ; and that part which is at the letting on of the
flern-poft, is called her rahe-nft, or after'ward-cii.

When a fhip hath but a fmall rake forward-on, but is
built with her ifern too itraight up, ihe is called hluffe-
hsaded.

Rake of the Rudder, is the hindermoft part of it.

Rake, among Hunters. See Rag.

Rake, in the Manege. A horfe rakes, when being

fhoulder-fplaid, or having ilraincd his fore-quarter, he goes

fo lame, tliat he drags one of his fore-legs in a femicircle.;

I which

R A K

which is more apparent wlicn lie trots, than when he
paces.

Rake, or Vein, in Geology, the molt common repofilory
of mctalhc ores. Thefe veins interieft mountains nearly
vertically, or more or lefs inclined from the perpendicular.
They are filled with ores, intermixed with tin- peculiar
minerals accompanyinp; each kind of metal. They vary
from a few inches to fome feet or yards in widtli, and ex-
tend to a very confidcrable depth and dlitance. The upper
fide of the vein is provincially called the hangar, and the
lower fide the ledger ; and the inclination from the perper.di-
cular is called the hack of the vein. For a particular ac-
count of the ftrufturc and formation of veins, fee Veins,
Metalltc.

RAKEL, in Geography, a town of Dobru/./.i Tartury,
on the Danube ; 15 miles W. of Ifakzi.

RAKESBUIIG, or Rakklsi-ukg, a town of the duchy
of Stiria, fituated on an ifland in the Muehr ; the inhabitants
of which carry on a confiderable trade with Hungary and
Croatia; 36 miles S.E. of Gratz. N. lat. 46^45'. E.
lonj^. 15^ 36'.

RAKING figniiies floping or winding, as when a wall
is not built up right or (Iraight.

Raking, in Agriculture, the operation of performing
Work with a rake. It is a fort of work that requires little
art or trouble in its execution ; but whether performed with
the common or horfe-rakes, it fhould always be done in an
effeftual manner. In the bufinefs of hay-making, clean
raking not only affords a ueatnefs in the appearance, but,
over a great extent of furface, a confiderable faving of hay.
See Hay -Mailng.

In raking hay lands, where horfes are employed, fome
degree of care is necelfary in direfting the work, and driving
the animals, in order that no inconvenience of delay may be
experienced, and that every part of the laud may be gone
over in the moft regular manner. Small boys may ferve to
direA the horles by riding upon them, and fome faving be
made in that way.

In raking cut corn crops with horfe-rakes, efpecially
thofe of oats and barley, it is fometimes the bell method to
proceed in a crofs diredlion of the ridges, drawing up the
produce into long rows at fuilable dillanccs ; the horfes
being driven by the men, who know the management of the
handles of the rake;;, by means of whip reins brought from
the horfes to the ftilts of the implements. It feldom hap-
pens that fo good W'Ork can be made in going the length-
ways of the lands, particularly where they are much
rounded, and of a fmall fize in breadth, as the tools will
not fit well to their rounded form, unlefs where they are
conttrufted in feparatc' parts in their heads, fo as to admit
of motion by means of joints. In this mode of raking, the
corn may fometimes be readily tied up into Iheaves.

But in the raking of ifubbles, it is more ufual to pafs in
the direftion of the ridges, though the contrary method is
not unfrequently had recourfe to. In thofe cafes, as well
as in the others, the ftrawy grains or (lubbles are always
brought together into lines or rows, in order to be more
readily taken up by the carts either bound or unbound.

In the raking of the roots of weeds together upon lands,
it is conftantly the bcft pratlice to perform the work in
both directions ; as, by fuch means, the whole of them may
be laid hold of in a more complete and effeftual manner than
■could othervvife be done. See Rake.

Raking, in GariUning, a neceffary operation in the gar-
den, to break the furtace of the foil fmall, and render it
fine for the reception of particular forts of fmall feeds and
plants, previous to fovving and planting, as well as to render

R A K

it neat and even to the eye. It is alfo employed in raking in
feeds, as being an expeditious mode of covering them in.
In all kinds of finall feeds, or hardy plants, the ground
being dug, &c. and the furface remaining rough after the
fpade, the feed is fown, and then raked in with an even
hand, once or twice in a place, as a back and a fore ftroke,
or more as may be neceffary.

And this operation is ufeful alfo among growing plants,
that fland diflant enough to admit the rake, particularly
where the furtace is inclinable to bind, or wlicre numerous
fmall feed-weeds appear, as it loofens the foil, and retards
tlie growth of the weeds, and promotes the growth of tlie
young plants. It is alfo good culture at particular feafons,
to annoy Hugs, efpecially in kitchen-gardens, to rake be-
tween tile rows of fmall plants in autumn and winter, &c.
The raking of the beds, borders, and other compartments
of pleafure-gronnds, now and then, fmooth and even, like-
wife gives an air of culture and ncatnefs to the whole.

It may be obferved, that this fort of work fhould gene-
rally be performed in dry weather, and when the ground is
alfo moderately dry ; as when done in rainy weather, or
when the ground is very moift and cloggy, the furface is
apt to cake and bind hard. This fhould be well attended
to in fowing feeds. Rough dug ground docs not rake well,
wlien it is become very dry at top, efpecially if it was dug
wet, and fuffered to lie till the clods have become very dry
and liard ; in whicii cafe it will not rake well, until mel-
lowed or pulverized by a fhower of rain. But common
light garden ground generally rakes befl when frefli dug,
perhaps the fame day, or day after at the farthell, before
dried too much by the fun and wind, or rendered wet by
rain, &c. The operation fhould, however, be performed
when the ground is in fuch order as the clods will readily
break and fall to pieces under the rake, without clorrging
mucii to it, or the mould become even without running into
lumps.

Raking of a Horfe, is the drawing his ordure with the
hand out of the fundament, when he is collive, and cannot
dung. In order to do this, the hand mufl be anointed with
fallad-oil, or butter.

Raking a Ship, is the aft of cannonading a flilp on the
ftcrn or head, fo that the balls fliall fcour the whole length
of her decks, which is one of the moft dangerous incidents
that can happen in a naval aftion, fo much fo, that the men
are ordered to lie down at their quarters. This is frequently
called raking fore and aft, being the fame with what is
called enfilading by engineers. See Enfilade.
RAKiNG-Awfcj. See Knees.

Rakinc-/<7iJ/», or Rahd Table, among Arch'itep.s, a mem-
ber hollowed in the fquare of a pedeftal, or elfewhere. See
Cavetto, and Scotia.

RAKOKIE, in Geography. See Racii-koke.
RAKONITZ, or Rakownitz, a town of Bohemia,
and capital of a circle of the fame name, which is moun-
tainous and covered with forefts, but fertile in corn, and
affordnig fome excellent horfes. It was made a royal town
in 1588. It is celebrated for its beer, which is the princi-
pal article of its commerce ; 22 miles W. of Prague. N.
lat. 50°/. E. long. 13^57'.

RAKORA, a town of European Turkey, in Bulgaria;
40 miles S.S.E. of Viddin.

RAKOW, or Racow, a town of Auflrian Poland, in
the palatinate of Sandomirz, formerly populous ; the Soci-
nians had a college and printing-houie here, but were ex-
pelled in 1643; 40 miles W. of Sandomirz. See Racow.
RAKOWEENA, a harbour on the coaft of Kamtf-
chatka, in Awatlka bay, tliree miles long, and one and a

half

R A L

half broad, with water from thirteen to three fathoms,
and a bar at its entrance : it runs at firft in a fouth-eall and
afterwards in an caiterly direftion ; three miles S. oi St.
Peter and St. Paul.

RAKSHA, in Hindoo Mythology, a fpecies of malignant
demon, of whom great ufe is made in their epic machinery
and popular tales. ' They are of various (hapes and colours,
and fuppofed to be animated by tlie fouls of bad men of
earlierexiftence, receiving punifhment in thefe forms as enemies
to the gods, and obftruftors of their beneficent intentions to-
wards mankind. Another clafs of thefe evil genii comprehends
thofe called Yakdia. Rakfliafa and Yaklhafa are the plurals,
and Raklhni and Yakflini the feminine; for thefe evil doings
are not confined to fex. Ravena, the giant king of Lanka,
or Ceylon, who oppofed Rama, aided by the gods in the
invafion of his kingdom, is fomctimes called the lord of
Rakfiiafas. See Ravf.n'A.

RAKULSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
province of lifting, on the Dwina ; 20 miles N. of Krafno-

borflf.

RALEGH, 5/V Walter, in Biography, a. Mbngmihed
charafter in the reigns of queen Elizabeth and James L, ^
was fecond fon of a gentleman of an ancient family in De-
vonlhire. Few names, fays fir Walter's biographer, Mr.
Cayley, vary fo much in the manner of writing it. By
fir Robert Naunton and lord Bacon it is written Rawkigh ;
in fome old deeds the orthography is Rale or Ralega ; while
king James, Hooker, and other refpeftable writers, adopt
the mode of fpelling which is ilill common in this country,
viz. Raleigh; but the original letters of fir Walter himfelf,
wherever the fignature is prcfervcd, have Ralegh, and on that
account we choofe to adopt it in this work. Sir Walter,
of whom we are tre*ing, was born at a farm called Hayes,
in that part of Devonfhire that borders on the fea, in the
year 1552. By his mother he was related to thofe famous
knights, fir John, fir Humphrey, and fir Adrian Gilbert.
After he had received the ufual fchool education, he was
fent to Oriel college, Oxford, where he diftinguilhed himfelf
by a proficiency in learning far beyond his age ; but the
aftive difpofition and martial ardour with which he was en-
dowed, foon put an end to his learned career. About the
year 1569, he, in company with many young gentlemen of
the beft families in the country, went into France, as well to
inftruft themfelves in the art of warfare, as to affilt the
Proteftants in that kingdom, who were then grievoufly op-
prefTed. In this fchool he was employed five or fix years,
but by what means he cfcaped the horrible maffacre of
Paris, and the provinces, on the famous St. Bartholomew's
day, we have no knowledge. He returned to England in

1575, and it (hould feem he immediately became a refident
in the Middle Temple, whence a commendatory poem of
his, prefixed to a work of George Gafcoigne's, is dated in

1576. That he was not a Itudent in the law, at this time,
he has himfelf declared, and he Ihortly after pafl'ed into the
Netherlands, where he ferved fome time againft the Spaniards.
In this, and other tranfaftionsof the fame kind, he followed
the fafhion of the times. France and the Netherlands were
in thofe days the fchools of Mars ; to which all were obliged
to refort who meant to purfue the fortune of arms. Many
young men returned to their native country ruined in their
fortunes, their conftitution, and morals; but Ralegh had
made a good ufe of his time, gained a large ftock of ufeful
knowledge, and was fo completely polifiied in his manner of
addrefs, that he was now coiifidered as one of the beft bred
and moft accomplifhed gentlemen in England.

On his return in 1578, he found his half-brother, fir
Humphrey Gilbert, engaged in a defign of making difco-

II A L

varies in North America, for which he had obtained a patent,
and for the furtherance of which lie had procured the alFiii-
ance of many friends. Ralegh was delighted with the de-
fign, and embarked in it cordially. This proji-ft proved
very unfortunate to the adventurers, but it gave young
Ralegh an introdnition to the fea fervice, in which he after-
wards fo much diftinguifhed himfelf. From this unlucky
adventure, Mr. Ralegh arrived fafe in England in the fpring
of the year 1579, and very foon after he appears to have
offered his fervices to the queen to go to Ireland, to
the inhabitants of which, pope Gregory VIII. and the
Spaniards had fent men, money, and other affiftance, to
enable them to take arms againft the eftabliftied government.
He obtained a captain's commiflion, and (crved in Munfter
under the earl of Ormond. In this petty warfare he dif-
playcd fo much good conduft, vigour, and courage, that
he was afterwards made governor of Cork ; and as a reward
for his fervices, he received from the crown the grant of a
confiderable eftate in Ireland. A mifunderftanding with
the lord-deputy Grey put a ftop to his farther rife in the
army ; he returned to England, and was quickly introduced
to the queen's notice, and by his own merits attained a large
fiiare in her favour. As he was forward to diltinguilh him.
felf in all pubhc fervices, fo on the return of the duke of
Anjou into the Netherlands, he was one of thofe who ac-
companied him out of England, by the exprefs commanJ.
of queen Elizabeth, and on his coming to England in 1582,
he brought over the prince of Orange's letters to her ma-
jefty. Some months after this he refided at court, and was
honoured with the favour and protection even of contending
llatcfmen, who were proud of fhewiag the true judgment
which they had of real merit, by becoming patrons to
Ralegh. In 1583 he was concerned in his brother Gilbert';
fecond attempt, and though he did not venture in perfon,
yet he built a new fhip, called the bark Ralegh, and fur-
niftied it completely for the voyage ; " the unfuccefsful end
of which," fays Campbell, " it feenied to predift, by it<.
untimely return in lefs than a week to Plymouth, through
a contagious dittemper which feized on the /hip's crew."

While at home Ralegh was not negligent of pufhing his
fortune as a courtier. He had a good perfon and addrefs,
made an elegant appearance, and put on that a.r of gal-
lantry which was fo meritorious in the eyes of Elizabeth.
It is laid, that he was once attending the queen in a walk,
when file came to a fpot, that by its mire obftrufted her
courfe ; he immediately took off his rich cloak, and fpread
it on the ground for her to walk on. Pleafed with this at-
tention, it is obferved, that the facrifice of a cloak obtained
for him many a goodfuit. The enterprifing fpirit of Ralegh
was (hewn in the year 1584, in a fcheme whicli he formed
of making difcoveries and fettlenients in thofe parts of North
America which had not been fubjefted to any European
power. His intereft at court, and his ability in ftating and
fetting forth his plans to the beft advantage, obtained for
him an extenllve patent for executing his purpofe ; and, in
confequence, w'ith the help of a fociety of his friends, he
fitted out lliips under the command of captains Amadas and
Barlow, which failed from Plymouth in that year, and took
poffefiion of an illand near the mouth of Albemarle river,
in what is now called North Carohna. From the terms of
the patent, it appears, that the great objeft of thef" adven-
turers, as it was of all others in that reign, was the fearch
after mines of the precious metak. Ralegh was not him-
felf in this expedition : the (liips returned in the autumn
with fome commodities which fold fo well, that the com-
pany was encouraged to fit OHt a fleet of feven veflels tor
the following year, of which the command was given to fir

Richard

RALEGH.

Ricliai'il Greenville, Ralet;h's relarion. During this voyage
they took poflenion of tlidt tradl of country which has bivii
fo famous, by the name bellowed upon it by queen Eli/.a-
beth, and not given, as it has been generally fuppofed, by
Ralegh, of Virginia. After expending a large fum in re-
peated attempts to repair the misfortunes that had happened
to tlie newly ellablifhcd colony, he affigned over his patent
to a company, referving to liimlelf only a portion of the
expefted gold and filvcr ore. This enterprife probably
made England liril acquainted with tobacco, and alfo con-
ferred upon it the much greater benefit of introducing the
culture of the potatoc, lirlt praftifed on Ralegh's eftate in
Ireland.

About this time he was chofen knight of the fliire for
the county of Devon, and very foon after the queen con-
ferred upon him the honour of knighthood, an honour which
fhe did not render cheap by prollituting it. In the year
1585 lie fitted out another fleet for Virginia, in which he
had good fuccefs, his ihips, in their return, taking a prize
worth 50,000/. He was likewife concerned in captain
Davis's undertaking for the difcovery of the north-well
paflage, on which account a promontory in Davis's ftreights
was called Mount Ralegh. For thefe public-fpirited and
expenfive projetfs, the queen was pleafed to make him fonie
profitable grants ; particularly two, the firll giving him
authority to liccnfe the retailers of wine throughout the
kingdom, and the other of a feigniory in Ireland, confiiling
of twelve thoufand acres, which he planted at his own ex-
pence, ,'.nd many years after fold to Richard Boyle, the
firfl; earl of Cork. In 1586 he was appointed fenefchal of
the duchies of Cornwall and Exeter, and lord-warden of
the ftannaries ; and fo high did he feem rifing in the queen's
favour, that the favourite minifler, the earl of Leicefter,
took the alarm, and brought forward the earl of Eflex as
his competitor. But her majcity's partiality was fully jufti-
fied ; it was, in this inllance, extended to a man, -who at all
times purfued whatever appeared to him conducive to the
public good, how little foever it turned to his private ad-
vantage. " With juilicc, therefore," faj'S Campbell, " was
the wife queen EUzabcth liberal to fuch a man, who, what-
ever he received from her bounty with one hand, bellowed
it immediately in afts glorious to the nation with the other."
In the year preceding the attempt of the famous Spanilh
armada, fir Walter was captain in the queen's guard, and
her lieutenant-general for Cornwall. In the latter capacity
he was aftive in difciphning the militia of the county ; and
he was one of the council of war to whom the conlideration
of the beft means of oppofing the dangers of that mo-
mentous period was committed. When the armada appeared
in the Channel, he was one of the gallant volunteers who
nobly joined the Englilh fleet with fliips of their own, and
had a (hare in the defeat of the enemy. In 1589 he was
among thofe who accompanied the expelled king of Por-
tugal in his attempt to reinllate himfelf. The queen fliewed ■
her continued approbation of his fervices, by making him
gentleman of her privy-chamber, and augmenting the profits
of his other places. This laft was no fmall favour in
Ralegh's eftimation, for though in many refpetts of an ele-
vated mind, foud of glory, fplendid and liberal, he was
'likewife intent upon gain, and neglefted no fource of emo-
lument which his court interell placed within his reach.
He did not fcruple, we are told by fome of his biographers,
though the fail is not noticed by Campbell and others, to
take direft bribes for the exertion of his influence ; and he
is faid to have received no lefs than ten thoufand pounds for
procuring a pardon for Mr. Littleton. See Biog. Brit,
article Littleton.'

On his return from his Portugal voyage he vifilcd his
Irifh cftales, and there either formed or renewed his ac-
quaintance with the poet Spencer, who celebrates him under
the title of the " Shepherd of tlie Ocean," and acknow-
ledges the obligation of having firft made him known to the
queen. To his Fairy Queen he likewife prefixed a letter to
R'jlegh, explanatory of its plan and dcfign. The patronage
of literature was one of the beft traits in the public charac-
ters of an age, in which meannefs was fingularly mixed with
heroifm. The naval enterprizes of the reign of Elizabeth
were for the moft part predatory expeditions, fet on foot by
individuals for their private benefit, and encouraged, though
but feebly aided, by the crow^n. In 1592 fir Walter Ralegh
engaged in a conlidcrable undertaking of this kind, with a
view of attacking Panama, and intercepting the Spanifh
Plate fleet. He fitted out thirteen fliips, by himfelf and
his aflbciates, which were joined by two of the queen's men
of war, and he was appointed general of the whole fleet.
Scarcely had he fet fail when he was recalled by his fove-
reigii ; proceeding, however, to Cape Finillerrt, he divided
his fleet into two iquadrons, with cruizing ordero, and then
returned. One of the fquadrons fell in with a ricli carrack,
the capture of which was the only inllance of fuccefs which
attended the expedition. His ardour for war was (hewn by
his fupport in parliament of a motion, that certain fubfidie's
granted to the crown fhould be for the exprefs purpofe of
carrying on a war ofFenfive and defenfive againfl; Spain. To
undermine h\<- credit with the queen. Paribus, a Jefuit, pub-
liflied a libel againil him, charging him with Atheifm ; the
queen is faid to have imbibed fome prejudice againil him on
tliis account, but he incurred her heavy difplcafure by an in-
trigue with one of her maids of honour, tiic daughter of. fir
Nicholas Throgiiiorton. The confequences of tiiis amour
brought a fcandal upon the court of the virgin queen ; and
though he made the beft reparation in his power, by marry-
ing the lady, his offence was punillied by an imprifonment
in the Tower of fome months, and a fubl'equent banifliment
from the queen's prefence.

During his imprifonment he projected an expedition for
the difcovery of the empire of Guiana, which had already
been vifited by the Spaniards, and the extent and opulence
of which had been the fubjeft of many marvellous tales.
Having obtained fome preliminary information, from an old
navigator whom he difpatched for the purpofe, he embarked
in perfon, in the month of February IJ95, with a fquadron
of (hips fitted out at a great cxpencc, and failed to the ifland
of Trinidad, where he made himfelf mafter of the town of
St. Jofepli ; he then proceeded up the great river Oroonoko,
but was obliged by the heat of the weather, and tlie diffi-
culties of the navigation, to return, with doing nothing
more than merely taking poffellion of the country in her
majefty's name. Unwilling to return without appearing to
have done fomething, he publilhed a work, entitled " Difco-
very of the large, rich, and beautiful Empire of Guiana :"
which was evidently the refult of a fertile imagination rather
than of real obfervation, and which Hume ftigmatizes as a
produilion " full of the groffeft and moft palpable lies that
were attempted to be impofed on the credulity of mankind."

Sir Walter had fo far regained the good opinion of the
queen, that he had a naval command in the expedition
againft Cadiz, in 1596, under the earl of Elfex and lord
Effingham. In the attack he was one of the leaders of the
van, and by his valour and prudence contributed a full fhare
to the fuccefs of the glorious aftion. In the following year
he failed as rear-admiral in the expedition of which Eflex
was commander-in-chief, and the purpofe of which was to
intercept the Spaniffi Weft India fleet. Arriving firft with

1 1 his

RALEGH.

his fquadron at Fayal, after waiting fome time for ElTex,
he thought it expedient to make an attack on the place by
himfclf, which proved fuccefsful. The commander-in-chief
was mortilied with this adlion, thinking it was defigncd to
rob him of the glory due to iiim, and would have cafliiered
Ralegh, if lord Thomas Howard had not interpofed his fer-
vices to effeft an apparent rcconcihation. On their return
lord EfTex publiflied fome remarks upon what had happened
in the courfe of the voyage, in which he queilioned every
body's conduft but his own. " Tlie queen, however," fays
Campbell, " taking time to inform herfclf, made a right judg-
ment of the whole affair; in confequence of which (lie paid
a due refpccl to every man's merit, and greater to none than
to that of fir WaUer Ralegh."

During the remainder of this reign Ralegh chiefly ap-
pears as a member of parliament, and as an aflertor of tlie
privileges and interefts of the people in the weft, over
whom his authority extended. That he was completely re-
ftored to the favour of his royal millrefs is evident from the
circumllance, that in 1661 he attended lier in a progrefs
through part of the kingdom. He was likewife appointed
by her to receive the duke of Biron on his arrival as .\m-
baflador from France, and conferred with him on the fubjeCl
of his miflion. In the queen's laft parliament fir Walter
was a very aftive member, and diftinguifhed himfelf upon all
occafions, by oppofing fuch bills as, under colour of deep
policy, were contrived for the opprclTion of the middle and
lower ranks of fociety. He witncfled the ruin of his great
antagonift the earl of Eflex, whofe execution he indecently
urged upon tlie minifter Cecil ; and he was even an cye-
vvitnefs of the deed. Campbell, endeavouring to juflify him
in every thing, is evidently, in fome inftances, a pancgyrill
rather than a faithful hiftorian. The deccafe of the queen,
which foon followed the execution of her former favourite
lord ElTex, and which was probably haftened by it, gave a
final, and to Ralegh a very unexpefted, blow to his own
profperity.

When James came to the crown it was a fort of contefl
between fir Walter Ralegh and fir Robert Cecil, who {hould
obtain the confidence ol his majefty ; the latter, however,
was admitted to the royal councils, to the exclulion of fir
Walter Ralegh. In truth, James had a preponeflion againll
Ralegh, as having been the enemy of Eilex, and ftill more,
as having, with fome others, entertained a defigii of forcing
the king to agree to certain limitations with refpeft to the
cumber of his countrymen whom he was to bring with him.
Sir Walter's martial and enterprifing fpirit was alfo obnoxi-
ous to a prince of a pacific difpofition. He was, therefore,
received, barely with civility, a circumftance which preyed
upon his high fpirit, and was probably the means of throw-
ing Inm into the party of the difcontentcd. A confpiracy,
for the purpofe of placing upon the throne lady Arabella
Stuart, was at this time formed, in which Ralegh in fome
meafure participated. He was apprehended, and brought
to trial on a charge of high treafon ; but, fays the hiftorian,
his condemnation, upon the evidence produced, was one of
the moft difgraceful inltances on record, of the bafe fubfer-
vience of an Englifh jury to the vindiftive wiflies of a court.
His only accufer was lord Cobham, a man of bad character,
and c.ie who was deeply implicated in the plot, to whofe
propofals he had given ear, but probably without entering
into, or even approving them. In his defence he difplayed
fo much eloquence, temper, and force of argument, that
fome, who had been highly prejudiced againit him, were
brought to regard him as an innocent viftim, and, it fhould
fcem, from t?ie teflimony of contemporary hiilorians, that
all parties were afhamcd of the injufticc of his condemnation.

It is faid that even Coke, the attorney-general, who treated
Ralegh on his trial with all the abufe that belonged to his
character, and was thought autliorifed i)y his office, ex-
prelfed furprize at the fentence, and declared that he had
charged him with no more than mifprifion of treafon. Three
were executed for this plot, two were pardoned, and Ra-
legli was only reprieved and committed to the Tower. Hi»
wife, at her own earncft folicitation, was permitted to become
his fellow-prifoner, and his youngelt fon was born in the
Tower.

In Mr. Cayley's life of fir Walter Ralegh, publiflied in
I^ondon in 1806, we have a curioun letter of lord Cecil,
then fecretary of ftatc, to fir Thomas Parry, the Englifh
ambaffador in France, in which he gives an account of the
confpiracy jufl referred to, and of the motives which led the
different perfons to take a part in it. Sir Walter waj
indifted for confpiring to deprive the king of his govern-
ment, to raife up fedition within the realm, to alter the re-
ligion and bring in the Roman fuperilition, and to procure
foreign enemies to invade the kingdom. The principal overt
aft laid in the indiftment was, that fir Walter had a con-
ference with lord Cobham, as to the bell means of advanc-
ing Arabella Stuart to the crown and throne of this king-
dom, and that they (hould apply to the king of Spain to
procure his alTiftance in this caufe. Sir Walter made an
able ftand in his trial againfl the legality of conviftion upon
the evidence of a fingle witnefs, but the judge, rendered
infamous by his conduct on the trial, over-ruled the ob-
jeftions.

The aftive mind of fir Walter Ralegh was now left to
exert itfelf within the walls of a prifon, and its employment
conduced more to his honour than his liberty perhaps would
have done. Here he compofed the greater part of his works,
efpecially his " Hiflory of the World." Prince Henry, a
you'h of mofl amiable qualities, and as ur.like his father as
pofiible, contraftcd a generous admiration for the fplendid
talents of Ralegh, and cheered him in his folitary confine-
ment by his friendfhip and correfpondence. " No king,"
faid the royal youth, " but my father would keep fucfi a
bird in a cage." Henry, however, died, and with him the
hopes of deliverance vanifhed from the mind of the flate
prifoner. At length, however, after twelve years' confine-
ment, fir Walter obtained his liberation, but probably not
without the ufe of bribes, applied to the new favourite Vil-
HeVs. For the purpofe of repairing his fortunes, he planned
a new expedition to Guiana, and his report of a rich gold
mine exifling in that country was a fiifficient inducement for
a number of adventurers to engage in the fchenie. He ob-
tained a patent under the great feal from the king, for mak-
ing a fettlement in Guiana. James, however, in order to
retain his hold upon him, did not grant him a pardon of the
treafons of which he had been convicted. There is no doubt
but fir Walter might have />K;r/'fl/f</ a pardon, and, at one
time, had thoughts of doing fo. He even confulted fir
Francis Bacon, whether it would not be advifeable for him
to give 3 round fum of money lor a pardon in common- form ;
to which the learned law^yer anfwered; " Sir, the knee tim-
ber of your voyage is money ; fpare your purfe in this par-
ticular, for, upon my life, you have fufficient pardon for
all that is paft already, the king having under his broad feal
made you admiral of your fleet, and given vou power of the
martial law over your officers and foldiers." Ralegh hav-
ing employed all his refources in fitting out the expedition,
failed for Guiana with twelve armed veflel-s in July 161 7.
He had not fet fail long before he was obliged to put into
the harbour of Cork, by llrcfs of weather, where he re-
mained till the 19th of Augult. In November he arrived at

Guiana,

R A L

Guiana, where lie was received with the utmod joy by the
Indians, who not only rendered him all tliu Icrvice in their
power, but endeavoured to pcrfuade him to end all Jiis
labours there, and take upon himfelf the fovcrcignty of the
country, which, however, he (leadily rchifed. A violent
and long continued (ickriefs prevented him from undertak-
ing tliL- difcovery of the mine in perfon. This important
aflair he entrufted to one of his captains, Keymis : the
fcheme, however, proved abortive, the Spaniards having beeii
before iiand with him in the fearch of gold. Humi.-, for
the purpofc of exculpating James, endeavours to fhew that
the n-ul intention of lir Walter Ralegh was to plunder the
Spanifti fettlements, and neither to colonize, nor to work
the mines. He aiiumes that Ralegh was a wilful deceiver
in the expeftations he had raifcd of vaft fubterraneous riches ;
but confidering his charafter, it is Ir.rely more rcafonable to
believe that he was carried away by fome vague ideas of this
kind, and Hume admits that the Spaniards were at the very
time working fome mines. It will be readily admitted, that
James did not imagine he was giving Ralegh a connnillion
of hoftilities againll Spain, yet he mull have known that
the exclufive claims of that crown in South America ren-
dered every interference with its dominion hoitile in its eyes.
The faft feems to be, that the expedition was undertaken
with an intention to make the moll of it, by any means
witliin the power of the armament, and that the commander
trufted to its fuccefs for juftification before a court where
bribery to favourites was omnipotent.

In this expedition Ralegh's eldeil fon loll his life, of
which, and of the unfortunate iHue of Keymis's undertaking,
he reproached his captain very feverely, who, without hefita-
tion, put an end to his own life. Ralegh, with a heavy heart,
fteered homewards. In July 1618 he arrived at Plymouth,
and in his journey to London he was arrefted, and carried
back to Plymouth. Twice he attempted to efcape, but
was fecured and committed a prifoner to the Tower. James
was exafperated at the injury which had been inflifted on
Spain, a power then in amity with England, and which had
been complained of by the Spanifh court in very itrong
terms. He was, moreover, about to enter into a more in-
timate conneftion with that court, and therefore, without
heiitation, determined to facriiice Ralegh to its refentment.
Though his death had been determined on, it was difficult
to take away his life. His conduft in the late expedition,
though the want of fuccefs had rendered it criminal in the
eyes of the court, was far from being fo in the light of the
nation ; and though judges might have been found who would
pronounce it treafon, yet even in thofe days it was not eafy
to find a jury vrho would, without evidence, have found him
guilty. The commiffioners therefore, who had been ap-
pointed to enquire into the matter, and who had frequently ex-
amined him, finally reported, that no ground of legal judgment
could be drawn from what had palled in the expedition. Upon
this, it was refolved to call him down to judgment upon his
former fenteuce, which, fays Campbell, was done, with all
the circumftances of iniquity and brutality that can well
be conceived. Being brought before the court of king's
bench, his plea of an implied pardon, by his having afted
under the king's commiffion fmce fenteuce had been pro-
nounced, was over-ruled, and he was not permitted to enter
into a vindication of his conduft in the late voyage. Exe-
cution was accordingly awarded, and the king's warrant for
it produced, which had been iigned and fealed before-hand.

" That this judgment was illegal," obferves Dr. Camp-
bell, " and that fir Walter was really murdered, has often
been faid, and, I believe, feldom doubted ; but I think it Ira^
not been made fo plain as it might be, and, therefura^n

Vol. XXIX.

R A L

rcfpeft to his memory, I will attempt it, by (hewing that
the judgment was ablulutfly illegal, as well as manifcflly
iniquitous.

" It is a maxim in our law that the king can do no
wrong ; and moll certain it is, that no king can do legal
wrong, that is to fay, can employ the law to unjull pur-
pofes. Sir Waller Ralegh, after his conviftion, was dead
in law, and, therefore, if king James's commiflion to him had
not the virtue of a pardon, what was it ? Did it empower
a dead man to aft, and not only to aft, but to have a power
over the lives and cllates of the living ? It cither conveyed
authority, or it did not. If it did convey authority, then
fir Walter was capable of receiving it ; that is, he was no
longer dead in law : or, in other words, he was pardoned.
If it conveyed no authority, then this was an aft of legal
wrong. I cannot help the blunder ; the abfurdity is in the
thing, and not in my expreffien. A commiflion under the
privy feal, if not under the great feal, granted by tlic king,
with the advice of his council, to a dead man ; or, to put
it (ithervvife, a lawful commiffion given to a man dead in law,
is nonfenfe not to be endured ; and, therefore, to avoid
this, we mull conceive, as fir Francis Bacon, and every
other lawyer did, that the commiffion included, (<r rather
conveyed, a pardon. Indeed, the fame thing may be made
out in much fewer words. Grace is not fo Itrong a mark of
royal favour as trull ; and, therefore, where the latter ap-
pears, the law ouglit, and, indeed, does, prefume the former.
This judgment, therefore, did not only murder fir Walter
Ralegh, but, in this inllance, fubverted the conftitution,
and ought to be looked upon, not only as an aft of the
bafeit prollitution, but as the mofl flagrant violation of juf-
tice that ever was committed."

The fentence of death was pronounced on him one day,
and put in execution on the following. Oft. 29, 16 18, in
Old Palace Yard. His behavieur on the fcaffold was calm
and manly. He addrefled the people at fome length : he
faid he never feared death, and much lefs at that time ; that
as to the manner of it, though to others it might feem
grievous, yet for himfelf, he iiad rather die in this way than
in a burning fever. He defired to fee the axe, and feeling
the edge of it, faid to the Iheriff, " this is a fliarp me-
dicine, but a lure remedy for all evils." Being aflced which
way he chofe to place himfelf on the block, he rephed,
" io the heart be right, it is no matter wiiich way the head
lies," and giving the fignal, he received the ftroke with the
moll perfeft compofure. Such was the end of the illuf-
trious fir Walter Ralegh, in the 66th year of his age, by a
lentence which was regarded as one of the moll difhonourable
meafures of an odious adminillration. The panegyric upon
his charafter by Dr. Campbell is much too highly coloured :
fir Walter Ralegh was not faultlols, thougli in extent of ca-
pacity and vigour of mind he had few equals in an age that
abounded with great men. His imprifoiiment was the oc-
cafion of his obtaining a high reputation as an author. His
writings were on various topics, and are clalTed as poetical,
geographical, political, philofophical, and hlllorica!. They
are now but little known. His " Hillory of the World,"
though not much read, is regarded with refjieft, as one of
the bell fpecimens of the Englifli language of that time :
the llyle is pure, nervous, and without pedantry. It is the
llyle of a man of bufinefs as well as ot a fcholar. It has
been many times reprinted, but the bell edition is that of
Oldys, in 1736. He brought down his hillory no farther
than the overthrow o£ the Macedonian empire. Of his
mifcellaneous works, a colleftion in two volumes 8vo. was
printed in 1748. Biog. Brit. Hume. Campbell. Cayley.

RALEIGH, or Rayleigii, in Geography, a market-town
3 B and

R A L

and pari{h in the hundred of Rochford, and county of Effex,
EnMand, is fituatcd at the diitance of 14 miles S.E. by S.
from Chelmsford, and 34 miles E. by N. from London. This
place appears to have been anciently of conliderable note.
It was the head of the barony of Swcne, and had a caflle
adjoining to it, of which fome fragments and earth-works
ftill remain. Thcfe confift of a mount, with an oval-(hapcd
bafe, furroundedby a double ditch and rampart, and feveral
outworks, particularly on the eall fide. Tlie fummit of the
mount is divided ; the wcllern divifion being of a circular
form, and 100 feet high; and the eallern one of an oval
form, and lower : the principal ditch varies in width from
36 to 50 feet, and the interior vallum is 50 feet high.
The church here is an acient edifice, and contains an old
tomb, greatly mutilated, but difplaying the remains of very
beautiful workmanlhip in the pointed ftyle. The perfon
whofe memory it was intended to prefcrve is now unknown ;
the upper part, to which the infcription was probably
affixed, being totally deftroyed. The market at Raleigh is
held on Sadurday, weekly ; and there is an annual fair on
Trinity Monday. Hearne, in his edition of Leland's Iti-
nerary (vol. iii. p. 8.), informs us that a cuilom-court is
kept here, yearly, the Wednefday next after Michael's day.
" The court," fays that author, " is kept in the night, and
■without light, but as the (kyc gives, att a little hill without
the town, called the King's hill, where the ileward writes
only with coales, and not with incke ; and many men and
mannors of great worth hold of the f.ime ; and do fuite unto
this (Irano-e court, where the fteward calls them with as low
a voice as pofliblc he may ; giving no notice when he goes
to the hill to keepe the fame court ; and he that attends not
is deeply amerced, if the fteward will. 'Tis commonly
called Laiulefs-Court." Weever, in his " Funeral Monu-
ments," adds, refpefting this cuftom, that he was informed,
" that this vile attendance was impofed at the firft upon cer-
taine tenants of divers mannors hereabouts, for conlpiring in
this place, at fuch an unfeafonable time, to raife a commo-
tion." According to the parliamentary returns of 181 1,
Raleigh pariili contains 162 houfes, and 1 131 inhabitants.
Beauties of England and Wales, vol. v. By E. W. Bray-
iey and John Britton, F.S.A. 1810.

Raleigh, a townfliip of Effex county, in Upper Ca-
nada, W. of Harwich, bounded on the N. by the Thames,
and S. by lake Erie.

Raleigh, a town of America, in Wake county. North
Carolina, the prefent feat of government, about ten miles
from Wake court -houfe. The general ailembly of the ftate
in December 1791, appropriated 10,000/. towards erefting
pubhc buildings, and named it after the celebrated fir Wal-
ter Raleigh, under whofe direftion the firft fettlement in
North America was made at Roanoke ifle and in Albemarle
found. The ftate-houfe is a large handfome building, and
coft 6000/. The plan of the town is regular ; theftreets in-
terfering each other at right angles. It is, however, fub-
jcft to the difadvantage of being remote from navigation ; 61
miles N.E. of Fayetteville, 147 from Peterftjorg m Virginia,
and 448 S.W. of Philadelphia.

RALEMO, a river of Chili, which runs into the Pacific
ocean, S. lat. 37° 55'.

RALENDORF, a town of *e duchy of Carinthia ; 12
miles S. of Saxenburg.

RALESTEDE, a town of the duchy of Holftein ; 8
miles E. of Hamburg.

RALICOTTA, a town of Hindooftan, in Vifiapour;
31 mik-s N. of Anamfagar.

RAU.ENTAND6, Ital., a mufical term of late in-
vention, for relating the meafure at particular parts of a

7

R A L

compofition, which, when done by a great rnafter, manifefta
feeling and intelligence ; but when attempted by mean per-
formers, it has no other effeft upon an audience than that of
b-cakiiig time : and we think that this refinement is often
abufed. It has been chiefly praftiled in France, and favours
of affeftation, and that mercharged tendernrfs which renders
the national riirs tendra fo dilagreeable, or fo ridiculous, to
the natives of all other countries.

RALLUS, the Rail, in Ornithology, a genus of birds
of the order Grails : the generic charafter is, that the bill
is thickilh at the bafe, attenuated on the back towards the
tip, comprefTed, a little incurved, pointed ; the tongue is
rough at the tip ; the body is compreffed ; the tail is mort ;
the feet have four cleft toes. There are feventeen

Species.

*CnEX; landrail, crake, corncrake, daker hen, &c.
Of this fpecics the wings are of a ruity red ; the bill and
legs of a browniftt-afti ; the irides are of a hazel colour; the
feathers of the body are of a reddifti-brown ; the upper
ones are black in the middle ; the chin is very pale, and the
belly is of a whitiftl-yellow. It is about nine or ten inches
long, and inhabits the fedg)' parts of Europe and Afia.
From the circumftance of its appearing at the fame time
with the quail, and frequenting the fame places, it has been
denominated the king of the quails. Its well-known cry
is firft heard as foon as the grafs becomes long enough to
ftlcltcr it, and continues till the grafs is cut. The bird,
however, is feldom fcen, as it flculks in the thickcft parts of
the herbage, and runs fo nimbly through it, winding and
doubling in every direction, that it is difficult to come near
it. When it is hard puft>ed by the dogi, it fometimes ftops
fhort and fquats down, by which means its too eager pur-
fuer overfhoots the ipot and lofes the trace. It feldom
fprings but when driven to extremities, and generally flies with
its legs hanging down, but never to a great diitance. As
foon as it alights, it runs off, and before the fowler has
reached the fpot, the bird is at a confiderable diftance. It
emigrates, appearing with us about the latter end of April,
and departing in October. On its firft appearance, and till
the female begins to fit, the male is frequently heard to make
a fingular kind of noife, much refembhng that of a comb
when the finger is dr."vvn along the teeth of it, and which
has been ufed as a decoy. When they firft arrive, they are
very lean, but before their departure, they become excef-
fively fat, and are much fought after for the delicacy of
their flefli. They lay from twelve to fixteen eggs in the
grafs, of a dirty whitifti colour, with a few yellow fpots:
the flefli is excellent. There are two varieties, thus defcribed :
1. Rufous brown, beneath paler ; wings and tail deeper;
the chin and vent are white ; the legs are dufky red. This
is found in the ifland of Jamaica. The bill is larger and
black. 2. Reddifti-grey beneath, and wing-coverts rufty
brown. This fpecies inhabits China ; the legs are of a dufky
colour.

Aquaticus ; Water Rail. Wings grey fpotted with
brown ; flanks fpotted with white ; bill orange beneath, but
black and reddifli at the bafe ; the irides are red ; the feathers
of the upper part of the body are of an olive-brown, and
black in the middle; the lower ones are cinereous ; thofe of the
lower part of the belly and vent are edged with rufous ;
quill-feathers duftc ; the lower tail-coverts are white ; the
tail-feathers are fhort and black ; the two middle ones at the
tip, and the others, are edged with ferruginous ; the legs are
of a dufky red. It ii about twelve inches long, but does
not weigh more than four ounces. It is found in the watery
places in Europe and Afia. It is fometimes, but not in

any

RALLUS.

any great numbers, met with in various parts of Great
Britain, in low fituations, about water courfes aiid rivulets,
where it feeks (helter among fedge, ruflies, and reeds, and
is fcldom put to flight, depending on its legs, for fafcty.
When routed it flies only to fniall dillanccs, and in a heavy
and vei-y awkward manner, with its legs hanfrlng down. It
runs nimbly, and frequently fli ts up its tail. Th- nefl; is
made of ledi^e and coaife grals, among the thickcll aquatic
plants, or in willow beds. Tiie female lays fix or more
eggs, rather larger than thofe of a blackbird, of a pure white
colour. This bird continues with us all the year, and by
many it is crroneoufly believed to be the land rail metamor-
phofed in the autumn ; but the different bills which the two
birds have conilitute an eflential diftin6lion.

* PoRZANA ; fpotted gallinule, or fpotted water hen.
This fpecies has the two middle tail-feathers edged with
white ; the bill and legs are of a pale olive. It inhabits
Europe and North America, and is generally found on the
fir'es of fmall dreams, hiding itfelf among the buflics ; it is
nine inches long. This bird is defcribed as having a greenifli-
yellow bill ; its irides are hazel, and head brown, fpotted
with black. The line ever the eyes is of a pale grey ; the
neck above and flanks are of a brov>-n-afli, with fmall white
fpots ; the back and wing-coverts are olive, with black
itripcs, and near the edges of the feathers with white fpots,
the greater with white fl;ripes and lines ; the cheeks, chin,
and throat, are of a pale grey, with brown fpots ; the breatt
is brown, with white fpots ; the belly is varied with cinere-
ous and white ; the vent is of an ochre-yellow. This bird
is extremely timid and fequeftered, and is but feldom feen
in Great Britain, eluding obfervation by its perpetual vigi-
lance and lurking habits. Its neil is formed, with fingular
care, of matted ruihes, and materials which will float on the
water, on which it remains tied, by fome filaments, to the
ftalks of reeds, by which it is prevented from being carried
away by the tide or current. The bird is in great elteem for
the table.

Crepitans; Clapper Rallus. Bill and legs brown;
body above olive, the feathers afhy at the edges ; chin
white, throat and breait yellowifh-brown. This fpecies
inhabits New York, and is from fourteen to fixteen inches

Fuscire ; Brown Rallus. This is brown, as its fpecific
name imports ; its vent is waved with white ; the legs are
yellow. It inhabits the Philippine ifles, and is feven mches
long. Tiie body beneath is light chefnut, on the belly
it is inclining to grey ; the tail is barred with white and
black.

Striatus; Streaked Rallus. Blackifli, waved with white;
chin reddifli. The bill of this fpecies is of a horn colour ;
the crown is varied with dufl^y and bay ; the nape is bay ;
neck, back, (houlders, and rump, brown, wilh whitifh fpots;
the wing-coverts are marked with a few tranfverfe whitifh
Ilreaks ; the chin is of a reddifh-white ; the cheeks, throat,
breaft, and upper part of the belly, cinereous, with a tinge
of olive; the lower part is barred with dufky and white ; quiU-
feathers brown, the outer bands reddifli-white, the inner
are white ; the tail is brown with white lines ; the legs are
of a greyifh-brown. It inhabits the Philippine iflands, is
eight inches long, and is probably a variety of the philip-
penfis.

ToRQUATUS ; Banded Rallus. Brown, beneath waved
with white ; it has a white line below the eyes. This alio is
found in the Philippine iiles, and is twelve inches long. The
bill and legs are grey-brown ; cheeks and chin black. The
body beneath is tranfverfely ftreaked with black and white ;
the collar is of a bay colour ; the quill-feathers on the outer

edge paler ; bands within on the firft; three white, the fix next

reddifli -bay.

Philu'pensi.s ; Philippine Rallus. The fpecific cha-
ratler of this bird is brown, but beneath it is barred with
grey ; the eye brows arc white, and ih.e neck beneath has a
reddifli caft. There are three other varieties, thus defcribed:
1. Red-brown, fpotted and ftreaked wiili black and white ;
head chefnut ; body beneath and eye-brows cinereous ; this,
notwithflianding its name, is found at Otaheite. 2. Brown,
fpotted and ftreaked with white, beneath white ; eye-brows
grey ; the tail is barred with brown and white : this inha-
bits Tongataboo. 3. Above brown, beneath afliy ; b.ick
and wii'gs lined with white fpots ; the belly beneath is white,
with blackifli bars. This is about eleven inches long, and ic
found in the Philippine iflands.

EcAUDATus ; Taillefs Rallus. Olive ; beneath blucifh ;
body tranfvM fely waved with black ; eye-brows white. It
inhabits Otaheite. The bill is blackifli, and the upper part
of the head is of a pale brown ; the orbits are black ; over the
eyes, on each fide the head, it has a broad white line ; the
body above is of a deepgloflTy olive, with a tinge of olive
on the flioulders ; the vent is of a pale yellow ; the tail is fo
fliort as to be fcarcely perceptible ; the coverts are of a pale
blue.

Carolinus ; Sorce. This bird is brown ; the frontlet is
black ; the breaft is of a lead colour ; the bill is yellow ; the
legs are greenifli. It inhabits Virginia, and is from feven to
eight inches long : this is a capital bird for the table. The
irides of this bird are red ; the crown and body above are
brown, marked with black fpots ; the face and chin are
black ; but the reft of the neck, temples, and breaft, are of a
blueifli-afli ; the belly and outer edge of the wings are white ;
the wings and tail are brown.

Phceniculus; Red-taikJ Rallus. This fpecies is black
but beneath it is white ; the bill and legs are greenifli ; the
front is naked and of a flefli colour ; the vent and tail of a
rufty red. It is found in the ifland of Ceylon, and is
about nine inches long. The bill and legs are tinged with
red ; the crown and cheeks are pure white ; the quill-
feathers are fpotted with blue. There are two varieties.
I. Above cinereous, beneath white ; the belly and vent are
red. This is an inhabitant of China, and is fifteen inches
long. 2. The front of this is white ; the vent is red, and
the legs are yellow. It is found in Madagafcar, and is longer
than the laft.

V1RGINIANU.S; Virginian Rallus. Brown, without fpots ;
the bill and legs are brown. It inhabits Virginia, and is pro-
bably a variety of the R. aquaticus.

Ferrugineus; Red-breafted Rallus. This bird is dufky
above, and cinereous beneath ; the neck and breaft are fer-
ruginous ; the bill is pale, and the legs yellow. It is nine
inches long ; the eye-brows are pale, and the flanks are
marked with tranfverfe, narrow, white lines.

Capensis ; Cape Rallus. This fpecies is of a ferrugi-
nous colour ; but the lower part of the breaft, belly, vent,
wings, and tail, are waved with black and white ; the bill is
black, and the legs are of a blood-red. It inhabits the Cape
of Good Hope and Ceylon, and is of the fize of the R. crex.
The two middle tail-feathers are ferruginous.

C.ERULEUS ; Blue-necked Rallus. This is of a bay colour
above, but blueilh beneath ; the bill and legs are red ; the vent
is white, and the belly is marked with tranfverfe black
ftreaks. It inhabits the Cape of Good Hope ; it is feven and
a half inches long.

Zeylanicus ; Ceylon Rallus. The head of this bird it

dufliy ; the body above is ferruginous, beneath it is reddifh,

waved with brown ; the firft quill-feathcrs are black ; the

3 B J bill

R A L

11 A L

bill and legs are red. It is found, as its nainc imports, at
Ceylon ; it is larger than the R. aquaticus, and has a long

tail.

AusTRALis; Troglodyte Rallus. Rully a(h ; wings and
tail deep brown ; the feathers are barred with black. It
inhabits New Zealand, and is feventeen inches long. The
bill and legs are yellowifh ; the body above is of a rufty
brown, beneath ruity a(li ; quill and tail-feathers are waved
with black.

Pacificus ; Pacific Rallus. Black, fpeckled with white ;
wings barred ; body beneath whitilh ; the head is brown,
the bread is of a blueilli-afh. It is found in Otaheite, and
the neighbouring illes. Bill red, the legs are of a flefli co-
lour ; the chin and eye-brows are white ; the nape of the
neck is rufty.

Tabuensis ; Tabuan Rallus. Brownifli-black ; beneath
it is of a dalky colour ; the bill is black, and the legs are
bay. A variety has its vent ftreaked with black and white ;
the legs are red. It inhabits the South-fea iilands, and is fix
inches and a half long. The eye-lids and irides are red.

NiOEH ; Black Rallus. Black ; bill red at the bafe,
brown at the tip ; the legs arc brown or red. This is an
African bird, and is nine inches long.

San'Duickxsis ; Sandwich Rallus. This is of a pale fer-
ruginous colour ; but the bill is of a dnfky afh ; the legs are
of a dull flefh colour. A variety has a yellowidi bill and
legs. It inhabits the Sandwich iflands ; and another variety
is very fmall, and found in the Tanna ides.

Taitiensis ; Otaheite Rallus. Cinereous ; body above
red-brown ; the bill, rounded tail, and claws, are black.
This inhabits Otaheite and the Friendly ifles, and is about fix
inches long. The quill-feathers are dufky and edged witii
white ; the legs are yellow.

Obscurus ; Dulky Rallus. This is brown ftreaked with
black, beneath it is of a rufty brown ; tlie bill is black, and
the legs are of a red-brown. It inhabits the Sandwich
iflands, and is fix inches long ; the edge of the mandibles is
yellown'fh.

LoNGiROsTRis ; LcJTig-billed Rallus. The upper part of
this fpecies is cinereous, fpotted with brown, beneath it is
rufty white ; the flanks are tranfverfely waved with white,
the bill is long and of a ferruginous colour. It inhabits Ca-
yenne, and is from nine to twelve inches long. The bill
is tipt witli brown ; the legs are yellowifh, and the chin
whitifti.

Variegatus ; Variegated Rallus. This bird is ftreaked
and fpotted with white and black; the hind-head is dufl<y ;
the bill is yellowilli ; the chin is white ; and the legs are yel-
low. It inhabits Cayenne, and is eleven inches long. The
wings are brown, the coverts are fpotted with white ; fome
of the middle tail-feathers are edged with wliite.

Cayenkexsis ; Cayenne Rallus. The crown of this
bird is rufous ; the body above is of an olive-brown ; be-
neath it is rufous ; the ocular band is blackifh ; the quill-
feathers are black ; the bill is brown, and the legs bay.
There is a variety having its crown bay ; chin and vent
reddifti-white. It inhabits Cayenne and Guiana ; it is eight
inches long : in the evening it is noify and gregarious, by
day it is folitary ; it builds in the forked branch of a fhrub,
near the ground. The vent is pale.

Jamaicensis ; Jamaica Rallus. Above reddifh-brown
with black ftreaks ; the bill and chin are black ; the throat
and breaft are of a blueifti-afii ; the belly is marked with
white and brown lines. It, as its name imports, inhabits
Jamaica, and is fix inches long. The bill is reddifti at the bafe ;
wing-coverts brown, fpotted w-ith white ; the quill-feathers
arc oi a reddiili-brown, with black lines, the fecondaries

and tail-feathers are fpotted witli white, and the legs
brown.

MiN'U Tus ; the Little Rallus. This is" brown, but be-
n 'ath it is yellowifti ; eye -brows, ftreaks on the back, and
fpots on the wing-coverts, white ; tail barred black and
white. A variety has the middle ot the neck above rufous ;
the belly and vent arc waved with black and white. It in-
habits Cayenne and Jamaica, and ie- five inches long. The
bill is brown ; the wing-coverts are black ; the chin is
vvhitifh, and the legs are yellow.

PusiLJ.u.s ; Dwarf Rallus. Strij)ed with ferruginou*
and black ; the body beneath is blackifh, with narrow white
bands ; the throat and breaft are blueifh. This is found near
fait lakes of Dauria, and is of the fize of a lark. The
face, neck beneath, and middle of the breaft longitudinally,
are blueifh ; the middle of the chin is whitifb ; the longitu-
dinal band through the eyes of a pale rufty colour ; the
back is fcattered with white longitudinal lines ; the legs are
grecnifli.

Baubaricus ; Barbary Rallus. This is of a ferruginous
colour ; the bill is black ; the wings are fpotted with white ;
the rump is ftreaked above with white and black, and be-
neath with white ; the legs are of a dufliy brown. This, as
its name imports, is an inhabitant of Barbary, and is the fire
of a plover.

Dl'BIUs; Doubtful Rallus. Striped with brown and
ferruginous ; the belly is white'; the flanks are barred with
brown and rully afh ; the firlt quill-feathers without are
longitudinally white. It is the fize of the common gallinule.
The face is of a pale rufty colour ; the chin is of a dirty
white, furrounded with a broad brown collar ; the fides are
brown ; the bill and legs greenifh-black.

RALLYING, in (Far, the reafiembling, or calling toge-
ther of troops, broken, routed, and put to flight.

RALPH, James, in Biography, a mifcellaneous writer,
defcended probably from mean parentage, was the intimate
friend of Dr. Franklin, who fpeaks of him as ingenious and
fhrewd, genteel in his addrefs, and extremely eloquent.
Franklin knew him in America, and though he does not
mention what Ralph's fituation then was, yet as he wrote
3 fine hand, and was well verfed in accounts, it is imagined
he was a fchoolinafter. In 1725 Ralph accompanied Frank-
lin to England, with a refolution of not returning to
America, where he left his wife, with whom, and with whofe
family, he had lived on ill terms. In London he was, for,
a coniidcrable time, fupported by his friend Franklin, till
their intimacy was difiblved, when Ralph confidered the
quarrel as a complete difcharge of the debt which he owed
his benefaftor. Ralph changed his name to that of Frank-
lin, which he thought necefl'ary, having formed a new
female connexion, and fettled as a fchoolmafter in a village
in Berkfliire. From this time there is no regular narrative
of his life, which was probably pafied as a hired party
writer. He is fpoken of with much contempt in the Dun-
ciad, as the author of a poem called Night : —

" Silence, ye wolves I while Ralph to Cynthia howls,
And makes night hideous — Anfwer him, ye owls."

In a note, it is faid he wrote a fwearing piece, entitled
" Sawney," very abufive of Swift, Gay, and Pope ; that
he panegyrifed his own works in the journals, was wholly
iUiterate, wrote plays, and was employed in a political
nevvfpaper. The fatire of Pope muft be taken with much
limitation, it being infpired by party motives : Ralph hav-
ing recommended himfelf to perfons in power at the begin-
ning of George II. 's reign, would for that reafon be ob-
noxious t© Pope and his friends. He became an able
1 2 writer

RAM

RAM

writer in proie, and was author of many political pamphlets,
which were much applauclt-d in their lime ; but his chief
work was " The Hiftory of England during tlie Rei;rns of
William, Anne, and George I., with an introduftory Re-
vievT of the Reigns of the Brothers Charles 11. and James II.,
in which are to be found the Seeds of the Revolution. By
a Lover of Truth and Liberty," 2 vols. fol. 1774 — 6.
This work obtained the plaudits of Mr^ Fox, who, in his
poflhumous hiflorical fragment, fpeaks of the autlior as an
hiftorian of great acutenefs as well as diligence. The laft
publication of this author was entitled " The Cafe of Authors
by Profellion or Trade, ihited with regard to Bookfellers,
the Stage, and the Public," wliich is laid to contain much
good fenfe and lively fatire. Mr. Ralph died at Chifwick,
in the year 17^12. Gen. Biog.

RAM, in Geography, a town of European Turkey, in
Servia, on the S. lidc of the Danube ; 10 miles E. of Faf-
farowitz.

Ram, in Agncullure, the', male of the fheep kind. It
may be obferved, that tlie rams of different breeds of Iheep
vary greatly in their forms, wools, and fleeces, and other
properties ; but the following defcription by that excellent
ftock-farmer, Mr. Culley, deferves the attention of the
breeder and grazier. According to him, his head fhould be
fine and fmal!, his noflrils wide and expanded, his eyes pro-
minent, and rather bold or daring, ears thin, his collar full
from his breaft and flioulders, but tapering gradually all
the way to where the neck and head join, which fnould be
very fine and graceful, being perfectly free from any coarle
leather hanging down ; the (honlders broad and full, which
mult at tlie fame time join fo eafy to the collar forward,
andclunc backward, as to leave not the leafl; hollow in either
pfSb'e ; the mutton upon his arm or fore-thigh muft come
quite to the knee ; his legs upright, witli a clean fine bone,
being equally clear from fuperfluous fl<in and coarfe hairy
■wool from the knee and liough downwards : the breall
broad and well forward, wiiich will keep his fore-legs at a
proper widenefs ; his girth or cheft full and deep, and iii-
ftead of a hollow behind the flioulders, that part by fome
called the fore-flank fliould be quite full ; the back and
loins broad, flat, and ilraight, from which the ribs mud
rife with a fine circular arch ; his belly ftraight ; tlie
quarters long and full, with the mutton quite down to the
hough, which (hould neither ftand in nor out ; his twiil, or
junction of the infide of the thighs, deep, wide, and full,
which, with the broad breaft, will keep his fore-legs open
and upright ; the whole body covered with a thin pelt, and
that with fine, bright, foft wool. It is obferved, that the
nearer any breed of flieep comes up to the above defcription,
the nearer they approach towards excellence of form.

But though this is a very correft, appropriate, and admi-
rable defcription of a finely-formed ram, objettions have
been made by fome to a few of the properties which are
laid down. Width and cxpanfion of the nottrils in fiieep,
it is fuppofed, are liable to caufe the lower parts of the
nofes to be too thick and large ; while in naturally good
and improved forms, the lower parts of the nofes and
irtouths are for the moll part fmall. Nor is the pro-
minent and bold daring eye held in more eftimation, as it
is thought not to {h«w a good difpofition ; but, on the
contrary, to difplay too much quicknefs and at^ivity, or
wildnefs of nature in the animal. Opinions, however, differ
much on this point among flirep-farmers ; and a lively
quick eye is almoll aKvays cor.fidered as favourable to a
good difpofition.

Rams naturally poflefs more boldnefs and courage than
either wethers or ewes ; and they are very apt, unlefs

great care is taken, to acquire mifchievous habits of attack-
ing perfons or animals that may by accident approach them.
In fome Iheeji-dilhias the breeders are greatly in favour
of large rams, but in otliers thofe of a fmaller fize are pre-
ferred ; the choice of the fize of the rams fliouid, however,
in every inflance, be regulated by the nature and abundance
of the keep, or the quality of the lands, as. it is utterly im-
poilible that t!ie inferior forts of pallures can keep fhecp-
ilock of the large fize, as in thofe of the better kindb ; and
it would be highly difadvantageous in the befl rich forts to
have a (niall-fi/.cd ftock wlien they could fupport a large
one ill an equally perfect manner. Middle-fized rams arc,
upon the whole, the moll fuitable and proper for lands in
general, and for all the piirpofes of the breeder.

The growth and conflitutions of young rams fhould never
be iuffercd to be endangered by their having too great a
number of ewes, as is too frequently the praftice with
flieep-breetlers.

It IS a very improper cuilom, but one which prevails with
the graziers in fome fheep-diilricls, to keep all their rams,
perhaps to the amount of from twenty to fifty or more of
all kinds, in one field or pallure ; as their contentions are
often fo violent, efpecially about the riding time, as to
caufe the lois of one or two rams to each in all fucli cafes.
This praftice is the moll common in the flieep-dillridts to-
wards the fouthcrn part of the ifland, being feldom met
with in thofe of the midland or more northern part-;. It
ought to be every where done away with.

The old rams are now almofl always got quit of by being
fattened as rams, and (old at the neighbouring markets, or to
butchers, at a very inferior price, there being often much
competition for this fort of low-priced meat in fome fitua-
tions. It was formerly, however, the cuilom in fome places
to knit them before they were fattened and foW to tlie
butchers or otherways, but much injury and lofs being
found to be fullained by that method, it has been left oft ;
it being now concluded, on the whole, that the lofs by knit-
ting the rams is greater than that which is fuffered in the
reduftion of the price of ram mutto..;

The practice of letting out rams in the midland diflricls
for the purpofe of improving the breeds of fheep, having
produced fuch beneficial effe(?ls, the rife, nature, and pro-
grefs of it may deferve the attention of the ilock-farmer.
It has been ably and accurately delineated, in the following
manner, by Mr. Marfliall, in his Rural Economy of that
part of the kingdom.

It is ftatcd, tiiat in this diftrift, in general, the manage-
ment refpeCling rams is fimilar to that of other parts of tfae
ifland ; the breeders rearing or purchajmg them. But that
it is obfervable, however, that the advocates of the old
breeds, though they will not adopt the modern flock, have
fallen, in fome degree, into the modern praftice oi letting by
\.\\e feafon. But tiiat the rams of the modern breed are nerer
fold ; but are paffed from breeder to breeder, by the feafon
only. And that for the purpofe of promoting this inter-
courfe, each principal breeder has hisyZiow of rams ; com-
mencing, by common confent, the 8th of June, and lafling
until Michaelmas, or until the feafon of letting be pail.
That during a few weeks after the fhows commesce, every
ram-breeder may be faid to keep open houfe. Breeders
and others, from all quarters of the kingdom, as well as
the promoters of the breed who refide in the neighbour-
hood, attend thefe fhows ; going, in parties, from one to
another ; fome to take, others to fee and pafs their judg-
ment. And that thefe private exhibitions clofe with a
public JImiu, at Leicefter, the 10th of Oftober ; when rams
of every defcription, but uioltly an inferior fort of the im-
proved

RAM.

proved breed, are collefted ; being brought in waggons ;
many of them from a confidL'rable diftance ; fome to be
fold, but chiefly to be kt for the feafon. That this fliow
has been held, he believes, time immemorial ; not, however,
for the purpofe oi letting, but for that oi fale. Biit the let-
ting of rams by the feafon, has long, lie underlla-nds, been a
pradlice in Lincolnfhire. However, the origin, in the mid-
land diilritls, may be traced — to a ram let by Mr. Bakcweli,
at Leicelter fair, about forty years ago, at the low price
of fixteen (hillings. But humble, however, as was this
beginning, it proved, Mr. Marshall fays, to be the firlt
ftone of the foundation of a department of rural bufinefs,
that, has already rifen to an aftonifhing height, and may,
for fome length of time, continue to bring in a copious
fource of wealth to the country. In the management of
this bufmefs, the principal ram-breeders fave annually,
twenty, thirty, or perhaps forty ram-lambs ; caftration
beino-'feldom applied, in the firll inftance, to the produce
of a valuable ram. For, in the choice of thefe lambs, they
are led more by blood, or parentage, than by form ; on
which, at an early age, little dependance can be placed.
He adds, that their treatment, from the time they are
weaned, in July or Auguft, until the time of (hearing, the
firft week in June, confifts in giving them every indulgence
of keep; in order to pufh them forward for the (how : it being
the common praftice to let iuch as are fit to be let the firft
feafon ; while they are yet yearlings — ^rowncxdWy Jljarhogs.
Their iirft pafture, after weaning, is pretty generally, he be-
lieves, clover that has been mown early, and has got a fecond
time into head : the heads of clover being confidcred as a
moft forcing food for (heep. After this goes ofi, turnips,
cabbages, colewort, with hay, and report fays, with corn.
But the ufe of this the breeders feverally deny, though,
coUeftively, they may be liable to the charge. However
this may be, fomething confiderable depends on the art of
making up, — not lambs only, but rams of all ages. Fat,
like charity, covers a multitude of faults ; and, bcfide, is the
beft evidence their owners can produce, oi xheW fatting quality,
— their natural propenfity to a (late of fatnefs ; while in
the fatnefs of the (liarhogs is feen their degree of inclination
to fat at an early age. And that the fatting quality being
the one thing needful in grazing (lock : and being found, in
fome confiderable degree at leaft, to be hereditary, — the
fatteft rams areof courie the hefl ; though other attachments,
well or ill placed, as to form, or fadiionable points, will per-
haps have equal or^ greater weight in the minds of fome
men, even in this enlightened age and diftritt. And the fliear-
lings, which will not make up fufficiently, as to form and
fatnefs, are either kept on to another year, to give them a
fair chance, or are caitrated, or butchered, while (harhogs.

With regard to the fliowing, it is remarked, that tlie
(hows of the principal breeders confift, by common confent,
of forty rams each, moftly from one to five years old,
they being feldom found efficient after that age ; fome,
however, will continue in vigour to the fixth or feventli
year. And that, during the (how, they are moftly kepi in
fmall inclofures, of two, three, or four acres ; with three,
four, or more rams in each, according to their ages, and
the advancement of the feafon. And in a corner, or other
convenient part of each paddock, a fmall pen, made with
hurdles, is placed ; for the purpofe of handling them. Into
thefe pens they go, through cuftom, as traAabiy as worked
oxen to their ftalls. Indeed, the old rams, from the un-
wieldinefs of their frame, and the load of fat they have to
carry at this feafon, as well as from habit, will fuffer them-
felves to be handled abroad ; and even appear to take plea-
fure in the refpeft which they have (hewn them. But it is

obferved, that of late a new method of (howing has been
(truck out by the leading breeder, and adopted by one at
leaft of his followers. Indead of (howing them abroad,
ai d driving three or four of them up together in a pen, they
are fliut up in hovels, and brought out feparatcly, being never
feen together. He thinks, that among accurate judges, this
mode of (howing may be well enough ; but to tliofe who
have had Ids experience it gives o(rence, as it deprives them
of their beft guide, compariion ; and he can fee no fair ad-
vantage accruing from it to the latter.

It is remarked, that though the dcfirable points of a ram
are fuch as have been noticed, the choice ot the hii-er is
determined, in fome meafure, by the mtention for which
he is about to hire : as whether it be that of getting
wedders, or mere grazing (lock : or rams for the purpofe
of letting. Hence the grazier and the ram-breeder choofe
different (heep, fo as to fuit their different purpofes. He
adds, that the charafteriftic diflFerence between what is
termed a ram-gelter and a tvcdtkr-gelter, or a good grazier's
(heep, is that of the former being every where cleaner and
finer, the head fmall, the bone and offal light, the fle(h
good, and the form beautiful. The mere grazier likes a
ram no worfe for having a ftrcngth of frame, and is le(s
Icrupulous about his form than the ram-breeder, whofe
great objeft is linenefs : his ewes, and the natural ten-
dency of the breed, ferve to give his offspring lize and
fubftance when it is wanted.

In refpedl to the praftice of letting, it is obferved, that
a novel circumftance has likewife taken place lately in the
bufinefs of letting. The long eftablifhed cuftom of fetting
a price was exploded, at leaft by the late Mr. Bakewell,
and one of hi^ difciples ; v.'hoie cuftomers were left to mfike
their own valuations, and bid what they pleafed. But this,
as well as (hewing them feparately, it is obferved, gives
great offence, efpecially to ftrangers, who cannot brook the
idea of being both buyers and fellers. The latter, hov*-
ever, has more than one advantage in referving the price,
provided he do not thereby drive away his cuftomers : he is,
in effeft, letting to the beft bidder. Befide, he is, through
this mean, enabled to regulate his prices to his cuftomers,
without giving any of them pointed offence : for as the
principal breeders are, in the nature of their bufinefs, com-
petitors, it is no more than common good policy, in the
leader at leaft, to advance himfelf, and keep back thofe
who prefs upon him clofeft. It is, therefore, good ma-
nagement, Mr. Marfhall thinks, in him to let a fuperior
ram to an inferior breeder, whofe ewes are yet of bafe
blood, at a lower price than to one who is farther advanced,
and whole ewes perhaps are nearly equal to his own : for if
the hirer may not thereby be able to get the lead from him,
he may run away with part of the beft prices ; and the only
line the leader has to tread is, either to refufe him, or to
make him pay in the firft inftance. And again : fometimes
two or three capital breeders will join in the hiring of one
fuperior ram ; and, in this cafe, the blood being more widely
difperfed, the price ought to be, and always is advanced, in
proportion to the number of partners there may be in the
bufinefs. Hence, in the leader, a rcfervation of price may
be allowable, efpecially in the letting of firft-rate rams.

He obferves, in regard to the conditions of letting, that
notwithftanding the number of years the letting of rams has
now been in ufe, and the extraordinary height to which the
prices have rifen, the tranfaftion does not appear to have
yet received any fettled form ; nor to have been rendered
legally binding, by any written articles, or conditions of
letting ; much being ftill left to the honour of the parties.
It is, however, generally underilood, that the price agreed

upon

RAM.

vipon fhall not be paid, unlefs the ram in eoiitraft, or anothir
as good, impregnate the ilipulated number ot ewes. If,
throucrii accident or inability, part only be impn-gnatej, a
proportional part of the price is abated. If he die while at
ride, the lofs falls on the letter, whether his death hapj)ens
through accident or negleft ; no cafi:, he underllands, hav-
ing yet been othervvife determined. It is likewife under-
flood, that the hirer fliall not fuffer him to ferve any other
than his own ewes ; and of thefe, no more than a Ilipulated
number, which is proportioned to the age or ability of the
ram, and the mode of ufmg him. And further, that if a
grazier hire a valuable ram, at a wedder-gettcr's price,
(which is not unufual at the wane of a fealon, when valuable
rams happen to be unlet,) it is underftood, or rather agreed,
that lie ihall not rear rams from him ; a condition which
may frequently be advantageous to both parties. The
letter pockets five or ten guineas, which otherwife he might
not have had ; and the hirer, by fufTering himfelf to be
" tied down," as it is termed, gets a greater improvement
in his ftock than othervvife he could have got for the fame
money. He adds, that the time of paying the money is, he
underllands, unfixed; feldom, he believes, until after the
ewes have brought proofs of the ram's efficiency, or after
the lambing feafon.

It is obfervcd, that with regard to the prices for letting
rams by the feafon, that from the firll letting to the year
1780, the prices kept gradually rifing from j^xtow yJi7//«^j-
to a guinea, and from one guinea to ten. In 1780, Mr.
Bakewell let feveral at ten guineas each ; and what is rather
inexplicable, Mr. Parkinfon of Quarendon let one, the fame
year, for twenty -fi-ue guineas, a price which then allonifhed
the whole country. That from that time to 1786, Mr.
Bakewell's Hock rofe rapidly, from ten to a hundred guineas ;
and that year he let two-thirds of one ram (referving one-
third of the ufual number of evi-es to himfelf) to two prin-
cipal breeders, for an hundred guineas each ; the entire fer-
vices of the ram being rated at three hundred guineas. This
excellent breeder making that year, by letting twenty rams
only, more than a thoufand pounds ! and that, fince that
time, the prices have been Hill rifing. Four hundred guineas
have been repeatedly given. The above breeder, this
year (1789), makes, he underllands, twelve hundred
guineas by three rams, (brothers he believes,) two thou-
fand of feven, and of his whole letting full three thoufand
guineas ! And that he now lets nothing under twenty
guineas ; a well-judged regulation, which Mr. Marfhall
thinks will probably be beneficial both to himfelf and his
cuftomers.

It is added, that, befide this extraordinary fum made by
Mr. Bakewell, there are fix or feven other breeders who
make from five hundred to a thoufand guineas each. The
whole amount of monies produced this year, in the midland
counties, by letting rams of the modern breed for one feafon
only, is eftimated, by thofe who are adequate to the fub-
jed, Mr. Marfhall fays, at the almoft incredible fum of ten
thoufand pounds. He knows that it is a popular idea, efpe-
cially of thofe who, living at a diftance, have only heard of
thefe extraordinary things, without having an opportunity
of coming at fatts, that the extravagant prices which are
talked of are merely nominal ; the principal part of the
money being returned, the aftual prices given being fmall,
in proportion to thofe held out. This, however, is, he be-
iieves, and on the belt authority, an erroneous idea. At
the firft fetting out of the high prices, there might be fome
tranfaftions of that nature ; but if ever they exiited, they
have ceafed long ago. Mr. Bakewell at prefent has the
came, at leatl, of being parfimonious, even to the fhepherds

of the flocks on which his rams are employed. His highelV
prefent, he underllands, is five /hillings ; if the price be
under fifty guineas, only half-a-crown. But the enormouf-
nefs of ihcle prices may be explained, he thinks, on other
grounds. The high prices are not given, he fays, by
gra/.icrs, for the purpofe of getting wedders, as grazing
flock ; but by ram-breeders, for the |)urpole of getting
rams, to be let to graziers : the hlghejl being given by the
principal breeders only, not for the purpofe of getting rams
to let to graziers as wedder-getters, but for that of gettin-r
rams, to be let out again to inferior tup-men, as ram-
getters.

It is further flated, that the graziers' prices run, even
now, from one to ten guineas. He has not heard of more
than ten guineas being given, by a mere grazier, for a ram,
for the fole purpofe of getting grazing flock : five or fii
guineas is tlie common price. And fuppofing he gives the
higheft price, ten guineas, and that the ram ferves a hundred
ewes, (fome fingle, fome double,) tlic cxpcncc of getting
amounts to no more lluin two fliiliings a head ; which is iii-
confiderable, compared with the difference between a well
and an ill grazing fheep, between a flieep that will get as
fat at two years old as another will at three ; or, in other
words, which will, at two years and a half old, fetch ten
or fifteen fhillings more than his comrades of another breed,
but of the fame natural fize, and going in the fame paflure,
or feeding on the fame fort of food. In refpcdl to the middle
prices, as thofe from twenty to fifty guineas, they are, under
the prefent circumftances, equally rcconcileable, he thinks,
to common fenfe. If a breeder, who gives fifty guineas,
rear ten tolerable rams fit for the grazier's ufc, and let them
at five guineas each, he brings himfelf home, even the firfl
feafon of letting, befide having the rams for another and
another feafon, and befide a general improvement in his
ftock for the future. And thofe who give the higher
prices, as one to two hundred guineas, have, or ought to
have, proper bafes to build upon, fuflicient flocks of well-
bred ewes ; in which caftf, they have a fair chance of pro-
ducing ram-getters, worth, while the prefent fpirit of im-
provement lafts, twenty to fifty guineas a feafon. And
that with refpeft to the very high prices, they are given by
a few firft -rate breeders, who are playing a high game, run-
ning a hard race, for the pride and profit of being a leader,
when Mr. Bakewell is not ; a contention which may laft as
long as Mr. Bakewell, and be at once an honour to his
genius, and a reward of his fervices.

In refpect to the treatment of rams after letting, it is
remarked that the breeders of rams, as well as of bulls, find
it expedient to reduce them from the cumbrous ftate in
which they are fhewn, prcvioufly to the feafon of employ-
ment ; the old rams, in particular, being frequently returned
upon their hand, non-efficient. Hence, as tiiey are let, they
are transferred to private paftures, and moderate keep ; it
being a pretty general rule not to fhew a ram after he is let,
or contrafted for to a perfon.

In the fending out let rams, the ufual time of beginning
is the middle of September ; the means of conveyance, car-
riages of two wheels with fprings, or hung in flings ; fome
of them being large enough to hold four rams. In thefe
they travel from twenty to thirty miles a day ; being fome-
times fent, in this way, two or tliree hundred miles, ard
fometimes more.

It has been obferved by the fame writer, that the manner
of ufing thefe rams has lately received a very great improve-
ment. Inftead of turning them loofe among the ewes at
large, as heretofore, and agreeably to the univerfal praftice
of the ifland, they are kept apart, in a feparate paddock or

fmall

RAM

R A M

fiiiall indofuie, witli a couple of ewes only each, tw make
them rell quietly ; having the ewes of the flock broiiglit to
them (ingly, and leaping each only once. He thinks, by
this judicious and accurate regulation, a ram is enabled to
impregnate near twice the number of ewes he would do, it
turned loofe among them, efpecially a young ram. And
he adds, that, in the old practice, fixty or eighty ewes were
efteemed the full number for a ram : in the new, from a
hundred to a hundred and twenty are allowed. Seven fcore
have been ferved by one ram in a feafon : this is, however,
much too gi-eat a number.

And while at ride, the treatment of the ram is merely that
of keeping him well, and free from diforders ; fuffcring him
to ferve no other than the hirer's own ewes, and of thefe
the limited number only, and to return him fafe when he has
done ; generally the beginning of December : or, if the hirer
nas met him on the road, (which is cuftomary,) the latter,
in return, meets him on his journey home. And the after
treatment confifts in driving, by CTcry devifeable means, to
reload his carcafc, and make him fat and handfome for the
cnfuing fhow, in order that he may be let again with advan-
tage.

This is the whole of the plan that was purfued in that
diilrift, which has led the way to fo much improvement in
the breeding of (heep itock ; and from which the country
has derived^fuch vail benefits, and fuch a number of advan-
tages. But though the above praftices have not been lately
carried on to their former extent, they are ftill very con-
fiderable. See Sifeep.

It is remarked, that the praftice of hiring rams in
Romney Marfh is not carried on with the fame degree of
fpirit as it is in Leicefterfhire, and that rams were of more
value for the hiring feafon fome time ago than they are at
prefent, efpecially when the crofs of the above county took
place, as then from twenty to one hundred guineas were fre-
quently given. One grazier fome time fince let rams to the
amount of twelve hundred guineas ; but the rage is now
over, the people not being fo foolifh as to be duped out of
their money, without the prolpeft of being repaid. It is
here the praftice with fome to ride their ram lambs ; but
they are faid always to be injured in their growth, if not in
their conilitutions and difpofitions, by it. When a ram
dies while at ride, the lofs falls on the owner, and, befide,
he is not paid for the riding. The time of paying is when
the rams are removed from the ewes. This is done by car-
rying them away in carts, or leading them by ropes. The
ram lambs are here now moftly felefted and laved, in fuch
numbers as are proper for the hirers.

Some time before the riding feafon, the graziers call and
agree for the hiring or purchafing of rams, the general price
ufually from three to five guineas ; but a fupcrior one will
bring ten in particular cafes, though many good ufeful ones
let at three guineas. Some purchafe them to ride, and im-
mediately afterwards fell them in the markets. The rams,
which are to be hired, are here fhewn all together in pafture
fields, which is a difadvantageous method.

In Suffex, until lately, ten guineas were the higheft price
that was heard of for the fale of any ram. Now fome let
many of their three -years old rams for fifty ; and inferior ones
at thirty, twenty, and ten guineas. Some have even been
let fo high as one hundred guineas.

Ram is alfo a term ufed to fignify any thing which has
a ftrong fmell or ta(t»

Ram, in yljtrotiony. See Aries. ^

Ram of M. Montgolfier, Hydraulic, in Mechnntcs, a ma-
chine for raifing water to any given height, which has lately
attrafted much attention in France. The firft perfon who

employed this method was Mr. Whitehurft, and it wa»
afterwards improved by Mr. Boullon. Its conftructioii and
ufc may be iufficiently uiiderJlood by the following ftate-
rrent. It ferves to raife water by means of the momentum
of a ilream of water flowing through a long pipe. The
paflagc of the pipe being flopped by a valve, which is raifed
by the Ilream, as foon as its motion becomes fufficiently
rapid, the whole column of fluid mufl: necefiarily concen-
trate its aftion almod inllantaneoully on the valve, and in
this manner it lofes the charaileriltic property of hydraulic
prellure, and afts as if it were u fingle lolid ; fo that, fup-
pofiiig the pipe to be perfectly elallic and incxteiifible, the
impulie mull overcome any prellure, however great, that
might be oppofed to it ; and if the valve open into a pipe
leading to an air-vcilel, a certain quantity of the water will
be forced in, fo as to condenfe the air, more orlefs rapidly,
to the degree that may be required, for raifing a portion of
the water contained in it to any given height. Young's
Courfe of Leftures on Nat. Philof. vol. i.

Ram, in Mythology, the name of the highelt god among
the Gentoos. When a widow offered herfelf to be burnt on
the funeral pile of her hulband, ftie was encouraged by the
prefence of a number of attendants, who formed a circle
around her, and offered her frefh betel, intreating that, as
file would in a fhort time appear with her hulband in the
prefence of Ram, or their higheft god, (he would fupplicate
for various favours for them ; and above all, that fhe would
falute their deceafed friends, whom fhe might meet in the
celellial abodes, in their names.

Ram, Battering. See Ahies.

Ram'/'A^o/'m, in Fortification, a name given by M. Beli-
dor to the tenailles.

^K'si-Head, on board a Ship, the name of a great block
belonging to the fore and main halliards. It hath in it three
fhivers, into which the halliards are put, and at its head the
tyes are reeved inte a hole made there for that purpofe.

KA}>i-Head, in Geography, a cape on the S. coall of Ire-
land, and county of Waterford; four miles E. of Youghal
bay. N. lat. 51° 56'. W. long. 7° 44'. — Aifo, a cape on
the S.E. coaft of New Holland. S. lat. 36° 56°. E. long.
149° 35'. — Alfo, a cape of England, on the S. coaft of
Cornwall, in the Englifh Channel, between Whitefand bay
and Plymouth found. N. lat. 50^ 19'. W. long. 4-' 12'.

KAM-Normwz, a town of Perfia, in Chufiftan ; 65 miles
S.E. of Sillier or Shuller. — Alio, one of the moll romantic
vaUies in Perfia, which has been lately placed under the
beglerbeg of Bebahan. It is fifteen furfungs in length
(the furfung being eftimated at 3|- Englifh miles), and from
fix to eight miles in breadth. The river Jeraki, entering at
the eaftern extremity, flows through the centre of it, when
meeting the Kkaorkhankende, which defcends from the
mountains fix miles E. of the town of Ram-Hormuz, they
together force a paffage through a low ridge of hills, which
fkirt the valley to the fouth. This fertile fpot is, at pre-
fent, in the hands of five hoftile chiefs ; the firft of whom
is an Arab, who refides in a mean village, fituated at the
W. end of the valley, and built aniidft the ruins of the an-
cient city of Ram-Hormuz. The remaining four are Per-
fians, and brothers, who have each a caftle, or fortified vii-
lage ; from which they make frequent fallies, and carry off ■
the corn and cattle of their rivals. A great battle was I
fought in this valley, between Artaxerxes Babegan, and
Artabanes, in which the former vvas viclorious, and firft
afl'umed the title of " Shah en Shah," or king of kings.
Kinr.eir's Perf. Emp. 1813.

R.^m's IJland, an ifland in lough Neagh, Ireland,
about two miles from the fhore, and containmg about fix

acres. I

RAM

acres. It is in the wefleni part of tlic loiigli, in what is
called Sandy bay, and is the only ifland. One of the round
towers, fo frequent in Ireland, is found here, and renders
it an intereftinty objedl from the neiivjibouring grounds.
Dnbourdieu's Antrim.

RAMA, or Ramj.a, a town of Paleftine, which was
formerly large, and defended with ftrong walls ; celebrated
as the place where St. Paul cured iEneas. Tiie Muffulmen
reverence here the tomb of Locman the wife, and tiie fepiil-
chres of feventy prophets, laid to have been buried iiere.
The church of St. George is the only objedl now worthy
of notice. The place has a kind of market for gall-nuts,
fena, and gum arable, which the Arabs bring hither for
fale ; 20 miles N.W. of Jerufalem.

Rama, a town of Dahnatia ; 20 miles S.W. of Moftar.
Rama, or Ramah, fignifying ;ui emnience, in Scrtplurt-
Geography, a town ot Judca, in the tribe of Benjamin, ac-
cording to the book of Jofhua, ch. xviii. v. 20. It was
fituated towards the mountain of Ephraim, between Gaba
and Babel, about feven miles from .lerufalem, according
to St. Jerom. This city lay on the road from Samaria to
Jerufalem ; for which reafon Baafha, king of Ifrael, caufed
it to be fortified, to obdruft the pad'age from the land
of Judah into that of Ifrael. This is the Ramatha, or
Ramalhaim-Zoph'tm, the country of the prophet Samuel.
[ Sam. i. I — ig. and ii. II. Sec. It was on the frontiers of
Ephraim and Benjamin ; and frontier cities were inliabited
by both tribes. Jeremiah probably fpeaks of tliis Ramah. ,
Jer. xl. I, 2, 3. See alfo ch. xxxi. 15, 16, 17.

Rama, a city of Naphtali (Jofli. xix. 36.), on the fron-
tier of Alher (Jofli. xix. 29.)

Rama, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of a dilUn-
guilhed mortal, in whom their deity Villinu was incarnated
for the purpofe of relieving mankind from the tyranny and
oppreffion of Ravena, the malignant king of Lanka, or
Ceylon. This incarnation is one ot the ten avataras, or
defcents of Vilhnu, and is, in its fuppofed importance,
fecond only to that of Krifhna. It is fimilarly a popular
hillory, and allufions to it perpetually occur in the writings
and converfation of the Hindoos. The invafion and con-
quell of Lanka is the fubjeft of one of their fineft poems,
entitled the Ramayana ; it furnillied fubjecls for the drama,
tor itinerant bards, and for every purpofe of poetry, being
replete with magnificent imagery, and abounding in llriking
incidents. (See Ramayana.) The mortal pai-ents of
this divine hero were Raja Dafaratha" king of Ayodetra
(Oude), and his firft wife Kahnnfilya. Hence this Rama
is fometimes ftiled Dafrat Rama, to diftinguifh him from
other heroic Ramas ; and fometimes Rama Chandra, mean-
ing of lunar defcent.

There are three perfons of the name of Rama, recorded
as incarnations of Vifhnu. One is Bala Rama, the elder
brother, by the fame parents, of Krifhna ; the fecond, Parafu
Rama ; and the third, Rama Chandra, the fubjeft more im-
mediately of this article. But it has been made a queftion,
whether they be not three reprelentations of one perfon, or
three different ways of relating the fame hiftory ; and
whether any or all of them mean Rama the fon of Cufh,
fir W. Jones ( Af. Rcf. vol. i. ) fays he leaves others to
determine. He deems Rama to be the fame as the Grecian
Dionyfos, who is faid to have conquered India with an
army of fatyrs, commanded by Pan ; and Rama was alfo
a mighty conqueror, and had an army of large monkeys or
fatyrs, commanded by Maruty, fon of Pavan. (See Ma-
KiJTY. ) Rama is alfo found, in other points, to refemble
the Indian Bacchus: he is, notwithftanding his lunar appel-
lation above noticed, fabled to be a defcendant of the lun,
Vot.. XXIX.

RAM

his wife's name is Sita ; and it is very remarkable that the
Peruvians, whofc Incas boafted of the fame defcent, ftiled
their great feltival Ramafitoa.

In a charge delivered by Dr. Watfon, aff^rrwards bifhop
of LandafF, to the clergy of the archdeaconry of Ely in
May 1780, are many curious and flirewd obfervationg on
oriental ufages. He notices a " ftring of cuUoms wholly
the fame amongft people fo far removed from each other as
the Egyptians and Peruvians. The Egyptian women, he
fays, made facred cakes of flour, whicli they offered to the
queen of heaven, at their principal folar feflivuls tailed
Raymi and Citua : the Peruvian women did the fame."
Almoll all the cuftoms defcribed as common to thefc diftant
people, the Egyptians and Peruvians, as well as tha. ., ctcd,
are Hindoo cuiloms, ancient and exilting.

All the Ramas are famed as great warriors and as youths
of perfedt beauty. In the Gita, an epifode of the Maha-
barat, Krifhna, defcribing himfelf to Arjun as pre-eminent
among all things and perfons, fays, " Among thofe who
carry arms, I am Rama." It is Rama Chandra, however,
and his lovely Sita, who are the favourite fubjcfts of heroic
and amatory poetics : he is defcribed in the Ramayana " of
ample (houlders ; brawny arms, extending to the knee ; neck
fhell-formed ; cheft circular and full, with aufpicious marks;
body hyacinthine ; with eyes and hps of fanguine hue ; the
lord of the world ; a moiety of Vifhnu himlelf ; the fource
ot joy to Ikfhvvaku's race." He is fuitably mated in his
, faithful Sita, one of the moft interefting females in Hindoo
poetry. ( See under her name for fome account of her, and
a defcription of her perfon. ) Rama is alfo called Ra-
ghuva, or fon of Raghu, (fee thefe articles,) like Ikft-
waku, one of his mortal anceilry. Kaka-pakflia-dara, or
crow-winged, is an epithet given to the Ramas, and to
other warriors, from a certain mode of (having the head,
leaving the hair over the ears only, refembling crow's wings.
as is fancied. Shyamula, or blue-bodied, is an appellation
of Rama, as well as of Krifhna, and of their common pro- ^
totype, Viflinu ; all being reprefented of hyacinthine hue.
It may be here remarked, tiiat ieveral incidents in the Sri-
Bhagavat, fa hiltory of Krifhna,) and in the Ramayana,
told fimilarly of their feveral heroes, feem to mix or ap-
proximate, though perhaps fcarcely to identify, the charac-
ters of Knfhna and Rama. Each won a wife by bending
an unyielding bow, not very unlike the ftory of Ulyffes.
Each is defcribed as overcoming the demon Kumbakarna,
and others. Krifhna defcended into hell ; fo did Sita, the
fakti, or energy of Rama. Both have adventures with the
bear Jamba. See Jamba, &c.

All fefts and tribes, who, under the denomination of
Vai/I.vmvas (which fee), worfhip Vifhnu, (bating fuch
deiltica! philofophers as fceptically deny the perfonal ex-
iflence of inferior deities, attributes, or avataras, of whom
fee under Jaimini,) agree in flating, that, with the excep-
tion of Krifhna, the potentiality of the preferving power
was never exhibited in fuch plenitude as in the avatara of
Rama. In popularity, a-.id in dramatic, hiftoric, and poetic
fliapes, it rivals that of Kriflina. And as one or more feft?
adore Krifhna as the deity himfelf, and draw rules for their
rehgious and moral conduft from the Sri-Bhagavat ; fo the
feft called Ranianuj fimilarly clothe Rama in almighty at-
tributes, and deem the Ramayana a complete body oi ethic
and morahty. See Ramanuj.

In the feries of incarnations of Vifhnu, called das-avataru.,
or the ti'n defcnits, to diftinguifh them from others of lefs im-
portance, the avataras of Parafu Rama and Rama Ciiandra
are ufually placed fixth and feventh, as given under Vishnu.
Sometimes Krifhna is altogether omitted ; in which cafe.
3 C Bala

R A M

II A M

Bala Rama ranks as the eighth. Mtifali is a name of the third
Rama, under which word fome notice is taken of him. And
of Paru/a or Pariifia Ramtt, fee under that article. The name
of Rama, or perhaps more corredlly of Rami, is one of the
many names of Parvati, confort of Siva. The name is ajfo
ufed, beyond the pale of his own feiftaries, ni fiipplicatioii
and praifc. Ram-Ram is a ufual falutation, like our good
morrow, between friends at meeting or parting, and is ufed
by both Vailhnavas and Saivas ; and it is reverently reiter-
ated in times, and in aid, of abllraftion (fee Jap) ; and
under the operation of feelings of enthufiafm or didrefs.

The hiilory of the Ramas mixes itfelf with that of fo
many others of Hindoo mythological perfons, thjft in many
of our accounts of fuch perfons, &c. particulars occur
refpefting them. Thofe dcfirous of farther notice of the
Ramas are, therefore, referred, in addition, to the following
articles: Ceyi.ok, Java, KAiHN.';iLyA, Lakshiman,
Lanka, Makuty, Ravena, Ramayana, Runeka,
SlTA, &c. from which other references point to articles on
fubjefts connefted lierewith.

RAMADA, or Nan Sala/ujnca, in Geography, a town
of South America, in the province of St. Martha ; 90
miles E. of St. Martha. N. lat. 1 1° 10'. W. long. 72'-" 20'.

RAMADAN, a fort of lent obferved by the Maho-
metans, in obedience to the cxprefs command of the Koran,
during which they fait the whole day, from the time the
new moon firft appears, till tlie appearance of the next new
moon, with fuch extreme fuperftition, that tliey not only
abftain from eating, drinking, and women, but dare not
wafli their mouth, nor even fwallow their fpittle, from day-
break till night, or fun-fet.

The men, indeed, are allowed to bathe themfelves ; but
it is on condition they do not plunge the head under
water, left iome drops enter by the mouth or ears, &c.
But as for the women they are ftriftly forbidden bathing.
Some are fo cautious, that they will not open their mouth,
to fpeak, lell they (liovild breathe the air too freely. The
faft is alfo deemed void if they kifs or touch a woman.
To make amends, they feaft all night till day -break ;
though the more rigid begin the faft again at midnight ;
and ufually fpend more in this month than in fix others.

The Ramadan happens at different ieafons of the year ;
and when it is in the fummer it is very hard on the la-
bourers. This month once in thirty-three years is in every
feafon of the year, the Turkifh month being lunar, and
they beginning at the day they can fee the moon ; whereas
the Jews begin their account from tlie day the moon makes,
which is a day before the Turks.

The reafon given why the month of Ramadan was fixed
upon for this purpofe is, that on this month the Koran was
fent down from heaven. From this faft of Ramadan none
are excufed, except travellers and fiek perfons, under which
latter denomination are included all thofe whofe health
would be manifeftly injured by keeping the faft ; but then
they are obliged, fo loon as the impediment is removed, to
faft an equal number of other days ; and breaking of the faft
is ordered to be expiated by giving alms to the poor.

RAMAG, a word ufed by fome of the chemical writers
to expi"efs afhes.

RAMAGE, a term ufed for the boughs or branches of
trees. Hence,

RAMAGE-//«'Zi'^, or Falcon, one that is wild and coy, as
having been long among the boughs, preying for itfelf.
All falcons retain this name till they have left the aery ;
being fo called in May, June, July, and Auguft. Thefe
are very rarely reclaimed. See Br.^kcher, pAiCON, and
Hawking.

Ramaoe Velvet. See Velvet,

RAMAGURRY, in Geography, a town of Hmdixjftan,
in the Carnatic ; 30 miles W. of Tritchinopoly.

RAMAH, a town of Arabia, in the province of Neds-
jed ; 120 miles N.W. of Jamama.

Ramaii, or Ramalla, Rainola, Ramula, Ratnha, Ruma,
or Rtmphtij, a city W. of Jerufalem, between Lydda and
Joppa, according to St. Jtiom ; or between Joppa and
Jerufalem, as modern travellers defcribe it. This is the
place which Eufebius and St. Jerom took for Arimathea,
the country of Joleph. Matt, xxvii. 57.

RAMAI, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by many old
writers to bole armenic. ,

RAMAK, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Scimna ; which
fee.

RAMALINGA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Coimbctore ; 16 miles S.S.W. of Erroad.

RAMALIS Vena, a name given by fome anatomical
authors to the vena porta;.

RAMANUJ, the name of a religious feft of Hin-
doos, of the great fubdivifion of Vaiftinava, who worfttip
Vilhnu, the pcrfonification of the preferving power of
the deity, in his incarnation of Rama. Of this feft fome
wordiip Rama only, fome his fpoufe Sita, and fome both
Rama and Sita conjointly. (See Rama.) Among the
Ramanuj none are addidted to the indecent, or left-handed,
mode of worftiip noticed under the article R.vdiia as
difgracing her votaries. (See farther under Sakt.\, and
Sects of Hindoos.) The different fefts of Hindoos are
diflinguifhable by a variety of marks on their foreheads ;
of which a great many arc reprefented m the fecond plate,
with copious explanations in page 404, of the Hindu Pan-
theon. The feft of Ramanuj are known by a duuble up-
right white line on the forehead, with a red line between,
or fometimes a circlet or dot. Sometimes the lines are
red and the circlet black.

RAMAS, Cape, in Geography, a cape on the W. coaft
of Hindooftan ; 21 miles S. of Goa.

RAMASSERAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the cir-
car of Rajamundry ; 35 miles S.S.E. of Rajamundry.

RAMAYAN.-i, the title of a poem in the Sanfcrit
language, of great celebrity in India, and regarded as facred
by fome feels of Hindoos, and greatly venerated by all.
Its fubjeft is the exploits of three perions named Rama ;
but more efpecially the wars condufted by one of them,
named Rama Chandra, for the conqueft of Lanka or Cey-
lon, from its powerful fovercign Ravena, or rather, indeed,
for the refcue of his wife from the hands of that tyrant.
It is comprifed in feven kandas, or books, containing 24,000
ftilokas, or metrical ftanzas ; named thus: i. Adi-kanda,
containing 64 fedlions, and 2850 ftanzas; 2. Ayodhya-
kanda, 80 fections, and 41 70 ftanzas ; 3. Aranyaka-kanda,
114 feftious, and 4150 ftanzas ; 4. Keftikinda-kanda, 64
> feftions, 2925 ftanzas ; 5. Sundara-kanda, 43 feftions, 2045
ftanzas ; 6. Yudha-kanda, 105 feftions, 4500 ftanzas ;
7. Uttara-kanda, 90 fedlions, 3360 ftanzas. The Ra-
mayana may be called an epic poem, as it is on one conti-
nued, interefting, and heroic action. It is fecond in celebrity
only to the Mahabarat, and perhaps fupcrior to it in reputa-
tion for hohnefs. (See Mahabarat.) We have the au-
thority of fir William Jones for faying, that this great epic
poem, in unity of action, magnificence of imagery, and ele-
gance of diction, far furpaiTes the elaborate workof Nonnus,
in forty -eight books, entitled Dionyfiaca ; and for believing
that the heroes of the poems Rama (patronimically diftin-
guifhed by the name of Dafrat Rama) and Dionyfos are the
fame.

A curious

R A M

RAM

A curious parallel mig-ht be drawn between the manners and
ciilloms defcribed in thel'c two works, the Dioiiyfiaca and
Ramayana. The proceffions and rites detailed in the for-
mer leem dofcriptive, with a little licence for poetical em-
belliiTirnent, of thofe in ufajre to this day in India. Some of
tliefe Bacchic orgia arc noticed under our articles Dionvma
and No.\s-us ; which fee. A keen etymologid would lind in-
numerable lingual coincidencies ; and, in truth, many of the
names of perluns, Bacchus and Dionyfos, and of places,
as well as oriinnal perfons, fecm foberly traceable to the
lacrcd languiige and rites of the Brahmans.

So highly is the Ramayana venerated, that the fourth
clafs of Hindoos, the Sudra, is not permitted to read it.
At the end of the firft book, a promife is made of great
benefit to any individual of the three fr.ft clalfes or tribes
who ihall duly read it. " A Brahman, reading it, acquires
learning and eloquence ; a Klhetriya will become a monarch ;
a Vailya will obtain vail commercial profits ; and a Sudra,
hearing it, will become great." Of tliefe diftiiidlions of
tribes or claffes, the reader will find due notice under Sects
of Hindoos. Under Rama we have dated that his name rei-
terated is ufed by feveral fcfts as a fort of falutation, or be-
neditlion. Tiie author of the Ramayana, in the vanity of
playful egotifm, which, from its frequency with oriental
poets, has ceafed to feem afluming, calls on his readers to
" falute Valmiky, the kukila (cuckoo), who, mounted on the
branch of poely, founds the delightful note of Ram-
Ram."

It has been fnrmifed that the Ramayana, hke the Ma.haba-
rat, is allegorical, fo far as relates to perfonal adventures ;
which, in both cafes, are mere machinery for tlie introduc-
tion of a concealed fyftem of philofophy and ethics : in the
firfl inftance the allegory \% phyfical, in the latter moral. Un-
der the article Mahabarat the allegorical nature of that
extraordinary poem is fufficiently (hewn. The Kurus and
Pandus, the heroes of that poem (fee KuRU and Pandu),
are perfonifications of virtues and vices. The Ramayana
and the Dionyfiaca relate how their rcfpeftive Indian con-
querors led armies of fatyrs. ( See hereon under Maruty
and Rama.) Thefe fatyrs, or monkies, we apprehend
to be perfonifications of winds, or gazeous metaphors. In
the Ramayana we find the machinery to confift of the fun
and planets, fire, the firmament, wind, water, &c. per-
fonihed in the gods or regents of thofe bodies, elements,
&c. It has been farther furmifed, that whenever thefe two
extraordinary poems, the Mahabarat and Ramavana, fhall ap-
pear in Englifh, and their allegories be more fuHy examined,
it may poffibly be found, tliat not only the three Ramas will
melt into one, but that all will amalgamate with Krifhna.
Some objeftions to the identity of the Ramas have been
offered of a chronological nature. Parafu Rama, it is con-
tended, reigned or flourifhed eight generations before Rama
Chandra. Their poetical identity, however, is fufficiently
eftablifhed ; and one can fcarcely bring fuch a tiffueof alle-
gory, incarnations, and whimfical adventures, to the ted of
fober hillorical and chronological accuracy. Perfons of thefe
names may have reigned or flourifhed at any given period, for
they have always been very common, and are fo dill.

The Ramayana is fo replete with incident, that it is
carcely pofGble to give any analyfis of its fubjedl with fuf-
ficient brevity for this work. Unity of aftion is, however,
its charafteridic, namely, the recovery of Sita from the
hands of her ravidier Ravena, the gigantic tyrant of Cey-
lon. It may be noticed in paffing, that the Ramayana, like
the Iliad, is founded on a rape, and that Sita is the Helen
of the Hindoo epic. ( See Sita. ) So infeparably inter-
mixed are the varied fubjefts of the Hindoo mythological

hiftory, that the difcuflion of one neceffarily brings another
under notice. This is the caufe of fuch frequent references
to and from the articles under wliich we have endeavoured to
give a fuccintt account of fuch a number of fubjc-ds of that
defcription, didinCt apparently, but in reality connefted,
and often confounded with each other. On the fubjcft of
this article, the Ramayana, or for quotations from it, wc
may therefore refer to the following, among others : Ceylon,
Laksiimi, Lanka, Mantra, Pauasu Raka, Menaka,
Rave.va, Rhemba, ill addition to thofe pointed to in earlier
padages of this article, and in thofe articles jud named.

What precedes, referring to the poem bearing the title
of this article, is ofiered refpcfting the Ramayana of Val-
miki. There are many other pocnis of the fame name in
Sanfcrit, Prakrit, Hindvi, and many other Hindoo dialcfts ;
as well as in Arabic, Perfian, Malayan, and others derived
from the like fource. Thefe are of courfe of unequal cele-
brity and merit ; and acknowledged to be greatly didant
from Valmiki's divine poem. Even of this it may be faid,
that the dyle is frequently flat and diffufe, deficient in orna-
ment, and abundant in repetitions. As well as Valmiki's
work, feveral others, under the fame title, are ufually con-
fidered with more refpecl than mere profane poems. One
is afcribed to Vyafa, the reputed author or compiler of the
Vedas and Puranas. ( See thofe articles. ) A conliderable
portion of feveral of the latter mythological romances is
occupied by the fame fubjcA, to wit, the adventures of
Rama ; but in the Vedas no mention is made of this perfon,
except, indeed, in fome detached parts, reafonably fufpecled
to have been interpolated by zealous fe£laries. The titles
even of the philofopliical and profane poems, commentaries,
&c. that in divers languages owe their origin to the Rama-
yana, would require a catalogue of no inconfiderable extent
to contain them. Among thefe are included many dramatic
works. The quotations from, and allufions to its mytholo-
gical perfonages and fables, in the works of the minor poets,
are ir.cefiant ; and upon the whole, there is no fubjecl, per-
haps, in the whole range of Hindoo mythology, or hidory,
fo often in the minds and mouths of that race of all ranks
and fefts, as the dory of the Ramayana in fome of its bear-
ings. That of Krifhna rivals it in popularity. Both are
chanted by itinerant bards, who iliudrate their fubjecls by
exhibiting aferies of pi<ft ures f rom the Ramayana and Maha-
barat. Women fingers frequently accompany thefe eaitern
troubadours,who are commonly met with in every city, camp,
and town of India.

RAMAZZINI, Bernardin, in Biography, an ItaUan
phyfician of dillinftion, was born at Carpi, near Modena,
in 1633, where his father was a refpeftable citizen. Having
received a clafTical education from the Jefuits at his native
town, he went to Parma for the dudy of philofophy at the
age of 19, undecided what profeffion to adopt : at the end
of three years he feledled that of phyfic, and received the
degree of doftor at Parma in the beginning of 1659. He
then repaired to Rome for the completion of his dudies, and
fettled in praftice in the duchy of Cadro. He was foon
obliged by ill health, however, to return to his native air ;
and, on his recovery, he married, and purfued his profeffion
at Carpi. Finding his reputation increafing, he removed to
Modena, at the felicitation of fome friends, in 1 67 1, where
he met with merited fuccefs, and excited the jealoufies of
his brethren. In 1682 he was appointed profedor of the
theory of medicine in the univerfty, which had been recentlf
edablifhed at Modena, by duke Francis II. ; and he conti-
nued to fill this office for eighteen years, attending at the
fame time to praftice, and not neglefting the cultivation of
polite literature, to which he was particularly partial. The
302 eleganc

RAM

elegance of his Latin ftyle in his writings, evinces the fiic-
cels with which he puifiicd the ftiidy of the claflics. In
1700 he was invited to a profellorlliip at the more diilin-
guifhed univerfity of Padua, and removed lliithcr. Tiiongh
fomewhat advanced in age, he fidlilled tlic duties of his
chair with an ardour, not to be furpad'ed by his junior col-
leagues, for the fpace of three years, when he was attacked
with a difeafe of the eyes, which tlireatencd to dcdroy his
vifion, and which, in (nil, did ultimately deprive liim of
that faculty. Having loll the pleafure of reading, which
was the -only fource of Ins regret, he fupplicd that amufe-
ment by the afllltance of his grand-children, wiio read to
him, and afted as his amanuenfes. In 1708, however, the
fenate of Venice appointed him prefident of the college of
phyficians of that capital, and in the following year raifed
him to the firft profeffordiip of the praftice of medicine.
He continued to perform the duties of thefe honourable
polls, at the earneft folicitations of his conftituents and pu-
pils, with great diligence, to the end of his life, and died,
on his birth-day, November Jth, 1 7 14, in confequencc of
an attack of apoplexy, which leized him while he was pre-
paring for his leftures, at the age of 81.

Ramazzini was a member of fevcral of the academies of
fcience eftablilhedin Germany, Berlin, &.C., and left feveral
works ; the principal of which, and one which will ever
be held in eftimation, is his treatife on the difeafes ot artills
and manufafturers, entitled " De Morbis Artificum Dia-
triba," firft publilhed in 1700, and frequently reprinted.
He alfo pubhlhed fome trafts relative to certain epidemics,
both among men and cattle ; fome " Eph#nierides Barome-
tricE ;" a work on the abufe of Peruvian bark ; and feveral
orations delivered in his profeilorial capacity. All his
works have been collefted and publiihed together at Padua,
Geneva, London, and Naples ; the edition of London is
the moft correft. Eloy Dift. Hift. de la Med. Hutchin-
fon's Biog. Med.

RAMBANG, in Geogmphy. See Rembakg.

RAMBERVILLER, or Rembervillee, a town of
France, in the department of the Vofges, and chief place
of a canton, in the diftrift of Epinal ; 19 miles E. of Mere-
court. The place contains 4926, and the canton 14,014
inhabitants, on a territory of 317-5 kiliometres, in 28 com-
munes. N. lat. 43° 21'. E. long. 6° 43'.

RAMBIN, a town of Anterior Pomcrania ; 10 miles
W.S.W. of Bergen.

RAMBLE, a town of Spain, in the province of Cor-
dova ; feven miles N.W. of Montella Alfo, a town on the

W. coaft of the ifland of Teneriffe ; tlu-ee miles W. of La-
guna.

RAMBOUILLET, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Seine and Oife, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrift of Veriailles, the feat of a tribunal, and of a na-
tional farm, where the (heep are much celebrated for the
finenefs of their wool ; 27 miles S.W. of Paris. The
place contains 2586, and the canton 9652 inhabitants, on
a territory of 305 kiliometres, in 17 communes. N. lat.
48° 39'. E. long. I" 54'.

RAMBURE, a town of France, in the department of
thh Somme ; 3 miles W. of Oifemont.

RAMBURELLES, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Somme ; 9 miles S. of Abbeville.

RAMCHUND-POUR, a town of Bengal ; 30 miles
N.E. of Calcutta.

• RAMCHUNDRA, a town of Hindooftan, in the cir-
car of Mohurbunge : 23 miles S.S.E. of Harriopour.

RAMCHUNPO'UR, a town of Bengd ; 60 miles N.
of Dacca,

R A M

RAMCOTTA, a town of Thibet ; 18 miles S.W. of

Sirinagnr.

RAMCOUTY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 28
miles N.E. of Goorackpour. N. lat. 26^ 51'. E. long.
84" 8'.

RAMDILLY, a town of Hindooftan, ii: the Nayre ;
25 miles N.N.W. 01 Tellicherry.

RAMEAU, .lojiN Philip, in Bm^raphy, chevalier dc
St. Michel, compofcr to the king of France, and to PAca-
demie Royale de la Mufique, or lerions opera at Paris, was
born at Dijon in 1683. He went earlv in l-.is lite to Italy,
and at his return was appointed organilt at Clermont en
Auvergnc, where his ", Traite de la Mufique" was written,
in 1722. He was afterwards elcfted organift of St. Croix
de la Bretonneric at Paris. Here his time was chiefly em-
ployed in teaching ; however, he publifhed harpfichord lei-
Ions, and feveral other theoretical works, without diilin-
guifhir.g himfclf much as a vocal compofer, till the year
1733, when, at fifty years of age, he produced his firft
opera of " Hippolite et Aricie." The mufic of this
drama excited prufefTional envy and national difcord. Party
rage was now as violent between the admirers of Lulli and
Ramcau, as in England between the friends of Bononcini
and Handel, or, in modern times, at Paris, between the
Gluckiits and the Piccinifts.

When the French, during the lall century, were fo con-
tented with the mufic of Lulli, it was nearly as good as
that of other countries, and better patronized and fupportcd
by themoft fplendid prince in Europe. But this nation, fo
frequently accufed of more volatility and caprice than their
neighbours, have manifeiled a fteady perfevering conftancy
in their mufic, which the ftrongelt ridicule and contempt of
other nations could never vanquifh.

Rameau only anfwered his antagonifts by new produftions,
which were ftill more fuccefsful ; and, at length, he was ac-
knowledged by his countrymen to be not only fuperior to
all competition at Paris, but fole monarch of the mufical
world. From 1733 to 1760 he compofed twenty-one operas,
of which the names and dates are annually publiihed in the
" Speftacles de Paris," and in many other periodical works.

Rameau's ftyle of compofition, which continued in favour
almoft unmoleftcd for upwards of forty years, though formed
upon that of Lulli, is more rich in harmony, and varied in
melody. The genre, however difpleafing to all ears but
thofe of France, which had been nurfed in it, was carried
by the learning and genius of Rameau to its acme of per-
feftion ; and when that is achieved in any ftyle, it becomes
the bufinefs of fubfequent compofers to invent or adopt
another, in which lomething is ftill left to be done, befides
fervile imitation.

The opera of " Caftor and Pollux" having been long re-
garded in France as the mafter-piece of this compofer, we
ihall here infert a few remarks upon it, that have been made
on a recent examination.

The overture is the beft of this author, upon Lulli's plan.
Tlie opening fymphony is beautiful ; but why the fame me-
lody was not applied, in the fame meafure, to the poetry,
we know not, vmlefs the verfification required a change of
time ; but, in that cafe, why write the fymploony on a fub-
jeft that would not fuit the words ? But thofe eternal
changes in the meafure, which teaze and difappoint the ear
of all that are ufed to other mufic, is general in ferious
French operas, and feems as much the fault of the poet as mu-
fician. It is, however, wonderful, that thi? defedt wis not
fooner difcovered. The over-charged tcndernefs of Ra-
mean's mufic appears in all his flow movements, which are in
one ftyle, and generally in triple time. This matter perpe-
1 1 tually

RAM

tually dilcovers liimfi-lf to be a great harmonift ; but inured
to a bad talle and (lylo of compolitiou, as well as to bad
fniging, he has only augmented the defcfts of liis predeoef-
fors, and rendered what was rude and clunily iji LuUi Hill
tnorij oftenfive, by endeavours at fweetnefs or high feafoning.
The appoggiaturas, or leaning notes, being fo frequently
incorporated in tlie harmony, renders it crude, and the hang-
ing on every note, as if unwilling to relinquifh it, checks
and impedes the motion of the air, and gives it a flow and
languid effeCl, however lively the theme on which it is com-
pofed. Every pafTage in fuch melody refembles a French
lieroic verfe :

" Each is an jikxandnne, through the fong,

That, like a wounded fnake, drags its flow length along."

Tlie opening of the fecond aft, "Que tout gcmifl'e," is
very fine, and the pathos well applied ; but tlie fubfequent
air, wlileh is call in an admirable mould, is fpoiled by fre-
quent and iMuieceliary changes of mcalure ; and yet in fpite
of thefe defefts, and tlie vocal outrages of mademoifelle Ar-
nould, we were more plealed and affefted by this fcene, than
any other we ever heard at the French ferious opera. Tiie
march, which has few appoggialuras in it, is like other Chrif-
tian mufic.

The prelude fendre, at the opening of the third aft,
abounds with too many of thefe drags, which being equally
harfli to the ear and injurious to puliation, feem to pre-
vent the performer from ever falling on his feet ; and bar
eleventh, the chord of the fuperfluous fifth, which makes
all nature fhudder, except our Gallic neighbours, is here
continued fo long, that it diftorts the countenance of every
other hearer, like h'tera picra. The major minuet, page I2I,
after fo long and tirefome a minority, is rich in harmony and
graceful in melody. The voice is worfe ufed by the com-
pofer than the mod infigniticant inftrument. For after fe-
veral fymphonies that are extremely promifing, and the ear
has been made to expeft a continuation of the prefatory
ilrain, nothing is given to the vocal part but broken accents
and diflocated meafures. In the chaconne, which is admirable,
the meafure is well marked and well accented. This midt
long have preceded Jomelli's favourite chaconne, and have
ferved as a model to him, Theller, and others, in compofing
this fpecies of dance. More genius and invention appear in
the dances of Rameau than elfewhere, becaufe in them.

RAM

charming at once the foul, heart, mind, eyet, car's, and iina.
giiiatroi) of all Pario."

From this era to the time of Iiis death, in 1767, at eighty-
ars of age, Rami-au's glory was complete. The

fou

Royal Acadt-my of Mufic, who all regarded themfelvesaH his
children, performed a folemn ferviceiii the church of the Ora-
tory, at his funeral. And M. Philidor had a mafs performed
at the church of the Carmelites, in honour of a man whofe ta-
lents he fo much revered. See Base, B.\.sse Fondamentalc, and

CoUXTEnPOINJ'.

RAMED, a name given by fame chemical writers tc

rhubarb.

RAMEDEGA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Cingpour ; 15 miles S.W. of Pada.

RAMEE, a town of Bengal ; 50 miles S. of Ifla-
mabad.

RAMEEAPATAM, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ; 30 miles S. of Ongolc.

RAMEEPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Allaha-
bad ; 35 miles E.N.E. of Gazypour.

RAMELLI, Agostino, \\\ Biography, a celebrated
Italian mechanift and engineer, was born, in 1530, at Ma-
fanzana, in the diocefe of Milan. Having entered the
army, he ferved a confiderable time under the marquis de
Marignano, a general of Charles V. After this, he ferved
under the duke of Anjou as captain, or engineer, at the
fiege of Rochelle, in 1573, where he was dangeroufly
wounded, and taken prifoner. When that prince, afterwartb
Henry III., was called to the crown of Poland, he was the
friend of Ramelli, and he nominated him his engineer when
on the throne of France. In 1588 he publifhed a work in
Italian and French, entitled " Le Diverfe et Artificiofe Ma-
chine del Capitono Agoftiuo Ramelli," &c. with nearly
200 figures, defcribing a great number of machines for va-
rious purpofes, moil of his own invention, and vrhich exhi-
bit much ingenious contrivance. The work is very fcarce,
and is much prized by the curious.

RAMELSPACH, in Geography, a town of Auflria ;
5 miles S.E. of Meifliii.

RAMELTON, or Rathmelton-, a fmall poft-town of
the county of Donegal, Ireland, fituatcd ou a bay at the bot-
tom of lough S willy. It is 117 miles N.W. by N. from
Dublin.

RAMENAPILLY, a town of Hindooftan, in the cir-

there is a neccffity for motion, meafure, and fymmetry of car of Rajamundry ; 43 miles E. of Rajamundry.

phrafe. And it mav with truth be faid, that nothing in
Lulli's operas was imitated or adopted by the reft of Eu-
rope, but the ftyle of his overtures, or in Ramcau's, but
the dances.

But thousjh the feveral merits of this mufician have been
too much magnified by partizans and patriots in France, and
too much depreciated by the abettors of other fyllems and
other flyles, as well as patriots of other countries, yet Ra-
meau was a great man ; nor can the profefTor of any art or
fcience mount to the fumniit of fame, and be elefted by his
countrymen fupreme diftator in his particular faculty, with-
out a large portion of genius and abilities.

The fuccefsful revival of his opera of " Caflor and Pol-
lux" in 1754, after the viftory obtained by his friends over
the Italian burletta fingers who had r?.ifed fuch difturbance
by their performance of Pcrgolefi's intermezzo, the " Serva
Padrona," was regarded as the mofl glorious event of his
life. The partizans for the national honour could never
hear it often enough. " This beautiful opera," fays M. de
la Borde, " without any diminution in the applaufe or plea-
fure of the audience, fupported a hundred reprefentations,

RAMENTUM, in Botany, a form of pubefcence in
plants, which, as the name fignifies, has the appearance of a
iliaving, being flat, membranous, moftly irregular in fize and
fiiapcrquite unlike the uniform hairs or briltles of which the
clothing of molt plants confifts. ( See Pubescence. ) The
above term was firfl ufed, if we recoUeft rightly, by I'He-
ritier, and occurs in fome fpecies of Begonia. The fcalinefs
of Ferns is of a fimilar nature.

RAMERUP, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Aube, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of Arcis-fur-Aube ; 6 miles E. of Arcis-fur-Aube.
The place contains 493, and the canton 8870 inhabitants, on
a territory of 440 kiliometres, in 29 communes.

RAMESAN, an oriental term for a month of fafling,
verv religioufly obferved among the Turks, and otherwife
called Ramadan ; which fee.

RAMESERAM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Cuddapa ; 6 miles E. of Gandicotta.

RAMETTA, a town of Sicily, in the valley of De-
mona ; 6 iniles W. of Melfma.

RAMEX,

R A M

R A M

RAMEX, (/jww, abrancli,) ]u Sufg^iy, a rupture, or
hernia. See Hkkma.

Ramkx Vartco/iis. See ClRSOCEi.E.

RAMGAD, in Geography, a town of Hindoollan, in
Baliar ; lo miles W. of Bahar.

RAMGARY, a town of Hlndooftan, in the country of
the Nayrs ; 19 miles W.N.W. of Palicaudchery.

RAMGAUT, a town of Hiiidooftan, in the fubah of
Delhi ; 37 miles S.E. of Secundara.

RAM-GETTER, in Ruml Economy, ? term applied by
the midland breeders to inch rams as are proper for getting
ram-flock, in contradiftinaion to inch as are fit only for
getting wedder-ftock. See Ram.

RAMGONGA, in Geography, ■ a river of Afia, which
rifes in Thibet, and runs into the Ganges, 10 miles N. of
Canoge.

RAMGOT, a town of Hindoollan, in Concan ; 25

miles N. of Goa.

RAMGUR, a circarof Bengal, bounded on the N. by
Bahar, on the N.E. by Curruckdeagh, on the S.E. by Pa-
chete, on the S. by Nagpour, and on the W. by Koonda
and Toree ; about 90 miles long, and 60 broad. — Alio, the
capital of this circar ; 175 miles W.N.W. of Calcutta. N.
lat. 23°4o'. E. long. 83° 42' — Alfo, a town of Hiiidoo-
ftan, in Dowlatabad; 35 miles S. of Neermul. N. lat.
18° 30'. E. long. 79^ 11'. — Alfo, a town of Hindoollan,
1:1 Malwa ; 8 miles S. of Ragoopour. — Alfo, a town of
Hindoollan, in the fubah of Delhi ; 5 miles M. of Coel.

Alfo, a town of Hindoollan, in Guzerat ; 50 miles E.S.E.

of Sural Alfo, a town of Bengal; 13 miles N.W. of

Midnapour.

Ramgur. See Sesvah.

RAMGURRA, a to\»n of Hindoollan, in the Myfore,
captured by the Englifh in 1791 ;' 42 miles N.E. ofSeringa-
patam.

RAMHYTTE, a town of Sweden, in Wellmanland ;
36 miles from Stromfliolm.

RAMI, in Hindoo Mythology, one of the many names of
the goddefs Parvatt ; which fee. Under this name fhe is faid
to be worfhipped at the fplendid temple on the ifland called
Ramiferam, between Ceylon and the cape named by us Co-
morin, but which fliould be called cape Kaumari, or Ku-
mari, another of the names of this goddefs, and meaning the
virgin. (On this point fee Lanka and Parvati. ) Sami
is the name of a tree or wood facred to Parvati, and Ihe is
fometimes called Sami Rami, and it has been upheld that this
is the origin of the Semiramis of the Greeks, ( See hereon
Af. Ref. Tol. iv. p. 382. vol. viii. p. 256. 8vo. ed. ) A.de-
fcription of the celebrated temple of Ramiferam will be
found under that article. See alfo Sami.

RAMJAVENPOUR, in Geography, a fort of Bengal ;
27 miles S.S.W. of Burdwan.

RAMIFICATION, the produftion of boughs or
branches, or of figures refembling branches.

Ramifications, in Anatomy, are the divifions of the ar-
teries, veins, and nerves, arifing from fome common trunk.

RAMIGRI, a word ufed by fome writers as a name for
colophony.

RAMILLIES, in Geography, a village of France, in the
department of the Sambre and Meufe, at the fource of the
river Geete ; worthy of being recorded on account of a
battle fought here in the year 1706, between the allies com-
manded by the duke of Marlborough, and the French under
marfhal Villeroy. The confederates took the whole of the
enemy's baggage and artillery, and about 120 ftandards, 600
officers, and 6000 private foldiers : about 8000 were killed

or wounded. The iofs of the allies did not exceed 3C00
mer. ; I 3 miles N. of Namur.

RAMING, a town of Aiillria ; j I miles S. of Steyr

Alio, a town of Pcrfia, in the province of Irak ; 40 miles
E. ol Conlar.

RAMINGAM, a town of Hindoollan, in Dowlatabad ;
10 miles N. of Oudighcr.

RAM I NGSDORF, a town of Auftria ; two miles E. of
Ste

ryr.

RAMINGUE, in the Manege. A horfe gets this name
that is rellive, and refills or cleaves to the fpurs ; that is,
defends himfelf with malice againll the fpurs ; fometimes
doubles the reins, and frequently yerks to favour his difobc-
dience. See Ticklish and Doublk.

RAMIS, Bartolomeo, in Biography, a Spaniard, the
firll modern who fuftained the necclTily of a temperament in
mufical inllruments, of which the tones arc fixed. He was
contemporary with Franchinus, and 111 1482 publifhcd a
work, entitled " De Muliea, Tradtatus, five Mufica prac-
tica."

He feems to have converted Pietro Aaron to his opinion :
as that theorill manifellly exalts the charaftcr of Ramis on
all occafions at the expcncc of Franchinus.

The Spaniard was attacked in a rough manner by Ni-
cholas Burtius, for differing from Guido in his divifion of
the monochord, in a tradl entitled " Mufices Opufcu-
lum cum Defenf. Guidonis Aretini advcrfus queiidam
Hifpanum veritatis prevaricator." Bonon. 1487. This
trad, printed in black letter, is in the Afhmol. Collect.
among the books of Ant. Wood.

Burtius imagined the honour of Guido to be injured by the
Spaniard, as Guido ufed the Pythagorean proportions, and
had never thought of a temperament. Burtius, in his turn,
was handled very roughly by Spataro, the difciple of Ramis
(Joannes Spadarius Bononienfis, Mufices ac Bartolomii
Rami Paulo ejus Prxceptoris honella Defenfio in Nicol.
Burtij Parmenf. Opufc. Bologna, 1491.); and the venerable
Franchinus, finding himfelf very rudely handled in the dif-
putc by the favourers of temperament, in 1522, when he
was upwards of feventy years of age, took up the defence
of Pythagoras, as Fontenelle, at near a hundred, did of
Des Cartes. After this, the war became general, and
continued to rage with great violence for more than a cen-
tury, between the friends of tempered fcales, and the adhe-
rents to ancient proportions and equal harmony.

RAM I SE RAM, in Geography, an ifland in the Indian fea,
between the ifland of Ceylon and the coafl of Coromandel ; to
which there is a paffage of about 12 or 14 leagues from the
ifland of Manaar, on the coafl of Ceylon. But the advantages
that might be derived from this fpeedy communication are in
a great meafure prevented by the numberlefs fhallows and
fand-banks, which every where interrupt the paffage, and
which are fo high, that many of them are dry except during
the monfoons. There is in particular a line of fand-banks,
which runs quite acrofs from Manaar to Ramiferam, denomi-
nated Adam's bridge, and alfo Rama's bridge, becaufe God
is faid to have come by this way into Ceylon. ( See Adam'j
Bridge and Maxaar.) From Rama, Ramiferam takes its
name, and it has a large temple dedicated to him. The
lliortncfs of the paffage from Ramiferam to Manaar is par-
ticularly ufeful on account of the fpeedy conveyance it af-
fords to people on bufinefs, and the communication of intelli-
gence. The meffengers who ufually go from Columbo to
Manaar, a diflance of 160 miles, in three days, take boat
here, and crofs over by Adam's bridge to Ramiferam, and
then proceed along the Coromandel coaft to Madras. An

exprefs

RAMISERAM.

exprefs in favourable weather will run from Columbo to Ma-
dras in eight days, and the journey lias been accomplifhcd
once in feven days. (See Man A Alt.) The iflc of Ramife-
ram, which is the limit of the Hindoo religion in more mo-
dern times, and of the conquefts of the Mullnlman princes,
is, as we have faid, feparated from Ceylon by Adam's
bridj^e. The ifland is low, fandy, and uncultivated, ex-
cept with a few fcattered Pahnira and cocoa-trees. The pa-
SjoJas, for which it is fo famous, lie on the Ceylon fide, near
the fea, and are the refort of innumerable multitudes of dif-
ferent fefts of religion in India, during the feaf<m of certain
fellivals. The numerous pagodas are coiiIlruiSted in the fame
llile with thofe on the Coromandel coafl ; and they arc fur-
rounded with the houfes of the brahmins, prieds, and other
religious perlons, whofe zeal leads them to attend on their
temples ; among whom, in particular, may be feen the de-
fcendants of the Tamuls, Telingas, Cananans, Mahrattas,
and Orias, who compofe a great body of the original inha-
bitants of the fouthern peninfula. Their houfes are built of
the cocoa-tree, in fmall fquares and ftreets, where their fami-
lies are feen reclining on the little mud terraces, and under
the'payals or virandahs. They do not allow Europeans to
enter tliefe temples ; but they are known to refemble thofe of
the coaft in their crowded ornaments, fpires of brickwork,
long porches in front, and viltas, at tlie extreme end of
whicli are placed the deities, in an obfcnre fituation, fur-
rounded by lamps burning day and night. The fame re-
ferve to ftraugers fubfifts among all the fouthern brahmins.
The brahmins allow no labour or cultivatiftn to be carried on
in the ifland of Ramiferam, confidering it altogether as fa-
cred. The contributions of thofe who viiit it are fufficient
for the fiipport oi the temples. Several of the neighbour-
ing Poligar chiefs contribute largely, and fome of thefe
rajahs have ilatues crcdled to them for their gifts. The chief
pagoda has feveral of thefe ftatues in its different fquares.
XjOW as the fand lies in this ifland, good water is ealily pro-
cured ; for on fcooping it up, the water coUefls immediately
in the holes ; but this is not the cafe in Manaar and the weft
coaft of Ceylon.

The guardianfhip of this facred ifle belongs to a family of
devotees, called " Byragees," the chief of whom is always
doomed to celibacy : the fuccefhon being earned on by the
iiflers or the collateral branch, who only are permitted to
marry. This inllitution is fimilar to that of the fovereignty
of the TravancoriaiiS and Nairs of the Malabar coail. The
clothes and turbans of the devotees are of a tawny red co-
lour, decorated witli large black beads, of a particular kind
of wood. From the pagodas jiifl mentioned there runs out
along narrow piece of land, terminating in a point, within a
mile of which is a choultry at Tona Goody. This is a
fquare of houfes with a court inclofed for the accommodation
of pilgrims, who come to the fartheft point of the ifland to
perform their ablutions in the fea, the moll facred and
the pureil of their ceremonies. A brahmin takes care of
this choultry, and a pole with a liglit is fixed at the end of
the point to direft the pilgrim. N. Lit. 9° 18'. E. long.
79° 22'. Percival's Ceylon.

Of the temple in this ifland we fiiall give fome .account,
extrac'ted from a publication of Mr. Cordiner, who viflted
it. The external appearance is not remarkably grand, and
at a diltance, no idea is excited of the minute ornaments and
laboured workmanfhip which ftrike the eye on a nearer in-
fpedion. All the architecture feen without doors is nifigni-
ficant, compared with the magnificence of the interior.
After an examination of the whole ftrufture, which is en-
tirely of hewn ftone, Mr. C. deemed the extent of mafonic
labour in its ereftion, mull have been equal to that of ai;y

8

of the moll fplendid cathedrals of Europe. " On entering
it we Wire," he fays, " completely aftonifhed at tlie gran.
deur of the workmanfhip, ;ind extent of the dimenhons,
which far furpafled any i(k-a that we had formed of Indian
magnificence." From the well gate a low gallery, 144 feet
ill length, with three rows of pillars on each fide, leads down to
the centre of the building ; where it briinclies off, in galleries
fimilarly conftruftcd, to the right r.nd left, each extending
150 feet, then running from weft to eafl 500 feet, and en-
clofing an oblong reftaiigular fpace. The gallery runs alfo
along the centre of the temple 788 feet, and a fimilar gal-
lery runs acrofs from north to fouth, where are like en-
trances, interfefting the former in the centre of the rcftan.
gular fpace. All the galleries have on each fide triple
rov.-s of maffy ftone pillars, of highly laboured workman-
fhip. Thofe in the front line are the largcft and mofl fu-
perb, having a huge lion, with the mouth wide open, fculp-
tured in bas relief, above three diflinft capitals, over which
are a fcroll, and .i richly ornamented cornice. Statues of
the fize of life are attached to many of the pillars, repre-
fenting gods and deified perfons. The pillars ft and on a
continued bafement, forming the floor of the galleries, raifed
three feet, with fteps to nfcend by, all of ftone. The
roofs of all the galleries are flat, formed of ftones reaching
acrofs, from the projeftion of one cornice to that of the
other. The galleries are eighteen feet wide, and in the cen-
tre thirty feet high from the floor. The number of pillars
within the temple amounts to 262S. The edifice is inclofed
by a heavy ftone wall, 20 feet high, 830 feet from eaft to
weft, and 625 from north to fouth. Large as thefe dimen-
fions may appear, they arc ftated to be but fmall compared
with thofe of temples on the continent of India, one of
which covers a fquare mile of ground. The covered gal-
lery, fronting the fouth gate, which feems unfmiflied,
ftrikingly refembles the entrance of the Elephanta cavern,
near Bombay. Solid pyramidal erections furmonnt the
wellcrn and eaftern entrances, compofed externally of a
great number of fmall pillars, two and two, in the form of
window Irames or gateways, rifing one above another, in
fcven different (lories. That over the weilern, which is the
principal entrance, appears to be 150 feet high ; the eaftern
feems lower, and unfinifhed. The ngrth and fouth gates are
lefs majeflic than the others ; but their completion is faid to
be intended, when they will be fimilarly furmisunted and or-
nam.ented as the weftern portal. Privileged perfons, among
whom were women carrying water-pitchers, appeared con-
ftantly palTing and re -palling about the interior of the
temple.

Two hundred Brahmins are attached to this temple, and
fupported in eafe and luxury by its endowments. It is de-
dicated to Siva, the deftroying power, called by the vulgar
Rama Lingam. It contains likewife, Mr. Cordiner fays,
images of Vifhnu the preferver, and of all the fubordinatc
divinities. Of Brahma, the creator, he ftates, the Hindoos
never dare to form any hkenefs. This is a common error,
that is explained and correfled in the article IdOL.\try of
this work. ■.

A broad ft reet runs parallel to each fide of the tempfe
compofed of comfortable houfes, and large choultries for
the accommodation of pilgrims and travellers, of ft' me, witb
flat roofs fupported in front by pillars ; the fronts being
open. In one of thefe Mr. Cordiner obferved two ivory
palankeens inlaid with gold, the property of officers be-
longing to tlie fancluary. In others he noticed five car-
riages, called by the Enghfh Swamy coaches, ufed for the
purpofes of carrying the idols in proceflion : the ufe to
which the ivory palankeens are, we apprghend,^ alfo apphed.

Thefe

RAM

Thefe carriages are dcCcribeJ as folid maffes of wood, of a
pyramidal (hapc, intended to fymbolize the Linga. ( Sec
LiNGA.) The exterior of tlicfe coaches are covered with
grofsly obfceuc carving.

At the external corners of the temple, and in the ftreets
of the town, there are {mailer temples in honour of dif-
ferent deities, and containing images. In fome of the
ftreets fpreading trees, among thein the ficus religiofa and
tamarind, are furrounded with fquarc flone terraces, on
which arc placed little images of Pollear or Ganefa, (fee
PoLLEAR,) the Linga, two ferpents entwrned, and other
omblems of Hindoo mythology. Thefe terraces are ufed
for contemplation, or more aftive religious duties, as no-
ticed under the article Pkadakshxa. Rows of fruit-trees,
among them the cocoa-nut, plantain, and pomcgraNate,
ftand in gardens beyond the north and fouth walls of the
temple.

On the oppofite fide of the ifland, near the fea, diftant
about eight miles from the temple, is the ancient fort and
choultry of Pombom. The road between is very elegantly
paved with fmooth Hones, each fix feet by four ; and the
greater part of the road is nobly fhaded by the moft beauti-
ful and majeftic trees. The larger trees of this fuperb
avenue are iurrounded by fmooth raifed terraces of mafonry,
on which travellers reft in comfort, completely {haded.
About half way between the grand temple and Pombom is
a very elegant fmall temple, built on the fame general plan
with the larger, having two malTy towers raifed in the
centre of (lie oblong area, and a covered walk, with three
rows of pillars on each fide, all round. The outfide of the
towers is completely covered with ftatues in miniature, re-
prefenting all the variety of their mythological divinities.
The choultry, for the accommodation of pilgrims and tra-
vellers at Pombom, has two fronts, and three inclofed
fquares ; and is furrounded by piazzas raifed feveral feet,
with fquare pillars and terraced roofs. Contiguous is a
fmall temple, the door of which was open, difplaying an
image of Ganefa or Pollear, m the ufual form, elephant-
headed and pot-bellied, ornamented with necklaces of
flowers.

There are feveral other elegant temples on this interefting
!{land, which is entirely dedicated to the purpofes of re-
ligion. No plough is allowed to break the foil, and no
an:mal, wild or tame, is ever killed on it.

Dancing girls, mountebanks, and beggars, abound here,
as in other reforts of the idle and v/ealthy.

The fmall remains of antiquity ilill extant on Ceylon,
fufficiently prove that fimilar religious inftitutions did once
cxift there, and that choultries and temples were erefted at
the different ftages, all the way from Manaar through the
ifland, 200 miles, to Dondra, its fouthern extremity, and
the ultimate extent of Hindoo pilgrimage. At the latter
place, the ruins of a temple dedicated to Siva are ftil! to be
recognized ; but only fome rows of fcattered pillars, and a
few remnants of broken images, have furvived the fanatic furv
of the early European invaders. Rama's peaceful i{land
falling under the prot^ ftion of a more liberal and enlightened
government, fortunately efcaped thofe religious tempefts,
which fpread dcilruftion round the coalls of Ceylon.

Lord Valentia has more recently vifited this interefting
fcene, and Mr. Silt, who accompanied his lordlhip, has
publi{hed a very elegant view of the temple. The entrance
is defcribed to be through a gateway, about 100 feet high,
covered with carved work to the fummit. The door is 40
feet high, compofed of fingle ftones placed perpendicularly,
with others crolTing. This maffive workmanlhip reminded
lord Valentia of the ruins of Egyptian architefture. He

RAM

defcribes the quadrangle to be about 600 feet eacli iide,
and fays that, on the whole, this temple is the finell piec-
of architecture that he had feen in the call. Words, hi'
fays, cannot defcribe its magnificence. The coiicourfe of
pilgrims is very great, and brings in a large lum ; eacli
paying according to his rank. The raja of Tanjore had
been expcftcd the year before, but could not afford it ; as
in prcfeiits and various expences, it was eftimated that his
highnefs could not have performed this ait of devotion under
60,000 j)agodas, about 25,000/. flerling. His whole fa-
mily would of courfe have expefted to participate in the
iiappinefs and benefits of the pilgrimage. The idol ufes no
water but what is brought from the Ganges by fakirs :
with this it is bathed every morning ; and this holy water,
thus acquiring additional fanftity, is fought and purchafed
by the devout for fin-expelling purpofes.

RAMISTS, in the Hijlory of Learning, the difciples of
Peter Ramus, who was born in a fmall village in Picardy,
in 1515, and from being a fervant in the college of Navarre
at Paris, became, by his talents, induftry, and perfeverance,
one of the mofl famous profeffors of the fixteenth centur)-.
By attacking the authority of Ariftotle, and attempting to
fuhftitute in tfae place of his logic a method of reafoning
better adapted t<V the ufe of rhetoric and' improvement of
eloquence, he excited a terrible uproar in the Gallic fchools ;
fo that the two firlt books he publifhed, lA-z,. his " Inflitu-
tiones Dialeilicse," and " Arilfotelicae Animadverfiones,"
were prohibited through the kingdom of France, and the
author prohibited from any more teaching philofophy. His
enemies perfecuted him with lampoons and fatires, and even
held him up to public ridicule on the ftage. However,
Ramus aftervvards recovered his credit, fo that he obtained
the royal profefTorfhip of philofophy and eloquence, and
afterwards of mathematics, at Paris, in 1547. But his
enemies were inveterate in their perfecution of him, and as
foon as it was known that he favoured the party of the
Hugonots, he was obliged once again to withdraw him.felf
from the effefts of their refentment. In the intervals of
peace, he returned to his ftaticn ; but in 1568, when the
civil war was a_ third time renewed, he relolved to leave
France, and make a tour through Germany. After fpend-
ing three years in vifiting the principal German univeriities,
and receiving many tokens of refpecl, he refolved, fatally
tor himfelf, in 157 1, to 'return to his own countrj-. Ac-
cordingly he fettled at Paris, where he perifhed in the maf-
facre on St. Bartholomew's day. On the tumult of this
execrable day, Charpentaire, profefibr of mathematics, who
had been eclipfed by the fuperior talents of Ramus, fcized
the opportunity of being revenged upon his rival, and, under
the pretence of religion, employed afiafiins to murder hira.
His body was afterwards thrown into the ftreet to the en-
raged pupils of Charpentaire, who dragged it ignominioufly
along the ftreets, and then caft it into the Seine.

The difciples of Ramus, fuch was the aftonifhing influence
of their mafter's learning and charafter, prevailed fo far as
to banifh the Peripatetic philofophy from feveral feminaries
of learning, and to fubftitute in its place the fyftem of their
maiter, which was of a more praftical kind, and better
adapted to the purpofes of hfe.

Although he had confiderable merit in expofing the de-
fefts and inconfiftencies of the Ariftotelian philofophy, he
does not feem to have been equally fuccefsful in his attempt
to eftabhfh a new logical inftitute. The general outline of
his plan is as follows. Confidering dialecitics as the art of
ueducing conclufions from premifes, he. endeavours to im-
prove this art, by unitins; it with that of rhetoric. Of the
feveral branches of rhetoric he conliders invention and dif-

pofitiosr

RAM

RAM

pofitioii as belonging equally to logic. Following chiefly RAMLEAH, a mountain of Arabia, in the province of

the example of Cicero, he divides his treatifc on Dialeftica Nedsjed, extending from S.W. to N.E. about zco miles •

into two parts ; the firfl of which treats of the invention of the S.W. extremity being 8o miles E. of Kalaat el

arguments, the fecond of judgments. Arj

jumcnts he de- Moilah.

lives not only from what the Ariftotehans call middle terms, RAMLER, Charles-William, in Biography, a cele-

but from any kind of propofitions, which, conncftcd with bratcd German poet and profelfor of belles lettres at Berlin

another, may ferve to prove any adertion. Of thefe lie was born at Colberg in the year 1725. He was didin-

eniimeratcs various kinds. .ludgmeats he divides into -guiflied at a very early period by his poetical genius* and

axioms, or felf-evident propofitions, and " dianoea," or in

deduftious by means of a fcries ot arguments. Both thefe
he divides into various clafl'es ; and illuftrates the whole by
examples from the ancient orators and poets.

In the logic of Ramus, many things are borrowed from
Ariltotle, and only appear under new names ; and many
others are derived from other Grecian fources, and parti-
cularly from the dialogues of Plato, and the logic of the
Stoics. WhiHl the author has the merit of turrriiig tlie art

uiflied at a very early period by his poetical genius ; and
1 1754 publifhed a poem, entitled " The Game of Chefs,"
which dilplayed a conhderjhle (hare of genius. In I "58 he
tranflaled the abbe Batteaux's Treatife on the Belles
Lettres, which he adapted to the genius of his native lan-
guage, and added fome difTertations on the German ftyle
and verfiiication. In the followintr year he publifhed, in
conjundion with Leding, tiie cj)igrains of Logan, an
author who, notwithilauding his great merit, had been fuf-
fered to remain in obfcurity. In 1760 he publiflled " Sacred

of reafoning from the futile fpeculations of the fciiools to Cantatas," which were followed, during the next 20 years,

forenfic and common ufc, his plan is defeftive in confining by a great number of other publications, chiefly poetical,

the whole dialedlic art to the fingle objcft of difputation, of which a liil is given in the General Biography. In the-

and in omitting many things which refpedl the general cul- year 1780 Rainier turned his attention to fcveral of the old

ture of the underltanding, and the invelligation of truth. German poets, and publifhed at Leipfic the Epigrams of

Defeftive as the fyftem of Ramus is, lord Bacon (Augm.
Sc. 1. vi. c. 2.) has pafied too fevere a cenfure upon him,
and others have concurred in it : for he is unquelUonnbly
entitled to great commendation for having, at the period in
which he lived and wrote, with fo much lirmnefs and per-
feverance, adertcd the natural freedom of the human under-
ftanding. The logic of Ramus obtained great authority in
the fchools of Germany, Great Britain, Holland, and
Franee ; and fcience derived ultimate advantages from the
conteits which were maintained between the followers of
Ramus and tliofe of the Stagyrite. But the fame of Ramus
vaniflied before that of Des Cartes. Brucker's Phil, by
Enfield, vol. li.

RAMLA, in Geography, the original jir'wiathea, a town

Wernike, Opitz, Tfcherning, Andrew Gryphius, and
Adam Olearius. He was fo fuccefsful in polifliing the
works of others, and gave fuch proofs of his tafle and cri-
tical talents, that Goze, one of the mofl. diflinguifhed Ger-
man amatory poets, allowed him full liberty in his laft will
to retain or reject fuch parts of his poems as he might think
proper. In 1782-3 he publifhed at Berlin a tranflation of
the jjoetical pieces in the different volumes of the Spedator,
which he followed, in the fubfequcnt ten years, by a v?riety
of other works on different fubjctts ; among which may be
mentioned " A tliort Introduftion to Mytliology, in two
Parts." Ramler has been flyled the German Horace ; and
his biographer fays, tiiat though his verfes difplay perhaps
lefs boldnefs and fimplicity tlian thofe of tlie Romany they

of Paleft;ine, dillaut one-third of a league from the village of equal them in fublimity, and furpafs them in harmony. It

Loudd, or the ancient Lydda and Diofpolis. This town is has been remarked to tlie honour of Ramler, that he at-

almofl in as ruinous a ftate as Loudd itfelf. Within its tached to him Frederic the Great, and his fuccefl'or, by his

boundaries nothing is found but rubbifli ; neverthelefs, the poetical talents : from the latter he had a confiderable pen-

aga of Gaza refides here in a ferai, the floors and walls of fion paid him during the clofing years of his life. Ramler

hich are tumbling down. He maintains about lOO horfe- was one of the directors of the national theatre at Berlin,

men, and as many Barbary foldiers, who are lodged in an
old Cliriftian church, the nave of which is ufed as a liable,
and in an ancient kaii, which is difpated with tiiem by the
fcorpions. The adjacent country is planted with lofty olive
trees, difpofed in quincunces. Amidlt thefe plantations,
which are decaying, are found dry w-ells, cifterns fallen in,
and vafl vaulted refervoirs, which prove that, in ancient
times, this town mull have been upwards of i-l league in
circumference. At prefent it fcarcely contains 200 fa-
milies. The little land, which is cultivated by a few of
them, belongs to the mufti, and two or three of his relations.
The reft; content themfelves with fpinning cotton, which is
chiefly purchafed by two French houfes eft;abli(bed there.
At Ramla there is alfo a foap manufactory, the produce of
which is almoil wholly fent to Egypt. In 1784 the aga
built here a wind-mill, which, fays Volney, is the only one
I have feen in Syria or Egypt, tliough they are faid to have
been invented in thefe countries. The only remarkable an-
tiquity at Ramla is the minaret of a ruined mofque on the
road to Yafa. By an Arabic infcription, it appears to h.Hve
been built by Sai-el-din, fnltan of Egypt. From the fum-
mit, for it is very lofty, the eye difcerns the whole chain
of mountains, which begins at Nablous, and fkirting the
plain, lofes itfelf toward the fouth. Volney's Travels in
Egypt and Syria, vpl. ii.
Vol.. XXIX.

and profcflbr of the belles lettres in the fchool of the corps
of cadets ; but the latter office he refigned in 1 790. Gen.
Biog.

RAMME, in Geography, a rivei of the Juchy of Die-
men, which jniris tlic Olte, near its fource.

RAMMED Earth Buildings, in Rural Economy, are
fuch as are raifed with fome fort of earthy material. This
mode of building with earthy materials is fuppofed by fome
to have been known at a very early period, and has been
long pratlifed with fuccefs in the fouthern parts of France,
efpecially about Lyons, though but little underflood in any
other part of Europe until lately. This method has, how-
ever, appeared to have fo many advantages, that it was
made trial of in different places in this country ; and the re-
fult has been fo favourable, that the praftice feems to de-
ferve the attention of the proprietors of land, in all fitua-
tions where buildings are to be credled on a cheap and
economical plan. In order to facilitate the knowledge of
the art, Mr. Holland has prefented the public with the
method of performing the bufinefs, in a paper, tranflated
from a French work on the fubjeft, inferted m the firfl vo-
lume of Communications to the Board of Agriculture, in
which he fays that the French writer, M. Francois Coin,
teraux, remarks, that the pofliblhty of raifing the walls of
lioufes two or even three ftories high, with earth only,
J D which

RAM

RAM

which will i'uftain floors loaded with the heavleft vvtighls,
and of building the largeft manufaftories in this manner,
may allonidi every one who has not become an eye-witnefs
of fuch things. It is a method, which in the above diftrift
of France is known by the term p'lfc ; but as it is accom-
plifhed by the ramming or compreffing earth, or earthy fiib-
ftances, in moulds or cafes, the above term has alio been
applied to it. See Pise, Building in.

RAMMEKENS, in Geography, a fea-port town of Hol-
land, in the ifle of Walcheren, formerly one of the bell har-
bours in Zealand. This town, which was conftrufted as a
fortrefs in the year 1547, and called " Zeebourg," was one
of the towns pledged to queen Elizabeth by the Hates ge-
neral for the fuccours flic lent them againft Spain in the
year 1585 ; three miles E. of Flufhing.

RAMMEL, in Jgri-.ulturi;, a term applied to a fnbftance
which forms a part of the fubfoil or fubftrata of particular
diftrifts. It is ufually covered with a thin weak earth or
mould in fome places. It is penetrable by the roots of
fome plants, but notwithftanding that, is very unfriendly to from Cavan

he lung in Arfinoe, and Pyrrhus and Demetrius, when thefe
operas were performed at the Qxxqi^w'h theatre in the Hay-
market. He appears no more as a public finger after this
period, but his name occurs as a compofer in 3 collection of
fongs called the " Merry Mufician," 1716; and as the editor
of " the fong tunes in the opera of Camilla, contrived and
fitted to the harpfichord or fpiiict ;" in the title of which
it is faid, " that the kllons being placed on five lines ren.
der them proper for a violin and a bafe." Almoft all organ
and harpfichord mufic was till tiiis time written and printed
on fix lines.

RAMOO, in Geography, a town of Aracan ; 60 miles
N.N.W. of Aracan.

RAMOR, Louciii, a lake of Ireland, in the fouthern
part of the county of Cavan, which contains feveral iflands,
on which are beheld tiie ruins of fome ancient callles. Thefe
were formerly adorned with wood, but are now bleak and
defolate. The river Blackwater, which iiiues from it, joins
the Boyne at Ravan. Lough Ramor is about 13 miles S.

the vegetation of plants in general. It is frequently met
with in Chefhire and fome other counties. See Soil.

The term fignifies a compofition of various kinds of clay,
white fand, and gravel, which is intimately intermixed with
a fmall portion of oxyd of iron. It is for the molt part
found under a weak brown or grey earth which is rarely
more than four or five inches in depth m the above diflridl,
lying in Itrata of from eighteen to thirty inches in thicknefs,
upon a white or red fand or clayey 'marie, the latter often
partaking of its nature for the depth of fome feet. Ram-
mel or rammelly foils are therefore conllantly of a barren and
uuproduft ve nature.

RAMMELBERG, in Geography, a large and lofty
mountain in Weftphalia, celebrated for its mines. Thefe
mine- works yield lead, copper, filver, fome gold, borax,
lapis calaminaris, zinc, fulphur, jet, vitriol, and yellow

ochre. It lies near Collar Alfo, a town of Weftphalia,

in the county of Mansfeld ; three miles S.E. of Wippra.
RAMMELLY, in Agriculture, a word ufed to fignify
fuch crops as are tall or rank, as beans, &c.

RAMMER, a well-known implement formed of wood
in different ways, according to the purpofe for which it is
to be ufed. Thefe implements are very neceffiiry in putting
pofts into the ground, in inclofing land, in order to clofe
the earth firmly about them, as well as for laying down
luif or fwiuJ, iiiuiJci tn render it fmooth and even. See
Beetle.

Rammer of a Gun, the gun-Jlick ; a rod or itaff ufed in
charging a gun, to drive home the powder to the breech,
as alfo the fliot, and the wad, which keeps the fhot from
rolling out.

The rammer of a great gun is a cylinder of wood, whofe
diameter and length are each equal to tlie diameter of the
Ihot, with a handle fixed to it. See Spunge.

RAMNA, in Geography, a mountain of Bofnia ; 16
miles N. of Orach.

RAMNAGUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 42
miles N.E. of Durbungah. — Alfo, a town of Bengal ; 10
miles N.E. of Kilheragur. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan,
in Oude ; 27 miles N.E. of Lucknow.

RAMONCHAMP, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Vofgcs, and chief place of a canton, m the
diftrift of Rcmiremont. The place contains 2385, and the
canton 11,325 inhabitants, on a territory of 245 kiliome-
tres, in 6 communes.

RAMONDON, Lewis, in Biography, an Englilh finger,
who firft appeared on the Itage of Drury-lane in 1 706. But

01

RAMOS, or Lamos, a river of Africa, which runs into
the Atlantic, 60 miles N.N.W. of cape Formofa. N. lat.

Ramos, Dos, an ifland in the river of the Amazons,
about 70 miles long, and from 10 to 20 broad; 6o miles
above Pauxis.

RAMOSE Leaf, in Botany. See Leaf.

RAMOTH, -in Scripture Geography, a famous city of
Paleftine, in the mountains of Gilead, and hence called Ra-
moth-Gilead. This city belonged to the tribe of Gad. It
was afligned to the Levites, and was one of the cities of
refuge beyond Jordan. According to Enfebins, it was 15
miles E. from Philadelphia ; but St. .Tcrom. places it in the
vicinity of Jabok, and ccnfequently N. of Philadelphia.

RAMOUCH, in Geography, a river of Thibet, which
runs into tlie Dev\ a, N. hit. 30" 2o'.

RAMOURY, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Hindia ; 20 miles E. of Hiirdah.

RAMPAH, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Rajair.undry ; 40 miles N. of Rajamundry.

RAMPANT, in Heraldry, is applied to a lion, bear,
leopard, or olhcr bealt, in pofture of climbing, or ftanding
upright upon his liind-legs, and rearing up his fore-feet ;
fhewing only half of his face, as one eye, and one ear.

The term is French ; and fignifie?, literally, creeping.

It is different irom faliant, which denotes a pofture lefs
erefl, or fomewhat ftooping forwards, as if making a fally.

This pofture is to be fpecificd, in blazoning, in all ani-
mals, except in the lion and gryphon ; it being their natural
fiti ation.

RAMPARA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Concan ; 20 miles N. of Gheriah.

RAMPART, or Rampier, in Fortificati-.n, a mafly
bank, or elevation of earth about the body of a place, to
cover it from the direft fire of the enemy, and of fufficient
thicknefs to refill the efforts of tlie cannon for many days ;
and formed into baftions, curtains, &c.

The word is formed from the Spanifii amparo, defence, or
cove/'ing.

Upon the rampart the foldiers continually keep guard,
and pieces of artillery are planted there for the defence of
the place. Hence, to (helter the guard from the enemy's
fhot, the outfide of the rampart is built higher than the in-
fide, /'. e. a parapet is raifed upon it with a platform.
Hence, alfo, earth not being capable to be railed perpen-
dicularly, like ftone, the rampart is built with a talus or
flope, both on the inner and outer fide.

The

RAM

RAM

The rampart is fometimes lined, i. e. fortified with 3, (lone
wall withinfide, othcrwife it hath a bermc.

It is enconipaned alfo with a moat or ditch, out of which
the earth that forms the rampart is dug.

The height of the rampart (hoiild not exceed tliree fa-
thoms, this being fufficient to cover the houfes from the
battery of the cannon : neither ought its thicknefs to be
above ten or twelve, unlefs more earth be taken out of the
ditch than can be otherwile beitowed. Sec Constkuc-
TION, according to M. V aubaii s Jirjl Method.

The ramparts of half-moons are the better fen- being low,
that tlie fmall fire of the defendants may the better reach
the bottom of the ditch ; but yet they innlt be fo high as
not to be commanded by the covert-way.

Rampart is alfo ufed, in C'lv'd Architeilure, for the fpace
left void between the wall of a city and the next houfes.
Tliis is what the Romans call pomarium, in which it was for-
bid to build, and where they planted rows of trees, for the
people to walk and amufe themfelves under.

RAMPARTS, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 8
miles S.E. of Rungpour.

RAMPERING, or Sodding, denotes the procefs of
building fod or turf walls, or banks.

RAMPFERSGRUBE, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the county of Henneberg ; fix miles W. of
Meinungen.

RAMPHASTOS, the Toucan, in Ornithology, a genus
of birds of the order Picas, of which the generic charafter
is as follows: Bill very large, liglu, hollow, convex, fer-
rate at the edges ; each mandible incurvate at the tip ; noilrils
behind the bale of the bill, long, narrow ; the tongue is
feathered at the edges, the feet mollly climbers.

The birds of this genus firft became known to naturalills
on the difcovery of South America, and to the warmer re-
gions they appear, in general, to be confined. Like the
hornbills, they are diitinguirtied by the fize of their beaks,
which, in fome fpecies, is nearly equal to that of the whole
body. It is, howevor, of a very light fubftance, and, ui the
living bird, it is compreflible between the fingers. Both
mandibles are ferrated in an outward direction ; the tongue
is of a hlglily fingular form, reprefentmg the appearance of
a very narrow lanceolate feather, being of a fomewhat horny
or cartilaginous nature, and divided on each fide into innu-
merable fhort and clofe-fet fibres ; in confequence of which
ftruclure it was defcribed by fome early writers on natural
hiftory as a real feather, fupplying the place of a tongue.
The orbits of the eyes are generally bare. Th'e toucans
are fuppofed to feed on fruits, but in a ftate of captivity
they will eat animal food. They depofit their eggs, which
are ufually two in number, in the hollows of trees, on the
furface of the decayed wood. Thefe birds have been as yet
met with only in South America, and there merely between
the tropics, being totally incapable of fultaining the cold.
They are eafily tamed and familiarized, and ieveral fpecies
have been brought to England, where fruits, fiPn, and flelh
have been promifcuoufly devoured by them with confiderable
voracity. Whatever was received by the bill was thrown
into the air, and on its return caught, and, without the
tlighteft malUcation, inftantly devoured. There are feven-
teen fpecies enumerated by Gmelin, though Mr. Latham
mentions only fifteen.

Species.

ViRlDls ; Green Toucan. Green, with a yellow belly,
and red rump. This fpecies is found in Cayenne, and is
about fourteen inches long. The upper mandible is yellow,
with red fides, and a black line in the middle ; the lower

one is black, the bafe and round the noilrils are red'; the
teeth in both arc white ; the irides and naked orbits are yel-
low ; the legs are of a lead colour ; the claws arc black ;
the tail is wedged, beneath inchning to a(h ; head, chin, and
throat, in the male black, in the female bay, terminated by
a black narrow tranfverfe band.

Edentulus ; Toothlefs Toucan. In this the bill is not
ferrate at the edges. It inhabits Cayenne, and is twelve
inches long. The upper part of the body is green, but be-
neath it is more of a yellowifh colour ; the head and neck
are chefnut ; the rump is red ; the upper mandible is brown,
the lower black ; the thighs green, and it is thought to be a
variety of the viridis.

Pavonicus ; Pavonine Toucan. The general colour of
this is green ; but the feathers are fprinkled with red fpots.
It is alfo known by a mixture of red and changeable or
peacock-coloured feathers interfperfed. The bill is varie-
gated yellow and black ; the legs and claws are black.

PiPEiuvoRUs ; Piperine Toucan. Green ; the fore parts
are black ; the vent and thighs red. This fpecies has been
defcribed by Edwards under the name of the green toucan.
Its length is about feventeen inches, and its general colour
is of a duU green ; the head, neck, and breall, are of a deep
black ; behind each ear is a fomewhat lengthened orange-
coloured fpot, and immediately behind the lower part of the
neck is an orange -coloured bar or collar ; the belly is pale
and yellowifli-green ; the thighs are purple ; the vent is red,
and the tail, which is cuneated, flightly tipped with dull
red ; the bill is about three inches long, and of a black
colour, but towards the bafe it is varied with red, whitilli,
and orange -yellow. In the female the head, neck, and breall,
are brown inilead of black, and the lower part of the belly
is grey. It is a native of Cayenne, and faid to feed on the
pepper of the country. The female of this fpecies has been
known to vary in having the bill of a horn colour, with a
black bar near the end, and two others near the edge ; the
ridge alfo being black, and the yellow crefcent at the neck
it wanting.

Aracari. This fpecies is green, but the abdominal
band, vent, and rump, are red ; the belly and breaft are
yellow. It is a native of Brazil, Surinam, and Cayenne,
and is full fixteen inches long. The upper mandible is
black on the back and tip, but the fides are whitifli. The
bafe is three-lobed at the noftrils, with a white arch at the
root, lower black ; the head, the wings, and tail, are black ;
tlie breaft and body are yellow and Icarlet, with a black
roundilh fpot in the middle of the breait, and a fimilar
tranfverfe one on the beginning of the belly ; the thighs are
tawny.

ToRQUATUS ; Collared Toucan. Tiiis bird is black above,
and beneath it is whitifli ; tlic belly is green, the hind part
is red, and the collar red. It inhabits the coalts of New
Spain, IS about eighteen inches long, and feeds on fifli. The
upper mandible is blackifh, and the lower black ; the irides
are of a reddifh-yellow ; the head and neck are black ; the
lower tail-coverts are red ; the thighs purple ; the legs are
of a greenilb-afti colour ; the claws are black.

PisClvoRUS ; Brazil Toucan. This is blackifh, but
the abdominal band and vent are red ; the rump is white.
It inhabits South America, and is twenty-one inches long.
The bill is yellow, with a fcarlet fpot on the tip ; the lower
mandible is blue ; the cap, back, wings, tail, belly, and
thighs, are black ; the temples, chin, breaif, and rump, are
white.

Ervtiirohynchos ; Red-beaked Toucan. Blackifh ;

cheeks, chin, and throat, white ; upper tail-coverts fulphur,

but the lower and crefcent on the b.reaft are red. This ig

3 D 2 found

RAM

RAM

found in various part* of South America. The bafe and
back of the bill are yellow ; tip of the upper mandible, and
hollow of the lower, red ; the nollrils are edged with black ;
the orbits aie blueilh j the legs are plumbeous, and the claws
are black.

TuCANUS ; Yellow-breafted Toucan. This is alfo black-
ifh ; the abdominal band, vent, and rump, yellow. It mea-
fures about nineteen inches in length, and has been defcribed
by Mr. Edwards from a living fpcciraen brought into Eng-
land. According to this gentleman, the bill of this fpecies
is large in proportion to the fize of the bird ; it is compreffed
fideways, having a (harp ridge along its upper part, and
toothed on its edges ; the upper mandible is green, with a
long triangular fpot of orange colour on each fide, and the
ridge on the upper part yellow ; the lower mandible is blue,
with a (hade of green in the middle ; the point is red ; it
has about five tranfverfe faint dudiy bars, which crofs the
joinings of the two mandibles ; the noftrils are invilible in
the black line that furrounds the bill ; the iris of the eye is
of a fair green colour ; round the eye is a broad fpace oi
naked (l<in, of a violet colour ; the (l<in beneath the teathers
is of a violet colour, below which is a bar of fcarlet feathers,
which parts the yellow on the brealt from the black on the
belly ; the covert -feathers of the tail are white above, and
thole beneath are of a fine red ; the crown of the head,
upper part of the neck, the back, wings, belly, and tail,
wholly black, though on the upper fide of the wings and
tail it has a changeable glofs of blueifh-purple ; the legs
and feet are all of a blue or violet colour. The fpecimen
from which this defcription was made, was brought from
Jamaica, but the bird is a native of the hotter parts of South
America.

PiCATUs ; Preacher Toucan. Blackifli ; bread yellow,
vent and tips of the tail-feathers red, rump black. It in-
habits Guinea and Brazil, and is more than twenty inches
long. The bill is yellowifh-green, tipt with rcddi(h ; the
belly is red ; the tail is dotted with red at the tip. This
bird is faid to have a frequent habit of moving its head from
fide to fide, while uttering its notes ; hence it has obtained
the name of preacher.

DicoLORUS ; Yellow-throflted Toucan. Blackifh ; brcaft,
belly, vent, and rump, red ; the chin is yellow. It inhabits
Cayenne, and is feventeen inches long. The bill is olive,
with a black bafe ; the mandibles are edged with red ; the
cheeks are of a fulphur colour ; the throat is orange, but
edged with fulphur.

Toco ; Wiiite-throated Toucan. Blacki(h ; chin, throat,
and rump, white ; orbits, circle on the breail:, and vent, red.
It inhabits Cayenne, and is about nine or ten inches long.
The bill is of a reddi(h-yellow, the bafe is black ; the upper
mandible is black at the tip.

Indicus ; Indian Toucan. The throat, quill-feathers, and
tail, black ; the cheeks and breail are white ; belly and
thighs are yellow ; the crown is of a reddifh-orange ; rump
crimfon. It is found in divers parts of India. The bill is
hardly ferrate, and not fo large as in the others.

LuTEUS ; Yellow Toucan. This is of a yellowi(h-white ;
the neck is marked with two black lateral ftripes ; the tail
and wings are variegated with black and white ; the lelTer
wing-coverts are yellow. It inhabits New Spain, and is
about the fize of a pigeon. The bill is black ; the indes
are yellow ; the legs are brown ; the claws are yellowifh.

C^RULEUS ; Blue Toucan. Blue mixed with cinereous.
It inhabits the coafts of New Spain. The bill is longer
than the body ; the eyes are black and tlie irides are tawny.

DuBiUS. This is the blue-throated toucan of Mr. La-
tham, defcribed from a catalogue of the mufeum of baron

Fangeres of Montpellier, where it is announced as an unde-
fcribed fpecies.

Al.BUS ; White Toucan. Thia is entirely white.

RAMPICHERLA, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooltan, in the circar of Guntoor ; 12 miles N.E. of
Innaconda.

RAMPIN, in the Manege. See ToE.

RAMPION, in Bo/any. See RapuNCULUs, of which
Dr. Johnfon fuppofes it a corruption. See alfo Phytelma.

Rampioxs, CreJIed, a fpecies of the lobelia.

Rampions, Common efculent, a fpecies of the campanula;
which fee.

Rampions •tuUh fcabious heads. See Jasionk.

RAMPOUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 13
miles N. of Curruckjiour. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan,
in Bahar ; 31 miles N.W. of Bettiah. — Alfo, a town of
Almora ; 30 miles N.N.W. of Bereilly. N. lat. 28^-' 45'.
E. long. 79^ 22'. — Alio, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude,
on the Ganges ; 34 miles N.W. of Manickpour. — Alfo, a
town of Hindooftan, in Oude, on an ifland formed by the
divided ftream of the Dewah ; 35 miles N.E. of Lucknow.
— Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ; 25 miles E.S.E.
of Goorackpour. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ;
30 miles N.E. of Goorackpour. — Alfo, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the Carnatic ; 50 miles S.W. of Nellore. — Alfo,
a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Boggilcund ; 20
miles W. of Rewah. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in Be-
nares ; 20 miles N.W. of Bidzigur. — Alfo, a town of
Hindooftan, in the circar of Schaurunpour; 23 miles S.S.W.
of Schaurunpour. — Alfo, a town of Hindooftan, in the cir-
car of Oudipour ; 40 miles E.N.E. of Oudipour.

RAMPS, in Fortification, are gentle Hopes made for the
cannon to be drawn up and down by, and alfo for the eafy
communication of the troops ported in a battery that is
railed above the level of the ground on which it is built.
The rife of thefe Hopes is about two inches, on twelve of
bafe, or the length of the ramp's bafe is fix times the
height, and this is general for the draught of carriages ;
but footways need not be of fo gentle a ilope, as a rife in
one foot in three may anfwer the purpofe ; or, inftead of
ramps, flairs may be, and commonly are, ufed for the paf-
fage of the foot. The breadth of a carriage ramp is
ufually about nine or ten feet, that breadth being fufficient
both for the carriage and footway ; but thofe for foot-
paflage only need not be above three or four feet wide.
Ramps may either rife on the fide of an elevated work, or
againft a faliant angle of that work, or on each fide of an
entering angle.

RAMQUILLA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
the province of Smaland ; 5 miles N.W. of Calmar.

RAMSAY, Allan, in Biography, a poet of confidcrable
celebrity, who wrote in the Scottifh dialeft, was born in
the year 1686, inthepariOi of Crawford, Lanerklhire. He
received no other education than that of the parifh fchool,
and was apprenticed to a barber in Edmburgh. It has not
been afcertained when he firft began to make verfes ; but
about the year 17 15, feveral of his poems had been pub-
li(hed. Soon after this he laid afide the trade to which he
had been brought up, and adopted the more congenial one
of a bookfeller. In 172 1 his detached poems were pnb-
lifhed, by fubfcription, in a quarto volume. In 1724 he
began to pubufii Ins colleftion of fongs, entitled " The
Tea-table Mifcellany," which at length extended to four
volumes. This work was followed by one, entitled " The
Evergreen," being a colleftion of fosgs written by the in-
genious before the year 1600. Thefe publications were
well received ; but his fame was greatly extended by his
I " Gentle

RAM

" Gentle Shepherd," which was afterwards enlarged from
two paftoral poems, in the form of a regular drama. He
now held a correfpondencc with fcvL-ral poets and other
ingenious perlons of the time, and his fliop in Edinburgh
was the refort of the men of letters who then flouridicd in
the capital of Scotland. He is fuppofed to have opened
the tirll circulating library in tlwt city, and in 1736 he
built a pl:iy-houfe, which was the firft ever known at Edin-
burgh ; but the aft prohibiting the exhibition of plays in
unlicenfed buildings, caufed it to be fhut up. Ramfay,
towards the middle of his life, withdrew from tlie field of
authorlhip, and attended to the much more prolltable bufi-
ncfs of fcUing, rather than writing of books. He died in
1758, at the age of 71. The poems of Allan RamCay,
fays an eminent critic, " difplay none of the fire of the
genius fo confpicuous in thofe of Burns, but have occafionally
an agreeable pailoral fimplicity, and are often marked with
a vein of humour, natural, though coarfe. The Gentle
Shepherd is, perhaps, one of the bed paftorals with refpeft
to the piftures of real life, which are drawn with great
propriety, and generally prefent pleafmg images."

Ramsav, Allan, Ton of the preceding, was born at
Edinburgh about 1709, and having devoted himfclf to
painting, went at an early period of his life to ftudy in
Italy, and there received inltrutlions from Solimene and
Imperiale.

After his return, he praftifed in Edinburgh for fome
time, but afterwai'ds removed to London, and by the in-
fluence of his countryman, the earl of Bute, was introduced
into the vortex of the court, painted the prince of Wales,
and on the death of Sliakleton in 1767, was appointed
principal painter to the crown ; although Reynolds was
then in poffeffion of the highelt reputation.

Ramfay never ventured to attempt the higher walks of
the art, but confined himfelf folely to portraits, which he
painted agreeably. Not pofTeiled of briUiancy of genius
fufhcient to attempt ftrong charafter, with ftriking effefts in
his piftures, he contented himfelf with that portion of art
which meets the expeftations of common obfervers ; never
offending with affeftation or negleft, he finiflied his piftures
with care and neatnefs, and retained his friends and repu-
tation till he ceafed to praftife. He was fo far attached
to his art, that he vifited Italy four times : to what pur-
pofe does not appear, unlefs it were to derive benefit from
the portraits of Pompeo Battoni ; for no traces of higher
charaiSer are obfervable in his produftions. Yet he was a
man of found fenfe and ftrong underftanding ; poflefl'ed of
literary acquirements, and devoted to ftudy. Though he
underilood the Latin, French, and Italian languages, he
was not fatisfied till he added a knowledge of the Greek,
acquired when he was advanced in life. Tims endowed, he
•was emulous of literary fame, and publiflied, under the title
of " The Inveftigator," Eflays on Ridicule, as the teft of
truth, on the Naturalization of Foreigners, on Tafte, &c. ;
and, as occnfion prompted, the town was favoured by him
with fome fugitive pieces on the politics of the day. He
was always held to be highly eftimable as a man, and en-
joyed his fame and good fortune to about the advanced age
of 75.

Ramsay, Andrew Michael, called the chevaher
Ramfay, was born at Ayr, in Scotland. He received a
good education at Edinburgh, where he dillinguifhed him-
felf fo much, that he was chofen to attend the fon of the
earl of Weemys at St. Andrew's. After this he went
to Leyden, with the view to farther improvement, where
he became acquainted with Poiret, one of the leaders of
the Quietifts, fome of whofe doftrines he imbibed. He

R A M

next went on a vifit to the celebrated Fenelon, archbifhop
of Cambray, who converted him to the Roman Catholic
religion, and Ramfay ever after this confidercd himfelf at
the dilciple of tiiat excellent prelate. Upon his works he
formed his literary talte, and he even adopted France for
his country, and made ufe of its language in his writings.
Here he obtained fome polls of honour and emolument, and
was made knight of the order of St. La/.arus, whence he had
the title of clievaher. His reputation caufed him to be
invited to Rome by the Pretender, in order that he might
undertake the care and education of his children. This he
accepted ; but having found that little court fo divided by
faftion, he quickly rcfigned his office, and returned to
Paris. In the next year, 1725, he re-vifited his native
country, and refided fome years with the duke of Argyle,
employing himfelf in the comjjofition of feveral works.
After his return to France, he entered into the fervice of
the prince of Turenne, duke of Bouillon. He died in 1743,
at St. Gcrmain-en-Laye, the retreat of the exiled Stuart
family, at the age of 57. His principal writings were,
" L'Hilloire de la Vie et les Ouvrages de M. de Fenelon ;"
" Effai fur le Gouvernement Civil ;" " Difcours fur le
Poeme Epique ;" " Le Pfychometre," being remarks on
lord Shaftefbury's Charafterillics ; " L'Hilloire du Mare-
chal de Turenne ;" and " Les Voyages de Cyrus." The
laft ij that whicli is by much the bell known, and it has
been frequently printed in the French and Englifh lan-
guages. Voltaire has flyled it a feeble imitation of Tele-
machus ; it is, however, written with elegance, but is
tedious. Another of the chevalier's works was " A Dif-
fertation on Free-Mafonry," of which he was grand chan-
cellor in France. In this he traces the origin of the In-
ftitution to Paleftine, in the time of the Crufadcs ; and
having found a great declenfion of the myftical ceremonies
formerly praftifed, he ftrongly urged their renewal, and
propofed a general afl'embly of the brotherhood of all
nations to be held at Paris. Biog. Brit.

Ramsay, in Geography. See Ramsey.

Ramsay Point, a cape on the S.E. coaft of the ifland of
Lewis. N. lat. 57" 44'. W. long. 6^ 36'.

RAMSBURY, a village and parifh in the hundred of
Ramfbury, and county of Wilts, England, is fituatcd about
fix miles to the eallward of tiie town of Marlborough, and
70 miles weft; by fouth from London. In the time of the
Saxons it was a place of fo much importance, as to be con-
flituted the feat of the fee, when Wiltlhire was made a
diltiiift bifliopric by Plegmund, archbifhop of Canterbury,
in the year 909. Ramfbury church was then the cathedral
church of the diocefe, and continued to be fo till bifhop
Herman prevailed upon king William the Conqueror to
unite the bifhoprics of Wiltlhire and Sherborne, and fixed
his epifcopal feat at Old Sarnm. The church, an ancient
building, is divided into a nave, two aiiles, and a chancel,
with a maffive fquare tower at its weltern extremity. In
the chancel is a long flone, which tradition affirms to be
the grave-flone of a giant ; alfo an old altar tomb of Pur-
beck marble, witiiout any infoription, and feveral monu-
ments commemorative of the Jonefes of Ramfbury manor,
or park. This feat is now the property of fir Francis Bur-
dett, bart. in right of his mother, fecond daughter of the late
William Jones, efq. The houfe was defigncd in the Gre-
cian Ityle, by John Webb, nephew to Inigo Jones. The
inclofures are exteofive and well wooded, and are interfered
by a branch of the river Kennet, which fpreads itfelf cut
in the form of a lake, from tha fides of which the grounds
rife in eafy, floping lawns.

Littlecot park, the feat of major-general Edward Ley-
bourne

RAM

bourne Popham, is fituated partly in the parilli of Ramf-
bury, and partly in that of Cliilton-Foliot. Tlie houfe is
a large ancient ftrufture, built by one of the Darells, the
former poficflors of this domain, about the time when
feudal warfare ccafed, and defence was no longer an object
in a country manfion. Notwithltanding many late altera-
tions, the interior ftill preferves many of its original features.
The great hall is very fpacious, floored with ftones, and
lighted by large and very lofty windows. In it ftands a
large oaken table, at which the vaffals of the domain were
wont to feail at the expence of their lord. The remainder of
the furniture is in a fuitable ilyle, particularly an arm-chair,
which is faid to have been ufcd by fir John Popham, chief
juftice of the court of king's bench in the reigns of queen
Elizabeth and king James I., who purchafed tlie houfe and
manor from the laft of the Darells. There is alfo a curious
inftrument for the punifhment and confinement of fervants ;
bv faftening their thumbs between two boards. The walls
of the hall arc decorated by numerous guns, carbines, piftols,
doublets, &c. : and here are alfo two very fine candelabras,
defigned and executed by Mr. George Bullock of London,
in an admirable ftyle, as adapted to the age and charadter
of the manfion. One of the bed-rooms is faid to have been
the fcene uf a fingular and myfterious murder, the incidents
attending which are recorded in a note to Scott's poem of
Rokeby. In the gallery, which is about i lo feet in length,
are portraits of judge Popham and Nell Gwyn ; alfo a
curious piece of needle-work, rcprefenting a large Roman
tefiellated pavement, which was difcovered in the adjoining
park in 1728, by Mr. George (fteward to Edward Popham,
efq.), who made a coloured drawing of it, and communi-
cated the fame to the Society of Antiquaries. This pave-
ment confided of two divifions, which appear to have
formed the floor of a temple. The interior divifion was
ornamented with the figure of Apollo playing on a harp ; and
in four furrounding compartments were four female figures
riding on different animals, and defigned to reprefent the
HorK, or Scafons. Exterior to the circle inclofing them
were three other compartments, each difplaying a face of
the fun. From thefe circumftances the temple is fuppofed
to have been dedicated to Apollo ; but fome emblems on
its exterior divifion referring to Ceres and Neptune, it may,
perhaps, be more properly efteemed a fort of pantheon.
Another Imaller Roman pavement, and a curious cup or
patera of brais, were likewife difcovered by Mr. George
on Rudge-farm, adjoining the northern boundary of Little-
cot park. The cup was adorned with foliage, and was
infcribed with the names of five Roman Rations. It was
conjctlured by Gale to have been a libation cup ufed at
an annual feaft inftituted by the inhabitants of thefe towns.

Pickedfield, in.this vicinity, is a government depot for the
interior, citabhfhcd in 1803. It inelud,es about forty acres
of ground, on which are erefted three magazines for powder,
barracks for a detachment of the military, and various
neceffary houfes and offices. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. XV. by John Britton, F.S.A.

RAMSDAL. See Remsdal.

RAMSDEN, Jesse, in Biography, an eminent Enghfh
mathematical and aftronomical inftrument-maker, the fon of
an inn-keeper at Salterhebble, near Halifax, in Yorkftiire,
where he was born in the year 1735. At nine years of age he
was admitted into the Hahfax frce-fchool, where he acquired,
during three years, the elements of claffical learning ; after
which he was removed to the care of an uncle at Craven,
by whom he was lent to a clergyman of the name of Hall,
wiio had acquired much reputation by teaching at his fchool
the mathematical fcicnce^. Under this gentleman's initruc-

II A M

tions, young Ramfdcn became a proficient in geometry and
algebra, and was advancing rapidly in thele and other col-
lateral branches of lliidy when his father fent for him home,
to apprentice him out with a clothier at Halifax. At the
age of twenty he went to London, where he became clerk
in a wholefale cloth warehoufe. Tins fituation he retained
about two years and a half, when his inclination for the
fciences revived fo ftrongly, that he refolvtd to qualify him-
felf for iome bufinels which fliould prove fuitable to the
bent of his mind. With this view he bound himfelf ap-
prentice for four years to Mr. Burton in the Strand, who
was efteemed one of the beil workmen of his time in
making thermometers and barometers, and in engraving and
dividing mathematical inftruments. After the expiration of
his apprenticeftiip, he worked as journeyman with a perfou
of the name of Cole, with whom he afterwards aflbciated
himfelf as partner. This conneAion did not laft long,
when Mr. Ramfden opened a workfhop on his own ac-
count, in which he foon recommended himfelf to the em-
ployment of the principal mathematical iiiRrument-makers
in London. In the courfe of his bufinefs his repeated exa-
mination of the inltrument! which were fent him to be en-
graved or divided, led him to difcover their defeifts, and hi»
genius fuggefted to him the means of removing them, or of
conftrufting better inftruments. In order to put his plan
into execution, he made himfelf mafter of the prac-
tical operations of the trade, and formed the defign of
examining every aftronomical inftrument in ufe, witli the
view of correfting thofe which, being founded on good
principles, were faulty only in the conftruftion, and of
profcribmg thofe which were defeftive in both thele
refpefts. About this time, by his marriage with Mifs Dol-
lond, he became poftell'ed of a part of Mr. DoUond's patent
for achromatic telefcopes. In the year 1766, Mr, Ramfden
opened a fhop in the Haymarket, where he continued till
1774, when he removed to Piccadilly, where he remained
till the time of his death. Before his fettlement in the
Haymarket, he had improved the fextant, and he had in-
vented his celebrated dividing machine. (See the art. En-
gine.) Having fpent ten years in bringing this machine
to perfeftion, he obtained from the Board of Longitude
a premium of icoo/. Mr. Ramfden conftrufted an inftru-
ment for dividing ftraight lines, which has been defcribed
in a former volume of the New Cytlopasdia, and while he
was employed on his dividing-machine he made great im-
provements in feveral other inftruments. The Theodolite
(fee the article), before his time, confifted merely of a
telefcope, turning on a circle, divided at every three minutes,
by means of a Vernier, which fee ; but in the hands of
Mr. Ramfden it became a new and perfeft inftrument,
ferving for meafuring heights and diftances, as well as taking
angles. The largeft and moft perfcft theodolite ever con-
ftructed was made by him for general Roy, for the purpofe
of meafuring the feries of triangles in England. Though
this inftrument is only of eighteen inches radius, its accuracy
is fo great as not to admit of an error of a fingle fecond.
With tlris inftrument general Roy mcafured the angle be-
tween the polar ftar and the fides of his triangles, in order
to have the exaft difft;rence between the obfervations of
Paris and Greenwich, which he found to be 9' 20". Mr.
Ramfden was a great improver of the barometer for
meafuring the height of mountains, which he could ob-
tain to a degree of accuracy that was very furpnfing,
and he caufed to be engraved a table to accompany his
barometers, which, without the trouble of calculation,
gives the heights of places, according to the heights of
tlie mercur)', and even at different tem.peratures, He alfo

pointed

RAMSDEN.

pointed out ,i new method and apparatus adapted to the
conveyance and fupport of the portable barometer. Mr.
Ramfden made improvements on the cleftrical machine ; and
on manometers for meafurinsf the dcnfity of the air : he in-
vented an inllrument for meafuring inacceflible diftances :
aiTaying balances which turn with lefs than a ten thoufaudth
part of the weight ufed : levels and a variety of other in-
ilruments. Tlie pyrometer alfo exercifcd ins talents, and
on this occafiop, as on all others, Mr. Ramfden fhewed a
fort of natural and almoll intuitive fagacity in difcovering
the eflential faults of an inltrumcnt, and in inventing the
moil fimple and exadl methods of correfting them. With
refpeA to optics, he difcovered a method of correfting, in
a new and perfect manner, the aberration of fphericity and
refrangibility in compound eye-glnlies applied to all aliro-
nomicaliiiftruments. Opticians had imagined that thepurpofc
might be accomplifhed by making the image of the objeil-
glafs fall between the two eyc-glairt:s, which was attended
with this great inconvenience, that the eye-glafs could not
be touched without deranging tlie line of collimation, and
the value of the parts of the micrometer. To remedy this
inconvenience, he fet out from a fimple experiment, viz- that
the edges of an image obferved through a prifm are lefs
coloured, according as the image is nearer the prifm. This
led him to attempt placing the two cj^e-glafles between the
image of the objeil-glafs and the eye, without failing to
correA the two aberrations ; which he did by changing the
radii of the curves, and placing the glafTes in a manner very
different from that commonly employed. In the Philofo-
phical Tranfadlions for the year 1779, Mr. Ramfden has
defcribed a new reflefting objeft-glafs micrometer ; to the
paper on this fnbjecl we refer our readers, and alio to the
article Micrometer in this Diftionary. With this micro-
meter the diameters of the planets may be meafured ; it
may be adapted to all kinds of achromatic telefcopes ; it
may be brought near to, or removed from, the objeft-glafs
at pleafure, to render viilon diftinft ; and it may be removed
from the telefcope, if the obferver wifh to uie the latter
without a micrometer. The high degree of merit to which
Mr. Ramfden's many and important inventions were intitled,
led his friends to propole him as a member of the Royal
Society, and he was eletted in the year 1786.

The Equatorinl or Tranfu inftrument (fee the articles) re-
ceived great miprovements in the hands of Mr. Ramfden,
who rejected the endlefs fcrew, which by preffmg on the
centre deilroyed its precilion ; he placed the centre of gra-
vity on the centre of the bafe, and caufed all the movements
to take place in every dirottion ; he pointed out the means
of reftifying the inftrument in all its parts, and he applied
to it a very ingenious fmall machine, for meafuring or cor-
recting the cffed\ af refraction. The greatelt equatorial in-
ftrument ever attempted, is that which he conftruCted for llr
George Shuckburg, on which he employed feveral years,
and of which vve have given a defcription and figure. Mr.
Ramfden's meridian telefcopes which he made for Blenheim,
Manheim, Dublin, Paris, and Gotha, are alfo remarkable
for the excellence of tlieir objeft-glaffes. With that of
Dublin, Mr. Ufher obferved ftars of the fourth magnitude
in the open day, and thofe of the third very near their con-
junftion with the fun. Thcfe telefcopes are eight feet in
length. There is a live- feet one at the obfcrvatory at Pa-
lermo. Mr. Ramfden made great improvements in the mural
quadrant, of which a full account will be found in the article
Circle, to which we refer our readers for much valuable
information on tlie fubjeft of ailronomical inftruments. Hav-
ing in various parts of our work entered into the nature

of Mr. Ramfden's improvements and inventions, it ie unue-
celTary to repeat here wh»t has already been fully explained.

The field in which the inventive genius and fuperior talents
of Mr. Ramfden were cxercifed, was, as we have feen, very
extenfive. In order that every part of his inftruments might
be fabricated under his own inlpeftion, he collefted in his
workfhops men of every branch of trade necclfary for their
conltruftion. So important did he coufider the principle of
divifion of labour, that he always confined the fame workmen
to the iame branch, and by that means arrived at the greatell
correcinefs and nicety in executing it. Notwithdandin"- the
great perfection of his inftruments, which ought :o have fe-
cured to Mr. Ramfden a large fortune, he fold them cheaper
than any other artift in Lond m, fometimes even one-third
below the ufual price. Such was the demand for them,
from almoft all parts of the world, that though he employed
fixty men, he was unable to execute all the orders which he
received. His great attention tobufinefs injured his health,
and haftcned his death. Ho died at Brighton, where he
had been for the benefit of the fea-air, November 5, 1800,
in the fixty-fixth year of his age. He had been elefted a
meniber of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at Peterlburg
in 1 794, and in the following year he was prefented with the
gold medal, adjudged by the Royal Society to perfons dif-
tinguifhed for their fcientific talents.

Mr. Ramfden was by nature endowed with uncommonly
ftrong reafoning powers, and a moft accurate and retentive
memory, but, at the fame time, with fuch a quicknefs of
penetration, that he could, as it were, with a fingle glance,
view in every light the fubjeCi on which he thought, and
adopt the moft advantageous mode of confidering it. He
poflefTed, in an cxquifite degree, that quality of mind
which is emphatically ftyled elegance, which in the abltraft
fciences leads to clearnefs, fimplicity, and precifion, as in the
fine arts and literature, it gives the laft polilli to genius, and
is more generally known by the appellation of tafte. In his
habits he was temperate to abltemioufnels, fatisfied with
fmall quantities of food, and a fmall portion of deep. Un-
acquainted with difiipation or amufement, and giving but
little time even to the fociety of his friends, the whole of
thofe liours which he could fpare from the duties of his pro-
feflion, he devoted cither to further improvements in his in-
ftruments, or to the perufal of books of fcience, particularly
thofe mathematical works of the fubUme writers which had
any conneftion with the fubjeft of his own purfuits. Mr.
Ramfden's only relaxation from almoft conllant and fevere
itudies, was the occafional perufal of the beft authors,
both ia profe and verfe ; and when it is recollected that at
an advanced age he made himfelf fo coinpletely mafter of
the French language, as to read with peculiar pleafure the
works of Boileau and Moliere, no one can believe that he
mis-fpcnt even his hours of amufement. Short and temperate
as were his repafts, a book or a pen was the conftant com-
panion of his meals ; and when illnefs broke his fleep, a
lamp and a book were ever in readinefs to beguile the fenfe
of pain, and make bodily ficknefs minifter to the progrefs
of his mind. He was well ikiUed in the abftruler parts of
mathematics, and converfant with the belt writers on the
fciences ; and fuch was his manual dexterity, that there was
not one tool in any of the numerous branches of his profel-
fion which he could not ufe with a degree of perfection
equal to that of the very beft workman in that particular
branch, and he could have begun and finiftied every fingle
part of his moft comphcated inftruments. For this article
we are chiefly indebted to a very elaborate and excellent ori-
ginal memoir in the 8th vol. of the Gen. Biog.
^ RAMS-

R A M

RAMSDORF, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in the
bilhopric of Naumburg ; three- miles N.E. of Zeit/..

RAMSEA, or Ramsey, a market and fea-port town
in the parifli of Kirk-Maughold, Ifle of Man, Great Bri-
tain, is fituatcd at the dillance of fourteen miles north-eafl
from Douglas, the chief town in the ifland. Anciently this
place was of conliderable note, but it is now comparatively
decayed. The bay upon which it is built might be rendered
capable of affording anchorage and fecurity to very large
veffels, but it is much choaked up with fand at the entrance
to the harbour, and is therefore little frequented, though pro-
tefted by a fort, mounted with feveral pieces of cannon.
At the extremity of the pier is a light-houfe, the lower
divifion of which is ufed as an occafional prifon. The chief
article of export from Ramfea is grain, the produce of the
vicinity which is among the beft cultivated dillriiSls in the
Britidi idands. Several boats, with good accommodation for
pallengers, fail weekly from hence to Liverpool, and to
Whitehaven ; but what gives moll importance to the town
at prefent is, the circumltance of its being the feat of the
courts of jullice for the northern diltrift. According to
ttie population returns of 1792, (the lall returns made for
the ifland,) Ramfea contamcd IIOO inhabitants, but their
number is now probably increafed to 1400.

In the parifli of Kirk-Andreas, to the north of Ramfea,
are feveral curioiitics, particularly an aricient intrenchment
at Ballachurry, which occupies a fmall ifolated eminence, in
a very level tradl of country. This earthen work is of a
iquare form, and is furroundcd by a wide and deep foffe
and rampart, flanked at each angle by a very noble baftion.
The area within is much funk below the level of the works,
which are in a (late of excellent prefervation, and might
eafily be rendered effeftual for the purpofes of modern war-
fare. This diftria abounds with fepulchral tumuli ; fome of
them environed by large upright Hones. Several of thefe
barrows were opened, about twenty years ago, by Mr. Cha-
loner, and found to contain fimple urn interments. In the
church-yard here Hands a fquare pillar of Hone, bearing a
Runic infcription, which is thus tranflated by Mr. Beau-
ford of Athy, in Ireland. " The fon of Ulf of the Swedri
(Swedes) erefted this crofs to the warrior Afterarin, the fon
of Cunnu." Another infcription on a fimilar monument is
to be feen in the neighbouring church-yard of Kirk-Michael,
which is an extenfive village, pleafantly fituated near the fea.
In this parifa is a monument of the cairn defcription, com-
pofed of fmall ftones heaped together. It is called Cairn-
Viael, but nothing is known refpefting its origin, and pecu-
liar appropriation. About a mile from hence is Bifliop's-
Court, the ufual refidence of the bifliops of Man. The
palace was nearly rebuilt about twenty years ago. It is an
elegant and convenient manfion, furrounded by agreeable
gardens and pleafure grounds. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. iii. By ,Iohn Britton and E. W. Brayley,
1802. Carlide's Topographical Diftionary of Scotland,
3 vols. 4to. 1813.

RAMSEIL, a town of Hiudooilan, in Baglana ; ten
miles N. of Nailisck.

RAMSELE, a town of Sweden, in Angermanland ;
70 miles N.W. of Hernofand.

RAMSENTHAL, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Culmbach ; four miles N. of Bayrenth.

RAMSEY, a market-town in the hundred of Hunfling-
ftone, and county of Huntingdon, England, is fituated on
the banks of a fmall river, to which it gives name, at the
dillance of ten miles N.N.E. from the town of Huntingdon,
and fixty-eight miles N.W. from London. It is particularly

R A U

celebrated in hillory for its abbey, which was founded by
the renowned duke j^ilwin, at the perfuafion of Ofwald,
bifliop of Worceder, in the year 969. The buildings
Wile completed in the courfe of five years, at the expiration
of which, the monallery was dedicated to the Holy Virgin and
St. Benedict, and filled with monks of the Benediftine order.
Ailwin gave confiderable poflellions to his new eilablifhment,
and procured foi it many valviable privileges from king Ed-
gar. This monarcli confirmed to the monks all their lands,
and gave them the right of impreding the image of his
royal pcrlon upon their feals. Several fiicceeding princes,
and many private perfons of rank and opulence, contri-
buted to enrich the abbey, which afterwards became one of
thofe dift;inguifhed by the title " mitred." Its abbots were
confequently privileged to fit in parliament among the peers,
and enjoyed all the other accuftomed rights of mitred
abbots. Many of the monks were men of pre-eminent ge-
nius and learning, and were efpecially noted for their pro-
ficiency in the Hebrew language. The library belonging to
the monallery was extenfive, and contained many books
written in that tongue by its inmates. At the era of the
diflolution, its annual revenues were eitimated, according to
Dugdale, at 17 16/. 12s. 4J. ; but Speed, on the authority
of fir Robert Cotton, Hates their amount at 1987/. 15J. 3^.
Some years after that event, the demefnes and lands of the
abbey, with feveral lakes belonging to it within this parifli,
were granted to fir Richard Cromwell, anceftor to the
Proteftor.

Ramfey confifts chiefly of one long flreet, with another
branching ofi^ from it, in a northern diredlion. The abbey
ftood at the upper end of the town, towards the fouth, near
the manor-houle, a large and elegant manfion, built out of its
ruins. The only portion of the old buildings Handing is a gate-
way, which appears, from the Hyle of its architedlure, to have
been eredled about the reign of Henry VI. Since the deHruc-
tion of the abbey, it was for fome time ufcd as a prifon.
At a Hiort diHance from this reHc Hands the prefent church
of Ramfey, a fpacious and handfome edifice, confifting of a
nave, chancel, and aifles, with an embattled tower at the weft
end. The nave is feparated from the aifles by feven large
and well-proportioned arches on each fide, fpringing from
cluftered columns ; and from the chancel by a Hill larger
arch, with a fcreen richly carved in wood crofling the lower
part. The windows are large, and, as is apparent from many
fragments remaining, have once been filled with itainedglafs,
exhibiting figures of angels, crowned leads, &c. Several
branches of the Cromwell family were buried in this church,
but there are no monuments to their memory. In this town
is a free-fchool, founded and endowed in 1663, under a
decree of chancery, but the eftabbihment has been much
neglefted ; alfo a charity-fchool for girls, inHituted about a
century ago by John Dryden,efq. who bequeathed 16,000/.
for various charitable purpofes. The market day here is
Wednefday, weekly, and there is an annual fair on the 2 2d
of July. Ramfey fuffered greatly from the plague in the
year 1665 — 6, that dreadful diltemper having been intro-
duced by the accident ot major William Cromwell wearing
a coat, the cloth of which had been brought from the me-
tropolis. The number of deaths amounted to 400 within
one month. This town likewife fuHaiaed much injury from
fire in 173 1 ; but the damage was foon repaired. Accord-
ing to the population returns of 181 1, the parifli contains
484 houfes, and 2390 inhabitants.

The country around Ramfey is extremely marfliy, and
hence is interfefted by numerous ditches, or drains to carry
off the water. To the noj-th-weil about two miles, is a

lake

R A M

J{ A M

lake called Ugg-Mcre, and at the diltaiice ot a mile ftirtlier
northwards, is a Hill laroor coll'.ction of water, named
Whittlelca-Mere ; and tlicre is a third to the iiortii-eall ol
the town, ilyled Ramley-Mere. All thefe lakis abound witii
firti of various kinds. Running northwards ironi tiiat lad
mentioned, is a hiyli caufeway, called King's-delf, or dyke,
which is mentioned in record as early as the reign of king
Edgar. It is commonly confounded with Cnuts-delf, or
Swerdes-deU, called alfo Steeds-dyke, which forms the
boundary of this county wilii Cambridgelhire. Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. vii. by E. \V. Br.iyley, 1808.

Ramsicv, //7f of', an illand in the cwmwd of Mynyw,
cantref of Pybidiog, (now called tlie hundred of Dewiiland,)
and county of Pembroke, South Wales, is iituated in the
Irifh fea, oppofite to the promontory called St. David's
Head, from which it is about three miles dillant. This ifland
is nearly four miles in length, and exceeds one mile in breadth.
Throughout its whole extent the furface is lofty, and at
each extremity a mountain (hoots to a great height above the
general level, giving the idand a very romantic appearance.
From the fliore the afcent is bold and precipitous on all fides,
and at one fpot, called the Choir, the rocks aliume an amphi-
theatrical form, and rile perpendicularly to a ilupendous ele-
vation. Ramfey was formerly cultivated, but is now chiefly
appropriated as pafturage for (lieep and horfes. It is abun-
dantly fupplied with frelh water, for which benefit tradition
records that the illand is indebted to Jullinian, a devotee
from Brittany, who fettled here in the fifty century. Here
were anciently two chapels, one facred to Devanus, or De-
vynoy, and the other to Juftinian above-mentioned, who was
murdered by his fervants, and buried on the fpot where the
ohapel was railed to his memory. Ramfey belongs to the
bifiiop of St. David's, as do likewife feveral fmaller iflands
in its vicinity, of which feven are dillinguiflied by the appel-
lation of the Bifhop and his Clerks. Innumerable flocks of
birds frequent and breed on thefe iHands, and, among other
kinds, the celebrated hunting falcon is frequently leen. An
Hillorical Tour through Pembrokell-iire, by Richard Fen-
ton, F. S. A. Carlifle's Topographical Didlionary ot
Wales, 4to. 1 8 13.

RAMSGATE, a member of the town and port of
Sandwich, m the upper half hundred of Ringlow, I lie of
Thanet, lathe of St. Augultine, and county of Kent, Eng-
land, is fituated on the ihore of the German ocean, at the
diitance of 72 miles S.E. from London. Like Margate,
ft was formerly only a fmall filhing hamlet, confifting of a
few mean, and indifferently built, houles. In the reign of
queen Elizabeth, indeed, it was returned in the maritime fur-
vey as having no more than feventy failors belonging to it,
and thefe chiefly iilhermen. What firil gave it importance
was the extenfion of the Rulfian trade after the revolution
in 1 688 ; but it is chiefly indebted for its prefent conlequence
to the improvements made in the harbour fince the middle
of the lalt century ; for although a pier for (hipping exiflied
here, at leall from the time of Henry VIII., yet it was al-
together inadequate to afford fccurity to the numerous (hips
driven on the coaft; in tempelhious weather. Parliarnent was
therefore induced, at the petition of the merchants and (hip-
owners who were intereiled, to pafs an aft, ordering a proper
harbour to be formed for the reception " of (hips of, and under,
300 tojis burthen." Under this aft truft.ces were, as ufual, ap-
pointed ; and in the year 1749-50, the work was begun, ac-
cording to defigns by William Ockenden, efq., and captain
Robert Brooke. So many difficulties, however, occurred
in carrying it into execution, that the harbour was not com-
pleted till the year 1791. The fum which the whole coft ex-
ceeded 600,000/. ; but that amount is trivial compared to
Vol. XXIX.

the great benefit derived from it to our fliipping intereft.
The area ot the harbour is nearly circular, and compreliends
about forty-fix acres. The piers, l)a(in, &c. are conftrudted
of Purbeck and Portland Hone, principally the latter. The
entire length of the eafl; pier, including its flexures, or
angles, amounts to nearly 2000 feet ; tliat of the wefl pier i>
about 1500 feet ; the width of the entrance is 240 feet. The
geueral breadth of the piers is twenty-fix feet, including a
Itrong parapet, which defimds the outer fides next the lea.
AVhat is called the Eall Channel, is formed by the pafTage
between the eall pier and a large bank of fand which nearly
erodes the harbour as far as the bafin, and is of confiderabK-
ufc for (hips to bring \ip upon, in heavy gales, wiien driven
into the harbour without anchors or cablet;. Near the- norili
end of the wed pier is a miffive frame work of timber, and
a llaircafc, called Jacob's ladder, forming a communication
from the top to the bottom of the cllfl". The eall pier is a
favourite promenade in fummer, and is much admired for
the peculiarly fine fca-viev^ s wliich it commands.

In judicial proceedings, Ramfgate is technically denoted
the ^)/7/f of Ramfgale. It is in the parifli of St. Lawrence,
and is ailefled to that church, but it maintains its own poor
leparately, and the inliabltants liave the right of choofing
one churcl>warden from among themfelves. As an ancient
member of the town of Sandwich, it is in fubjeftion to the
juftices of that place. The mayor of Sandwich appoints
a deputy, or conilable, here, and the inhabitants are allotted
by the commillioners of that borough, what proportion of
land tax they (hall pay. A fmall annual fum is alfo paid
out of the duties coUefted at Ramfg.ite harbour towards the
fupport of Sandwich haven. The influx of vifitors to this
town of late years has greatly increafed, and has confequently
occafioiied a corifiderable extenfion of its buildings. A
market has been ellabliflied for fevcra! years ; and the (Ireets
are paved, lighted, and watched, under the authority of an
aft of parliament pafled in 1785. Here is a fpacious chapel
of eafe, and feveral meeting-houles for didenters of different
denominations. The accommodation for the fummer refi-
dents are fimilar to thole at Margate, though perhaps lefs
numerous, and fcarcely fo fplendid. The affembly room
and tavern is a fpacious building adjoining the harbour. It
is elegantly fitted up, and contains convenient tea and card-
rooms, a biUiard-room, and a coffee-room. Here are like-
wife feveral good inns, with bathing-rooms, libraries,
boarding-houfes, &c. The bathing-place is a fine fandy
fhore, beneath the cliffs to the fouth of the pier : the ma-
chines are fimilar to thofe at Margate, iiiz. a fort of clofe
caravan, having a door and fmall flight of Iteps behind, by
which the bathers dclcend to the water, and are concealed
from view by a pendant covermg of canvas. Within tb<^
lalt forty years the population of Ramfgate has increafed
almoil in the ratio of three to one. In iBci, according to
tiie parliamentary returns, it contained 726 honfes, and
31 10 inhabitants ; but, in 1 8 1 1 , the former were returned as
amounting to 919, and the latter to 4221.

Half a mile wefhvard from Ramfgate is Ellington, an-
ciently a feat of a family of the fame name, who, towards
the end of the reign of Edward IV., were fucceeded by the
Thatchers, another ancient Kentifh family, from whom it
palled to the Sparkllngs. St. Lawrence is a large village, fitu-
ated on th:- brow of the hill overlooking Ramfgate ; the houfes
forming a long winding ilreet along the high road to London.
The church here is a fpacious edifice, confifting of a nave,
aifles, and three chancels, with a fquare tower, fupported
upon four maffive columns, bftween the nave and principal
chancel. The tower, and part of the body, arc of Norman
architefture, and on the outfide of the former, by way of

3 E decoration.

R A M

K A M

decoration, appear ranges of finall femicireular arches
fpringing from plain oftagon pillars ; the capitals of the piers
which lupport it alfo difplaying feme curious f( ulpture.
Among the fcpukhral memorials here, arc fcveral in memory
of the Sparkhngs of Ellington, and the Manftons of Man-
fton-court, an ancient manlioii, fituated about two miles to
the north- weft of St. Lawrence, now converted into a farm-
houfe. Minfter, another village in this vicinity, derives its
name from a church or nunnery founded here in 670, by
Domneva, wife to Merw:ild, fon of Penda, king of Mercia.
Ih the early part of life (he had been left, with her fifter
Ermengitha, and her brothers Ethelred and Ethclbr^ght,
under the guardianfhip of her uncle Egbert, king of Kent,
who murdered the princes, and in expiation of the crime
offered to give to Domneva whatever fhe (hould afl<. The
lady demanded as much land as a tame deer would run over
at one courfe, to endow a monaftery, which was accordingly
granted to her. When her buildings wereraifed, fhe placed
therein 70 nuns, and, taking the veil herfelf, became their
firft abbefs. She was fuccecded by her daughter St. Mil-
dred, from whom the abbey afterwards was denominated St.
Mildred's abbey. This ellablifhment was frequently plun-
dered by the Danes during the eighth and ninth centuries,
and at length was fet fire to, and totally deftroyed, together
with the nuns, the clergy, and many of the people who had
fled hither for fanftuary. The poffeffions of this abbey were
fubfequently granted to the monks of the monaftery of St.
Auguftine, in C.uiterbury, by king Canute, and by them
the body of St. Mildred was removed to their own abbey.
The parifh church of Minfter, which occupies the fcite of
the ancient nunnery, appears to have been originally founded
about the time of the conqueft, but it has undergone many
alterations, and confequently exhibits various ftyles ofarchi-
tefture. The nave, which is the oldeft portion of it, is
divided from the aides by fcmi-circular arches fpringing from
ftiort maflive columns. The chancel is vaulted with ftone,
as is likewife part of the tranfept. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. viii. by E. W. Brayley. Hiftory of Kent, by
Edward Hafted, efq., 8vo. edit. vol. x. Lewis's Hiftory
of the Ifle of Thanet, 4to.

RAMSHAGUR, a town of Bengal ; 5 miles S. of Di-
nagepour.

RAMSHYDA, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Nericia ; 28 miles N. of Orebro.

RAMSIN, a town of Saxony ; 3 miles W. of Bitter-
feld.

RAMSONS, in Botany, a name given to the broad-
leaved wild allium. See Allium.

RAMSTADT, in Geography, a town of HefTe-Darm-
ftadt ; 3 miles S.E. of Darmftadt.

RAMTCHIEU, a lake of Thibet, formed by t^ree
feparate rivulets, and furrounded with an incruftation, ot a
white colour and faltifti tafte. This fubftancc is collefled
and employed for cleanfing and wafhing woollen and cotton
cloths, as a fubftitute for foap, to which the inhabitants of
the adjacent country are utter ftrangers. Near this lake is
a large monaftery, called Lubchea Goomba, feated amidft
rocks, which protrude their bafes into the lake, and are
bordered with a white foam, produced by its agitated waves.
The banks of this lake are perforated with innumerable bur-
rows of a imall animal, to which they give the name of rat,
larger than a mufk rat, of a cinereous grey, without a tail,
conceived by Mr. Turner to have been the daman of Ifrael
and Egypt, or the Schaphan of the Hebrews. The lake is
nlfo frequented by great abundance of water-fowl, vi'ild
geefe, ducks, teal, and ftorks, which, on the approach of
winter, take their flight to milder regions. Prodigious

numbers of fauraiTes, the largeft fpecies of the crane kind,
are here feen at certain feafons of the year, fo that any
quantity of eggs may be coUefted. The lake gradually
narrows, and from its northern edge fends off a fmall brook ;
and at the other extremity it difcharges itfelf into a much
larger lake. This lake, it is faid, is lield iu high refpeft
by the inhabitants of Bootiui, whofe fuperftition leads theni
to confider the increafe or decrcafe of its waters as por-
tentous of good or evil to their nation. They fancy it to
be a favourite haunt of their chief deities. Turner's Thibet,
p. 212, &c.

RAMTEAK, or Ramtegu, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Goondv.'ana, held facred by the Hindoos, who
pretend that Ram collefted his army here, prior to his ex-
pedition ap" nil Rawun at Lanka, or Ceylon. The Hin-
doos believe all the Europeans to have defcended from
Rawun, and Ceylon to be an immenfe mountain ot gold in-
vifible to them. Near the town is a temple, in which they
offer up their facrifices and devotions; 15 miles N.E. of
Nagpour. N. lat. 21" 23'. E. long. 79° 57'.

RAMTRUT, in Mythology, the name of a deity wor-
ftiipped by the Kanazins, a people of Hindooftan, where
he has a celebrated temple, at Onor. The charafters under
which he is reprefented more refemble thofe of a monkey
than of a man. '

RAMULOSE Leaf, in Botany. See Leaf.
RAMUNDA, or RoMLA Boda, in Geogru.phy, a town
of Sweden, in Nericia.

R AMU RAH. See Ramgur.
RAMUS, Petek, in Biography. See Ramists.
Ramus, in Anatomy. This word, fignifying braneh,
and the term ramification, are ufed in defcribing the arteries,
veins, and nerves, the divifions and fubdivifions of which
bear fome analogy to the branching of a tree. In the fame
way we fpeak of trunhs of arteries, &c. and defcribe them
as branching out.

Ramus, in the Anatomy of Plants, a name given to the
firft or lateral branches, which go off from the petiolum, or
middle rib of a leaf. The fubdivifions of thefe are called
furculi ; and the final divifions of thefe into the moft mi-
nute of all, are by fome called capillamenta : but in general,
both thefe kinds are comprehended under the name of for'
cuius.

RAMUSIO, or Rannusio, Giambatista, in Biography,
an early colleftor of voyages and travels, the fon of Paolo, an
eminent lawyer, defcended from a learned and diftinguiftied
family of Venetian citizens, was born at Venice in 1 485.
He was in early life deputed by the ftate upon public bufi-
nefs to Switzerland, Rome, and France ; and in the latter
country he fo much ingratiated himfelf with Lewis XH.,
that he was by him caufed to travel through almoft the
whole of his kingdom. As a reward for his fcrvices, he
was made fecretary of the council of ten at Venice, which
poft he at length refigned ; and returning to Padua, em-
ployed himfelf in compiling his great work, " Raccolta
delle Navigazioni e de Viaggi," which was publiftied at
different periods between the years 1554 and 1559, in three
volumes folio. He had prepared a fourth volume, which
was burnt at the printer's. Ramufio died at Padua in
1557 ; of courfe, a part of his work was given to the world
after his deceafe. Ramufio was author of a treatifc " De
Nili Incremento." He was a man of great learning, and
was extremely converfant in hiftory, geography, and the
ancient languages : he had fome knowledge in aftronomy,
and held a correfpondence with many learned men and well
informed perfons, both in Italy and Spain. It was by their
afliftance, and at the defire of Fracaftoro, that he compofed

6 the

RAN

11 A N

the work already mentioned. Tiiis work was a collcclion
of all the voyages and travels that had hitherto been piib-
lifhed ; in which he gave tranflations of thofe in foreitni lan-
guages ; and he prefixed difiertations, in which he diligently
examined the pretenfions of different authors, comparing
ihcm with one another.

RAN, in our Old Wrilcis, is ufed for open and public
robbery, fo manifeit that it cannot be denied. " Ran
dicitur aperta rapina cjux negari non potell." Lamb. 125.
Leg. Canut. cap. 58. Hence it is to this day vulgarly
faid of Bne who takes the goods ot another injurioufiy and
violently, that he has taken or fnatchcd all he could nip
and ran.

Ran, twenty cords of twine, wound on a reel ; and every
cord fo parted by a knot, as to be eafdy feparated.

RANA, in Geography, a town of Auitria ; 12 miles S.
of Aigcn. — Alfo, a town of Auilria ; 13 miles S.S.W. of
Zwetl.

Rana, or Orano'i, one of the Sandwich iflands, in the
North Pacific ocean, fituatcd about three leagues from
Mowec and JVIorotoi, and lying to the S.W. of the paflage
between thefe iflands. The country to the foiith is high
and craggy ; but the other part? of the ifland had a better
afpeft, and appeared to be well inhabited. It produces
very few plantains, and bread-fruit trees ; but abounds in
roots, fuch as yams, fweet potatoes, and tarrow. The
number of inhabitants is eftimated at 20,400. Its S. point
is in lat. 20° 46'. E. long. 203° 8'. Cook's Third Voyage,
vol. iii. '

Rana, in Surgery. See Ranula.

Rana, in Zooiogy, the frog, a genus of the clafs Amphi-
bia, of the divifion Reptiles, of which the generic cha-
rafter is : Body four-footed, naked ; it generally has no
tail, the hind legs are longer than the fore. This genus
diflers from the Lacerla (fee the art. Lizard), in having a
fhorter body, broader, thicker head, and in general no
tail. The animals of it feed on infefts ; they are full
grown about the fourth year, and feldom live beyond the
twelfth. Their fore-feet are mollly cleft, having four toes :
their hind-feet are palmate and five-toed ; they arc extremely
falacious, flicking to the female for days and weeks : the
tadpole is excluded from the egg without feet, but with a
tail refembling a fifh's, which drops off as the legs are pro-
truded ; in this ftate they have likewife a fort of gills and
lungs, and many have a fmall tube on the lower lip, by
which they can affix themfelves to other bodies ; near the
left eye is a veficle, from which they difcharge water : in
breeding time, the fore-thumb of the male is warty : toads,
as we all know, are filthy in their afpeft, and live in
damp, obfcure, dark places, and crawl out only by night :
their eggs are in a long chain : frogs are more aftive,
and more about by dav ; thefe lay their eggs in a confufed
mafs.

Dr. Shaw, in his entertaining and inftruftive Zoology,
fays this genus may be divided into three feftions ; vi-z.
I. Frogs, commonly called Rana, with light aftive bo-
dies, and which leap when diflurbed. 2. Slender-limbed
frogs, Hylis, Calamity, or Rane arboree, I'iz. fuch as have
light bodies, very fleuder limbs, and toes terminating in
flat, circularly expanded tips, enabling the animal to adhere
at pleafure to the furface even of the fmootheft bodies.
Several of this divifion aftually refide on trees, adhering by
their toes to the lower furfaces of the leaves and branches.
3. Toads, Bufones, or fuch as have heavy bodies, fhort thick
limbs, and which rather crawl than leap when difturbed.

Gmelin has given a different arrangement, which, ac-
cording to our ulual cultom, we fhall follow in this ar-

ticle. He divides the genus into three feftions, W*. A,
thofcwith warty and puffed up bodies; and fhort legs :
thefe are tcads. B, thole with bodies rather oblong,
fmooth and witii longer legs : thefe zts frogs, properly fo
called. And C, whole hind feet arc very long ; and whofe
claws are lenticulate. Dr. Shaw enumerates more than
fifty fpccies, but Gmelin dcfcribcs only thirty-fix.

SeAion A. — Body tuarty,' puffed up: Jhorter Legt.
Species.

Pii'A ; Surinam Toad. The toes of tlie fore-feet of this
fpecies are unarmed, four-cleft ; thofe of the hind-feet are
clawed and palmate.

This hideous and deformed animal inhabits the waters of
Guiana, and is adtually eaten by the natives. The male,
after the excluCon of the eggs, colleds the mafs together,
and fmears it over the back of tiie females with its paws,
where they arc received into fmall cells, impregnated by the
males and doled up ; after fome time the perfect young
are excluded from thofe hollow tubercles on the back of the
female.

The fize of the P'lpa confiderably exceeds that of the
common toad ; the head is flat, broad, and very fhort ; the
beak is fpatula-fliaped ; the eyes very fmall and remote;
neck very fliort, wrinkled; the body is orbicular, flat, with
a hard cartilaginous fliin ; the fore toes are round, and the
hind ones very long, connefted by an undivided membrane.
This fpecies was firll made known to the Europeans about
the latter end of the i7th century.

MusicA ; Mufical Toad. The fpecific character of this
is, that it has gibbous flioulders that are dotted ; the body
is varied with lurid and brown ; the fore-feet are cleft, and
the hind-feet are fubpalmate and five-toed, with fcarccly
any claws. It inhabits the frefli waters of Surinam : it is
larger than the common toad : in the evening, and during
the whole night, it keeps up a continual mufical kind of
croaking ; hence it takes its name.

*BuFO ; Common Toad. Body lurid and brown : of
this animal there are three varieties, as follows : the firfl
has its back of an olive colour ; and an unequal yellowifh-
red band down the fide : the body of the fecond is marked
with confluent green fpots and warts on the fpots of the
fame colour, thofe of the intervals red, the fpaces be-
tween bicoloured. The third is particularly difl:inguifhed
for its fize, being much lefs than the others. This of all
the European toads feems to be the moff univerfally known.
It is found in fhady places, in gardens, woods, and fields,
and frequently makes its way into cellars, or any obfcure
receffes in which it may occafionally conceal itfelf, and
where it may find a fupply of food, or a fecurity from too
great a degree of cold. In the early part of fpring, like
others of this genus, it retires to the waters, where it con-
tinues during the breeding feafon, and depofits its ova or
fpawn in the form of double necklace-like chains or firings
of beautifully tranfparent gluten, and of the length of three
or four feet, in each of which are difpofed the ova in a con-
tinued double feries throughout the whole length, having the
appearance of fo many fmall jet-black globules or beads ;
being in reality no other than the tadpoles or larvse convo-
luted into a globular form, and waiting for the period of
their evolution, or hatching, which takes place in the fpace
of about fourteen or fifteen days, when they break from
the furrounding gluten, and like tlie tadpoles of frogs, fwim
about in the water, and are nouriflied by various animal-
cules, gluten, leaves of water-plants, &c. &c. till, having
arrived at their full growth, the legs are formed, the taU
3 E 2 gradually

ilANA.

gradually becomes obliterated, and the animals leave the
water, and betake themfclvcs to the furface of tlic ground.
This generally iiappens early in the autumn, at which period
it is not uncommon to find fucti numbers of the young ani-
mals in fomc particular places, that their appearance has fre-
quently given rife to the vulgar idea of their having been
ihowered from the clouds.

The toad is an animal too well known to require any very
particular dcfcription of its form. It may be necelfary to
obferve, that it is always covered by tubercles, or eleva-
tions on the fkin, of larger or fmaller fiae in different in-
dividuals, and that the general colour of the animal is an
obfcure brown above, much paler and irregularly fpotted
beneath. The toad, however, is occafionally found of an
olive caft, with darker variegations ; and in fome fpeci-
mens, more efpecially in the earlieil part of fummer, the
(houlders and hmbs are marked with rcddiih fpots, while a
tinge of yellow often pervades the under parts both of the
limbs and body.

The toad arrives at a confiderable age ; its general term
of life being luppofed to extend to fifteen, or even twenty-
years ; and Mr. Pennant, in his Britifh Zoology, gives us
a curious account, communicated by Mr. Arfcott, of Teholt,
in Devonfhire, of a toad's having lived, in a kind of do-
meilic ftate, for the fpace of more than forty years, and
of having been, in a great degree, tamed, or reclaimed from
its natural Ihynefs or defire of concealm.ent ; fince it would
always regularly come out of its hole at the approach of its
mailer, &c. in order to be fed. It grew to a very large
fize, and was confidered as fo fingnlar a curiofity, that even
ladies, laying afide their ufual avcrfion and prejudices, re-
quelted to fee the favourite toad. It was, therefore, often
brought to table, and fed with various infefts, which it
feized with great avidity, and without feeming to be em-
barrafled by the prefence of company. This extraordinary
animal generally refided in a hole beneath the fteps of the
houfe door, fronting the garden ; and might probably have
furvived many years longer, had it not been feverely
wounded by a raven, which feized it before it could take
refuge in its hole, and notwithilanding it was liberated
from its captor, it never again enjoyed its ufual health,
though it continued to live above a year after the accident
happened.

The toad is looked upon with great averfion by the major
part of mankind,'and it muft be confefTed, that its appearance
is difgulting, yet the eyes are i-emarkably beautiful, being
furrounded by a reddifli gold -coloured irib, the pupil, when
in a Itate of contraction, appearing tranfverfe.

We (hall conclude the hiftory of this animal, with m.en-
tioning the very extraordinary circumitance of its having
been occafionally difcovered inclofed, or imbedded, without
any vifibte outlet, or even any paiiage for air, in the fub-
ftance of wood, and even in that of ftone or blocks of marble.
" For my own part," fays Dr. Shaw, " I have no hefitation
in avowing a very high degree of fcepticifm as to tliefe fup-
pofed fafts, and in exprefiing iriy fufpicions that proper at-
tention, in inch cafes, was not paid to the real fituation of
the animal. That a toad may have occafionally latibulized
in fome part of a tree, and have been in fome degree over-
taken or inclofed by the growth of the wood, fo as to be
obliged to continue in that fituation, without being able to
efFeft its efcape, may perhaps be granted : but it would
probably continue to live fo long only as there remained
a paflage for air, and for the ingrefs of infefts, &c. on
which it m.ight occafionally feed : but that it fliould be
completely blocked up in any kind of ftor.e or marble, with-
out either food or air, appears entirely incredible, and the

general run of fuch accounts muft be received with a great
many grains of allowance for the natural love of the marvel-
lous, the lurprize excited by the fudden appearance of the
animal in an unfufpefted place, and tiio confequent negle£t
of minute attention at the moment, to the furrounding parts
of the fpot where it was difcovered."

*RuBETA;"the Natterjack. Of this the vent is ob-
tufe ; and it has a yellow line on the back ; the body beneath
is fpotted with black, but above it is of a dirty yellow,
clouded with brown, and covered with porous pimples of
unequal fizes. This fpecies frequents dry and fandy places,
and is found on Putney Common, and near Reevefby-Abbcy
in Lincolnlhire, where it derives its trivial name. It never
leaps, neither does it crawl, with the flow pace of a toad,
but its motion is more like running. Several are frequently
found together, and like others of the genus they appear in
the evening.

GiBBOSA ; Gibbous Toad. Body oval, convex, with a
longitudinal cinereous dentate band. A variety has its back
marbled with red and yellowiifli-afli ; the belly is yellow,
fpotted with black. The firll is found in divers parts of
India, the fecond at Surinam.

BoMBiNA ; Laughing Toad. Belly orange, fpotted with
(l<y-blue ; the pupil is triangular. Gmelin gives three varie-
ties of this fpecies ; -viz. I. That which is diftinguilhed
with a black belly, marked with clear white fpotsand points.
2. One which is brown with white fpots ; the fides and
round the joints are red. 3. One which is diftinguilhed for
its loud fonorous voice. It is found in the fenny parts of
Germany and Helvetia ; leaps like a frog ; emits a clear
found like a man laughing : it a good deal refembles the com-
mon toad, but is fmall, black, and every where rough, v\ith
dots on the upper part, and variegated beneath, with tranf-
verfe wrinkles under the neck.

Salsa ; Salt Toad. Above of a dirty olive colour, but
beneath it is white, fpotted with black. This fpecies is found
in the ttagnant waters of Berchtefgad, and is lefs than the
R. arborca, hereafter to be noticed ; it avoids the light, is
inodorous, and emits no liquid from its minute perforated
Avarts : the legs are marked with brown bands, beneath it is
yellow.

Ventricosa ; Tumid Toad. The mouth of this is femi-
ovate, and the throat ovate. A variety is marked with pale
white puftules. It is found in South America, and in fome
parts of India. The body is brown and orbicular ; the tu-
bercles on the top of the neck longitudinally difpofed ; the
back has three longitudinal wrinkles ; the flanks are tumid
and dilated.

Marina ; Marine Toad. Shoulders tumid ; eye-lids
warty, conchate ; the hind feet ar.- lubpalmate : there is a
variety, which is Ipotted with brown ; beneath it is Ihaded
with livid, the neck and fhoulders are fpotted with grey.
This is found in various parts of America, and is more than
fix inches long. Its body is yellowini-grey, with a few
rather tawny fpots : the warts are dillinguifhed with an ele-
vated bay fpot in the middle : the protuberances of the
fhoulders are oval, fmooth, and porous ; the vent is fur-
rounded with wrinkled radii ; the hind toes are connefted
only as far as the firft joint, the lalf joint is fringed with a
bay membrane.

Brasiliensis ; Brafil Toad. Yellowifh-afh, with red
waved fpots, beneath fmooth.

Arunco ; Chili Toad. All the feet of this ipecies are
palmate. It inhabits, as its name imports, the waters of
Chili : in its fize it refembles the R. temporaria defcribcd
below : on the hind toes there is a flight appearance of
claws.

LUTEA ;

RANA.

LuTEA ; Yellow Toad. The body of this is yellow ;
all the feet are fubpalmate. This is alfo found in Chili,
and mfich refembles, in its habits, tiie R. efculenta, but h
much lefs; tiie lall joints of the toes are not conneftcd.

Makgaritifeka ; Pearled Toad. Body brown-red,
fprinkled with pale red fpots.

Cornuta; the Horned Toad. This takes its fpecific
name from the circumll.uice of having its eye-lids horned.
It inhabits Virginia and Surinam, and ot the wliole tribe
it is the moll deformed. It is faid, indeed, to furpafs all
animals in uglinefs. It is thus defcribed : tlie head is large,
and rounded before ; the mouth is excefiively large ; the
eye-lids are foft, mncronatc, trilid at the point ; the eyes are
feated in the middle ; the body is of a greeniih-brown, with
broad longitudinal whitidi llripes on the back ; the legs are
tranfverfely fafciate with brown : when full grown, the back,
the thighs, and vent, are Ipiny.

SiTlBUNDA ; Dcfart Toad. The fpecific charaAer is, that
above it is afhy-glaucous, varied with blackifh-green fpots,
beneath of a dirty white ; the hind feet are femi-palniate,
with the appearance of feven toes. It inhabits the dry de-
farts near the Ural, fometimes hides itfelf in holes, and crawls
out in the evening ; it refembles the common toad, but is
foraewhat larger.

Vespeutina ; Siberian Toad. Tins has a tranfverie fpot
between the eyes, forked behind, and other fpots running
obliquely from the eyes to the nofe ; the body above is ci-
nereous, witii longitudinal fubconfluent brown fpots, varied
with different fhades of green ; beneath it is dafhed with a
whitifh-afh. As its trivial name nnports, it inhabits Siberia,
and is about the fize of a common toad ; it leaps flowly : the
head is fhort ; the body above is fprinkled with fubwarty
papillx.

RiDlBUNDA ; .Jocular Toad. Body brown, fpotted above
with cinereous ; the dortal line is yellow, or greenifh ; be--
ncath it is fmooth, whitifh ; haunches brown, fpotted with
milk-v;hite. The head of this fpecies is broad ; the upper
eye-lid is convex, fprinkled with pores ; the apertures of the
ears are flat ; the back is porous ; the fides are marked with
obfolete warts ; the fore thumb is divaricate, thick at the
bafe ; the next toe fhorter than the reft ; the hind limb fub-
fafciate ; the hind feet have a callus witliin, refembling a
fixth toe ; the toes have a wart beneath, near the joints.

This fpecies is found in great numbers near the rivers
which empty themfelves into the Cafpian fea ; it never ven-
tures on the dry land ; it is very large, and frequently weighs
more than half a pound : it refembles the R. temporaria,
but is broader and fhorter ; its voice in the evening is like
that of a man laughing.

Variabilis; Changeable Toad. Colour variable ; back
and fides gibbous ; warts yellowiih in the centre ; it is very
fmallon the middle of the back, .and larger on the moll pro-
minent part of the flanks. It inhabits the fhady places in
Germany, and is only about two inches long : in its habits,
it holds an iiitermediaie place between the toad and frog ;
when full awake its body is Vi'hite, with green fpots ; in the
heat of the fun it is entirely cinereous ; when alleep,
the fpots are only cinereous, and when torpid the body has
a flefh-coloured call.

The head is rounded, and the mouth without teeth ; the
margin of the upper jaw is doubled ; the tongue is fiefhy,
thick, placed far back, the bafe obfcurely bifid, very entire
at the tip ; it has hardly any upper eye-lid, the lower one is
folding ; cavities of the ears white ; tfie warts refemble teats,
very numerous on the groin ; the chin is marked with promi-
nent dots ; the colour, when prcferved in fpirits, is yellow-
jdfh, and above it is of a pale olive ; the fore feet are three-

7

toed, beneath they are emarginatc, the thumb is larger j
tlie fccond toe of the hind feet is very lono-.

Seaion B.—BoJy more oblong, fmooth ; Legs longer. Frogs.
Species.

Typhonia ; Hurricane Frog. Of this fpecies, the dif-
tinguifliing charadteriftic is, that the lobes of the ear* are
oval. It inhabits America, and is faid to make a noify
croaking before hurricanes and whirlwind?. The back is
marked with four longitudinal wrinkles, elevated points,
and black fpots ; the hind toes are narrow, without claws, the
fecond is very long.

Pkniadactvi.a ; Mackarel Frog. All the legs are faf-
ciate, five-toed ; body veined, the dorfal flreaks tranfverfe,
the lateral ones are ocellate. There is a variety which is
brown ; the fore feet have four toes, with the rudiment of a
fifth ; the hind feet have five toes, with the rudiment of a
fixth.

OcKLLATA ; Ocellate Frog. The cars are marked with
an ocellate fpot ; feet with claws, the hind ones fub-pal-
mate. It inhabits America.

Pli'iKN-.s ; Clamorous Frog. This is green, with numer-
ous ocellate fpots, furraunded with a yellowifh rin<r. This
ipecies is fmaller than the green frog, but, in its general ha-
bits, it bears a confiderable refemblance to that animal. It
is a native of North America, and frequents rivulets and
ditches of water, and is fo flrong and vigorous, that it i,-
iaid it can leap to the diftance of five or fix yards. In the
fpring and beginning of fummer, it is faid to indicate the
approacli of rain by the peculiar found which it emits. In
the hving animal the ears are of a Ihining gold colour ; the
region of the anus is very much wrinkled ; the third fort-
toe from the thumb longer than the refl ; the body refembles
that of the efculent, or green frog, but the hind thighs are
longer ; the fhanks are longer flill, and hind feet are longer
than thefe, marginate on each fide ; the toes are connefted
nearly to the tip, the fourth is longer than the refl.

BicoLOR ; Blue and Yellow Frog. Colour blue, ochreous
beneath, feet unwebbed ; toes fl.ittened and orbicular. This
elegant fpecies is of a moderate fize ; it meai'ures more than
four inches in length. The whole of the upper furface is of
a beautiful blue, while the under parts are of a pale orange,
or ochre colour. The head is large, the mouth wide, and
the tip of the nofe truncated. All the toes .ire furniflicd
with a large orbicular tip, and bencatli each of the joints
there is a procefs or tubercle. The upper parts of the fe-
male have a deeper (hade of violet than thofe of the male.
It is fuppofed to be a native of Surinam.

Maxima ; die Great Frog. All the feet are palmate, as
well as the toes, fafciate ; body veined and variegated ; the
top of the back obliquely fpotted. Bands of the legs in
pairs, approximate, above confluent.

Alpina ; Alpine Frog. This is entirely black, and in-
habits the declivities of the nwuntains in Auflria.

Venulosa ; Veined Frog. Feet cleft ; the body veined
with confluent fpots. It inhabits India and South Ame-
rica.

Virginica ; Virginian Frog. Cinereous, fpotted with
red, beneath it is yellowifh ; the back is five -angled, with as
many ftripes. It is found in Virginia.

* Temporaria ; or Common Frog. The back of this
is flattilh and fub-angular. There is a varict), which is of
a dirty olive colour, witli large warty fpots, the head above
plain, beneath whitilh ; twice the fize of the common frog.
Both are found in this country, and tlie latter alfo in Perfia ;
it lives, during the fpring, in water, among toads, and in the

fummer

RAN A.

iummer on land, at wliich time it is filcut ; it feeds on various
infefts, and h the prey of ducks and cranes, croaks very
much when in muddy ditches ; the variety makes, by night,
a node Hke that of an angry man.

Of all the European fpecies this is the mod common.
The general colour is of an ohve-brown, variegated on the
upper parts of the body with irregular blackifh fpots. The
patch beneath each eye, which reaches to the fetting on of
the fore-legs, feems to conftitute one of the principal Tpecific
diftinftions. Tiie imder part of the body is of a pale
greenifli colour, and obfcurely fpotted. But it ought to be
obferved, that the colour of tlic frog varies at different fea-
fons of the year, and perhaps, in different places. Towards
the end of fummer, for inllance, the colours are much
brighter ; and as this fpecies frequently calls its (Icin, the
cuticle falling off irregularly from different parts of the
body, produces confiderable variations in the intenfity of
the colours.

The frog has a light elegant form and a lively appear-
ance ; the limbs are well calculated for its peculiar'motions,
and the hind feet being llrongly webbed, enable it to fwim
well. The frog, it is faid, does not reach its full fize till it is
five years old, and it lives from twelve to fifteen years. It
retires during the heat of fummer to the water, and in winter
it becomes torpid, and is generally found in the foft mud at
the bottom of ftagnant waters, or in the cavities beneath
their banks, where it remains till the return of fpring.

The frog, as well as many other of the reptile tribe, is ex-
tremely tenacious of life. It furvives, for a confiderable
time, the lofs even of fome of its efleutial organs, and it has
been found to cxift for feveral days when entirely confined
under water.

The frog depofits its fpavvn in the month of March.
This is compofed of a gelatinous tranfparent mafs, including
the ova or eggs, in each of which is imbedded the embryo
or tadpole, which has then the appearance of a round black
globule. The period of hatching varies according to the
temperature ot the feafon, but it is commonly in about a
month or five weeks. In its progrefs the egg becomes gra-
dually larger, and before the tadpole is excluded, it is feen
in motion within the furrounding gluten. When they are
firft hatched, their only food is the remains of the gluten in
which they were included. A few days afterwards, if they
are minutely examined, a pair of ramified branchise, or tem-
porary organs, may be obferved on each fide of the head,
which after a (hort time diiappear. The tadpole, which is
fo extremely unlike the animal in its perfedl ftate, feems
to confift only of a head and tail. The head is large,
black, and roundiih ; the tail is flender, and margined with a
broad tranfparent fin. The motions of the tadpole are very-
lively. Its food confifts of duck-weed and other fmall wa-
ter plants, with different kinds of animalcula. The mouth
is furnifhed with very minute teeth, and when the tadpole
has reached a certain fize, it may fometimes be heard gnaw-
ing the edges of the leaves on which it feeds. By means of
a fucker placed between the lower jaw, with which the ani-
mal in this ftate is furnilhed, it can attach itfelf at pleafure
to the under furface of aquatic plants. When it is very
young, it fometimes hangs from this part by means of a
glutinous thread, fimilar to fome fmall llugs.

The internal llrutture of the organs of the tadpole is
very different from that ot the future animal. In ho refpeft
is tins difference greater than in the difpofition of the intef-
tines, which are coiled in the form of a flat fpiral, like a ca-
ble. The firft change which appears on the tadpole is at
the end of five or fix weeks after it is hatched. It is about
this time that the hind legs firft appear ; and gradually in-

creafing in Icngtli and lize, they are fucceeded about two
weeks afterwards by the fore legs. Tliefe latter, indeed, an-
formed at an earlier period beneath the (kin, and are fomt--
tiines protruded, and again drawn back by the animal,
through a fmall hole on each (ide of the breait, before theit
complete evolution. Tlie tail now gradually decreafes, and
afterwards more rapidly, fo that in the fpace of a day or
two, it is quite obliterated. After this change, the animal
leaves the water, and covers the banks in myriads. The
fudden appearance of fuch multitudes of young frogs, lia^
probably induced the groundlefs but popular belief, of thcii
having fallen from the clouds in fhowers. The frog liaving
now arrived at its pcrfcft form, it changes entirely the na-
ture of its food. It lived formerly on vegetables, now
it depends folely for its exiltence on animal food. It
lives chiefly on fmall fnails, worms, and infefts. To feize
its prey, the ftrudture and pofition of the tongue are re-
markably well fitted. It is ot confiderable length, and
is attached to the fore part of the mouth ; and when
at refl it lies backwards. The extremity is bifid, and
fecretes a glutinous matter, fo that in this way it can fe-
cure its prey, by darting out its tongue with great celerity,
and to fome diftance from the mouth. This it does with fo
inftantaneous a motion, that it is fcarcely perceptible to the
eye.

Marginata ; Bordered Frog. The fides of this are
marginate, and the feet cleft. It inhabits India and South
America.

* EscuLENTA ; Efculent, or Edible, or Green Frog.
Of this fpecies the diltinguifliing charafteriftics are, that it
is of an olive colour, fpotted with black, with three yel-
lowifh lines on the back ; the abdomen is whitifli.

Of all the European frogs this is the largell fpecies.
The general appearance is very like that of the R. tempo-
raria, but it is larger in fize, and of an ohve-green colour,
ftrongly marked on the upper part of tlie body with roundifh
black fpots. The limbs are elegantly marked with tranf-
verfe bands of the fame colour. Three diftindl pale yellow
ftripes run from the tip of the nofe down the whole length
of the back ; the middle one being flightly deprefled, but
the two lateral ones are confiderably elevated. The head is
proportionably larger than that of the common frog.

The green frog is rare in England, but is very common
in France, Italy, and Germany, where it is employed as an
article of food.

This fpecies, it is obferved by naturalifts, does not leave
its winter retirement till a much later period than the com-
mon frog ; and in thofe countries where it is ufed as food, it
is worth while to attend to this faft : for if they are pre-
tended to be brought to market at an earlier period, the
common frog, and fometimes even toads, muft be fubfti-
tuted. During the breeding feafon, the croaking of the
male is fo loud, that it may be heard at a great diftance ;
and in thofe places where they are numerous, it becomes fo
intolerable to thofe who are unaccuftomed to hear them,
that they are often deprived of fleep. At this time, too, a
large mflefted globular veficle is protruded from each fide
of the head of the male. The globules of fpawn in the
green frog are proportionally fmaller than in the former
fpecies : they have fomewhat of a yellowilh caft. The pro-
grefs of the tadpole, towards the evolution of the perfect
animal, is confiderably flower in this fpecies. The fore legs
do not appear before Oftober, and the animal does not af-
fume its perfedl fhape tiU the beginning of November. The
tail at this time begins to decreafe, and in the fpace of four
days entirely difappears.

This fpecies is extremely voracious, feizing, it is faid, on

young

RAN

R A N

young birds of different kinds, mice, and even ducklings,
and, as it docs with tJie reft of its prey, fwallowiiig tliein
whole. At the end of tour years it has readied its full
growth. It begins to breed the year following, and the
period of its life is fometimes extended to fixtecn years.

AusXKALlsiA ; Auftralian Frog. The body of this is
brown above, beneath blueifh ; the fides are fpeckled with
ochre colour ; the toes of the fore feet are fpiny. It in-
habits New Holland. The fecond toe of the hind foot is
very long ; the claws are red.

Paiiadoxa ; Paradoxical Frog. This is of a yellowifh
and olive colour, variegated with rufous bands ; the hind
legs or thighs are obliquely ilreaked.

In its general form this fpccies refemblcs the R. tempo-
raria. The oblique longitudinal (tripes on the hind legs
conilitute the principal mark of diftiiiftiou. There are four
toes on the fore fecv, and they are unwebbed ; the hind feet
have five toes, and are deeply palmated to the very ends of
the toes. Near the lliorteil toe there is an obloug callus,
forming a fpurious one. The upper jaw is bcfet with a row
of fmall denticulations. This fpecies is a native of South
America, and is more common in Surinam than in other
places.

Naturalifts, fays Dr. Shaw, have been extremely puzzled
with regard to the real nature of what has been taken for
the tadpole of this frog. At one time it was confidered by
Linnxus as a fpecies of lizard, and therefore arranged by
him under the genus lacerta. At another time he has
placed it under the prefent genus, with the fpecific name
pifcis. It was defcribed by Edwards under the denomina-
tion of the frog-fifh of Surinam. The ftrudlure of the ani-
mal, which has been the fubjeft of fo much difcuffion, (hews
clearly that it is the larva or tadpole of a frog ; and it is
fuppofed, with no fmall degree of probability, that the dif-
ferences in the accounts given of this animal by naturalifts
have arifen from the difterent ftages of its progrefs, in which
it has been found. But as this tadpole is fo much larger in
fize, in proportion to the perfeft animal, than any other
fpecies yet known, it may be the larva or tadpole of fome
of the larger fpecies, and not that of the R. paradoxa,
which is but a fmall frog.

C. Hind Feet very long; the Claios lentlculate.

Arborea ; Tree-Frog. The body of this fpecies is
green, beneath granulate ; feet cleft. Gmelin enumerates
five varieties of this fpecies. i. Thofe which have four toes
to their fore feet, and five to thofe that are behind ; the
knees are warty beneath. 2. Thofe that are of a green co-
lour, with a ftraight yellow hue on each fide. 3. The body
of this variety is reddifti. 4. Of this it is brownifti-grcen.
5. The flendernefs of the body marks this variety.

" In the beauty of its colours," fays Dr. Shaw, " as
well as in the elegance of its form, and agility of its move-
ments, the fee-frog exceeds every other European fpecies.
It is a native of France, Germany, Italy, and many other
European regions, but is not found in the Britifli iflaiids.
Its principal refidence, during the fummer months, is on the
upper parts of trees, where it wanders among the foliage in
queft of infedts, which it catches with extreme celerity ;
ftealing foftly towards its prey, in the manner of a cat to-
wards a moufe, and, when at the proper diftance, feizing it
with a fudden fpring, frequently of more than a foot in
height. It often fufpends itfelf by its feet, or abdomen, to
the under parts of the leaves ; thus continuing concealed be-
neath their fhade. Its fize is fmaller than any European
frog, except the R. bombina. Its colour, on the upper
parts, is more or lefs bright in different individuals ; the ab-

domen is whitidi, and marked by numoroiis granules ; the
under fiirface of the limbs is nddilh ; and the body is
marked on each fide by a longitudinal blackilh or violet co-
loured Itreak, feparating tiie green of the upper parts from
the white colour of the lower : the inferior edge of this dark
lateral ftripe is tinged with yellow. The body is fmooth
above, and moderately ftiort or plump ; the hind legs are
very long and (lender ; the fore feet have four, and tlie hind
feet five toes, all of which terminate in rounded, flat, and
dilated tips, the under furface of which, being foft and glu-
tinous, enables the animal to hang with perfect fecurity
from the leaves of trees, &c. The fkiii of the abdomen is
alfo admirably calculated by nature for this peculiar power
of adhefion, being covered witli Imall glandular granule;;, in
luch a manner as to faften clofely even to the moft poliftied
furface ; and the animal can adhere at pleafure to that of
glafs, in whatever pofitiou or inclination it be placed, by
merely prefling itfelf againft it.

Though the tree-frog iniiabits the woods during the fum-
mer months, yet, on the approach of winter, it retires to
the waters, and there fubmerging itfelf in the foft mud, or
concealing itfelf beneath the banks, remains in a ftatc of tor-
pidity ; and again emerges in the fpring, at which period it
depofits its fpawn in the waters, like the reft of this genus.
The male at this period inflates its throat in a furprifing
manner, and exerts a very loud and ftiarp croak, which may
be heard to a vaft diftance. The fpawn is depofited about
the end of April, in fmall cluftered malies ; the inclofed
globules or embryos being of a pale yellowifli-brown colour.
The tadpoles become perfeft frogs, by the total decay of
the tail, about the beginning of Angu'l ; and foon begin to
afcend the neighbouring trees, where they continue to refide
during the remainder of the warm feafon ; as do likewife
the parent animals, after the breeding feafon is pail. During
their refidence among the trees, they are obferved to be par-
ticularly noify on the approach of rain ; fo that they may
be confidered, in fome meafure, as a kind of living baro-
meters ; more efpecially the males, which, if kept in glafles,
and fupplied with proper food, will afford an infallible pre-
fage of the changes of weather.

Leucophvla ; White-fpotted Frog. Body fmooth,
hoary, with oblong milk-white fpots ; the fore feet are lo-
bate, the hind feet palmate. It inhabits America, and
weighs only about forty-fix grains. Eyes of a fine golden
colour, and between thefe, on the fides and middle of the
back, there are oblong white foots ; the haunches arc
flender.

Squantigera ; Scaly Frog. In this a fcaly band
reaches half-way round the back ; the fides and throat have
folds ; the fore feet are femi-palmate, the hind feet are pal-
mate. This is about two inches long, and is fuppofed to
be an inhabitant of America. The body is varied with
grey and brown in thick aggregate fpecks, and a few
fpots down the hind part of the back, in a ferpentine di-
rection ; the band confifts of minute, fub-pellucid, rhomboid,
imbricate fcales ; the hind limbs arc twice as long as the
fore.

BoAN'S ; Croaking Frog. Body fmooth, with conti-
nuous dots beneath ; feet palmate. There are two varieties.
I. The body above is of a blueifli lead-colour. 2. The
body of this is inclining to orange. It is found in America,
and differs only from the tree-frog in having the feet webbed,
and the body marked with white fpots.

Rana Arborea, the Tree-Frog. See RanukcuLUS Fi-
ridis, and the preceding article.

Rana Pi/calrix. See Lopinus Pifcalrix, and Sea-
Devil.

RANA-

RAN

RAN

RANARIDL, in Geography, a town of Aultria ; II

miles S. of Aigen. . .^. , „ „ -

RANASAGUR, a town of Hmdooflan, in Bahar ;
i8 miles W. of Arrali. N. lat. 25° 37'. E. long. 84°

RANCAGUA, a jurifdiftion of South America, in
Chili. It derives its name from the inhabitants living in
fingle hoiifes, without the appearance of a village ; every
family lodgnig m their lonely cottage, four, fix, or more
leagues from each other. It is not, however, without a
capital, confdling of about 50 houfes, and between 50 and
60 families, moll of them being Meftizos, though their call
is not perceivable by their complexion. The whole jurif-
diftioii may contain about lOOO families, Spaniards, Mei-
tizos, and Indians. Ulloa's Voyage, vol. ii.

RANGE, Akman'd-Joiin le Bouthillier de, in Bio-
graphy, the inltiLutor of the order of La Trappe, was of
noble defcent, and born at Paris in the year 1626. At a
very early period he exhibited an extraordinary genius for
claffical and polite learning; and at the age of 10 he had
read many claffical works, in the Greek as well as the Latin
languages, and is faid at that early period to have under-
ftood Homer. When he was only 13 years of age, he pre-
pared for the prefs a new edition of Anacreon, with notes,
that difplayed confiderable talent and refearch. This was
publilhed in 1639. Four years previoufly to this, he had
received the clerical tonfure, and had been nominated a
canon of Notre Dame at Paris. He was promoted by the
king to the finecure priory of Boulogne, near Chambor ;
and he was fubfequently promoted to three different abbies,
among which was that of La Trappe, and to other places
of honour and truft in the church. He ftudied divinity at
the Sorbonne, and in 1651 he was ordained prieft ; and in
lefs than three years, the degree of doftor of divinity was
conferred upon him by tlie faculty of the Sorbonne. Hav-
ing thus completed his ftudies, he entered into the world,
and, like one broken from his (hackles, he devoted himfelf
eagerly to its honours, pleafures, and gaieties. He foon
became a favourite at court, and was appointed almoner to
the duke of Orleans, and one of the deputies of the fecond
order in the afl'embly of the clergy in 1655. On a fudden,
and for a caufe that never was well underitood, he became
difgufted with the world, and refolved to renounce for ever
its pleafures, enjoyments, and vanities. No fooner had the
abbe de Ranee formed the refolution than he withdrew to
his eftate in the country, to dehberate concerning the mode
of hfe which he ihould purfue. Having made up his mind
to embrace the monallic life, he fold his eilate, and bellowed
the money which it produced on the H6tel-de-Dieu at Paris.
He alfo refigned all his benefices and dignities, excepting
his priory of Boulogne, and the abbey of La Trappe ; the
latter of which he retained by a fpecial permiffion of the
king, in order to introduce into it a reformation of the (la-
tutes and difcipline. He took the habit, and made his pro-
feffion in the year 1664, and let about eftablifhing the
gloomy and aullere difcipline of monkery in its full perfec-
tion. The place itfelf fcemed peculiarly adapted to the
horrid fyflem which he ellablifhed, being the moil gloomy,
barren, and defolate fpot in the whole kingdom of France.
Here the days of tlie monks were conilantly fpent in prayers,
tears, contemplation, filcnce, the perufal of holy books,
^he hardfhips of bodily labour, and the praftice of the mod
rigid aullerities. All other defigna and occupations, how-
ever laudable and excellent in themfelves, they were to re-
gard as vain and finful to perfons of their order. The leatl
relaxation, or amufement of the moft innocent nature, they
were not allowed ; and they were prohibited from engaging

at all in literary (Indies. Strange ! tliat a mind ftored with ,
liberal knowledge, and diilinguifiied by good taftc, (Ijould
have been (b far perverted by fuperdition and fanaticifm, a^
tf) devife or (andtion (uch regulations.

That the world might be acquainted with the difcipline o!
his community, he publiihed " A Treatifc on the Sandtity
and Duties of the Monallic State." As de Ranee ad-
vanced in years, the fevere difcipline to which he ftridlly
conformed, rendered him fo infirm, that, finding himfelf
unequal to tlie duties of his pod, he refigned it into the
king's hands, but was permitted to appoint liis fucceflor.
At length, worn out with infirmities and mortifications, and
lying on a bed of afhcs and flraw, he died in 170O, in the
74th year of his age. He was author of a great number of
theological and other pieces, among which may be men-
tioned " Moral Refleftions on the Four Evangelifls ;"
" The Conllitution and Rules of the Abbey of La Trappe,"
in 2 vols. ; and " A Dilcourfe on Purity of Intention."
Moreri.

Ra>;c:e, in Geography, a river of France, v/hich runs into
the fea near St. Malo.

RANCHANO, a fmall ifiaud near the coafl of Darien,
in the Pacific ocean.

RANCHERIA, a town of South America, in the vice-
royalty of Granada, aad province of St. Martha ; 20 miles
N.E. of Hacba. N. lat. 11"=^. W. long. 72° 36'.— Alfo,
a fmall ifland m the Pacific ocean, near the coafl of Veragua.
N. lat. 7" 50'. W. long. 82^16'.

RANCHERIAS, a name given, in the previnee of
Panama, to afl'emblages of Indian huts under the jurifdic-
tion of a village. Thefe rancherias are fituated to the fouth-
ward, in the fmall chafms or breaches of the mountains.

RANCID, m Rural Economy, from the Latin ranc'tdus, of
rancto, to be rank, a term applied to fubflances, which have
contracled a flrong offenfive fmell and talle by keeping, as
bacon, butter, and all fat fubflances are apt to do. It
would be a very ufeful difcovery, to find out any eafy fimple
method of preventing this effeft from taking place.

RANCON, in Geography, a river of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Seine, which runs into the Seine,
at Caudebec. - Alfo, a town of France, in the department
of the Upper Vienne ; 8 miles E. of Bellac.

RANCONET, Aimar de, in Biography, a learned and
worthy magiftrate, who flourifhed in the 1 6th century, was
born at Bordeaux, in which city his father was an advocate
of parhament. Having received the advantages of a good
education, he became deeply flvilled in the Roman law, to
the fludy of which he joined that of philofophy, mathe-
matics, and antiquities. Having been fome time a coun-
fcUor in the parliament of Bourdeaux, he was raifed to the
poll of prefident of the fourth chamber of inquefls in that
of Paris. The religious contentions of the time were fatal
to him. When the cardinal of Louvain affembled the par-
liament of Paris, to procure its opinion concerning the
punifhment of heretics, Ranconet brought the works of
Sulpicius Severus, and read aloud the pafiage in which that
writer cenfures the execution of Prifcilian ; upon this the
prelate caufed him to be imprifoned in the Baflille, where he
died of grief in 1559, at the age of 60. His latter days ■
had been fingul^rly unfortunate. He was reduced by want
to be a correftor of the prefs to the Stephenfes ; he faw his
daughter die on a dunghill, and his fon executed, and his
wife was killed by lightning. This learned man publifhed
fcarcely any thing in liis own name, but contributed much
to the labours of others. He is faid to have had the chief
part in the valuable treatife, " De Verborum Significa-
tionc," and in the " Formuls" of Briifoii ; and Pithou

afl'erts,

RAN

R A N

iiTerts, that he compiled the Diftionary that bears the name
of Charles Stephens. He wrote " Le Trefor de la Langue
Fran9oile, tant ancienne que moderne." Moreri.

RANCONNIERES, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Upper Marne ; 9 miles VV. of
Bourboiiue.

RANDAL, Dr. Joiiv, in Biography, organift, doflor
in mufic, and miific profedbr in the univerfity of Cam-
bridge. He was brought up in the king's chapel, was one
of the children of that choir who lir(t performed ia Handel's
oratorio of Ellher, at the houfe of Bernard Gates, mafter
of the boys in James-ltreet, Wcftmintter, on Wcdnefday,
February 23, 1731, when it was performed in aftion, pre-
vious to its having been heard in pubhc, or any where but
at Cannons, the magnificent feat of tlic duke of Chandos,
for wliofe chapel it was compofcd in 1720.

Randal was never rated very high in his profeflion : he
was regarded as a flight organ-player, and had never dillin-
guifhed himfelf as a compofer. He obtained his degree at
the inftallation of the duke of Grafton in the univerfity of
Cambridge, for which he compofed the ode written by Mr.
Gray, to the allonilhment of all the mufical profeflion, by
undertaking to have it performed by the muficians refident
in the univerfity, without putting his grace to the expence
of additional hands and voices from London, as Drs. Greens
and Boyce had thought necefi'ary on former occafions at
Cambridge, and Dr. William Hayes at Oxford.

As Dr. Randal's profeflional life was unmarked by ta-
lents, his death, which happened in 1799, was hardly no-
ticed, except by the candidates for the profeflorthip, and I-.is
organift's places.

RANDALSTOWN, in Geography, a poft-town of
Ireland, in the county of Antrim, in the neighbourhood of
which is Shanes caftle, the feat of lord O'Neill. It is fitu-
ated on the river Maine, to the northward of lough Neagh.
Randalftown is 4 miles N.W. from Antrim, and 8S N.
by W; from Dublin. Before the union, it was reprefented
in parliament. Carlifle, &c.

RANDANS, a town of France, in the department of
the Puy-de-D6me, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Riom ; 12 miles N.E. of Riom. The place con-
tains 1047, and the canton 7996 inhabitants, on a territory
of 130 kiliometres, in 1 1 communes.

RANDASALMI, a town of Sweden, in the govern-
ment of Kuopio ; ^2 miles S. of Kuopio.

RANDAZZO, a town of Sicily, in the valley of De-
mona ; 25 miles W. of Taormina. N. lat. 37° 57'. E.
long. 15^4'.

RANDEER, a town fcf Hindooftan, in Guzerat, on
the Taptee, oppofite to Surat.

RANDEGG, a town of Auflria; Smiles N.N.E. of
Bavarian Waidhoven.

RANDERADT, a town of France, in the department
cf the Roer ; 10 miles N.W. of Juliers. N. lat. 50*^ 59'.
E. long. 6° 8'.

RANDERS, a town of Denmark, in North Jutland,
on the Gulden. This town is reduced, and has now only
one parifii church, a grammar-fchool, an hofpital, and a
chapel near the town. The chief articles of trade confifl. of
leather gloves, falmon, earthen-ware, and ftrong beer. It
was formerly well fortified ; 20 miles E. of Viborg. N.
lat. 56° 28'. E. long. 10° 3'.

RANDERSACKER, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg, on the Maine; 2 miles S. of Wurzburg.

RAND 1 A, in Botany, was fo named by Houftoun and
Linnaeus, in honour of Mr. Ifaac Rand, F.R.S., an apo-
thecary in London, who filled the place of lefturer and de-

VoL. XXIX.

monilrator of botany in the Chclfca garden, from the yev
1722 to 1739. He publifhed in 1730 an oftavo index of
the ofTicinal plants of that collcftion, 518 in number, fpeci-
fying the part of each ufed in pliyfic. He alfo printed, in
'739' a general catalogue of the Garden. His name oftea
occurs among the botaniils of that period. The Randia
however, of which two fuppofed fpecics arc defined in Linn.
Sp. PI. 213, 214, by the names of milh and acukala, both
Weil Indian flirubs, is now funk in GAitiiKNiA ; fee that
article, where we have fuggefled a doubt, poffibly aot
well founded, ot the propriety of this meafurt. Both
fpecies of Randia are united by Willdenow, Sp. PI. v. i.
1230, on the authority of Swart/,, as well as in Ait. Hort.
Kcw. v. I. 370, under the name of Gardenia Randia. This
plant, fent by Houftoun to Miller, before the year 1 733,
does not appear to exill in our lloves at prefent. Its form
may be fcen in Browne's Jamaica, 143, t. 8. f, I. That
author fays the pulp of the berries (tains paper or linen of a
fine permanent blue, which refifts the aftion of foap and of
acids. The fhrub is frequent in the low lands of Jamaica,
on the moft barren clay foil.

RANDNITZ, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in
the circle of Schlan ; 12 miles N.N.E. of Schlan. N. lat,
50" 23'. E. long. 14° 24'.

RANDOLPH, Thomas, in Biography, an Englifli
poet of great celebrity, was born at Newnham, in North-
amptonfliire, in 1605. He was educated at Weftminfter
fciiool, and having completed his courfe, he was eledled to
Trinity college, Cambridge. He fhewed an early turn for
poetry, and at ten years old wrote " The Hiftory of the In-
carnation of our Saviour," in verfe. He acquired an un-
fortunate, and, to him, a fatal habit of conviviality, which
diverted him from the purfuit of any profeflion, and which
led him to wafte his fcanty patrimony, and his health, in the
company of wits and men of pleafure in the metropolis.
He died in his 30th year, to the great regret of thofe who
admired his poetry and loved his company. He poflefled an
excellent genius, and had his life been extended, it has been
thought he might have attained te a very high rank among
the poets of his age. His mifcellaneous poems were col-
lefted after his death by his brother, who publiflied them at
Oxford, in 1640. They have been, but not of late years,
feveral times reprinted. He likewife compofed fix dramatic
pieces of the comic clafs, one of which, " Hey for Ho-
nefty, down with Knavery," was taken from the Plutus of
Ariitophanes. His pieces are faid to be fome of the beft in
the manner then prevalent, which confided in playing with
words and thoughts, and connefting remote ideas by fanciful
refemblances. His cxpreflions are often elegant, and hit
verfes harmonious- His friend, fir Chrittopher Hatton,
caufed, at his own expence, a monument of white marble to
be eredled over his grave, the infcription on which, in Latin
and Englifh verfe, was made by Peter Haufted. Biog.
Brit.

Raxdolph, John, a learned prelate of the church of
England, defcended from a refpeftable family in Kent, was
born July 6th, 1749. ^^ "'^^ ''^'^ younger fon of Dr.
Randolph, formerly prcfidentof Corpus Chrilli college, Ox-
ford, who died in March 1783, after having prefided over
the college for the long fpace of 35 years. The prcfident'*
father was recorder of Canterbury, and had feveral fons,
among whom was Dr. Francis Randolph, principal of Albaa
Hall, Oxford. The whole family have been remarkable for
their orthodox zeal and attachment to the eftabliftied rehgioB
of the country. The fubjeft of this article became a itudent
of Corpus Chrifli college, Oxford, where he took his feveral
degrees, that of D.D. be had by diploma in 1783. Pre-

3 F vioufly

RAN

vioudy to this he had been appointed preleftor of poetry,
prodlor, and in 1782 Regius profedor of Greek. In this
fame year he was made prebendary of Salifbury, canon
Chrift-church, and Regius profcflTor of divinity ;^ and
1783 reftor of Ewclme.

U A N

of
lid in
In 1799 he was elevated to the
bi'lhopric of Oxford, from which he was tranflated to tliat
of Bangor in 1807, and then to the metropohtan fee of
London in the year 1809. Notwithllandmg thefc high pre-
ferments he paffed a great part of his hfe in the univerfity of

Oxford, and it was generally believed that when he was ele- Carolina, bounded N.E. by Orange, and N.W. by Guild-
' fee of Oxford, the univerfity was complimented ford. Tiie number of inhabitants is 10, 1 12, and they are

Cliarler-houfe ; trullce of the Brilifli Mufeum ; dean of the
Chapel royal ; vifitor of Sion college ; and provincial dean
of Canterbury. Gent. Mag.

Randolph, in Geography, a poft-town of America, in
Mad'achufetts, formed ot the S. precindt of Braintree, in
Norfolk county, in the year 1783 ; 15 miles S.E. of Bolton.
The inhabitants are mollly farmers, but manufafture large
quantities of Ihoes for mark't.

Rakdoj.i'H, a county of Hillfhorough diftri£l, in North

moltly Quakers ; the other denominations are Prefbyterians,
Baptills, Methodifts, and Univerfalills. Their good land
produces 40 or 50 bufhels of Indian corn, or 20 of wheat,
per acre. The chief town >s Afliborough.

Randolph, a county of Virginia, bounded N. by Mo-
' ~ ' ~ "" The number of inhabit-

vated to the 1 _ - . , . .

with the nomination by the crown. His lordlhip was author
of many fingle fermons, and charges delivered on different
occafions : alfo of " De Gra;cK Lingus Studio Prsleaio
habita in Sehola Linguarum," 1 783, and " Concio ad Clerum
in Synodo Provinciah Cantuarienfis Provincis ad D. Pauli,"
1700. His lordfliip was a zealous promoter of the Na-
tional fehools in oppofition to thofe founded by Lancaller,
and he was underftood to be a violent opponent to the bible
fociety, and to the fpread of what has been termed SecSarifm.
One of his lad works was a Report of the Progrefs made

by the National Society, to which the general committee two branches, waters the E. arid W
ref-rred in terms of gratitude, at their firft meeting after has a large bed of iron ore, two for;
^ -' ' - latell —

his lordfhip's deceafe,"iii the following terms ; " wliofe
employment had been to ftate, for the information of the
public, the progrefs of a work to which he had contributed
his time, his labour, and his counfels, th« committee could
not fail to entertain a common fentiment of profound regret
for the lofs which they have fultained, and to cherifli in their
minds the livelieft recolleftion of the fervice which has been
fo fuccefsfully fulfilled by him in this fecond report. They
wilh, therefore, to add to this document, defigned for ge-
neral circulation, their fenfe of vi'hat is due from the public,
and themfelves, to the memory of one who was a conftant
and affiduous promoter of this falutar/ inftitution, from its
firil eftablifhment to the lad hour of his hfe — The committee
truft, that this teftimony, though limited to a fingle objeft
in the large field of paitoral duty in which he was inceffantly
engaged, may ferve to denote the benefits which have re-
fulted from his prompt, unwearied, and effeftual exertions."
The following is the charafter drawn of him by Mr. arch-
deacon Jefferton, and which alludes to his zeal for the church
of which he was an aiflive member. " Fearlefs now of being
cenfured for mercenary adulation, or reproved by uncon-
fcious merit, a juft tribute may be paid to the charadler of
that departed and exalted prelate, v. ho is, and will be, mofl
lamented where he was bell and moft entirely known. This
opportunity, therefore, is willingly embraced of offering a
heart -felt condolence to the minillry of the diocefe on the
affefting and important lofs, which, in thefe perilous times
of contending fefts and unfettled opinion, has arifen to them,
and to the church : — To them, in the premature privation
of a diocefan, firm in his fupport of ecclefiaftical authority,
but confiderate in its application ; eminently verfed in the
letter of ecclefiallical law, but hberal in its praftical con-
ftruftion, reluftant in interference, but determined in duty,
flow in the profeffion of fervice, but prompt in its execution ;
difintererted in patronage, unwavering in meafurcs, correft
in judgment, attentive in counfel, and kind and compaf-
fioiiate to dittrefs : —To the church, in the premature pri-
vation of a father, dihgent in her rites and fcrvices, but
tinoftentatious in piety and devotion ; found and unrelaxing
in her doftrines and faith, but difcreet in zeal, and compre-
henfive in charity ; ever vigilant in defending her interefts,
ever forward in aiTerting her privileges, and ever able in the
affertion and the defence." The bifhop died fuddenly on
the 28th of July 1813. He was one of the governors of the

nongalia, and S. by Pendleton,
ants is 2854.

Randolph, a poll-town in Orange county, Vermont,
being the 4th town W. of Tiietford, on Coimefticut river.
The number of inhabitants is 2255. White river, by its

. fide of the town. It
ges, and a flitting mill.
The congregational meeting-houfe has a lleeple, and is large ;
47 miles from Rutland.

Randolph, a county of the Indiana territory.

Randolph, a town of Morris county, in New Jerfey,
containing 1 27 1 inhabitants.

RANDOM, a townfliip of Effex county, in Vermont,
W. of Brunfwick.

Random IJIand, a fmall ifland in Trinity bay, near the
E. coaft of Newfoundland. N. lat. 48^ 15'. W. long.

53° 40'-

Random-Wc/, a fhot made when the muzzle of a gun is
raifed above the horizontal line, and is not defigned to Ihoot
direftly, or point-blank.

The utmotl random of any piece is about ten times as far
as the bullet will go point-blank ; and the bullet will go
fartheil when the piece is mounted to about forty-five de-
grees above the level range.

The fpace or diftance of the random is reckoned from the
platform to the place where the ball firft grazes.

R ANDOW, in Geography, a river of Brandenburg, which
runs into the Ucker ; three miles S. of Uckermunde.

RANDS, a lake of Norway, in the province of Agger-
huus, 35 miles long, and two broad ; 20 miles N. of Chrif-
tiania.

RANDSBERG, a town of Sweden, in Weft Goth-
land ; 76 niil'-s E. of Uddevalla. ,

RANDYCHOAR, a town of Bootan ; 18 miles N. of
Beyhar.

RANEA, a town of Weft Bothnia ; 60 miles W. of
Toraea.

RANELAGH, Rotunda and. Gardens, built and opened
for mufical performances and public amufements in 1 742.
The building was ereCled in the fpacious garden belonging to
the refidence, at Chelfea, of lord Ranelagh, one of the mi-
nifters of Charles II., when paymafter of the army.

It was planned by the late Mr. Lacey, afterwards joint-
patentee of Drury-lane theatre with the great aftor Garrick.
At the firft opening of this ftupendous building, feveral
experiments were made in placing the orcheftra, in hlliiig it,
and in the time of performance, before it was fettled as an
evening promenade. Tne orcheftra was at firft placed in
the middle of the rotunda. The performance was in a
morning ; and oratorio choruflcs chieHy furniftied the bill of
fare. Sir John Barnard complaining to the magiftrates,

that

RAN

RAN

lliat the young merchants and city apprentices were fre-
quently feduced from thcu- counting- houfcs and fhops by
thefe morning amufcments, they were prohibited, arid the
doors opened at fix o'clock in the evening. The perform-
ance, however, did not begin till eight o'clock, but was
ended at ten.

It was intended to rival Vauxhall, and was little injured
by bad weather ; as the company, at fuch times, had a fafe
and pleafant retreat into the rotunda, and as few went thither
but in carriages.

Its fucccls as an evening's amufemcnt remained undimi-
niflied more than 40 years. It was ruined by the late hours
to which it was gradually brought by fine folks, who, at
length, never came thither till pall ten o'clock, when the
niufical pcrforniances were over, and fobcr people ufed to
return liome before eleven o'clock to their fupper, which
enabled them and their fervants to go to bed, and rife, at
their accullomed time.

But, at Icngtli, perfons of rank and fafhion made a dc-
baucli of this innocent amufement, and went to it and de-
parted from it as late as at a mafquerade. Tliis precluded
all that had any thing to do themfelves, or any employment
for their fervants in the morning, and fo much refined the
company, that at midnight there had been feldom fufficient
money received at the entrance, to cover the expences of the
lamps, the terms of admiifion being only 3^., for which, be-
fides a good concert by the bell performers in London, the
company was furnilhed with excellent rolls, butter, and tea.
In the year 1803 it was fliut up, and only ufed occafionally for
a mafquerade, a feltival, or an exhibition of fire-works. But
fince the period jult-mentioned, the building has been pulled
down, and the materials fold piecemeal, as was the cafe at
Cannons, the fplendid manfion of the duke of Chandois, (or
Pala^^%o, as it would have been called in Italy,) and the
ground is now (1809) of no other utility than occafionally
to drill and exereile the Chelfea volunteers.

RANES, in Gtvgraphy, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Orne ; 10 miles S.W. of Argentan.

RANESTAD, a town of Sweden, in Angermannland ;
50 miles N.N. E. of Hernofand.

RANFORCE Ring. See Reinforced /?/V

RANG, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Skonen ; 11 miles S.S.W. of Lund.

RANGA, in Him/00 Mythology, one of the many names
of Siva, the perfonification, according to the Hindoo my-
thologifts, of the deftruftive or changing form of the deity.
(See Siva.) The epithet Sri, meaning holy, or divine, or
blefled, prefixed, has given this name to the capital of My-
fore ; Sri Ranga-pattan being the city of the blelfed Ranga,
altered by Europeans to Seringapatam. See Sri.

RANGALORE, in Geography, a town and fortrefs
of Hindooftan, in the circar of Cicacole ; 38 miles W. of
Cicacole.

RANGAMATTY, a circar of Bengal, bounded on the
N. by Bootan and AlTam, on the E. and S. by AfTam, and
on the W. by Baharbund, Bettrebund, and GooUah ; about
40 miles long, and from 10 to 40 broad. Rangamatty, the
capital, is 128 miles N.N.E. of Moorfhedabad, and has a
celebrated pagoda. N. lat. 26° 8'. E. long. 90° 6'.

RANGANJA, a town of Bengal; 15 miles N.E. of
Chittigong.

PvANGAPALEAM, a town of Hindooftan, in Coim-
betore ; eight miles N.N.E. of Daraporum.

RANGAPILLA, a town of Hindooftan, in the Car-
natic ; fix miles N.E. of Pondicherry.

RANGASUNDRUM, a town of Hindooftan; 15
miles W. of Tinevelly.

RANGE, in Gunnery, the path of the ball, or the line
It defcribes from the mouth of the piece to the pomt where
it lodges. The flight of a (hot isdillinguifhed, by artillery,
men, into three different ranges, of which the firll is called
t\\c point-blank, the fecond ihc ranitom-Jliot, and the third the
ricochet, or rolling and bounding fliot. The firft, or point-
blank, is to fuppofe a piece flood upon a level plain, and laid
level, then the diftancc between the piece and the point
where the (hot touches the ground firit, is called the point~
blank range of that piece ; but as the fame piece ranges more-
or lefs, according to a greater or lefs charge, the point-blank
range is to be undcrflood to be that, when the piece is loaded
with that charge which is commonly ufed in adlion.

This range is much lefs than the greateft range, or ran-
dom-(hot ; but the piece cannot be levelled, or, as it is ge-
nerally expreOed, /iw'n/ci'/ at an objetl intended to be bat-
tered, if that objedt is not within the diftance of the point-
blank range ; for beyond that the (hot is vurf uncertain,
therefore rarely ufed in the fea-fervice, and on land only
when the fhot cannot fail of doing great execution in the
place on which it falls.

In ricochet firing, the piece is only elevated from three
to fix degrees, and loaded with a fmall charge, in order that
the ball may be bounded, and roll along the infide of the pa-
rapet. The (hot, thus difcharged, goes rolling and bound-
ing, killing and maiming, or deftroying all it meets in its
courfe, and creates much more diforder by going thus (low-
ly, than if thrown from tiie piece with greater violence.
See Cannon, Gun, and Projectile.

Range of a Projectile, Amplitude nf the. See Ampli-
tude.

Range, Point-blank. See Foisr-blank.

Range, in a Ship, denotes a fufficient length of the cable,
drawn up on the deck, before the anchor is call loofe from
tlie bow, to let it fink to tlie bottom, without being inter-
rupted, that the flukes may be forced the deeper into the
ground, by the additional weight which the anchor acquires
in finking. For this reafon, the range, which is drawn up
out of the tire, ought to be equal in length to the depth of
the water, where the (hip anchors.

RANGER, a fworn officer of the foreft, whofe bufinefs
it is to walk daily through his charge, to drive back the
deer out of the purlieus or difafforefted places into the
foreft lands ; and to prefent all trefpad'es done in his baili-
wick at the next court held for the foreft.
' The ranger is made by the king's letters, and has a fee
paid yearly out of the exchequer, and certain fee-deer. In
the Charta de Forefta mention is made of twelve kinds of
rangers. It is now principally a honorary and finecure em-
ployment ; but the holders fomctimes likewife receive pay.

RANGES, in Ship Building, horned pieces of oak, like
belaying cleats, but much larger, bolted to the infide of a
(hip, in the waiil, for belaying the tacks and (heets. Alfo
thofe pieces of plank fixed between the ports, with femi-
circular holes in them for keepint^ ihot in.

RANGIFER, in Zoology, .rv-iriety of the Cervus Ta-
randus ; which fee.

RANGING, in Jl^ar, the difpofing of troops in a con-
dition proper for engagement, or for marching.

In Building, the lide of a work that runs llraight, without
breaking into angles, is faid to range, or run range.

Ranging out a canal, denotes determining or fetting out
on the ground the lines which are to be occupied by its
middle and fides.

R ANGLE, in Falconry, is when gravel is given a hawk
to bring her to her ftomach.

RANGOON, in Geography, a fea-port town of the
3 F 2 BirmaQ

RANGOON.

Birman empire, fituated on a branch of the Irrawaddy,
called the Rangoon river, which forms the only communi-
cation that the Pegue river has with the fea. The town, in
its prefent ftate, has been extended by increafing trade and
confequent population far beyond the limits which for-
merly comprehended Rangoon, as it was originally founded,
in 1755, by Alompra, the fovcreign of the Birman empire.
Rangoon, or Dzangoon, which lignifies viftory achieved,
was denominated Dagon, before Alompra took it, and laid
the foundation of the prefent town. Here ftood, in for-
mer days, a large and populous city, called in the Pali, or
facred language, Singounterra ; the fcite of which Alompra
dihgently explored, and raifed on its ruins the prefent flou-
rifhing fea-port of the Pegue dominions. Dagon, often
called Shoe-Dagon, or the golden Dagon, is a name pe-
culiar to the temple; a noble edifice, three miles diftant
from the banks of the river. (See Dagoung.) Rangoon
ftretches along the bank of the river about a mile, and is
not more than a third of a mile in breadth. The city, or
miou, (mious being a term applied either to a city or a dil-
trift,) is a fquare furrounded by a high ftockade, in the
manner of the country, and on the N. fide it is further
ftrengthened by an indifferent folTe, acrofs which a wooden
bridge is thrown ; in this face there are two gates, in each
of the others only one. Wooden ftages are erefted in fe-
veral places wnthin the ftockade, for mufqueteers to Hand
upon in cafe of an attack. On the S. fide, towards the
river, which is about 20 or 30 yards from the palifade, there
are feveral huts, and three wharfs, with cranes for landmg
goods. A battery, of twelve cannon, fix and nine-pounders,
raifed on the bank, commands the river ; but the guns and
carriages are in fuch a wretched condition, that they could
do little execution. Clofe to the principal wharf are two
commodious wooden houfes, ufed by the merchants as an ex-
change, where they ufually meet in the cool of the morning
and evening, to converfe, and tranfaft bufinefs. The ftreets
of the town are narrow, and much inferior to thofe of
Pegue, but clean and well paved ; there are numerous chan-
nels to carry off the rain, over which ftrong planks are laid,
to prevent an interruption of intercourfe. The improve-
ment of the town has been very much owing to the aAivity
of the defcendant of a Portuguefe family, named Jaunfee,
of low origin, but advanced at length to the important
office of Shawbunder, or intendant of the port, and re-
ceiver of the port-cuftoms. Under his diredlion and in-
fluence, the ftreets were paved, feveral well built wooden
bridges were conftrufted, and alfo a wharf, which, extending
into the river, and raifed on pofts, enables the (hips to de-
liver and receive cargoes without the affiftance of river-
craft ; under his direction alfo a fpacious cuftom-houfe has
been erefted. This is the only lay building in Rangoon
that is not conllrufted of wood, it is compofed of brick and
mortar, and the roof covered with tiles ; within, there is a
number of wooden ftages for the reception of bale goods.
The houfes, in general, are raifed on pofts from the ground ;
the fmaller fnpported by bamboos, the larger by ftrong tim-
bers. All the officers of government; the moft opulent
merchants, and perfons of confideration, live within the
fort ; (hipwrights, and people of inferior rank, inhabit the
fuburbs ; and one entire ftreet, called Tackally, is exclu-
flvely afhgned to common proftitutes, who are not permitted
to dwell Within the prccinfts of the fortification. Swine
are fjfff red to-roam about the town at large ; they do not
belong to any particular owners, but are regarded as Ser-
vants of the public, or common fcavengers ; as they go
under tlic houfes and deftroy the filth. The Birmans are
alfo fond of dogs, numbers of which infeft the ftreets ; the

breed is fmall, and very iioify. The borders of the terrace
on which the temple of Dagoung is raifed, are planted with
fliady trees in regular rows ; and from this eminence there
is a beautiful and extcnfive profpeft ; the Pegue and Ran-
goon rivers are ieen winding through a level woody country,
and the temple of Syriam, little inferior to others at Pegue
and Rangoon, Hands near the junction of the ftreams. The
road leading from the city to tlie temple is formed with care,
a wide caufeway in the centre throwing off the rain to the
fides ; and numberlefs little fpaces are ranged along the edge
of the road, in which are niches to receive fmall images of
their divinity Guadma. Several kioums or monafteries lie
in this direftion, generally removed at a fhort diilance from
the public way, under the {hade of pipal or tamarind trees.
The Birmans being, like other inhabitants of the eaft, fond
of proceflions, fcarcely a week pafles in which there is not
a religious difplay at Rangoon ; cither a funeral of feme
perfon who leaves fufficicnt to defray the expence of a pom-
pous public burning, or the ceremony of admitting youths
into the convents of the Rhahaans, on which occafion pa-
rents and friends fpare no expence in entertainments andpre-
fents to the Rhahaans. See Rhahaans.

The population of Rangoon is confiderable ; there are
5000 regiftered taxable houfes in the city and fuburbs ; fo
that if each houfe be fuppoied to contain fix people, the
eftimate will amount to 30,000. Having long been the
afylum of infolvent debtors from the different fettlements of
India, it is crowded with foreigners of defperate fortunes,
who find from the Birmans a friendly reception, and gene-
rally fupport themfelves by carrying on a fmall trade. The
exchange, if it may be fo called, exhibits a motley affem-
blage of merchants, fuch as few towns of much greater
magnitude can produce ; Malabars, Moguls, Perfians, Par-
fees, Armenians, Portuguefe, French, and Enghfti. The
members of this difcordant multitude, engaged in various
branches of comm.erce, are not only permitted to refide un-
der the proteclion of government, but likewife enjoy the
moft liberal toleration in matters of rehgion. They cele-
brate their feveral rites and feftivals, totally difregarded by
tlie Birmans, who have no inclination to make proielytes.
In the fame ftreet may be heard the folemn voice of the
Muezim, calling pious Iflamites to early prayers, and the
bell of the Portuguefe chapel tinkling afummonsto Romifti
Chriftians. Proceflions meet and pafs each other without
giving or receiving caufe of offence. The Birmans never
trouble themfelves about the religious opinions of any fe£t,
nor difturb their ritual ceremonies, provided they do not
break the peace, or meddle with their own divinity Gaudma ;
but if any perfon commit an outrage, which the Muftulmen,
in their zeal for the true faith will fometimes do, the offender
is fure to be put into the flocks ; and if that does not calm
his turbulent enthufiafm, he is baftinadoed into tranquillity.

The Parfees, the Armenians, and a firall proportion of
Mufiulmen, engrofs the largeft fhare of the trade of Rangoon ;
and individuals from their number were frequently felefted
by government to occupy employments of truft, tliat related
to trade and tranfaftions with foreigners, the duties of
which the Birmans conceive that fuch perfons could per-
form better than themfelves. Thefe people, particularly the
Armenians, naturally behold with a jealous eye any ordinance
of a commercial nature, that may tend to diminifh their
influence, and deprive them of that dift atorial power, which
they aflume and esercife over all merchants and mariners that
refort to Rangoon ; but of none are they fo apprehenfiveas
of the Englifli : a conneftion^with whom might teach the
Birmans to tranfact foreign bufinefs without their affiftance,
and give them a more adequate fcnfe of their own intereft.

The

RAN

The Ficncli have long maintained an agent at Rangoon, and
are thoroughly acquainted with the advantages which the
country of Pegue attords. The imports into Rangoon from
the Britifli fettlementss in tlie years 1794 — 5, amounted,
according to Mr. Symes, to more than twelve lacks of
rupees, about 135,000/. fterling : thcfe confifted chiefly of
coarfe piece goods, glafs, hardware, and broad cloth, the
demand for the lalt article being confidcrable ; and returns
were ahnolt wholly made in timber. Teak, the moll durable
wood that is known, and belt adapted for the conftrudtion
of (hips, is produced in the Birman and Pegue empire in
incxhauilible abundance. The river of Rangoon is equally
commodious for the conflrudion of fliips; the fpring tides rife
20 feet in perpendicular height ; the banks are foft, and fo
flat, that little labour is ncceilary for the formation of docks :
velFels of any burden may be built. Nature, fays Symes,
has liberally done her part to render Rangoon the moil
flourifliing iea-port of the eaftern world. The entrance of
the river, about twelve miles below Rangoon, and the banks on
each fide, be.ar a near refemblance to thofe of the Ganges ;
but the navigation is much more commodious. The channel
is bold and deep, from llx and a half to eight fathoms, unin-
terrupted by (hoals or inequality of ioundings. At this
place the breadth of the river is ellimated to be from three
quarters to one mile. On the bank of the river, oppofite to
Rangoon, is a confidcrable town, called Maindu,the relidence
of the governor of tlie province of Dalla. This government is
entirely diltindl: from Rangoon, on the eaft fide. The city of
Dalla, from which the province takes its name, is faid to be
on the welt fide of the China Buckler river, and was formerly
a place of confiderable importance. The town of Maindu
IS compofed of one long ftreet ; at the eail end is a creek,
which goes all the way to Baflein, and has tv^elve feet
depth of water, at high tide ; on the weft fide is a fmaller
creek, on the bank of which Hands a village called Mima-
Shunrua, or the village of proititutes, being wholly inha-
bited by women of tliat defcription. Rangoon lies in N.
lat. 16° 47'. E. long. 96° 9'. Symes's Embaffy to Ava, in
3 vols. Svo. See Birman Empire.

RANGSIO, a town of Sweden, in Helfingland ; 15
miles W.N.VV. of Sodcrhamn.

RANGUANA, a fmall ifland in the bay of Honduras,
near the coaft of Mexico. N. lat. 16° 25'. W. long.
88° 52'.

RANHADOS, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira ; 18 miles N.W. of Cartel Rodrigo.

RANINA, Jrteria et Vena, in Anatomy, the artery and
vein fituated on the inferior furface of the tongue. See
Artery and Vein.

RANINAL Vessels, Bleeding from. See Fr.enum
LiNGU/E, Divijion of.

RANISH, ni Geography, a fmall ifland near the W. coaft
of Scotland. N. lat. 57° ^s'- W. long, f 5'.

RANK, a due order, or a place allotted a thing fuitably
to its nature, quality, or merit.

Kings are perfons of the firfl rank on earth. In caval-
cades, proceflions, &c. every perfon is to obferve his
rank.

Rank, in Military Difcipline, denotes a feries, or row of
foldiers, placed fide by fide ; a number of which ranks form
the depth of the fquadron or battalion, as a number of files
does the width.

When infantry is drawn up three deep, the firft rank is
called the front rank ; the fecond, the centre rank ; and the
third, the rear rank.

To clofe the rank, is to bring the men nearer ; to open it, is
to fct them farther apart. To double the ranks, is to throw

I

RAN

two into the fpace of one, by which the files are thinned.
See DouBi.iNC;.

Rank, in the /Irmy and Navy, is ufcd for the order of
precedence ; which ice.

In the army the ufFicers in the life-guards arc entitled to
the rank of lieutenant-colonel, when they obtain or purchafe
a majority, provided they are of feven years ftanding. Their
commiflioni in this cafe run major and lieutenant-colonel.
But if an officer fliould not have completed either of thofe
periods, he obtains the rank of major only until its comple-
tion. A lieutenant-colonel attains to the rank of full colonel
if he has been feven years major, or twenty-one years in
the Britifh fervicc. Cornets in the life-guards rank as fub-
lieutcnants in their own corps, and as firft lieutenants in the
army. The Englifh fuzileers enjoy the fame privilege.
Sub-lieutenants in the Welfh fuzileers, rank only as fecond
lieutenants in the army. Marines do the fame.

Officers of the regular forces command the officers of
equal degree belonging to the other fervices. Officers of
the militia, fencibles, yeomanry cavalry, and volunteer
corps, rank together, according to the dates of their re-
fpedtive commiflions. Thefc regulations are fubjeft to fomc
exceptions, fpecified in the articles of war. Officers of the
militia rank generally witli the regular forces as junior of
their refpedlive commilfions. An enfign in the guards
ranks no higher than an enfign in the regulars. The chief
of the engineers ranks as colonel; direftor, as lieutenant-
colonel ; fub-direftor, as major ; engineer in ordinary, as
captain; engineer extraordinary, as captain-lieutenant ; fub-
engineer, as lieutenant ; praftitioner-engineer, as enfign.

In the navy the admiral or commander-in-chief of his
majefty's fleet has the rank of a field-marftial ; admirals, with
the flags on the top-mait-head, rank with generals of horfe
and foot ; vice-admirals, with lieutenant-generals ; rear-
admirals, as major-generals ; commodores with broad pen-
dants, as brigadier-generals ; captains of poft-ftiips, after
three years from the date of their firft commifiion, as
colonels ; other captains, commanding poft-fhips, as lieute-
nant-colonels ; captains, not taking poft, as majors ; and
lieutenants, as captains.

Rank, Brevet, rank without pay, nominal dlftinftion,
which fometimes entitles the holder of it to command in
mixed fervice. The brevet rank in the militia is confined to
the colonels and adjutants of the feveral corps in that eila-
bliftiment. The former receive the brevet rank of colonels
in the army whilft aftually embodied for fervice, and com-
mand all lieutenant-colonels in the line when they do duty
together. Adjutants in the militia may have the brevet
rank of captain, provided they have ferved five years
as lieutenants in the militia, or in other forces on the
Britifli eftablifliment. In the line, an adjutant who has the
rank of captain, may command as fuch when there is no
fuperior officer on the parade, or for duty. This is not the
cafe in the militia. No adjutant, let his brevet rank of
captain be ever fo ancient, can command the youngcft
captain of a company. The fame difference prevails with
refpedl to the captain-lieutenancy ; which is literally brevet
rank. In the regulars, a captain-lieutenant, the inftant he is
promoted to a company, takes rank according to the date
of his firft commiffion, and, as we have obfervcd, may be
major by brevet ; but no captain-lieutenant can ever avail
himfelf of that feniority to the prejudice of a captain of a
company in the militia ; nor can an officer in the latter efta-
blifliment take advantage of his ftanding, when he quits one
regiment to ferve in another, even in time of war, although
he may have the requifite qualifications in both counties.
Brigade majors rank with captains, provided they have

that

RAN

RAN

thut rank in the army, independent of their ftaff appoint- in the circar of Sanore ; 20 miles W. of Bifnagur. N. lat.

ment. But aids-de-camp do not poITefs any rank in that ca- 15° 18'. E. h>ng. 75^ 37'.

pacity with regard to tlie army. The latter conftitute a RANNYCOTTA, a town of Thibet ; 35 miles S. of

part of the general's family, and are paid out of his allow- Gangotri.

ance ; they are in faa the mere carriers of his orders in the RANNYDEE, a town of Bengal ; 1 1 miles S. of Cur-
■ " -"■ -• ruckdeagh

field, and his domellic inmates at home, &c. The former
belong to the brigade, and are a neceffary part of its effec-
tive force. It has been judicioufly ordained, that both the
one and liie other fliould be regular officers.

There is likewile a fort of brevet rank which exifts in the
feveral regiments belonging to the Britifn fervice, and is con-
fined to the rank and tile, or corporals and private foldicrs.
Thus a lance-ferjeant is a corporal who does the duty of
ferjeant without the pay or emoluments of the latter ; and a
lance-corporal is a private foldicr who does the duty of cor-
poral. So that hmce, which comes from lanfquenet, and
ought therefore to be written lans-ferjeant, &c. is the abbre-
viation of that word, which lignifies a private foldier, and is
derived from, the German, and when put before ferjeant or
corporal, points out, that a private foldicr has the brevet
rank of one of thofe fituations. Captains of companies ap-
point or reduce lance -fcrjeants or corporals, according to their
judgment.

Rank, in refpcft of (hips. See Rate.
Rank and File, denote men carrying the fire -lock and
Handing in the ranks. Thus corporals are included in the
return which is made under that head.

Ranks and Files, are the horizontal and vertical lines of
foldlers, when drawn up for fervice.
Rank Keel, in Ships. See Keel.
Rank Modus, in Law. See Modus.
Rank is alfo a term provincially applied to fignify any
fort of crop of large growth. Handing thick or clofe on
the ground, as corn, peafe, beans, &c. and even trees in
woods. The term is often ufed to denote corn or grafs
crops, which are of fuch llrong growths as to be laid down
or lodged.

RANKAH, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 25 miles
W.N-W. of Palamow.

RANKERAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Candeifh ; 25
miles S. of Burhanpour.

RANKNESS in Cheefe, \n Rural Economy, a. term fig-
nifymg its ftrong pungent quality arifing from the impu-
rity of the rennet or iteep, either in confequence of negleft
of the veflels holding it, the want of fait, or the imperfetl
feparation of the curdy matter from the whey, by which fer-
mentation and partial putrefaiSion occur and produce this
tafte. See Cheese and Dairying.

RANKPORE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Guzerat ; 45 miles E. of Radunpour.

RANNEE, a town of Hindooftan, in Orifla ; 30 miles
S.S.W. of Balafore.

RANNEL-BAUK, in Rural Economy, a word provinci-
ally ufed to fignify the wooden bar or bank laid acrofs the
cottage chimney, for hanging the pot-hooks on, &c.

RANNIGUNGE, in Geography, a town of Bengal;
76 miles N.N.E. of Dacca.

RANNING, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; five
miles N. of Schweinfurt.

RANNISERAI, a town of Hindooftan, in Allahabad;
35 miles N.W. of Gazypour.

RANNUTSCH, a town of Thibet; 36 miles E. of
Jemlah. N. lat. 30^42'. E. long. 82° 15'.

RANNY, in Rural Economy, a provincial word, applied
to the fmall field-moufe.

Ranny Bcdnore, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,

RANNYGONG, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlata-
bad ; 15 miles S.S.W. of Amednagur.

RANNYGUNGE, a town of Bengal ; 35 miles N. of
Dinagepour.

RANNYPOOKRA, a town of Bengal; 30 miles
W.N.W. of Rogonatpour.

RANG, a fmall ifland in the N. part of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 65"^ 43'. E. long. 22° 52'.

RANRAN, a town of Cochinchina, and the capital of
a province. N. lat. 12° 30'. E. long. 108"^ 56'.

RANSACKEN, a town of the duciiy of Wurzburg;
3 miles S. of Wurzburg.

RANSOM, a fum of money paid for the redemption of
a perfou out of (lavery, or for the liberty of a prifoner of
war.

With regard to prifoners of war, it is allowed that there
is no obligation of releafing thofe who are detained as luch,
tiiy after fatisfaftion has been obtained. Whoever makes a
juft war has a right, if he thinks proper, to detain his pri-
foners till the end of the war ; and then, in releafing them,
he may juftly require a raiifom, either as a compeiifation at
a peace, or, if the war continue, for diminifliiiig his enemy's
prifoners, at the fame time that he ftrengthens him with the
return of foldiers. Prifoners of war, among European na-
tions, are exchanged or ranfomed during the war ; and this
is generally itipukited in a previous cartel. If fovereigns at
war have agreed on a cartel for the exchange or ranfom of
prifoners, they are faithfully to obferve it no lefs than every
other convention ; but if, as was formerly the general prac-
tice, the itate leaves to every prifoner, at leaft during the
war, the care of redeeming himfelf, fuch particular conven-
tions offer many queftions, of which fome of the principal
are the following. He who has acquired a lawful right of
demanding a ranfom from his prifoner, may transfer his
right to a third perfon. This was praftifed in the laft ages.
But as the perfon taking a prifoner is obliged, for the fake
of his reputation, to treat him with juftice and humanity,
he is not to transfer his right, in an unlimited manner, to
one who might probably abufe it. When he has agreed
with his priioner, concerning the price of the ranfom, he
may transfer the right to whom he pleafes. On the conclu-
fion of an agreement made with a prifoner for the price of
his ranfom, it becomes a perfect contraft, and cannot be re-
ceded from, under a pretence that the prifoner is difcovered
to be richer than was imagined ; for there is no manner of
neceffity that he ftiould be rated according to the wealth of
a prifoner, becaufe that is not the fcale for meafuring the
right of detaining a prifoner of war. But it is natural to
proportion the price of the ranfom to the prifoner's rank and
character ; the liberty of an officer of diftinftion being of
greater confequence than that of a private man, or inferior
officer. If the prifoner has not only concealed, but dif-
guifed his rank, it is a fordid fraud, and gives a right for
annuUing the agreement. If a prifoner, having agreed on
the price of his ranfom, dies before payment, it has been
queried whether this price be due, and whether the heirs
are obliged to difcharge it ? Unqueftionably, fays Vattel,
they are obliged to it, if the prifoner died in the polfeffion
of his liberty ; for, from the moment of his releafe, in con-
fideration of which he hadproraifed a fum, this fum becomes
due, and does not at all belong to his heirs ; but if he had

not

R A N

RAN

not obtained his liberty at the time of his death, it can be
no debt to him, or to his heirs, unlefs the agreement was
othcrwife : and he is not reputed to have received his hberty,
till he is abfolutely permitted to depart free ; when neither
he whofe prifoner he was, nor the fovereign, oppofed his re-
leafe and departure. If indeed he has only been permitted
to take a journey for applying to his friends, or liis fove-
reign, ia order to obtain the means of ranfoming himfelf,
and he dies before he is polledcd of his full liberty, before
his final dilchargc from his parole, nothing is due for his
ranfom. If, after agreeing on the price, he is detained in
prifon till the tinae of payment, and he dies before, the
debt is paid by his death, and does not affeft his heirs ; fucli
an agreement on the part of him, who detains his prifoner,
being no more than a promife of giving him his liberty for a
certain fum paid down. A promife of buying and felling
does not fuppofe the purchafer to pay the price of a thing,
if it happen to penfli before the bargain is concluded. But
if the contraft of fale be perfed, the purchafer fliall pay the
price of the thing fold, though it (hould happen to perifh be-
fore the.delivery of it, provided there was no fault or delay
in the feller. F r this reafon, if the felltrr has abfolutely
concluded the agreement of the ranfom, and from that time
owns himlelf a debtor for the ftipulatcd fum, remaining no
longer as a prifoner, but for the fecurity of the payment,
his intervening death does not extinguilh the debt : the ran-
fom agreed on remains dill due. If the agreement fays,
that the ranfom fhall be paid on a certain day, and the
prifoner happens to die before that day, then the heirs are
bound to difcharge it ; for the ranfom was due, and the day
was affigned, only, as the term for payment. Upon the
fame principles, ftri£lly fpeaking, it follows, that a prifoner,
releafed on condition of procuring the releafe or difcharge
of another, fliuuld return to prifon, in cafe the latter hap-
pens to die befare he could procure him his liberty. Such
an unfortunate cafe, however, is entitled to regard, and
equity feems to require that this prifoner fhould continue in
the enjoyment of hberty, provided he pays a juft equivalent ;
it being now out of his power to purchafe it precifely at the
price agreed on. If a prifoner fully fet at liberty, after
having promifod, but not paid, his ranfom, happen to be
taken a fecond time, it is evident that, without being ex-
empted from paying his firft ranfom, if he is wiUing to be
fet at liberty, he mud pay a fecond ranfom. On the con-
trary, though the prifoner has agreed for the price of his
ranfom, if betore the execution of the compaft, before he
is fet at liberty in virtue of it, he be retaken by his party,
he oi.'es nothing. It is here evidently fnppofcd, that the
finifhing hand was not put to the compaft, and that the
prifoner had not acknowledged himfelf debtor for the rate
of his ranfom. He whofe prifoner he was, had, as it were,
only made him a promife of felling, and he had promifed to
purchafe ; but the purchafe and fale had not aftually paffed
into cffeft ; the property was not aftually transferred. The
property belonging to a perfon does not pafs to him who
takes him prifoner, unlefs at the fame time he feizes on fuch
things. Of this there is no doubt, efpccially in our times
of moderation, when prifoners of war do not fall into fla-
very. And even by the law of nature, the property of a
flave's goods does not, without fome other reafon, pafs to
the mailer of a flave. There is nothing in flavcry of which
this can itfelf be the natural effeft. If a man obtain a
power over the liberty of another, does it follow that he has
likewife a right over his property ? Therefore, if an enemy
has not dripped his prifoner, or the latter has found means
to conceal fomething from his fearch, what he has preferved
Ih'juld belong to him, or he may employ it towards the

10

payment of his ranfom. At prefcnt even prifoners are not
always dripped. The death of a prifoner puts a period to
the right of him who had taken him ; therefore an hodage,
given for the procuring of a perfon's liberty, is to be re-
leafed the moment the prifoner expires ; and if the hodage
dies, the prifoner is not releafed by fuch death. The re-
vcrfe of this is true, if one, indcad of being an hodage for
the other, had been fiibdituted in his dead. Vattcl'a Law
of Nations, b. iii. ch. 17.

Formerly it was a common praftice to ranfom Britifh
diips, when captured by an enemy, by delivering to the
enemy what was called a ranfom-bill, which fecured to the
captor the price agreed upon, and operated as a bill of fale
of the diip and cargo to the original owners, and as a pro-
teftion to the diip againd other cruifers of the enemy during
the remainder of the voyage. A hodage was delivered to
the captor, for fecuring to him the pundtual payment of
the dipulated fum. Tliis ranlom-bill, independent of the
hodage, was confidered as a contrail of the law of nations,
and obligatory upon the owners, as well as upon the captain
and hodage who figned it ; and adlions have been often
brought upon them in our courts of common law. And
where the diip or goods were infured, the amount of the
ranfom was ufually taken to be the meafure of the demand
of the infured upon the underwriters, in refpedl of the cap-
ture. But this praftice of ranfoming diips captured by the
enemy being found to operate more to the diladvantagc than
for the benefit of this country, it was thought proper at
length to prohibit it altogether. And therefore by dat.
22 Geo. III. c. 25. § I. it is enabled, that it diall not be
lawful for any of his majedy's fubjefts to ranfom, or to enter
into any contrail or agreement for ranfoming, any diip or
vedel belonging to any of his majedy's fubjcits, or any
merchandizes or goods on board the fame, which diall be
captured by the fubjefts of any date at war with his ma-
jedy, or by any perfon committing hodilities againd his
majedy's fubjefts. By § 2. all contrafts and agreements
which diall be entered into, and all bills, notes, and other
fecurities, which diall be given by any perfon or perfons for
ranfom of any fuch diip or vedel, or of any merchandize or
goods on board the fame, diall be abfolutely void in law,
and of no effeft whatever. And by § 3. a penalty of 500/.
is given to the informer, for every offence againll the aft.
This datute has put an end to all quedions on the law of
ranfoms. Mardiall's Treatife on the Law of Infurance,
vol. ii.

In our La-w Booh, ranfom is alfo ufed for a fum paid
for the pardoning of fome notorious crime.

Horn makes this difference between ranfom and amt-rcia-
vient, that ranfom is the redemption of a corporeal punidi-
ment due to any crime.

It is never ufual to afi'efs a larger fine than a man is able
to pay, without touching the implements of his livelihood,
but to infiift corporal punidiment, or a limited iniprifon-
ment, indead of fuch fine as might amount to impnfonment
for life. And this is the reafon why fines in the king's
court are frequently denominated ranfoms, becaufe the pe-
nalty mud otherwife fall upon a man's perfon, unlefs it be
redeemed or ranfomed by a pecuniary fine (Mirr. c. 5. § 3.
Lamb. Eirenarch. 57.); according to an ancient maxim,
" qui non habet in crumena luat in corpore." Yet, when
any datute fpeaks both of fine and ranfom, it is holden, that
the ranfom diall be treble to the fine at lead. Dyer. 232.

RANSTADT, in Geography, a town of Germary, in
the principality of Stolberg ; 17 miles N.E. of Frankfort
on the Maine.

Ranstadt, or Mari Ranjiadt, a town of Saxony, in

the

RAN

the territory of Merfeburg ; lo miles S.S.E. of Merfeburg.
N. lat. 5i°i8'. E. long. I2°i4'. „. , ^ „.

RANT, in the Drama, an extravagant flight ol palhon,
over(hooting nature and probability.

Lea's tragedies abound with rants ; yet the wildeft of
them, it is obferved, have frequently met with applaufe on
the llage. _

We find inftances of rants, even m our leverelt poets.
Such, e. gr. is that in the beginning of Ben Johnfon's
Cataline, where the parricide, in fpeaking to Rome, fays,
" I'd plow up rocks, fteep as the Alps in dull ; and lave
the Tyrrhene waters into clouds, but I would reach thy

head!" ^ „. , ^

RANTAMPOUR, in Geography, a circar of Hmdoof-
tan, in the country of Agimere, bounded on the N. by
Jyenagur, on the E. by Agra, on the S. by Kottah, and
on the W. by Oudipour and Sirowy. — Alfo, a town and
fortrefs, being the capital of the above named circar ; 86
miles E. of Agimere. N. lat. 28° 35'. E. long. 76° 58'.

RANTZAU, John, in Biography, a general in the
Danifh fervice, was boriv in 1492, and at the age of 13 he
entered into the army. In 15 15 he began to travel into
foreign countries, vifiting in fucceflion England, Spain,
Germany, Italy, Greece, Syria, Paleitine, and other parts
oftheEaft. In 1517 he was knighted at Jerufalem ; and
upon his return to Denmark, was appointed to accompany
duke Chriftian, afterwards Chriftian III., on his tour to
Brandenburg, and other towns of Germany. When Fre-
deric I. accepted the crown of Denmark, he was promoted
to be a general in 1553, and entrufted with the command of
the troops in Holftein. He became greatly diflinguifhed in
his military charafter, and on various diplomatic concerns,
and died in 156J. As an author he is known by the fol-
lowing works : " A true and brief Account of the Wars
can-ied on in iJiJQ, by Frederic king of Denmark, and
Adolphus duke of Holilein," &c. ; " Defcriptio Cimbriae,"
printed in Weftphalen's Monumenta inedita, torn. i. Gen.
Biog.

Rantzad, in Geography, a county of Germany, in the
duchy of Holftein, about ten miles long and fix broad. It
takes its name from a feat feven miles N. of Eutyn.

RANTZEN, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 6 miles
N.W. of Muckrau.

RANTZENBACH, a town of Auftria ; 6 miles
S.S.W. of St. Polten.

RANVILLE, a town of France, in the department of
the Calvados ; 5 miles N.E. of Caen.

RANULA, dim. of rana, a frog. This term is, in
Surgery, applied to a fwelling of the falivary duds under
the tongue. Whether the tumour is fo named from a whim-
fical fuppofition that it bears a refemblance to a frog, or
from its being fancied to obhge the patient to make a croak-
ing noife, in attempting to articulate, is a point which fur-
gical writers leave undetermined. The fwelling is round,
of a greyifti colour like an hydatid, foft, comprefiible, in-
dolent, and, in the early ftage, almoit tranfparent. At
firft, it is of about the fame fize as a nut, or cherry ; but,
by degrees, its volume becomes much more confiderable.
It is very frequently met with in young children : its occur-
rence in adults is more uncommon. It confilts of a fuccef-
five dilatation of the excretory tube of the fubmaxillary, or
elfe of the fubhngual gland, the orifice of which duft is by
fome caufe or another flopped up, or obliterated ; fo that the
confined fahva accumulates, becomes vifcid, and ceafes to
flow in the ufual manner. In proportion as the ranula in-
creafes, the incipient flate of it having been neglefted, its
enlarged fize raifes up the tongue, and forces it backward ;

RAN

the conlequence of which is, that roattication, deglutition,
and refpiration, are obdrufted. The voice becomes indif-
tinft, and hoarfe ; the motion of the tongue is reftrained ;
th'S organ cannot be put out of the mouth. By degrees,
the incifor and canine teeth of the lower jaw are loofened ;
the layer of mufcles, compofing the lower parietes of the
mouth, is deprefled ; and the fwelling, having attained a
confiderable fize, makes a very manifett prominence beneath
the chin. In this advanced ilage, that is to fay, when the
ranula has exilled ten or twelve years, as praftitioners occa-
fionally fee inllances of, the appearance of the fwelling k
quite altered from v/hat it origmally was. The tumour ii
now hard, elallic, painful, ulcerated, and, as it were, far-
comatous : it is as large as a turkey's egg, and not fituated
at the fide othe frxnum, but anteriorly under the tongue,
to which it is clofely adherent. The mouth emits a very
fetid fmell ; and the breathing is fo much obftrudted, that
the patient, through fear of fuft'ocating, is obliged to lie
with his mouth wide open, when he goes to lleep.

While a ranula is recent, the fluid which it contains is a
vifcid fahva, refembling the white of egg, and fometimes of
rather a yellow colour. In time it is gradually changed,
becoming turbid and puriform ; and, in certain inftances,
foft, friable, greyifh concretions, from the fize of a pea to
that of an almond, commonly called falivary calcuh, are
found in the kind of cyft, which is produced by the dilata-
tion of the falivary duel. Thefe calculi eiientially confift
of a large proportion of the phofphate of lime, united with a
mucilaginous fubftance ; and concretions of the fame kind
frequently occur in the tonfils, and in the faUvary glands
themfelves, as well as their excretory dufts. Foreftus,
lib. xiv. obf. 26. p. 112. Blegney, Nouvelles Decovertes,
&c. tom. i. ann. 1679, p. 230. Mem. de 1' Acad, de Chi -
rurgie, tom. v. p. 464. Petit, CEuvres Pofthumes, &c.
tom. i. p. 188. Blafius, Obf. 14. p. 81.

A ranula, whether recent or inveterate, cannot be cured
except by a furgical operation. The curative indication,
in the firft of thefe ftates, is to make an outlet for the fluid
accumulated in the tumour, and to make an opening fufB-
ciently capacious to let the fahva readily pafs into the mouth.
Merely making an incifion into the fwelling, or opening it
with a trocar, or a fcton drawn through it, are ftated to be
ineffedlual methods. The tumour does indeed fubfide as
foon as the aperture is made ; but the edges of the wound
grow together again, and the difeafe recurs. There is an
abfolute neceflity for firft making an incifion the whole
length of the fwelling, and then removing, with the aid of
fciilors and a pair of diftefting forceps, a portion of the
edges of the recent wound. This_ flight lofs of fubftance
prevents the return of the complaint, and always infures a
free paiTage for the fahva ; an advantage of which there is
no certainty in any other mode of proceeding. By this
flight operation, ranuls in children may be cured in the
courfe of a few days, without the leaft occafion for the ap-
plication of any dreffings whatfoever. It has been propofed
to dilate the contrafted orifice of the falivary duft with a
probe. (Mem. de I'Acad. de Chirurgie, tom. iii. p. 460.)
But this orifice is difficult of deteclion, and the fwelling can-
not be in this manner eafily emptied. M. Laflus feeras to
entertain doubts whether Warton's canal can ever be made
to refume its original ftate, after once being clofed. Patho-
logic Chirurg. tom. i. p. 405.

When a ranula has exifted a long while, is attended with
confiderable hardnefs, and is of large fize, it is a tumour
which requires to be completely extirpated. A tranfverfe
incifion, parallel to the opening of the mouth, is to be made
in it through its whole extent. The furgeon is then to cut

out

RAN

out the upper portion of the fwcUing, fituatcd in front of
the fnnum of the tongue, to which it is alfo adherent, and
next the inferior portion, whicli fomctimcs extends into the
intcrfpace betwixt the genio-hyoidei and genio-gloffi mufcles,
with which it becomes confounded. A pair of forceps, a
hook, fciffors, and a ih-aight biftoury, are the inRruments
neceflary for this operation. A degree of hemorrliage al-
ways enfues. The ufe of a detergent gargle, made of
barley-water and honey ofrofes, will ferve to nni(h the cure
in a very moderate fpace of time.

In confirmation of the latter obfervation, Laflus adduces
the following cafe. A young man, aged 22, had a ranula,
which had continued ever fince he was born, and was equal
in fize to a turkey's egg. Tiie incifor teeth of the lower
jaw were loofened, and forced forward by the fuccefllve in-
creafe of the fwelling. A feton had been pafled quite
through it, without any ufeful efFeft. The breath of the
patient and his -faliva were intolerably fetid. The tumour
was clofely adherent to the lower and anterior part of the
tongue ; and extending laterally, confounded itfelf with this
organ, of which it impeded the motion. A ftraight, nar-
row biftoury was introduced into one of the openings at the
fide of the tumour, and carried completely acrofs to tlie op-
pofite aperture. Thus a tranfverfe incifion was made into
the cavity of the difeafe. By means of the fame inihument
and a hook, the lateral portions of the fweUing were re-
moved. A profufe hemorrhage enfued, caufed by the total
divifion of the frsnum, the raninal veins, and one of the
raninal arteries. It was flopped by putting under the
tongue a large quantity of dry lint, and by comprelling the
dorfum of the tongue feveral hours with the fingers, while
, the thumb was employed in compreffing the parts behind the
chin from below upwards. This double fort of preffure
anfwered the purpofe. No cautery was found neceflary,
and, by the ufe of detergent gargles, the patient was cured
in about a fortnight.

When a ranula of long duration, fituated at the fide of
the tongue, and of confiderable fize, forms a tumour, that
makes its appearance outwardly towards the bafe of the
jaw, Laflus feems to difapprove of making a free incifion
through the Ikin, for the purpofe of extirpating that part
of the fwelling which cannot be removed through the
mouth ; a plan which was, in one inllance, praftifed by
Marchettis. Obf. Med. Chirurg. obf. 31. p. 48. See
Laflus' Pathologie Chirurgicale, torn. i. chap. 61.

RANULARES, in Anatomy. See Ranina.

RANUNCULACEtE, in Botany, the 6ift natural
order in Juflieu's fyftem, or the firft of his 13th clafs, for
whofe charafter fee Gerania. The Ranuncuiacein are de-
fined as follows.

Calyx of many leaves, fometimes wanting. Petals definite,
moftly five. Stamens indefinite, except in Myofurus j their
anthers incorporated with the filaments. Germens feveral,
indefinite or definite, rarely folitary, placed on a common
receptacle ; each of them furnifhed with a ftyle, which is
rarely wanting, and a fimple lligma. Capfuks, or rarely
berries, as many as the germens ; in fome infl:ances fingle-
feeded, and not burlling ; in others many-feeded, fplitting
half vvay down, at their inner margin, into two valves, bear-
ing the feeds at the edges. Corculum minute, lodged in a
cavity at the upper part of the large horny albumen. Stem
generally herbaceaus. heaves alternate ; rarely (in Cle-
matis and Atragene) oppofite ; fome of them lialf ftieathing
tfic ftem ; fome compound, pinnate or fingered ; fome, as
IS more frequently the cafe, fimple, and thefe are moftly
palmate or lobed, their finufes often pale at the bafe. See
Ranunculus.

Vol.. XXIX

RAN

Juffieu divides the order in queftion into four leAions.

Seft. I. Capfules fmgle-feeded, not burjling ; berries in
Hyilrajlis.

This feftion confiils of Clematis, Atragenr, Thaliflrum,'
Hydrajlis, Anemone, Hamadryas of Commerfon, Adonii,
Ranunculus, Ficaria, and Myofurus.

Seft. 2. Capfuks many-fceded, f/dilling at the inner edge.
Petals irregular.

The calyx in this feftion is often coloured, being what
Linnxus terms corolla ; that author confidcring the petall
of Juflieu as neftaries. The genera are Trollius, Helleborus,
Ifopyrum, Nigella, Garidella, Aquilegia, Delphinium, and
Aconitum. Some fpecies of Delphinium have but a fingle
capfule.

Seft. 3. Capfules many-feeded, fplitting at the inner edge.
Petals regular.

Caltha, Pceonia, Zanthorrhixa, Cimicifuga.

Sect. 4. Germen folitary. Berry of one cell, luith many
feeds, affixed to a Jingle lateral receptacle.

The only genera are ABica and Podophyllum, and thefe
we feel difpofed to remove to Juflieu's next order, Papa-
VERACE^. See that article.

We cannot but remark that the petals, as Juflieu termg
them, in Trollius and Helleborus are by no means definite,
and that they greatly exceed the number five. Neither
are they irregular in Trollius. As to the other genera of
his 2d feftion, the parts in queftion are fuch obvious nec-
taries, that they can have no other funftion to perform,
except pofTibly in Aquilegia, where their limb partakes of
the nature of petals.

RANUNCULOIDES, a genus of Vaillant's, founded
on the Ranunculus hederaceus and aquatilis of Linnaeus, and
named from its refemblance or affinity to RanuN'CULUS ;
fee that article. No one has followed Vaillant in this
inftance, nor is there any real mark of diftinftion for his
fuppofed genus. Ranunculoides is, befides, the fpecific name
of a rare Britifti Anemone, but ranunculina would have been
better Latin ; as in Helleborus ranuncuUnus , Sm. PI. Ic.
fafc. 2. t. 37. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. 1336. See Hel-
leborus.

RANUNCULUS, an ancient name, whofe origin is as
obvious as its fenfe is obfcure. The word is, no doubt,
derived from /-ana, and means a little frog. The Greeks
call the fame plant /3a1fa;^ior, which is nearly fynoniraous.
Moft etymologifts fuppofe this name to allude to the native
ftation of the plant, in bogs and watery places, fuch 38
frogs frequent. But the original ;3al;a;:^io» of Diofcorides
is the beautiful Ranunculus afiaticus of Linnaeus, or Garden
Ranunculus, which inhabits corn-fields, and does not grovr
in wet places ; though indeed the other three fpecies, de-
fcribed by that ancient writer, do ; thefe are our lanuginofust
muricntus, and aquatilis. It feems poffible that the divifions
of tiie leaves in all thefe plants may have fuggefted the idea
of a frog's foot, which fuppofition is confirmed by the
Englifli name. Crowfoot. Ambrofinus hints at a refem-
blance between the root and the foot of a frog, which is
not, to us, by any means apparent. — Linn. Gen. 281.
Schreb. 377. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 2. M07. Mart. Mill. Did.
v. 4. Sm. Fl. Brit. 5S7. Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibth. v. 1.
380. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 351. Purfti v. 2. 39I.
Jufl". 233. Poirct in Lamarck Di6t. v. 6. 97. Lamarck
lUuftr. t. 498. Gaertn. t. 74. (Ficaria; Dill. Gen. 108.
t. 5. Hudf. Angl. 244. Jufl. 233. Ranunculoides ; VaiB.
Mem. de 1' Acad, des Sciences for 17 19, German edition,
321.) — Clafs and order, Polyandria Polygynia. Nat. Ord.
Multifliquf, Linn. Ramtnculaeea, JufT.

Gen. Ch. Cat. Perianth of five ovate, concave, fome-
3 G -what

RANUNCULUS.

-what coloured, deTiduous leaves. Cor. Petals five, obtufc,
poliftied ; with fmall claws. Ncftary a cavity in each
petal, juft above the claw. Stam. Filaments very nume-
rous, half the length of the corolla ; anthers firmly united
therewith, ereft, oblong, obtufe, of two feparate lobes.
Pi/1. Germens numerous, coUefted into a head ; llylcs none ;
Itigmas reflexed, very fmall. Ptric. none. Receptacle befet
•with extremely minute ilalks, to which the feeds are at-
tached. Seeds numerous, naked, irregular, uncertain in
figure, with a reflexed point.

Obf. The effential mark of this genus confilts, as Lin-
nxus remarks, in the nedlary, the reft of the parts being
uncertain ; lience he takes occafion to point out the ufe of
advertini( to that organ, which before his time had been
neglefted, and which his opponents acrufe him of fometimes
making of too much importance. The great .Tuflieu will
not, in this obvious cafe, ufe the language, though he
adopts, unacknowledged, the idea of Linnxus ; nor will he
allow the manifeft neftaries of fome of his Ranuxcui.ace.*:
(fee that article) to be other than petals. " Such," to
ufe his own words, in his preface, p. 26, " is the love ot
undivided praife !"

The nedary in Ranunculus, fays Linnaeus, is, in fome
fpecies, a naked pore ; in fome it is bordered with a cylin-
drical margin ; in others clofed with a notched fcale.
Ficaria of authors has only a three-leaved calyx, with a
fuperabundance of petals. The feeds in fome fpecies are
roundilh^ in others deprefl'ed, prickly, and fewer in number.
R. hederaceus has but five ilamens ; falcatus has a fword-
fhaped point to each feed, and appendages to the bafe of the
calyx ; fcderatus, and a few .befides, have an awl-lhaped
receptacle, and confequently a fpiked fruit.

EfT. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals from five to eight,
with a honey-bearing pore in the claw of each. Seeds
naked.

This extenfive genus is divided into two feflions, by the
form of the leaves. The fpecies are all herbaceous, gene-
rally of an acrid quality. The prevailing colour of the
flowers is yellow ; we know of none that are blue, except
by accidental variation in R. afw.Ucus. They are plants of
temperate or cold climates ; fome of them alpine. Linnaeus,
in Sp. PI. ed. 2, enumerates twenty-eight fpecies ; the 14th
edition of Syil. Veg. has forty-four, and Willdenow reckons
up fixty-one. Fifteen are natives of Britain, as mentioaed
in Fl. Brit. ; but the i ith fpecies in that work, parvulus of
Linnxus, muft be expunged, as a mere variety of hirjutus,
n. 8. The original number is, however, made up, by a new-
difcovered Scottifh fpecies, the alpejlris, figured in Engl.
Bot. v. 34. t. 2390.

So many additions have been made to this genus by
the labours of Poiret in Lamarck's Diet. v. 6, and the
difcoveries of Michaux and Purib, that, with fome neceffary
oorreftions, and a few communications of our own, the whole
fubjeft requires to be detailed.

Seft. I . Leaves Jlmple and unJl-vided.
I. R. Flammula. Lefier Spear-wort. Linn. Sp. PL
772. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Fl. Brit. n. I. Engl.
Bot. t. 387. Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 37. (R. flammeus
minor; Ger. Em. g6i, and R. flammeus ferratus ; ibid.
962.) — Leaves ovato-lanceolate, bluntifli, ftalked. Stem
declining. — Native of watery places throughout Europe,
flowering moft part of the fummer. Root perennial, of
long fimple fibres. Herb (bining, not quite fmooth, very
various in fize and luxuriance. Stems fpreading in every
direftion, round, leafy, hollow. Leaves many-ribbed, either
entire or varioufly ferrated. Flowers numerous, folitary,
o« long ftalks, of a bright golden yellow, half an inch or

more in diameter. The whole plant is of an exceflively acrid
burning quality, faid to produce inflammation in the vifcera
of fheep, whence the name Jlammula, a little flame. Dr.
V/ithering recommends the diltillcd water, as preferable to
all other medicines, for procuring initantaneous vomiting
in cafes of poifon.

2. R. reptans. Creeping Spear -wort. Linn. Sp. PI. 773.
Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 1 98. t. 3. f. 5. Lightf. 289; fig. in
frontifpiece to v. i. Fl. Dan. t. 108. — Leaves linear-lan-
ceolate. Stem creeping About the margins of alpine

lakes, on a fandy foil ; common in Scotland, flowering in
June and July. We have always thought this a variety of
the former, as mentioned in Fl. Brit. ; but Willdenow con-
tends for the contrary. He truly adertr- that it differs iu
having a thread-fliaped creeping Jlem ; linear entire leaves,
tapering down into their footjlalks ; Jloiuer-Jlalks folitary,
eredt, iiEigle-flowered ; and much inviWer Jlotvers. Never-
thelefs, we have feen fo many intermediate varieties, and fuch
a difpofition in weak plants of the Flammula to take root at
their joints, that we moll incline to our original opinion,
fuggeiled firft by Linnx'us himfelf in his Sp. PI.

3. R. Lingua. Great Spear-wort. Linn. Sp. PI. 773.
W^illd. n. 3. Ait. II. 3. Fl. Brit. n. 2. Engl. Bot.
t. 100. Fl. Dan. t. 755. ( R. flammeus major ; Ger. Em.
961. R. longifolius, lingua Plinii diftus, foliis ferratis ;
Ambrof. Phyt. 459.) — Leates lanceolate, pointed. Stem
ereft, many-flowered. In marfhes and muddy ditches,
chiefly in the nortliern parts of Europe ; rare in England ;
flowering in July. Thrice the fize of R. Flammula, and quite
ereft. Leaves more nearly felTile, and taper-pointed ; oc-
cafionally ferrated, as in the rude cut of Ambrofinus, but
not commonly fo. Calyx hairy. The whole herb is more
or lefs covered with clole-prefled hairs, vifible alfo in Flam-
mula. Floivers large and brilliant, very confpicuous.

4. R. nodiflorus. Knot-flowered Crowfoot. Linn. Sp.
PI. 773. Willd. n. 4. Ait. n. 4. Waldft. et Kitaib,
Hung. v. 2. 192. t. 176. Ait. (R. pariCenfis pumilus,
plantaginella; folio; Petiv. Gazoph. v. i. 6. t. 25. f. 4.
Vaill. Mem. de I'Acad. for 1719, Germ. ed. 324. t. 17.
f. 4. R. ficulus, &c. ; Petiv. Gaz. t. 24. f. 9, is a variety.)
— Leaves ovate, Italked. Flowers feffile. — In marfhy places
about Paris ; alfo in Sicily ; flowering in fummer. A
fmall, fmooth, annual plant, varying in luxuriance, and
having much the appearance of Limofella aquatica. Leaves
about an inch long, various in breadth, on very long ftalks.
Floivers fmall, folitary, feffile, axillary. Seeds taper-
pointed.

5. R. fliftrmis. Slender Creeping Crowfoot. Michaux
Boreal-Amer. v. I, 320. Purfh h. 4. Lamarck Dift.
n. 4. — " Stem thread-fhaped, creeping, jointed, almoil
naked. Leaves linear-awlfhaped, obtufe. Flowers axillarv,
folitary, ftalked." — In inundated places, on the banks ot
the river St. Lawrence ; at Hudfon's bay and Labradore ;
flowering in June and July. This is defcribed as a very
finall, flender, fmooth fpecies, very much refembling R.
reptans, n. 2. We have feen no fpecimen.

6. R.pujillus. Diminutive Crowfoot. Purfti n. 3. (R.
Flammula; Walt. Carol. 159. Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. i.
321; according to Purfti.) — "Smooth. Leaves ftalked ;
lower ones ovate, toothed ; upper linear-lanceolate, toothed
at the end ; uppermoft linear, like brafteas. Stalks alter-
nate, folitary, fingle-flowered." — Native of North America.
Perennial, flowering from June to Auguft. A fmall fpecies,
with exceeding fmall Jloioers. Petals pale yellow. Purjh.
A fpecimen from Kalm, unnamed, in the Linnsean herba-
rium, anfwers nearly to the above charafters, and yet feems
a variety of R, abortivus, hereafter mentioned.

-. R.

RANUNCULUS.

T.R.gramkns. Gran"y Crowfoot. Linn. Sp. PI. 773. 10. K. ophiogtojaidts. Serpent's-tongue Crowfoot. Willd

Willd. n. 5. Alt. n. 5. Fl. Bnt. n. 3. Engl. Bot. t. 2306. n. 8. ( R. ophioglofnfolius ; Villars Dauph. v. ». 7,,
Curt. Mag. t. 164. Bulliard. t^ 123. — Leaves linear-ianceo- 1.49.) — Stem fimple, tre6t, leafy ' 3 /j

late, glaucous, many-ribbed, fedile. Stemcreft, very frnooth
throughout, with few flowers. Fruit globofe. — Native of
mountainous fituations in the fouth of France. Gerard. In
Italy, Column. Ecphr. 314. Withering fays it was brought
from North Wales by Mr. Pritchard. Willdenow mentions
moid meadows in France as its native ftation, for which we
can find no authority. The plant thrives in England in
rather dry gardens, flowering in May or June, and is peren-
nial. The grafl'y, broadifh, glaucous leaves, and large golden
fioiuers, readily diftinguilh this fpecies. The root is tube-
rous and round. Stem twelve or eighteen inches high. Calyx
very fmooth, fpreading, not deflexed. The fruit is de-
icribed as globofe. We have not feen it ripe.

8. R. pyrenxus. Pyrenean Crowfoot. Linn. Mant. 248.
Willd. n. 6. Jacq. Mifc. v. i. 154. t. 18. f. i. (R. pumi-
lus, gramineis foliis ; Bauh. Hift. v. 3. append. 850. R.
n. 1 180; Hall. Hift. V. 2. 77.) /3. R. plantagineus ; Al-
lion. Pedem. n. 1445. v. 2. 48. t. 76. f. i. — Leaves linear.

lanceolate, many-ribbed, (talked. Stem ereft, with one or but not, as far as we know, of the Swifs Alps, Halkr hav-
two flowers; woolly at the top. Fruit fomewhat cylindri- ing miftaken his n. 1179, which n parnaJifoHus, for this
cal. Seeds with recurved beaks. — Native of the Pyrenees, fpecies. It is a hardy perennial in our gardens, not diificult
as well as of the Alps of Switzerland, Dauphiny, and Ca- of culture, yet not common, flowering in May. The herbage
rinthia. Linnaeus, for a long while, confounded this with is glaucous. Stem cred, leafy, twelve or fifteen inches high,
the laft, and many botanifts have confidered them as hardly branched above. Leaves generally more or lefs fringed with
to be diftinguiflied, but by the colour of the /owerj-. The foft hairs. Calyx green, fmooth, concave, partly mem-
leaves of the prefent Tary greatly in breadth, being fome- branous and white at the edge. Petals of a pure and bril-

n. 8.

■ , Lower leaves ovate,
or hcart-fhapcd, many-ribbed, on long ftalks ; upper linear-
lanceolate, fcffile. — Found between Toulon and Hycres m
Provence, by M. Villars, who mentions having feen a draw-
ing of the fame plant, in the royal colleftion at Paris,
marked R. lefbius palullris, ophioglofli folio ; Tourn. Cor.
20. The root is defcribed by Villars as fomewhat bulbous,
or tuberous, with many whorls of fibres. Stem eredt, a foot'
high. Leaves fmooth, rather flilhy. Flowers fmall, yel-
low, with fliiniiig/)rf,i/j. 5mA- in a fmall roundhead.' He
conceives it fomewhat allied to R. I lammula. The refem-
blancc of the leaves, in his plate, to parnajjifolius, feems to
have induced Willdenow to range it here. We have feen
no Ipeeimen.

11. R. amplexiraulis. Plaintain-leaved Crowfoot. Linn.
Sp. PI. 774. Willd. n. 9. Ait. n. 7. Curt. Mag. t. 266.
(R. toho plantaginis ; Ger. Em. 963.)— Leaves ovate, point-
ed, glaucous, clalping the many-flovvcred ilem. Root fafcicu-
lated. — Native of the Apcnnine and Pyrenian mountains,

times quite narrow and linear ; but in variety /3 they are el
liptical, and an inch wide. They appear to be green, not
glaucous. The upper part of the Jlem, quite fmooth in R.
gram'meus, is always hairy, and under the flower is denfely
woolly, in the prefent fpecies. The petals are pure white.
Fruit nearly cylindrical. Seeds with elongated, remarkably
recurved, points. Few plants vary more in luxuriance.

A moft remarkable variety, as Haller and Villars elleem
it, is the R. lacerus, Bellardi Append, ad Flo. Pedem. 27.
t. 6, of which we have a fpecimen frorfi the author himfelf.
In this the Jlem is branched, bearing thirteen or fourteen
Jlowers, but its chief fingularity confifts in the jagged, and
partly almoft palmate, leaves, which neverthelefs bear all
the marks of cafual luxuri.ance. We have a fpecimen of
Allioni's/)/<7n/(7o-mf!M, our variety /3, which, by a tooth or
two in fome of the leaves, evinces an approach towards this
lacerus ; and we hare another of the fame with four flowers
on one ftem.

9. R. parnajjifolius. Parnaflia-leaved Crowfoot. Linn.
Sp. PI. 774. Willd. n. 7. Ait. n. 6. Curt. Mag. t. 386.
Wulf. in Jacq. Coll. v. i. 191. t. 9. f. 3, without leaves.
(R. n. 1179; Hall. Hilt. V. 2. 77. Herb. Davall.)—
Leaves many -ribbed ; radical ones roundifli-ovate, fomewhat
heart-fhaped, on long ilalks ; Item-leaves 0"ato-lanceolate,
pointed, feflile. — Native of the Alps of Switzerland, Dau-
phiny and Carinthia, as well as of the Pyrenees, from all
which countries we have received fpecimens. The plant is
efteemed very rare, and Wulfen regrets that he loft the root
and leaves of his only fpecimen ; fo that Mr. Curtis has
rendered a valuable fervice to botanifts by his excellent

liant white. Anthers yellow, as in other fpecies. We li;...
never feen the ripe feeds.

12. R. helerophyllus. Various-leaved Slender Crowfoot.
(R. bonarienfis; Lamarck Dift. n. 9.) — Leaves ftalked,
toothed, heart-fhaped or ovato-lanceelate, with three central
ribs. Stem ereft. Flowers ftalked, folitary, oppofite to
the leaves. Seeds obtufe, granulated. — Gathered by Com-
merfon at Buenos Ayres, in marfliy places. Root fibrous.-
Stem ereft, a foot or more in height, (lender, fmooth, ftri-
ated, branched, leafy. Leaves alternate, on long ftalks ;
the lower ones ovate, or heart-fliaped ; the upper lanceolate,
or ovate ; all obtufe, more or lefs crenate or toothed, about
an inch long, fmooth, furnifhed with three central ribs, and
feveral lateral branching veins. Footjlalks bordered at their
bafe ; the lowermoft much the longeit. Flotvers very fmall,
whitifli, on folitary, ftraight, fimple, lateral ftalks, an inch
or an inch and half long, oppofite to the leaves. Fruit
ovate. Seeds obtufe, or obovate, rough with minute points.
The calyx is fmooth and reflexed, often remaining till the
feeds are ripe.

13. R.JlageHiformis. Long-ftalked Crowfoot. — Leaves
on long (talks, heart or kidncy-fhaped, wavy or crenate.
Stem creeping, thread-fhaped. Flowers ftalked, folitary,
oppofite to the leaves. Petals ovate. Seeds obtufe, dotted.
— Native of Chili and New Granada. We have fpecimens
from Mutis and Cavanilles, but this fpecies does not feem
to be any where defcribed. The Jlems are long, thread-
fhaped, much branched, proftrate, creeping or perhaps
floating, fending out from each joint long fibrous radicles,
and one or more fmooth, roundi(h, heart-fhaped or kidney-

figure. This is a fingularly elegant fpecies, on account of Itiaped leaves, hardly an inch wide ; ihtlT footjlalks meafur.

its leaves, which refemble our Parnajfia, as well as for its
large and brilliant white flowers, with their rofe-coloured
calyx. "TheWJlalis are woolly. Fruit ovate. Seeds obovate,
obtufe, with fhort incurved beaks. The root is perennial,
formed of copious, very long, pale fibres, as if it grew in
watery places, but Haller fays it inhabits ftony alpine fitua-
tions, being quite common in his own territory of Aigle.

\

ing from two to three inches. Flowers very fmall, white,
folitary, oppofite to the leaves, on (lender _flalhs, rather
fhorter than thofe of the foliage. Stamens few. Fruit rather
oblong. Seeds obovate, obtufe, compreffed, minutely dotted.
This Ranunculus is perhaps moft nearly akin to our Britiftj
hederaceut, hereafter defcribed, though very certainly diltinCl,
and as the fpecies are at prefent arranged, they mult remain
3 G 3 at

RANUNCULUS.

at a diftance. In habit and general refemblance they clofcly
accord.

14. R. Cymbalaria. Small Trailing Crowfoot. Piir(h

n. e. '< Leaves heart or kidney- (haped, with five blunt

teeth. Stem creeping, thread-fliaped. Flower-llalks folitary,
moftly two-flowered. Petals linear. Fruit oblong." — In
faline marflics, near the fait works of Onondago, New York,
flowering in June and July. Perennial, fomewhat refem-
bling the following. Floivers fmall, pale yellow, fometimes
white. Purjh.

15. K.falfuginofus. Salt-mar(h Crowfoot. " Pallas's Tra-
vels, fmall edition, v. 3. 173." Willd. n. II. (R. rutheni-
cus ; Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 3. 19. t. 31. R. repens, flora
in caule fmguhri, foliis varie feftie ; Amm. Ruth. 81. t. 13.

f. 2.) Leaves ovate, fomewhat heart-lhaped ; toothed at

the extremity. Stem creeping, thread-fhaped. Flower-
ftalks folitary, moftly fingle-flowered. Petals obovatc.
Fruit nearly globofe. — Found by Gmelin, on the banks ot
the Neva ; Ammann ; by Pallas in the fait plains of Siberia,
beyong the lake Baical. Thcjlowers are yellow, as big as
our common Crowfoots, being more than ten times the fize
of the laft. Their petals are about ten, pbovate. The root
fends out long runners, like a garden ilrawberry. Gmelin's
fpecimen is much fmaller than Jacquin's figure.

\6. K.luUatus. Portugal Crowfoot. Linn. Sp. PI. 774.
Willd. n. 10. Ait. n. 8. (R. lufitanicus; Dod. Pcmpt. 4^9.
R. autumnalis Clufii ; Ger. Em. 954. R. hifitanicus Clulii ;
ib. 955.) — Leaves ovate, ferrated. Flower-ftalks radical,
fmgle-flowered, hairy. — Native of Portugal and the north
of Africa, cultivated in England before 1640, but now
fcarcely feen. It flowers in May and June, and has a
perennial fibrous root, more like Gerarde's fig. 10 than 11.
Leaves all radical, ftalked, ovate, ribbed and veiny, feme-
what hairy, itrongly and unequally ferrated, an inch or an
inch and half long ; fometimes, according t» Clufius, blif-
tered. Flowers yellow, on fimple, hairy, upriglit, radical
flalks, three or four inches long. Petals mote than five,
narrovv-obovate. The old authors delineate two kinds,
generally fuppofed to be varieties, but which may poflibly
be fpecies. We have not feen either, except in a dried
ftate.

17. R. Fkar'ia. Pilewort, or Lelfer Celandine. Linn.
Sp. PI. 774. Willd. n. 12. Ait. n. 9. Fl. Brit. n. 4.
Engl. Bot. t. 584. Curt. Lond. fafc. 2. t. 39. Mart.
Ruft. t. 21. Bulliard t. 43. (Chelidonium minus ; Matth.
Valgr. V. I. 578. Fuchf. Hift. 867. Ger. Em. 816.) —
Leaves heart-lhaped, angular, fmooth, italked. Petals
numerous. — Native of wafte ground throughout Europe,
in moift:, fhady, or bufhy places, flowering in the early
fpring. Dr. Sibthorp found it common in Greece ; and
there can be no doubt of its being, as all botanifts have
judged, xt^''c<ivir.i' 1o /iix^ov, the Leffer Celadine, of Diofco-
rides. Root perennial, fibrous, with many flefhy, pear-
fhaped, annual knobs, whole appearance gave rife to the
Latin, as well as Englifh, name of this fpecies, and to an
idea that the plant might be ferviceable in the piles, which
thofe who believe, may confult Gerarde for the mode of
application. The Jlsnis are leafy, and moftly fingle-flovered.
Leaves imooth and lliining. Flowers ftalked ; with three,
fometimes five, leaves to the calyx ; and eight, occafionally
ten, elliptic-oblong, highly poliftied petals, which fade to
white in bright funftiine.

18. R. frigUus. Alpine Siberian Crowfoot. Willd.
n. 13. — Radical leaves wedgefhape-ovate, five-toothed at
the extremity ; thofe of the ftem feffile, palmate. — Native
of the alps of Siberia. Willdenow fays he received this by
the name of gracilis, meaning glacialis, " with which it igrees

in the fize, and perhaps colour, of the Jiotuer, but 1'
abundantly diftinft in tlie leaves." Several Siberian un-
named fpccimciis, in the Linman herbarium, anfv/cr ex-
actly to Willdenow'sdefcription. The radical leaves are ft--
veral, ftalked, between half an inch and an inch in length,
fmooth ; rounded and entire at the bafe ; abrupt and va-
rioully cut into broad blunt teeth, we might almoft fay
lobes, at the fummit. Utem ere£t, ufually fingle-flowered,
with two or three, alternate, fefiile, more deeply lobed, or
palmate, leaves. Calyx brown, hairy. Petals five, inverfely
heart-fhaped, apparently white. The Jloijuer is fo like gla-
cialis, that we cannot but fufpeft the dinerence of the leaves,
however great, to be but cafual. At any rate, they arc
fometimes fo deeply cut, tiiat tiiis fpecies might perhaps,
without violence, have been placed in the following feftion,
next to glacialis.

19. R. Thora. Kidney-leaved Crowfoot. Poifon-root
of the Swifs. Linn. Sp. PI. 775. Willd. n. 14. Ait.
n. 10. Jacq. Auftr. t. 442. Obf. fafc. I. 25. t. 13.
(Thora major et minor ; Camer. Epit. 825, 826. Th. val-
denfis, ct montis Baldi ; Ger. Em. 966. Pfeudo aconitum
pardalianches ; Matth. Valgr. v. 2.430.) — Leaves kidney-
(haped, abrupt, crenate, reticulated ; the radical ones on
long ftalks. Stems with one or two flowers. Brafteas lan-
ceolate Native of the alps of Switzerland, Auftria, and

Greece, as well as of mount Baldus, near Verona, flower-
ing rather early in fummer. It is faid to have been formerly
in the Enghfli gardens, but has never fallen under our ob-
fervation. Root perennial, of thick, tapering, flefhy fibres
or rather knobs. Stem folitary, fmooth, fimple, near a fpan
high ; terminating in one, rarely more, long-ftalked golden

Jloivers, about half an inch wide ; its calyx-leaves lanceolate,
coloured, fmooth, like every other part of the plant. Leaves
about two incheswide, andone long, rather coriaceous, ftrong-
ly reticulated with veins, neatly crenate, terminating either
abruptly, with a notch, or elongated into three acute, entire,
triangular, central lobes ; the uppermoft, or floral, ones,
lanceolate and entire ; the radical ones only on long flender
ftalks. Fruit globular, of a few, large, tumid, ovate
feeds, with hooked points. The root of this plant is reported
to be extremely acrid and poifonous, its juice having been
ufed formerly, by the Swifs hunters of wild beafts, to en-
venom their darts, whofe wound by that means becomes
fpeedily fatal and incurable. Hence the name, from fbo^x,
corruption, or venom. We can fee no poflible reafon for dif-
tinguiftiing the greater and fmaller kinds, even as permanent,
or well-marked, varieties.

Seftion 2. Leaves di^eded ami divided.

20. R. creticus, Cretan Crowfoot. Linn. Sp. PI. 775.
Willd. n. 15. Ait. n. 11. (R. creticus latifolius ; Cluf.
Hift. v. I. 239. Ger. Em. 963.) — ^. R. macrophyllus ;
Desfont. Atlant. V. 1.437. Lamarck Did. n. 19. — Radi-
cal leaves kidney-fhaped, crenate, fomewhat lobed ; ftem-
leaves in three deep, lanceolate, entire fegments. Stem many-
flowered. — Native of Crete ; cultivated in the Oxford gar-
den in 1658, but perhaps now loft. The root is perennial,
of many thick, tapering, fleftiy fibres. Stem thick, mode-
rately branched, eighteen inches, or more, in height, hairy as
well as the reft of the herbage. Radical leaves from two to
four inches long, and more in breadth, kidney-fhaped, reticu-
lated with ftrong veins, light green, downy, unequally di-
vided into about feven three-cleft, or coarfely notched, fhal-
low lobes : Jlem-leaves alternate, in three deep, oblong, cb-
tufe, entire lobes ; the bafe tapering or wedge-fhaped.
Flowers feveral, yellow, nearly as large as R. Lingua, n. 3.
Cc/y-v reflexed, ovate, loofely hairy. /S appears, by the ac-
count of M. Desfontaines, to differ merely in having the

lower

RANUNCULUS.

lower leavfs more deeply lobed than ufual, and fomewhat lefs
hairy.

21. R. caffiibiciis. CafTubiaii Crowfoot. Linn. Sp. PI.
775. Willd. n. 16. Ail. 11. 12. ( R. aconitit'ohus, folio
rotundo, ad radicem prx^Rolantc ; Loef. Prufl. 22J. t. 72.)
— Radical leaves roiindifli-hcartniaped, crciiatc, undivided ;
item-leaves in fevcral deep, lanceolate, toothed and ja^iJed
fegments. Stem niany-llowered Native of PrudiH and Si-
beria, flowering in May. Mellrs. Loddiges are faid to have
introduced it into England, in 1794. Though tlie cliaradler
of this approaches the latl, the two plants are very different.
The radical leaves of the prefent, though heart-lhaped, arc
almoft orbicular, their two lobes meeting each other ; their
margin fliarply crenate, but not at all divided ; their furface
minutely downy. Stem much branched ; fmooth below ;
downy above ; bearing feveral fingered, veiny, fmooth, feflile
leaves ; the lower ones largeil, many-lobed, and jagred ; the
upper with only three lanceolate, entire lobes. Flozuers ra-
ther fmall, deep yellow. Calyx hairy towards the bafe.
Fruit ovats. Seeds hairy, roundifh, (lightly compreded,
each with a ftrongly revolute beak.

22. R. auricomus. Wood Crowfoot, or Goldilocks.
Linn. Sp. PI. 775. Willd. n. 17. Ait. n. 13. Purfli
n. 9. Fl. Brit. n. 5. Engl. Bot. t. 624. Cui't. Lond.
fafc. 2. t. 41. Fl. Dan. t. 66^. Ger. Em. 954. (R.
prima fpecies fylveftris ; Fuchf. Hiil. 156. Dalecii. Hilt.
V. I. 1029.) — Radical leaves kidney-fhaped, deeply three-
cleft, crenate ; (lem-leaves divided to the bafe into linear
fegments. Stem many-flowered. Calyx coloured. — Native
of woods and fliady places, throughout Europe ; alfo in
Pennfylvania ; flowering in April and May. Root fibrous,
perennial. Herb of a pale pleafant green, and deftitute of
the acrimony ufual in this genus. Stems a foot high, ereft,
branched, fcarcely downy, except near the top. Leagues
generally a little downy ; the radical ones on long Italics,
deeply divided into three or five, wedge-lhaped, crenate, or
cut lobes ; the relt in many linear, entire, or partially cut,
fpreading divifions. Flowers terminal, ereft, folitary at
the top of each branch, of a bright golden hue. Calyx
pale yellow, hairy, fcarcely at all reflexed. Neflary a
naked pore in each petal, not clofed by any fcale. In cold
backward feafons the petals are fometimes wanting, or ra-
ther identified with the calyx, which is then dilated, and
more coloured than ufual.

23. R. abortivus. Small-flowered Virginian Crowfoot.
Linn. Sp. PI. 776. Willd. n. ig. Ait. n. 14. Purfli
n. 6. — Radical leaves heart-lhaped, undivided, crenate ;
lower ftem-leaves pedate ; upper in three deep linear feg-
ments. Calyx reflexed, coloured. Petals obfolete. — In
wet places, by the fides of ponds and ditches, from New
York to Carolina, flowering in July and Augull. Purjl:.
In ponds at Buenos Ayres. Commerjon. This fpecies ap-
pears to have been cultivated in Chelfea garden 100 years
ago, but it has, long fince, dilappeared, nor has any author
given a figure of the plant. Its habit is moit Yx^efcehratus,
n. 26. Root perennial, of many long fibres. Herb fmooth.
Stem from fix to eighteen inches high, branched, leafy. Ra-
dical leaves like thofe of a violet, not an inch long, crenate,
fmooth ; their Jlalis two inches, or more, in length : lower

Jlem-leaves ternate, iheir lateral leaflets deeply divided, all
cut or crenate : uppermoll ka-ves nearly feflile, in three deep,
lanceolate, entire divifions. Floiuers Imall ; yellow ac-
cording to Purfli, but Commerfon, in his MSS. calls them
flefli-coloured ; each Hands on a fimple folitary fl;alk, half
an inch or an inch long, either from the forks of the branches,
or at their fummits. The calyx is reflexed, large, membra-
nous-and coloured. We find fcarcely any certain traces of

petals, but the plant may be variable in thcfe parts, like au-
ricomus. Slamois few. Germen large, globofe. — Linnaeut
took liis fpecific charadter, caule fubirtfloro, from fpecimens
not fully grown ; yet he had an autlientic one by him, with
above thirty flowers. In Commerfon's the upper lea-uei are
more (talked than ufual.

24. R. nitidus. Varniflicd American Crowfoot. Walt.

Carol. 159. Lamarck n. 68. Purfli n. 7. " Vert

fmooth. Stems hollow. Radical leaves roundifli-kidncy-
fliaped, bluntly crenate ; item-leaves feflile, digitate ; their
leaflets cut, with blunt fegments. Seeds nearly globofe,
very fmootii." — In inundated grounds, from New York to
Carolina, flowering in .Inly and Augufl. - /foo/ perennial.
Flowers fmall. Petals white. This and the foregoing one
are probably only varieties. Purjh.

25. R.trilobus. Threc-lobcd Barbary Crowfoot. Del

font. Atlant. V. 1.437. t. 113. Willd. n. 19 Stemereft,

much branched. Leaves fmooth, deeply three-lobed, cut •
uppermofl: linear, obtnfe, undivided. Flower-flalks flriated.
Seeds comprefl'ed, tuberculated. — Gathered by Desfon-
taines, in nioift fields, near Mayanc, in Barbary. He de-
Icribes it as akin to R. parvtflorus, except in its upright
growth, and fmooth, deeply three-lobed leaves. The lowed
leaf of all is undivided and crenate. Flowers very fmall,
yellow, fituated as in the two laft. Seeds in a round head,
fmall, comprefl'ed, orbicular with a point, covered with tu-
bercles on both fides. To us this fpecies feems, by its feeds,
allied to parvulus of Linnaeus, which is a variety of h'trfutus,
hereafter defcribed.

26. R. fceleratus. Celery-leaved Water Crowfoot. Linn.
Sp. PI. 776. Willd. n. 20. Ait. n. ij. Purfli n. 8.
Fl. Brit. n. 6. Engl. Bot. t. 681. Curt. Lond. fafc. 2.
t. 42. Fl. Dan. t. 571. (R. palultrisrotundifolius ; Ger.
Em. 962.) — Stem ereft, much branched. Lower leaves
palmate, fmooth ; upper ones fingered. Fruit oblong.
Seeds very numerous, minute. — Found about ditches and
in watery places by road fides, in moft; parts of Europe and
North America, flowering in fummer. Root annual. Herb
various in fize and luxuriance, of a pale (hining green, juicy,
very fmooth, except occafional hairinefs on the flower-iialks.
Stem round, thick and hollow. Lower leaves larger, broader,
lefs divided, and more (talked, than the upper ; the floral
ones moftiy lanceolate, fimple, and entire. Flowers nu-
merous, fmall, yellow. Calyx deflexed, (haggy. Ne^ary
fomewhat tubular. Stamens few. Seeds very fmall, but
exceflively numerous, making a denfe, oblong, obtufely
rounded head. This is one of the moft acrid of its tribe,
raifing blilters and dangerous fores in the (kin.

27. R. aconitifollus. Aconite-leaved White Crowfoot.
Linn. Sp. PI. 776. Willd. n. 21. Ait. n. 16. Curt.
Mag. t. 204. (R. montanus quartus ; alfo R. pleno flore
albo ; Cluf. Hid. v. i. 236. R. aconiti folio; Ger. Em.
954. R. albus multiflorus ; ib. 957. R. albus, flore denfo ;
Bauh. Hift. V. 3. 844, not 860.) — Leaves veiny, fmooth, in
five deep, pointed, toothed lobes ; the middle one three-
cleft : floral leaves felTile, fingered, lanceolate, cut. Stem
branched, many-flowered. — Native of the alps of Switzer-
land, France, Aultria, &c.; a hardy and long-eftablilhed
perennial in our gardens, flowering in Mi)' and June ; gene-
rally in a double ftate, as figured by Curtis. He remarks
that it requires moidure, fliade, and a pure air. The Jlem
is one and a half or two feet high, partly purplifli, fmooth,
with fpreading branches. Leaves dark green, with a glau-
cous hue beneath ; the radical ones on long ftalks ; the
relt nearly felTile ; all compofed of more or lefs diftindlly fe-
parate, often ftalked, leaflets, ftrongly veined and coarfcly
toothed ; the uppermoll fmaller, more fimple, quite feflile.

Flewert

RANUNCULUS.

f lower: white, three-quarters of an inch in diameter, not
vecy ornamental in their iingle wild itjte, but much udmired
when double, and formerly called Fair Maids of France.
Their pearly whitcnefs is enhanced by the violet calyx.

28. R. platanifoitus. Plane-tree-leaved White Crowfoot.
Linn. Mant. 79. Willd.n.22. Ait. n. 17. Fl. Dan. t. 1 1 1.
(R. albus, flore fimplici ; Lob. Ic. 668. R. alpinus albus;
Ger. Em. 951.) — Leaves veiny, fmoolh, deeply palmate,
five-lobed, cut and toothed ; the middle ones three-cleft :
floral leaves fcflile, fingered, linear-awlfhaped, entire. Stem
branched, many flowered.— Native of the Alps of Germany,
Norway, Switzerland, Italy, and of the Pyrenees, in ftiady
places. Said to have been introduced into the Enghlii
gardens in 1769, by MefTrs. Kennedy and Lee. This is
very diftinft from the lad, with which Linnseus originally
confounded it. The leaves are larger, not divided quite to
the bafe, though their lobes are more cut and jagged : the
floral ones are remarkably long, flender, and entire. Flowers
twice as large, and rather more abundant. The radical
leaves of both have occafionally feven or nine lobes, inllead
of five.

29. R. fpicutus. Spike-fruited Crowfoot. Desfont.
Atlant. V. 1.438. t. 115. Willd. n. 23. — Leaves radical,
five-lobed, toothed. Stem nearly Ample, hairy. Fruit cy-
lindrical, thrice as long as the calyx. — Gathered by Dcsfon-
taines in marflies at Algiers. Root perennial, of numerous,
oblong, flefliy, tapering knobs. Stem folitary, ereft, a
fpan high, hairy, fimple, except at the top, where it divides
into two or three fimple fingle -flowered ftalks ; fometimes
accompanied by a few bradeas, in three or four deep linear
fegments ; fometimes naked. Leaves all radical, on hairy
fl;alks, heart- (hapcd, rounded, five-lobed, llrongly toothed,
villous, about an inch and a half broad. Calyx of five
ovate-oblong, coloured, hairy, fpreadiug leaves. Petals
five, obovate, yellow, the fize of R. acris. Fruit cylin-
drical, flender, an inch and a half or two inches long. Seeds
very numerous, ovate, comprefled, bordered each with a
hooked, prominent beak.

30. R. paludofus. Marfh Crowfoot. Poiret Voy. en
Barb. V. 2. 184. Lamarck n. 22. Desfont. Atlant. v. i.
439. — " Downy. Lower leaves in three deep, many-cleft,
fan-fhaped fegments ; upper fimple, linear, entire. Stem
branched, many- flowered. Calyx ereft." — Gathered by
Poiret, in the borders of cxteniive marfhes, near la Calle,
and in fome other parts of Barbary. Root fibrous,
denfely fafciculated. Herb downy, with (hort, clofe-pi-elled
hairs. Stems feveral, eight or ten inches high, with fpread-
ing leafy branches, bearing abundance of widely-fpreading,
deep-yellow _/?0TOfrj-, the fize of the foregoing, on flender
ftalks of various lengths. Radical leaves italked ; the
earliell ones ovate, undivided, deeply toothed ; the reil almoft
pinnate, with three long, narrow, deeply cut, fan-fliaped
fegments ; thofe on the lower part of the ftem lefs com-
pound : the uppermoft linear, undivided, acute, entire.
Fruit oval, or almoft elliptical, obtufe. Seeds oblong, fmooth,
comprcfted, fcarcely pointed.

31. K. illyricus. lUyrian Silky Crowfoot. Linn. Sp. PI.
776. Willd. n. 24. Ait. n. 18. Jacq. Auftr. t. 222.
Ger. Dod. Pempt. 428. Em. 953. (R. grumofa radice
quartus ; Cluf. Hift.v. i. 240.) — Leaves ftiaggy with filky
hairs, linear-lanceolate, ternate, entire. Calyx filky, re-
flexed. Stem branched. Flowcr-ftalks woolly. — Native
of Hungary, France, Italy, Auftria, Thrace, and of the
Swedifli ifle of Oeland ; cultivated here in Gerarde's time.
Clufius received his fpecimens, from a phyfician of Ferrara,
with the name of R, illyricus, which has been retained, ab-
juf dly enough, for » plant found in fo many different countries.

and for which fo many expreffive appellations might eafilj
have been contrived. The root is perennial, compofed of
numerous, fmall, round granulations. W hole herb more en
lefs clothed with fnow-white, filky, or partly cottony, down.
Stem a foot high, or more, fomewhat branched, bearing
feveral bright lemon-coloured _^</wc/-j, nearly the fize of R.
Lingua, their calyx-leaves ovate, reflexed, externally filky.
Leaves all linear-lanceolate, entire, feldom divided; the radical
ones on long ftalks, ternate or pinnate ; thofe about the middle
of the ftem ternate, almoft feflile ; upper ones fimple : the

ulual length of each leaf or leaflet is two or three inches

Dodonaeus takes this for the fecond Raifx^iot, or Ranunculus,
of Diofcorideb, with whofe delcription it in fome meafure
accords. That fpecies is faid to be extremely acrid. Hence
Dodonaeus, who is copied by Gerarde, fuppofes our plant
may be the Gelotophyllis of Pliny, which caufed thofe who
took it to dye laughing. But this opinion depends on too
many conjectures to deferve attention ; even if any benefit
could accrue from afcertaining the point. We muft obferve
however that Dr. Sibthorp thought the above Ranunculus
of Diofcorides to be our lanuginojus, which is a common
Greek plant, and anfwers better to his defcription.

32. K.Jlabellatus. Fan-leaved Crowfoot. Desfont.
Atlant. v. I. 438. t. 114. Willd. n. 25. Sm. Fl. Graec.
Sibth. t. 520, unpublifhed. (R. alter faxatifis, afphodeli
radice ; Column. Ecphr. 312. t. 313.) — Radical leaves un-
divided or twice ternate, toothed or deeply cut, ftalked ;
upper ones ternate or fimple. Stem hairy, fimple below,
few-flowered. Fruit elliptical. — Found by Desfontaines,
near Algiers, on moift uncultivated hills, flowering in
winter : by Sibthorp on the northern mountains of Greece.
Root perennial, of many oblong, tapering, cluftered fibres,
rather than knebs. Stem a Ipan high, hairy, fomewhat
divided above, and bearing two or three yeYio-w Jloivers, the
fize of our common R. bulbofus, accompanied by deeply
two or three-cleft bradeas. Leaves chiefly radical, on longifti
ftalks; feveral of the earlieft undivided, fan-ftiaped, ftrongly
toothed ; the reft deeply three-cleft, and fubdivided.

33. ^. ajiaticus. Perfian Crowfoot, or common Garden
Ranunculus. Linn. Sp. PI. 777. Willd. n. 26. Ait.
n. 19. Mill. let. 216. Sm. Fl. Grace. Sibth. t. 518,
luipubhflied. ( R. aiiaticus, grumofa radice ; Cluf. Hift.
v. 1. 240 — 243. Ranunculi varii ; Ger. Em. 958 — 960.
}lx,-f%x^i'-' ; Diofc. book 2. chap. 206.) — Leaves once or
twice ternate ; leaflets three -cleft, cut. Stem hairy,
branched. Petals thrice as long as the calyx. Fruit cylindri-
cal.— Found by Dr. Sibthorp wild in various parts of Afia
Minor, but moll plentifully in the ifle of Cyprus, where it
flill retains one of its ancient naines, mentioned by Diofco-
rides, «■) |.-io-a-f'Xivov, or Wild Parfley. In the gardens of Eu-
rope it has been cultivated, ever fince the latter part of the
fixteenth century, under the form of innumerable varieties,
chiefly double, of every vaiiegated hue. In a wild and
fingle ftate the large and fplendid^Wj are of a moft vivid
crimfon, occafionaUy varying to yellow. The root is pe-
rennial, of numerous, brown, flefliy, tapering knobs. Stem
twelve or fifteen inches high, ereft, round, downy, hoary,
leafy, branched from the middle or lower part, and bearing
from three to five large \ong-&d\^eA Jloiuers, whofe calyx is
brown, hairy, and reflexed, but one-third the length of the
broad, obovate, concave petals. Leaves rather hairy, moftly
ftalked, varioufly three-cleft and notched, more or lefs com-
pound ; the floral ones, as ufual, narrower and moft
fimple., Fruit cylindrical. Seeds oblong, with recurved
points.

34. K.japonicus. Japan Crowfoot or Ranttnculus.
Thunb. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 337. WiJld, n. 27. (R.

aiiaticus.;

RANUNCULUS.

afiaticus; Thuiib. Jap. 241.) — " Leaves deeply three-cleft,
cut and toothed, hairy as well as the ftem." — Common in
ditches about Nagalaki, Jedo, and elfewhere in Japan,
flowering from February to May. It is hairy in every part,
except the corolla. The radical Irn-ui-s arc rounded ; the
uppermoll divided into lanceolate fegments ; all thrce-clcft,
their fegments cut, toothed, acute, hairy on both fides.
Footjlalks from an inch to a foot in length. Stems ftriated,
fcarccly leafy, zigzag, branching into flowcr-Ralks at the
top. Thunberg. The above character and defcription are
not fuffieient to diilingui(h this fpecies from the laft, with
which Thunberg originally confounded it. Something is
necelTary to be known refpefting the calyx, and its relative
proportion to X.\\e petals, as well as the form of they)-;;// and
feeds.

35. R. rutiefolius. Rue -leaved Crowfoot. Linn. Sp.
PL 777. Willd. n. 28. Ait. n. 20. Jacq. Coll. v. i. 186.
t. 6, 7. Ailion. Pedem. v. 2.49. t. 67. f. i. (R. pnecox
rutaceo folio ; Cluf. Hill. v. i. 232. Ger. Em. 965. Ra-
noncolo alpino, con foglia di Coriandro ; Pon. Bald. 197.)
— Leaves pinnate, ternate, many-cleft, glaucous, fmooth ;
their fegments elliptic-oblong. Stem nearly fimple. Petals
numerous. Calyx fmooth. Seeds ovate, with llraight

points Native of the lofticft alps of Switzerland, Dau-

phiny, Auftria, and the north of Italy, flowering early in
July. The root is tuberous, with long, fimple, ilout fibres,
perenniaL Herb glaucous and fmooth. Stem from two to
five inches high, moltly fimple and finglc-flowered, fome-
times bearing two, rarely three, flowers, heaves (talked,
elegantly decompounded ; their leaflets wedge-fliaped, many-
cleft ; the ultimate fegments oblong, fliglitly elliptical,
bluntifli. Flowers of a briUiant white, at firft tinged witli
red, on long flialks. Calyx purplilh, five -leaved, fmooth.
Petals eight or ten, very erroneoufly reprefented in the
figure of Clufius and Gerarde, fo as to look like a fynge-
nefious flower. Seec/s few, large, ovate, pitted, pointed,
itraight, fpreading every way, llalked, in a round head.

36. R.glacialis. Alpine Hairy -cupped Crowfoot. Linn.
Sp. PI. 777. Fl. Lapp. ed. jg6. t. 3. £ I. Willd. n. 29.
Ait. n. 21. Fl. Dan. t. 19. ( R. montanus purpureus,
calyce villofo, Felicis Platerii ; Bauh. Hill. v. 3. b. 846.
Scheuchz. Alp. v. 1.399, ''■^^ '^i9' ^- ^°- ^- '•) — Leaves
ternate, three-cleft, cut ; their fegments elliptical. Stem
nearly fimple. Calyx very hairy. — Native of the higheft
alps of Lapland, Switzerland, Dauphiny, Germany, &c.
in the neighbourhood or ice and fnow, flowering ni June
and July. Root perennial, with very long llrong fibres.
Stem from three to fix inches high ; fimple and naked in its
lower part ; leafy near the top, bearing one or two, very
rarely three, Jlowers, on long, fmoath ftalks. Leaves
green, fcarcely hairy, rather flefhy ; the radical ones more
or lefs compound, on long llalks ; their fegments broader,
more elliptical, and blunter than in the former. Flowers
large and haudfome, of five broad, roundifh, vA\\\^ petals,
role-coloured or purple underneath ; the calyx purplifli-
brown, fingularly rough, with fliining tawny hairs. When
we contemplate the great diverfity of iubdivifion in the fo-
liage of this fpecies, we are difpofed to believe awv frigidus,
n. 18, may poffibly be a mere variety. Thnr Jloiuers pre-
cifely agree, as well as their general habit.

37. R. Segitieri. Sharp-leavcd Alpine Crowfoot. Villars
Dauph. v. 3. 737. t. 49. Willd. n. 30. ( R. Columna? ;
Ailion. Pedem. V. 2. 50. t. 67. f. 3, 4. Wulf. in Jacq.
Coll. v. 4. 345. R. alpinus apii folio, flore albo magno ;
Pont. Comp. 117. Seguier Veron. v. i.490.t. 12. f. 2,3.)
— Leaves ternate ; fegments wedge-fliaped, fubdivided, de-
current, acute. Stem br.inchcd, about three-flowered.

Calyx fmooth.— Native of mount Baldus, where it was firft
found by Pontedera ; as well as of the mountains of Dau-
phmy Piedmont, and Carniola ; in ftony fituations. This
relemblcs fome of the molt luxuriant varieties of xlacialis,
but difi-trs m the acute and dec.irrent fegments of its leaves.
as well as Its fmooth pale rfl/y.v ; for Villars is incorreft in
delcribing that part '< externally downy." It is quite
fmooth, in his own and Allioni's fpccimens; the hairliiefs
being confined to the top of the >wr^a//, where it is
very denfe and confpicuous ; while the fame part \n elacialis
IS fmooth, up to tile bafe of the hairy calyx. The petals
and even the neBary, are white. Villars is furely right in
removing the iynonym of Columiia, cited by AUioni, which
we refer, with hardly any fcruple, lo JlabelltUus, n. oz, a
very different plant.

38. R. nivalis. Palmate Alpine Crowfoot. Linn. Sp
y- 778- Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 195. t. 3. f. 2. Willd. n. 31.
(Lxcudmg the variety.) — Leaves palmate, five-lobed,
iprcading, entire ; thofe of the Item feflile. Stem finjrlc-
flowered, fmooth. Calyx hairy, half the length of tht
petals Ftiund by Linnaeus in Lapland, by the alpine ri-
vulets on the fnowy mountains of that countrj-. Martens
had previoufly gathered it at Spitzbergen. The root is
fibrous, and flender. Stem fimple, ereft or afcendin?
fmooth, leafy, about fix inches high. Radical leaves two
or three, on long (lender ftalks, hoart-fiiaped at the bafe,
rather deeply palmate, in five broad, divaricated, obovate]
entire lobes, veiny and quite fmooth : Jlem-leaves one or
two, fjlTile, with five deeper, longer, more lanceolate lobes ;
the uppermoft only tliree-lobed, or occafionally quite undi-
vided. Floiver folitary, on a long, terminal, hairy ftalk.
Calyx of five ovate yellowifh leaves, rough with blackifli
hairs. Petals yellow, obovate, twice the lengtli of the
calyx.

39. 'R.pygmnus. Dwarf Small-flowered Alpine Crow-
foot. Purlh n. 10. (R, nivahs pygmiEus ; Linn. Fl.
Lapp. ed. 2. 196. t. 3. f. 3. R. lapponicus ; Fl. Dan.
t. 144.)— Leaves palmate, fomewhat pedate, five-lobed,
fpreading entire ; the upper ones almoft fellile. Stem fin-
gle-flowered. Calyx nearly fmooth, rather longer than the
petals.— Native of Lapland and Labrador. Perennial,
flowering in May and June. Much fmallcr than the fore-
going. Middle lobe of the radical leaves very deeply fe-
parated. Stem- leaves lefs perfeftly feffile, and with nar-
rower fegments, than in nivalis. Floiver not a quarter the
fize of that fpecies; its petals yellow, roundifh, fcarcely fo
long as the calyx, which is hkewife fmall, and very (lightly
hairy.

40. R. montanus. Yellow Mountain Crowfoot. Willd-
n. 32. Ait. n. 22. (R. nivalis ; Jacq. Auftr. t. 325, 326.
Sibth. in Prodr. Fl. Grxc. n. 1272 ? Villars Dauph. v. 3.
742. Crantz Auftr. fafc. 2. 92. t. 4. f. 3, 4. R. n. 1 168 ;
Hall. Hift. V. 2. 71, excluding the references to Linnxus.
R. minimus alpinus luteus ; Bauh. Hift. v. 3. 845, two
upper figures.) — Leaves five-lobed, rounded, cut; thofe of
the ftem feffile, with deep, lanceolate, entire fegments.
Stem fingle-flowercd, rough with ere£t hairs. Calyx hairy,
— Very abundant on the alps of Switzerland, Dauphiny, and
Germany ; not of Lapland. It was one of thcfe many
alpine plants, introduced into the Englifti gardens in 177?,
by a perfon fent on purpofe to colleft them, at the expence
of Dr. Fothergill and Dr. Pitcairn. This fpecies has been
confounded with the Linnsean nivalis, by all writers previous
to Willdenow ; yet they are truly diftinft. The montanus
has remarkably long, fubdivided, tuberous roots, with very
long ftrong fibres. 5/c»; hairy throughout, the hairs ereft •
fometimcs quite leaflefs. Lobes of the radical leaves un

12

aquallf

RANUNCULUS.

equally cut and toothed, not entire. Calyx-leaves narrower,
and lei's hairy. Prf.j/j larger, and of a deeper yellow. This
is the nivalis of moil botaniils, few having feen the true
Linnxan Lapland plant. The variety of montanus with a
leaflefs /?i'm, figured in Jacquin's t. 326, at the right hand,
was taken for a new fpecies, and called acaulis, by Favrod
and Reynier, as appears by their dried fpecimens.

41. R. Goitatii. Gouan's Pyrcnean Crowfoot. Willd.
n. 33. (R. pyrenxus; Gouan lUuitr. 33. t. 17. f. i, 2.)

Leaves five-lobed, rounded, cut ; tiiofe of the ftera feflile,

deeply palmate ; the uppermoil with acute, entire lobes.
Stem fingle-flowered, rough with deflexed hairs. Calyx

hairy Gathered by Gouau on the Pyrenees, where it

flowers foon after the melting of the fnow. We lave a
fpecimen from the late M. Brouflbnet. This is a larger
plant than the preceding, efpecially in \\.%Jlou<er, and differs,
as Willdenow remarks, in having the Jiem-leaf tootiied or
cut ; but that character applies only to the lower one. The
upper fiem-leaves, if there be more than one, conliit of en-
tire, acute lobes. The mofl: decifive mark of diltinftion
appears to us in the hairs of the Jlem, below the leaves,
which in Gouan's plant are either widely extended or bent
downwards ; in the montanus the hairs of every part of the
film are ereft, or clofe-preiled. To this no perfon has
hitherto adverted.

42. R. alpcfiris. Alpine White Crowfoot. Linn. Sp.
PI. 778. WiUd. n. 34. Ait. n. 23. Sm. Tr. of Linn.
Soc. V. 10. 343. Engl. Bot. t. 2390. Jacq. Aullr. t. no.
(R. n. 1 167 ; Hall. Hiit. v. 2. 71. R. montani fpecies
prima et fecunda ; Cluf. Hift. v. i. 234. R. montanus,
flore minore, & majore ; Ger. Em. 964. R. minimus al-
pinus albus; Bauh. Hift. v. :;. 845, two lower figures.)

Leaves very fmooth ; radical ones fomewhat heart-fhaped,

obtufe, in three deep, lobed fegments ; item-leaf lanceolate,
entire. Stem moftly fingle-flowered. — Native of the highefi;
alps of Auftria and Switzerland, and of the mountain of
Clova, in Angusfliire, Scotland, in which laft place it was
difcovered by the late Mr. George Don, by the fides of
little rills, flowering, though fparingly, in the fpring of
1809. The roots are perennial, with long fibres. Whole
herb very fmooth, and rather glaucous. Stem ereft, from
one to four inches high, almoil always fimple and fingle-
flowered, naked, except one or two fimple, linear -lanceolate,
obtufe, entire leaves, apparently of the nature of hraSeas.
Radical leaves feveral, ilalked, m three deep, fubdivided,
acute lobes. Calyx-leaves oval, fmooth, edged with white.
Petals oi a pure and brilhant white. Haller fays this is one
of the mod acrid of its tribe, bliftering the fl-cin ; and yet the
alpine hunters chew it, by way of refrefliment.

43. R. lapponicus. Long-ftalked Lapland Crowfoot.
Linn. Sp. PI. 778. Fl. Lapp. ed. 2. 194. t. 3. f. 4. Lap-
land Tour, v. I. 156,252.) — Leaves fmooth, in three very
deep, dilated, blunty notched lobes. Flower-ftalks elon-
gated, naked, fingle-flowered. Petals the length of the
fmooth calyx. — This rare fpecies, not known out of the
limits of Lapland, was difcovered by Linnsus m two or three
different places, near the river Juchtan, flowering in June.
ProfefFor Swartz alfo gathered it, many years after, near
Liuloa. It grows in watery fituations, and is very differ-
ent from aU others of this genus. The afpeft of the plant,
at firft fight, recalls the idea oi yidoxa Mofchatellina. The
root is long, thread-fhaped, and creeping, throwing up here
and there, from its joints, a httle, (hort, fimple, folitary,
fmooth Jlem, fometimes an inch or two high, fonietimes
fcarcely diftinguifhable. Leaves one from the bafe, and
another from the top, of the ftem, on flender, weak foot-
fialks, two or three inches in length ; each leaf an inch or

an inch and half wide, fmooth, veiny, rather fteftiy, fome-
what kidney-fliaped, in three very deep, almoft diftindi,
broad wcdge-fliaped lobes, having a few broad and rounded,
b'unt notches, each tipped with a minute glandular point.
Flotuer-Jlalh from three to five or i'w inches high, termi-
nating the flem, foHtary, fimple, naked, fmooth, each bearing
a fmall yellow Jloiuer, fcarcely half an inch in diameter.
Calyx of three elliptical, concave, fmooth, pale, reflexed
leaves. Petals five or fix, obovate, ribbed, about the length
of the calyx ; their neftary clofed by a fcale. Stamens from
nine to twelve. P//?;// from fix to twelve. SeedsmzrouaA
head, ovate, fmooth, with ftrongly recurved points.

44. R. hyperboreus. Arftic Crowfoot. Retz. Scand.
ed. 2. 131. Willd. n. 36. " Rottb. in Copenh. Tranf.
V. 10. 458. t. 4. f. 16." (R. Fl. Dan. t. 331, excluding
the fynonym of Ammann, which belongs to falfugmofus,
n. 15. R. n. 50 ; Gmel. Sib. v. 4. 204. t. 83, b, ex-
cluding the Linnaean fynonyms. ) — Leaves fmooth, in three
deep divaricated lobes ; the lateral ones cloven. Stem
creeping. Flower-ilalks the length of the leaves. Petals
fcarcely longer than the fmooth calyx. — Native of Iceland,
Greenland, Norway, and Siberia, in watery places. Gmelin
and Linnaeus confounded this with hederaeeus hereafter
mentioned ; Gunner mittook it for falfuginofus, which he
called R. Ammanni, Fl. Norv. n. 826. From both, as well
as from lapponicus, it is very diftindt. The Jlems are long
and creeping, or floating, throwing out from each joint,
feveral fimple, very long, fibrous radicles, with a flalkcd
leaf, not a quarter the fize of lapponicus, whofe lobes are
by no means toothed or crenate, the lateral ones only
being fimply cloven. T\\s flowers are fmall, pale yellow,
folitary, each on a lateral, but not axillary, Jlalk, whofe
length is about equal to the adjoining leaf with its foot-
Italk. Calyx-leaves only three or four, fmooth, coloured.
Petals about the fame number, and fcarcely longer, obo-
vate. Seeds ovate, gibbous, with a hooked, but very ftiort,
beak.

45. R. monfpeliacus. Montpellier Crowfoot. Linn. Sp.
PL 778. Willd. B. 37. (R. faxatihs, magno flore;
Bauh. Prodr. 96. Sauv. Monfp. 181.) — " Leaves in three
deep crenate fegments. Stem fimple, villous, nearly naked,
fingle-flowered." — Native of rocky places about Montpel-
lier, according to Bauhin, who thus defcribes his plant.
" Root compofed of long capillary fibres. Leaves from the
root feveral ; on long, fomewhat woolly, flialk;, each leaf"
hardly fo broad as the nail, in three fmall fegments, which
are again divided into two or three acute ones. "Thcjlem
is about three inches high, flender, woolly, bearing one
large flower, of a brilliant golden yellow, compofed of five
petals, with many reddiihfamens." We know no authen-
tic fpecimen nor figure of this plant. Linnxus has marked
it as never feen by him ; but a fpecimen fent him by
Gouan, from the Pyrenees, marked R. alpinus hmnilis, magno

flore, which we have been difpofed therefore to confider as
R. Gouani, n. 41, anfwers very well to Bauhin's defcription,
and it is not impoffible that thefe fuppofed two fpecies arc-
one and the fame. Yet Poiret, who profefles to have ga-
thered R. monfpeliacus at Montpellier, and m Barbary,
fpeaks of them as diftinft, though, it muft be confeffed,
his defcription is hardly fufficient to eftablifh the point in
difpute.

46. R. penfylvanicus. Penfylvanian Crowfoot. Linn.
Suppl. 272. Willd. n. 38. Ait. n. 24. Purfti n. 11.
(R. canadenfis ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 105. Mifc. v. 2. 343.)
— Stem ereft, hairy, branched. Leaves ternate ; leaflets
ftalked, deeply three -cleft, jagged, toothed ; hairy beneath.
Calyx reflexed, rather longer than the round petals. Fruit

cylindrical.

RANUNCULUS.

cylindrical. Seeds comprcn'cd, with llraipjlit t)eal<.s. — Native
of low meadows, from Canada to Pciifylvania, but rare,
flowering in July and Aiij^ull. This fpecies was fent by
profelFor Thunbero;, in 1785, to Kew garden, from whence
we procured a fpecimcn the fame year. Mr. Aiton makes
it biennial ; Jacquin and Purfh perennial. The llem, like
xhi: footjldlks, is very hairy. Whole herb of a light green, two
f?et or more in height, branched, many-flowered. Leaflets
one and a half or two inches long, (trongly veined, with
foreading fegments. F/o-wer-fla/istcrminal, longifti, furrowed,
rough with clofe-prelicd hairs. Fiowers fmall, their little,
round, yeWow pet a/s not folong as the ca/yx, which is fmooth
and bent downward. See/is in a cylindrical head, numerous,
ovate, gibbous, comprefled, Imooth, very minutely dotted,
each tipped with a fhort, fliarp, creft, or (lightly inflexcd,
beak. Receptacle hairy. Mr. Purfli's defcription does not,
in every circumftance, anfwer to the Linn-.ean plant ; for
the floii'ers are not near fo big as R. acris, nor are their
Jlalks round.

47. R. ternattts. Ternate-leaved Japanefe Crowfoot.

Tluinb. Jap. 241. Wilid. n. 39 " Calyx rcflexed. Leaves

all ternate ; leaflets three-cleft. Stem many-flowered." —
Native of the Japanefe ifland of Nipon, flowering in May.
Nothing more is known of this fpecies, concerning whofc
peculiar charafters, or affinities, we can form no precife
opinion.

48. R. biternattts. Twice-tcrnate Magellanic Crowfoot. —
I^eaves imooth, twice ternate, cut ; fegments ovate, acute.
Stem creeping. Stalks fingle-flowcred, the length of the
leaves. Petals obovate, the length of the fmooth calyx. —
Gathered by Commerfon, in the ftraits of Magellan. No
author appears to have taken up this fpecies, of which
a fpecimen, from Commerfon's herbarium, was given by
Thouin to the younger Linnxus. The \v)\o\c plant is fmooth.
The leaves bear a confiderable rL-femblance to 'thofe of
R. Segiiieri, but are rather fmaller, and diftinftly twice ter-
nate. The habit of the plant more accords with lahpomcus
and hyperboreus, however unlike at iiril fight. The Jleni is
thread-fliaped and creeping, fending forth, from every joint,
a few fibrous radicles, a pair of upright, ilalked leaves, two
or three inches in height, and one Jlonver, wTiofe fimple,
naked j/?.j/i' is about as tall as the leaves. 'Y\i\% Jio'wer appears
to be extremely like that of lapponicus, though fcarcely
more than half fo large. The dried petals have the fame
opaque whitenefs as is obfervable in that fpecies, and others,
on their upper furface, and are probably yellow when frelh.

49. R. peduncular'ts. Long-llalked Magellanic Crowfoot.
— Leaves ternate, deeply cut, fomewhat hairy. Stems
hairy, taller than the leaves, two-flowered. Calyx reflexed,
nearly imooth. Seeds globofe, fmooth, with recurved,
hooked beaks. — Gathered by Commerfon in the ftraits of
Magellan, with the preceding. This has a general likenefs
to feveral common European kinds, which we (ball next
defcribe, but is eifentially dillindl. The radical leaves are
feveral, on hairy ftalks, four inches long, their circumfcrip-
tion roundini, meafuring an inch, or inch and half, acrofs ;
the leaflets almoft always quite diiUnft, with fhort partial
ftalks, their form wedge-like, or fan-fhaped, more or lefs
deeply cut, feldom regularly three-cleft. Stems feveral,
ereft, ftriated, rough, with fpreading hairs ; fimple and
naked to the height of four or fix inches, then dividing into
two upright, hairy, (\m-p\e Jlewer-flalis, greatly elongated,
(from one to feven or eight inches), after flowering, and
accompanied at their bafe by a folitai-y, ftalked, deeply
divided, palmate or fingered, leaf, an inch long. The
ftcwers 'are much like thofe of bulbofus, or acris. Calyx-
icaves ovate, concave, reflexed, bearing a few external hairs.

Vol. XXIX.

Petals yellow, wedge-fhapcd, ftriated, nearly twice as long
as the calyx, /"rw// globofe. feA globofe, tumid, keeled,
even and fmooth ; their beaks rather fpreading, hooked at
the tip.

JO. R. bulbofus. Bulbous Crowfoot, or Butter-cups.
Linn. Sp. PI. 778. Willd. n. 40. Ait. n. 25. Fl. Brit.
n. 7. Engl. Bot.t. 515. Purfli n. 12. Curt. Lond. fafc. 1.

t. 38. Mart. Ruft. t. 28. Ger. Em. 953. Lob. Ic. 666

Leaves hairy, ternate, three-cleft, cut. Stem many-flowered.
Calyx reflexed. Seeds comprcffed, fmooth. Root bulbous.
— Very common in Europe, as well as North America, in
meadows and paftures, flowering throughout the fummer.
The root is a round, folid, perennial bulb, about an inch in
diameter, increafing by offsets from the top, and fending
out from its bafe many long (lout fibres. Stems feveral,
ereft, a foot high, branched, leafy, round, hairy, many-
flowered, deftitute of trailing flioots or runners. Leaves
ftalked, varioufly cut, more or lefs hairy. Flonvers ter-
minal, folitary, on angular furrowed ftalks, rough with ereft,
briftly hairs. Calyx hairy, bent back to the llalk. Petals
nearly equal in fize to R. Lingua, of a deep fliining yellow.
Nectary covered by a notched fcale. Fruit globole. Seeds
orbicular, greatly compreffed, bordered, fmooth, and even,
tipped with a fhort blunt beak. — This is one of the moft
acrid, and even cauftic, fpecies. Villars fays the root may be
ufed as a blifter, inftead of cantharidcs, but not fo fafely.
It is moft aftive in the fpring, and muft not then be left on
the fliin more than four or fix hours, for fear of leaving a
dangerous fpreading fore.

51. R. hirfutus. Pale Hairy Crowfoot. Curt. Lond.
fafc. 2. t. 40. Fl. Brit. n. 8. Engl. Bot. t. 1504. Ait.
n. 26. (R. Philonotis ; Ehrh. Beitr. fafc. 2. 145. Herb.
116. Willd. n. 41. Lamarck Dift. n. 48. Purfli n. 13.
R. fardous ; Crantz Auftr. fafc. 2. 84. Lamarck Diet.
n. 47. R. pallidior ; Villars Dauph. v. 2. 751. R. bul-
bofus /S ; Hudf. Angl. 241. R. reftus foliis pallidio-
ribus, hirfutis ; Bauh. Hift. v. 3. p. 2. 417. R. fecundus :
Matth. Valgr. v. i. J59. R. paluftris, apii folio lanugi-
nofus; Bauh. Pin. 180. Morif. (eft. 4. t. 29. f. 27 and 28.)
— /5. R. parvulus ; Linn. Mant. 79. Fl. Brit. n. 11.
Willd. n. 50. Ait. n. 31. Lamarck Dift. n. 73. R.
agrarius ; jb. n. 46 ? R. minimus faxatilis hirfutus ; Bauh.
Prodr. 96. R. minimus apulus ; Column. Ecphr. 314.
t.316. f. I. — Leaves ternate, notched. Stem ereft, branched.
Calyx reflexed. Seeds orbicular, comprefled with a fhort
afcending beak, bordered ; tuberculated at the fides Na-
tive of nioift ground, in various parts of Europe, from
Britain to Greece, flowering from June to Oftober. The
root is fibrous and annual. Stem ereft, generally much
branched, leafy, fpreading, many-flowered, ftriated, clothed
with foft, widely fpreading hairs ; in variety ,S fmaller,
fmoothei: and weaker, fometimes, in a very ftarved ftate,
bearing but one or two flowers. Leaves on longifh, more
or lefs hairy, footflalks, pale green, hairy, ternate, varying
much in fize ; their leaflet? wedge-fhaped, fometimes deeply
threc-lobed, fometimes ©nly bluntly notched ; upper ones
narrower and more fimple, nearly feflile. Stipulas membra-
nous, hairy, fomewhat dilated, attached to the bafe of the
footftalks. Floivers on long, terminal, furrowed, hairy
ftalks, folitary, fmaller than iu bulbofus. Calyx h'airy, re-
flexed. Petals roundifh ; of a bright fliining yellow above ;
paler and opaque beneath. Ne3ary clofed by an abrupt
fcale. Fruk globofe. Seeds lenticular, compreffed, brown,
with a triple-ribbed greenifh border ; their beaks fhort,
afcending, very obfcurely hooked ; their fides ftudded
with minute (harp tubercles, efpecially towards the margin,
where they are often circularly arranged, as Poiret (or
3 H Lamarck)

RANUNCULUS.

Lamarck) defcribes fhem in his R. agrarias, cited above. —
Thii fpecies has been very little underllood. It is remark-
able that any botaniil (Tiould confound it vvitli bulbojis, or
with fceleratus, and that Mr. Curtis, in la-bouriiitj to diftin-
guiOi it, did not advert to the decifivc charaiter of the
tuberculated feeds, by which it approaches a very different
tribe, hereafter d/fcnbed, confilting of/'ariJ//?o/-KJ, muricatiis,
&c. Even Ehrliart has not noticed this circumllancc.
We ar.- obliged to Mr. Edward Forfter, P'.L.S. for tracing
out the identity of R. pm-vulus and hlrfutiis, and we cannot
but prefer Curtis's ongmal name for the fpecies, rather than
Ehrhart's pedantic one of later date. On the account of
priority fardoiis perhaps ought to have been retained ;
but this name is fonnded on a very dubious opinion, that
the plant of which we are fpeaking caufed the Sardonic
laugh. Valerius Cordus, indeed, fays it grows copioully
in Sardinia, and it has certandy the appearance of Sniallage,
Ap'tum ; fo far aid'wering to the ancient hilfory. But the
account of Cordus feems taken from Diofcorides, whofe
" fecond Ranunculus" is more probably the Linnxan lanu-
ghiofus, a flill more general plant of the fouth of Europe
than that of which we are fpeaking. After all, the famous
Sardinian herb, compared to Smallage, may be actually
wild Smallage or Celery, Ap'tum gmveokns, which is fuffi-
ciently ' acrid and poifonous to warrant our fuppofition,
though It becomes fweet and wholefome by culture. In
this uncertainty it is furely befl to call our plant R. hir-
futus.

52. R. palujlris. Oriental Marfli Crowfoot. Linn.
MSS. (R. orientalis paluftris, apii folio, caule fubhirfuto ;
Tourn. Cor. 20.) Leaves hairy, in three or five deep feg-
ments, bluntly notched, with rounded dilated finufes. Stem
ereft, branched, almolt leaflefs. Calyx fpreading. Seeds
ovate, comprefled, very fmooth, with a fhort recurved beak.

Native of the Levant. An oriental fpecimen, with Tour-

nefort's fynonym, is preferved in the Linnaean herbarium,
and named pnlujlrls, but we can find no mention of it elle-
■where. This is certainly a moft diftinft fpecies, though not
taken up by any recent -author. The root confifts of many
flefhy knobs, tapering into fibres, and refcmbling thofe of
R. qfaticiis, though not fo thick. Stem two feet or more
in height ; hairy below ; much branched, and almoft leaf-
lefs above ; the branches ternate. Leaves cliiefly radical,
on loniT hairy ftalks ; their outline fomewhat pentagonal ;
heart-fhaped at the bafe ; hairy on both fides, about two
inches wide ; their three principal lobes fpreading, deeply
feparated by wide rounded finuies, and notched unequally
at the extremity with broad, rounded, abrupt teeth ; the
upper or floral leaves are fmall, fhort, linear, \mdivided.
Flowers, as far as we can judge, yellow, not large. Calyx
hairy, fpreading widely, but fcarcely reflexed. Seeds in a
round head, brown, fhining, quite fmooth, compreiTed, mofl
like thofe of bulbofus, but more ovate, and with a longer,
more recurved, and fomewhat hooked, beak. Their edge
is green, fimple, not triple-ribbed as in the lall.

53. R. poljrhixos. Msny-rooted Siberian Crowfoot.
Willd. n. 42. Lamarck Dift. n. 38. — Radical leaves pal-
mate, with wedge-fhaped, three-toothed fegments ; ilem-
leaves feflile, fingered. Stems many-tlowered. R.oot fafcicu-
lated. Calyx fpreading. Seeds ovate, comprefTed, fmooth,
with a blunt beak — Native of Siberia. Root fafclculated,
perennial. Radical leaves like R. feeler atus, three-lobed ;
their lateral lobes two-lobed, wedge-fhaped like the leaf
itfelf, their fegments bluntly three-toothed. Stems a finger's
length, fimple, ereft or afcending, two or three from one
root. Stem-leaves lelhle, fingered, wedge-fhaped at the bafe ;
their fegments linear, bluntifh, entire. Floiuer-Jialkt two.

three, or four, long, fmgle-flowercd, round, not furrowed,
very finely downy like the item. Calyx-lcaves coloured,
fmooth, obtufe, fpreading. Petals yellow, tlie fize of R.
Fl'immula. Fruit roundifh. Seeds ovate, comprefTed, Imootli,
crowned with the ])ermanent h\\mtjligma. lyUldenotv. IJy
the above defcription tiiis fpecies appears related, in many
points, to the laft, though they can hardly be the fame.

54. R. repens. Common Creeping Crowfoot. Linn. Sp.
PI. 779. Willd. n. 43. Ait. n. 27. Purfh n. 14. FJ.
Brit. n. 9. Engl. Bot. t. 516. Curt. Lond. fal'c. 4. t. 38.
Mart. Hull. t. 29. (R; pratcnfis, etiamque hortenfis ; Ger.
Em. 951.) — Leaves ternate, three -cleft, cut, hairy. Stem:.
afcending. Runners creeping. Flowcr-flalks furrowed. Ca-
lyx hairy, fpreading. Seeds ovate, comprefled, even. — Very
common in meadows, waffe ground, church-yards, negkfted
gardens.and fields, throughout Europe. Mr. Purfli obferved
it in fhady wet woods, particularly on the mountains, from
Penfylvania to Virginia. It flowers from June to Aiigiifl,
and is perennial, being often a troublefomc weed. RorA
fibrous. Befides the upright Jlems, which are of humble
growth, leafy, branched, bearing feveral flowers, the root
fends forth long trailing creeping flioots, whofe joints pro-
duce leaves, and fome fliorter fimpler items. The wliole
herb is raugh and hairy, of a dark green. Leaves flalked,
ternate, more or lefs three-cleft, fharply cut or toothed ;
often marked with dark purple, or black, fometimes pale^
fpots ; the nppermoll linear-lanceolate and entire. Calyx
hairy, fpreading, not rcflexed. Petals deep yellow, generally
emarginate. NeHary covered by a heart-lliaped fcale. Fruit
globofe. Seeds ovate, comprefled, fmooth at the fides, often
hairy at the edge, their beak fhort and blunt.

55. R. projlratus. Proflrate Crowfoot. Lamarck Dift.
n. 35. Fl. Francoife, n. 3. 197. — Leaves ternate, three-
cleft, very hairy. Stems entirely proltrate, creeping, zig-
zag. Calyx fmooth. — Native of dry hilly places about
Paris, Lamarck and Poiret efleem this a diftintl fpecies
from the laft, not only becaufe its herbage is much fmaller
and more hairy, but becaufe the Jlems are, even when in
flower, entirely proflrate. We have never met with any
thing anfwering to this defcription in England. The Jlomers
are faid to refemble repens, having likewife a fmooth calyx.
Our repens has hairs on that part.

56. Q. intennedius. Intermediate Crowfoot. Lamarck
Diet. n. 44. — Lower leaves three-lobed, cut ; upper fome-
what fingered. Flower-flalks nioflly folitary. Calyx re-
flexed. Seeds comprefled, fmooth. Root fibrous". — Found
at the borders of ponds in France, about Paris and at Fon-
tainebleau. This plant, according to Poiret, is, as it were,
intermediate between bulbofus and repens, having, befides,
many charafters in common with projlratus. The root is
fibrous, fafciculated. Stems feveral, low, fcarcely branched,
almoft leaflefs except at the bottom, weak, ftriated, flightly
downy, often forked above. Radical leaves on long ftalks,
almoli fmooth, in three rounded, often cut, lobes ; the

Jlem-leaves have three linear or lanceolate irregular lobes ;
the uppermoft are very narrow, almofl fingered. Fla-wers
axillary, or terminal, two or three o\\ each branch, on very
long and flender, nearly fmooth, flalks. Calyx-leaves re-
flexed at the time of flowering, as in bulbofus, coloured, con-
cave, bearing foriie very fine long hairs. Petals of a fine
yellow, flriated, middle-fi zed. /"ru/V oval or globofe. Seeds
fmooth, comprefTed, roundifb, with a green border. We
know nothing of this fpecies but from the above defcription.

57. K. lucidus. Shining-leaved Crowfoot. Lamarck Dift.
n. 36. — Leaves with three or five lobes, fomewhat pinnatifid,
fhining, fmooth. Stem ereft, many-flowered. Calyx re-
flexed,— Suppofed to be a native of the Levant ; cultivated

in

RANUNCULUS.

Ill the botanic garden at Paris. Root perennial. Stems one
or two feet high, branched, leafy, very fmooth, tender,
ftriated. Leaves alternate, (talked, widely fpreaditig, fmooth,
fliining as if varnifhtd on their upper furfacc, <livided into
llirec or five diftant dilated lobes, the two lowermolt con-
trafted at their bafc, unequally cut, obtufe. Fooljlei/is long,
fomewhat downy, dilated at tiieir bafe into a broad mein-
brannus expanfion. Floivers numerous, fituated at the ends,
as well as in the forks, of the branches, on long, fimple,
cylindrical, rather downy Jlalhs. Calyx-leaves coloured,
fmooth, concave, reflexed after the (lower expands. Petals
rather large, roundidi, of a fine fhining yellow. This plant
has fome agreement with R. rcpcns, from vvhicli it difiers in
having entirely upright /?cwj and a reflexed cei]yx, as well as
fhorter more dilated lobes to the leaves. Such is Poiret's
account. This fnrely cannot be our ^,(/i7/?m, n. 52, which
has hairy leaves, and no refei.iblancc or affinity to repens ;
neither could the intelligent author have overlooked Tourne-
fort's fynonym for that plant.

58. R. pnlyanthemos. Many-flowered Crowfoot. Linn.
Sp. PI. 779. Fl. Suec. ed. 2. 196. Willd. n. 44. Ait.
n. 28. Lamarck n. 41. Lob. Ic. 666. (R. fylveflris
fecundus ; Dod. Pempt. 427. R. furreftis cauliculis ; Ger.
Em. 951, as to the figure. R. fylveflris; Tabcrn. Kreu-
terb. 107. Ic. 42. R. napellifolius ; Crantz fafc. 3. 90.
t. 4. f. 1, I?) — Leaves in five deep, repeatedly fubdivided
lobes ; fegments all linear. Stem ereA, many-flowered.
Flower-italks furrowed. Calyx fpreading. Seeds ovate,
bordered, compreffed, fmooth. — Native of moift, elevated,
rich meadows, in Upland, and elfewhcre in Svv'eden, but
rarely. Linmzus. In Germany, and perhaps in Switzerland,
on the authority of various writers. R»ot perennial. Stem
ercft, two or three feet high, branched, many-flowered ;
leafy, clothed with upright, or fomewhat fpreading, hairs.
Radical and lower Jlem-lcaves three inches wide, on long very

'hairy flalks, divided to the very bafe into three lobes, the
lateral lobes again divided almoft to the bafe, fo that the
leaf may truly be called, in the firft inftance, five-lobed ;
each lobe is deeply, more or lefs repeatedly, cut, into three-
cleft or alteraate, liiitar, bluntifh, entire, fingle-ribbed,
fpreading fegments, loofely hairy on both fides, paler be-
neath : the uppermoft leaves are nearly fefTile, in about
three deep, linear, entire divifions. Flower-Jlalh long, ter-
minal, angular or furrowed, rough with upright hairs.
Floiuers large, yellow, drooping, not doling, in wet wea-
ther, according to LinuKus. Calyx fpreading, pale, ex-
ternally hairy. Fruit globofe. Seeds ovate, fhort, com-
preffed, fmooth at the fides, bordered and roughidi at the
edges, tipped with a broad, fhort, recurved beak. We
have defcribed this from the authentic Linnxan fpccimen,
which feems diftinft from the following, and anfwers ex-
tremely well to the figure of Tabernzmontanus more efpe-
cially, nor does it ill accord with that of Dodonaeus, re-
printed in Gerarde's herbal. The laft-named author how-
ever certainly applies that figure to the common Englifh R.
acris, which he fays he found double. Hence fome doubt
may arife whether the true polyanthemos was ever cultivated
in England, as it feems to depend on Gerarde's authority
only for a place in Hort. Kew. We have never feen it
alive. Poflibly it may be found in a double ftate in fome
old garden. The above defcription of the leaves, and the
greater fize of the whole plant, will diflinguifh it from
acris. The calyx is hairy in both, notwithftanding Willde-
now's remark to the contrary.

59. R. acris. Upright Meadow Crowfoot. Linn. Sp.
PI. 779. Willd. n. 45. Ait. n. 29. Purfh n. 15. Fl. Brit,
n. 10. Engl. Bot. t. 652. Curt. Lend. fafc. I. t. 39.

Mart. Rud.t. 30. Woodv. Suppl. t. 246. Bulliard. t. 109.
Curt. Mag. t. 215. (R. hortenfis fecundus; Dud. Pcnipt.
426. R. prattnfis, furrcftis cauliculis ; Lob. Ic. 665. R.
luteus ; Trag. Hill. 94.) — Leaves in three deep, vved^e-
fhaped, many-cleft, jagged lobes ; the lateral ones deeply
divided. Stem ered, maiiy-flowLTed. Flower-flalks round.
Calyx fpreading. Seeds ovale, bordered, comprerted, fmooth.
— Native of meadows and paltuivs in all the more ncrtliL-rn
countries of Europe, very common in England, flowering
in June and July. The double-flowered variety is frequent
in gardens. I'he root is perennial, tuberous, with long
fimple fibres. Stem cred, two feet high, round, llriated,
rough with fpreading hairs below, and with clofe-preffed
ones above, branched, flightly leafy. Leaves hairy, far
Icfu divided than in the lafl, and with broader, wedge-fhaped,
by no means linear, fegments : the upper ones linear, either
deeply three-cleft, or fimple. Floiuer-Jlalhs round, not fur-
rowed. Calyx green, fpreading, hairy. Petals bright fliin-
ing yellow. Fruit globofe. Seeds much like the lafl.

A dwarf alpine variety was brought by Mr. Dawfon
Turner from wet rocks, near the fummit of Snowdon,
vvhofe _/?£■?« is but three or four inches high, and bears but
one or Xwojloivers. This wiien cultivated in a garden gra-
dually afi'umes tfie fize and liabit of the common kind.

60. R. Breyninus. Woolly-fruited Alpine Crowfoot.
Crantz Auttr. fafc. 2. 91. t. 4. f. 2. ( R. Breyiiifius, by
miflake ; Lamarck Did. n. 59. R. n. 1 1 70 ; Hall. Hift.
v. 2. 72.) — Leaves deeply three-lobed, cut and toothed,
very hairy beneath. Stems fpreading, fevi'-flowered. Calyx
fpreading. Seeds fmooth. Receptacle woolly. Native of
the Auftrian and Swifs Alps. Haller fays it 13 the fmalleft
of all the fpecies. 'YXv^Jlems are feveral, two or three inches
high, oblique, fimple or fomewhat branched, hairy, bear-
ing one or two Jlo-wers, which are of a varnifhed yellow.
Radical leaves numerous, lefs deeply divided than in acris,
very hairy beneath. Fruit globular. Seeds fmooth, hooked.
Receptacle woolly, which Crantz fays he had not obferved
in other fpecies, and by which we prefiime this is mofl effen-
tially diftinguifhed, particularly from the above alpine va-
riety of acris. We have not met with a fpecimen, nor was
Mr. Davall acquainted with the plant of Haller.

61. K. lappaceus. Bur Crowfoot. — Leaves tcrnate ; leaf-
lets flalked, three-lobed, Iharply cut, hairy. Stem ereft,
many-flowered. Calyx fpreading. Seeds ovate, keeled, re-
ticulated, with elongated, revolute-pointed beiks Native

of Port Jackfon, New South Wales ; communicated by
Dr. White. This has much of the habit of R. acris, but
is very dillincl. Thejiems are a foot, or more, in height,
branched, roundifii, rough with clofe-prelTed hairs. Radical
leaves numerous, on long hairy flalks, very hairy, about the
fize of acris or repens, but remarkable for the partial llalks,
fometimes an inch or two long, that fupport the leaflets,
efpecially the terminal one ; the leajlets are broad, wedge-
fliaped, more or lefs deeply three-lobed, coarfely and fharply
cut. The lower Jlem-leaves are narrower and lefs cut ; the
upper entire and lanceolate ; the uppermoft of all fimple
and linear. Flowers larger than in acris, white in the dried
fpecimen, but perhaps yellow when frefh, finely \-eined, on
long, hairy, angular, terminal flalks. Calyx fpreading,
clothed with long hairs. Nedary covered with a wedge-
fliaped fcale. Fruit globofe. Seeds ovate, turgid, keeled,
reticulated with veins, fmooth, each tipped with a prominent
angular beak, nearly its own length, whofe point is flrongly
recurved, and even revolute.

62. R. cappadocicus. Cappadocian Crowfoot. Willd.
n. 46. Lamarck Didl. n. 39. ;.R. orientalis dulcis, doro-
nici radice ; Tourn. Cor. 20. ) — " Calyx fpreading. Flower-

3 H 2 ftalk

RANUNCULUS.

italk round. Stem fimple or divided. Leaves heart-fliaped,
three-lobcd, toothed."— Native of Cappadocia. Root pe-
rennial, hard, the thicknels of a goofe-quill, and refembhng
the root of Doronicum. Radical leaves roundilh-heart-
(haped, with three very (hort lobes, all pointed, furnifhed
with a few coarfe teeth, and clothed on both fides with
fcattered clofe-prefTed hairs. 5/«n-/M/folitary, ftalked as
well as the radical ones ; and in the middle of the flower-
ftalk is a fmall, feffile, lanceolate, entire leaf. Stem a fpan
high, clothed with clofe-preffed hairs, either finiple, or
divided above the leaf, each ftalk fingle-flowered. Corolla
yeWow, lUe{izeo( R.folyanlljenwi. Fruit roundiih. Seeds
comprelled, hooked. IVilldcrwiv, from a dried Ipecimen.

63. R. lanuginofus. Broad-downy-leaved Crov/foot
Linn. Sp. PI. 779- Willd. n. 47. Ait. n. 30,

Purfli

Dan. t. 397. Sm. Fl. Graec. Sibtli. t. 519,
R. montanus fnbhirfntus latifolius ; Bauli.

(1

n. 16. Fl.

unpublifhed. ,_-

Prodr. 96. R. nemorofus hirlutus, foliis caryophyllatx ;
Loef. Prulf. 220. t. 71. R. magnus valde hirfutus, flore
luteo'; Bauh. Hill. v. 3. 417. R. n. 1172; HaU. HiR.
v. 2. 73. BaVx»°» '''v"'; Diofc. book 2. chap. 206.)--
Leaves heart -(haped, five-cleft, lobed, notched, filky. Stem
eredl, many-flowered, hairy. Flower-ltalks round. Calyx
fpreading. Seeds ovate, compreffed, with elongated, re-
volute-pointed beaks.— Native of Germany, France, Swit-
zerland, Carniola, Greece, and North America. Mr. Purfh
obferved it in old fields and meadows, from Penfylvama to
Carolina, flowering from June to Oftober. Dr. Sibthorp
found it in (hady watery fituations in the Pcloponnefus,
but molt plentifully in the north of Greece, and with great
reafon concluded it to be the fecond Ranunculus of Diof-
corides, with whofe defcription it fufficiently well agrees,
except being mild, rather tlian very acrid, in fenfible qua-
lities, if we may trult modern authors. Linnjeus dillin-
guiflies two varieties, between which we can difcover no dif-
ference, and Haller unites them. The opinion of this great
Swifs botanift however lofes fome of its weight, by the
doubt he expreifes whether this plant be diftindl from R. re-
fens, n. 54, to which it has indeed a flight general refem-
blance, though diff'ering totally in its upright /cm, deflitute
of runners ; its very foft filky leaves, by which this plant is
known at once from every other European Ranunculus ; and
the revolute taper points of its feeds, which nearly agree
with lappaceus in that refpeft ; but the feeds thcmfelves are
comprefled, and, as far as we can fee, deltitute of reticulated
veins. The root is perennial, with many long, ftout, cylin-
drical, fltlhy fibres, or perhaps flender knobs, intermixed
with capillary branched radicles. Stem 12 or 18 inches high,
branched, leafy, round, clothed with long, fpreading or
deflexed, hairs ; its bafe purplifli, as are alfo the long hairy
footjlalks of the radical leaves. Thefe and the lower Jlem-
leaves are tlu-ee inches wide, divided about half way down
inte five or feven broad, Iharply notched lobes, whofe dole
Cnufes have a pale fpot, with a purple ftain, adjoining to
their termination. The upper leaves are deeply fhree-cleft,
with ovate and toothed, or lanceolate and entire, lobes.
Flanuers yellow, much like thofe of acris. Calyx hairy,
fpreading. Fruit globofe. Seeds with awl-fliaped, ftrongly
revolute beaks, by which this fpecies is clearly dillinguifhable
from repens, polyanthemos, acris, if fuch a mark were necef-
fary, and by which it i'ornis a chain of affinity between
thofe fpecies and our lappaceus. It is fomewiiat rem.arkable
that R. lanuginofus has not been found in Britain, and Ihll
more fo, that any obfcnrity fliould envelope the botanical
hiftory of fo diftinft a fptcies.

64. K.fcriceus. Silkv Crowfoot. Lamarck Dift. n. 26.
—Leaves ternate, very lilky ; leaflets wedge-fliaped, deeply

jagged and toothed. Stem crc£t, many-
ilky. Calyx fpreading. Seeds

three-cleft,

flowered, fillcy. Calyx fpreading. OeeUs ovate, com-
pren"ed, with (hort ercft beaks. — Gathered in the ifle of
Bourbon by Commerfon, from whom we have fpecimens-
Root, as well as the general habit and fi/,e of the plant, like
the laft, but the whole herb is much more denfely clothed
with fliining filky hairs. The leaves are ternate, fome of
them almoil twice ternate ; their lobes deeply and repeatedly
cut, in a radiant manner, with Iharp teeth. Flowers like
the laft. Fruit ovate. Seeds with broad llraight beaks,
longer, and not fo much curved or hooked, as even thofe of
acris,

65. R. tomentofus. Shaggy Crowfoot. Lamarck Didl.
n. 70. Purfli n. 17. — Leaves downy, three-lobed or
notched ; the uppermoft oval, entire. Stem reclining,
lomewhat creeping, fliaggy, one or two-flowered. Calyx
hifpidj flightly reflexed.- Gathered in North Carolina, by
M. Bofc. A fmall, almoft creeping, very hairy plant, with
fibrous roots. Thejlenis are very low, and nearly prollrate,
afceiiding at their extremities, two or three inches long, ten-
der, covered with whitifli tufted hairs, difpofed in two rows.
Leaves llalked, thick, downy, generally with three lobes,
which are either dillinft or confluent ; fome leaves are merely
crenate and rounded. Footjlalhs long and hairy. The
uppermoft Jlem-leaf is feflile, oval, acute, entire. Flowers
one or two, on terminal, unequal, fimple_y?fl/^j-, clothed with
two rows of hairs. Calyx hifpid, a little reflexed. Petals
white or yellowilb, rounded at the end. Poiret. We have
feen no ipecimen, nor did Mr. Purfli meet with the plant
himfelf.

66. R. marylandicus. Maryland Crowfoot. Lamarck
Dift. n. 69. Purfli n. 18. Leaves ternate, three-lobed,
acute, cut, pale and nearly fmooth beneath. Stem fimple,
almoft naked, downy. Calyx fmooth, reflexed. Found
in fliady woods, from Penfylvania to Virginia, flowering
from May to July. Purfh. Root fibrous, perennial. Stems •
fimple, ereft, downy, flender, about ten inches high ; Poiret
by miftake, as we prelume, fays ten feet Leaves radical,
on long downy ftalks, ternate ; the tvv'o lateral ones oppo-
site, ftalked ; all with three confluent, lanceolate, acute, cut
lobes ; their upper furface green ; the under paler and
whitifli, almoft fmooth. There are no other Jlem -leaves than
what ftand almoft feflile, at the bafe of the flower-ftalks, and
either have three or five fliallow irregular lobes, or are
fimply cut. Flowers two or three, terminal, on ftiort,
fcarcely downy, ftalks. Calyx fmootli, reflexed. Petals
rather large, oval, rounded at the end, pale yellow. Poiret.

67. R. recurvatus. Recurved Crowfoot. Lamarck

Dift. n. 6§. Purfli n. 19 Leaves in three deep, acute,

cut, wedgL-fliaped lobes. Stem many-flowered. Calyx
and corolla reflexed. Petals nearly linear. Seeds com-
prefled, dotted, with revolute, awl-lTiaped beaks. — Native
of ftiady woods, from New York to Carolina, flowering
from June to Auguit. Purjh. We received fpecimens from
the Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg, of Lancafter, Penfylvania.
The root is perennial. Stems a fpan high, very hairy ;
branched and leafy at the upper part. Leaves two or three
inches wide, rather hairy, on very hairy ftalks ; their fide-
lobes for the moft part deeply cloven. Flowers ftalked,
fmall. Calyx pale-purpliih, ribbed, clothed with fine long
hairs. Petals fmall, narrow, almoft white. Fruit Grlobofe.
Seeds ovate, lenticular, minutely dotted, fmooth, with flender,
revolute-pointed beaks.

68. ¥^. feptentrionalis. Smooth North- American Crow-
foot. Lamarck Dift. n. 64. Purfli n. 20. — Leaves ter-
nate, membranous, fmooth, deeply lobed, acute, cut. Stem
two-flowered, hairy, like the bafe of the footftalks. C.lyx

01 reflexed.

RANUNCULUS.

reflexed. — Native of North America. Defcrihcd by Poi-
ret from Lamarck's herbarium, and adopted by Purlh.
Root perennial, fibrous, fafciculatcd. Stems nearly fmiple,
hollow, eight or ten inches higli,almoll leaflefs; downy in their
lower part. Leaves (talked, thin, fmootii, compofed of
three itaJked leaflets, the central one having three deep fpread-
ing lobes, the others often but two ; all (harp, cut and
toothed. There is ufually but onejlem-letif, which is nearly
feflile, ternate, with narrower fegments. Fontjlalks long,
(lender, moil hairy towards their bafe. Flo'wer-Jlalks two,
terminal, unequal, very (lender, (mooth, each bearing, about
half way up, one fraall hncar leaf. Calyx reflexed, coloured,
fmooth, except a few terminal hairs, deciduous. Petals
pale yellow, rounded. Fruit fmall, globular. Seeds nearly
orbicular, lenticular, with (liarp (traight beaks. Poiret.

6g. K. hifpidiis. Hifpid American Crowfoot. Michaux
Boreal-Amer. v. i. 321. Lamarck Dift. n. 27. Pur(h
n. 21. — Very hairy, ereft. Leaves ternate, (harply lobed.
Stems few-flowered ; leaflefs below. Calyx clofe-prefTcd.
Seeds obovate, with awl-fliaped, iuflexed beaks. - Found in
wet fields, and on the banks of ditches, from Virginia to
Carolina, flowering from June to A uguft. /? 00/ perennial.
Floiuers fmall, pale yellow. Purfi. A fpecimen fent by
Gronovius to Linnscus, as akin to his lanuginojhs, but dif-
tinft, anfwers very well to the charadters ot Michaux, and
we have taken from that fpecimen the above account of the

feeds. Thujioiuer is nearly as big as acris. Whole herbage;

efpecially the footjlalhs, veryiiairy.

70. R. p'lnnatus. Pinnated Lidian Crowfoot. Poiret in
Lam. Diet. n. 66. — " Downy. Leaves pinnated ; leaflets
lobed and cut. Braiiches fpreading. Seeds tuberculated." —
Gathered in India by Sonnerat. i'/frnxwith lax, fpreading,
downy, iiriated, leafy Iranches. Leaves alternate, (talked,
downy, of five or fcven oppofite leaflets, divided into irre-
gular, (harp, cut, almoft lanceolate, lobes. Floivers nu-
merous, on long, downy, fingle-flowered (talks. Caly.-: co-
loured, not reflexed. Petals yellowilh, of a middling fize.
Seeds orbicular, convex, moderately tuberculated on each
fide, and tipped with a fmall, thick, ftraightiih beak.
Poiret.

71. R. multijidus. Many-cleft Arabian Crewfoot. —
Forflc. jEg^ptArab. 102. Lamarck Diet. n.67. — "Leaves
many-cleft; tlie lovver ones pinnated. Stem many-flowered.
Calyx the length of the corolla. Seeds ovate, acute. —
Gathered by Forikall, in ditches near the town of Taes.
He defcribes the Jlem two feet high, ereft ; round in the
lower part ; (Iriated above ; hairy. Fruit o\a\. We have
no other authority, than the authors quoted, for this fpecies
or the lafl:.

72. R. pedatijidus. Radiatmg-leaved Crowfoot Leaves

deeply pedatifid, with linear, obtufe, divided or three -cleft,
radijtnig, entire ferments. Stem one or two-flowered.
Seeds ovate, hairy, with fmall recurved beaks. — Native of
Siberia. Four fpecimens from that country are in the Lin-
ns n herbarium, but the fpecies, though very dillinft, ap-
pears never to have been defcribed. Root perennial, of
many long, cylindrical, flelhy fibres, and crowned with nu-
merous capillary remains of old footltalks. Stem a fpan
high, ereft, round, (triated, leafy, fimple or divided,
clothed witii long, (oft, lax hairs. Radical leaves on long
hairy (l,ilks, deeply cut, in a pedate manner, into five,
feveii, or more, narrow, linear, obtufe, elegantly radiating
fegments, fome of which .ire deeply three-cleft, and their
lobes again cloven, others merely divided, and others undi-
vided ; all entire at the edires, and fomewhat hairy on both
fides, with long, lax, white hairs. The Jlem-leaves are
moftly feffile, lefs divided ; the uppermoll in three, rarely

more, deep, linear, fimple fegments, Flotvtrs apparently
yellow, the fize of R. acris. Calyx woolly at the bafe ; its
fegments partly dilated and coloured, all fhortcr than the
petals, and clofcly prcflcd to their under fide. Fruit ovate.
Seeds not very numerous, ovate, tumid, hairy, with (hort,
awl-lhaped, reflexed beaks.

73. R. chicrophyllos. Chervil Crowfoot. Linn. Sp. PI.
780. Willd. n. 48. Lamarck Dift. n. 32. ( R. tenui-
folius luteus, grumofa radice, foraftenfis feu italicus ; Bar-
rel. Ic. t. 581 ? bad.) — Leaves thrice compound, with
linear fegments. Stem filky, with few flowers. Calyx re-
flexed, hairy. Root with tapering fleihy fibres Native of

the fouth of Europe. The only certain fpecimen of this
plant, that has ever come under our obfervation, cxilts in
the Linnrean iierbarium. The root confiits of numerous,
long, flelhy, gradually tapering, downy fibres. Stem ereft,
about a fpan high, fleiuier, filky, (lightly leafy, branched,
bearing three or four flowers. Radical leaves fcveral,
(talked, repeatedly ternate, with numerous linear, or fome-
what lanceolate, entire fegments^ hairy beneath. Fooljlalis
an inch and half long, hairy ; dilated, membranous, and ribbed
at the bale. Stem-leaves few, much lefs compound, and
often nearly felTile. Flowers folitary, on long, terminal,
fimple, hairy, quadrangular (talks. Calyx (troiigly re-
flexed, coloured ; externally hairy. Petals yellow. Fruit
not fufiiciently advanced to be defcribed. At the back of this
fpecimen Linnseus has written Ranunculus lyhicus, pulfatiUtt
folio, T. Cor. ; but there is no fuch pafl'age in Touriiefort's
Corolla, nor any thing to which it can refer, except R. Icf-
bius, pulfatillit folio, fore parvo, a fpecies unknown to us.
A very different plant from the true R. charophyllos, was
given by the abbe Pourret to the younger Linnjeus, under
that name. It feems rather to \>e Jlabellalus, n. 32, a fpecies
allied, in many points, to what we are defcribing.

74. R. millefoliatus. Milfoil Crowfoot. Vahl. Symb.
V. 2. 63. t. 37. Desfont. Atlant. v. I. 441. t. 116.
Willd. n. 49. Lamarck Dift. n. 33. Sm. Fl. Grxc.
Sibth. t. 521, unpubliflied. (R. montanus leptophyllon,
afphodeli radice; Column. Ecphr. 312. t. 311.) — Leaves
thrice compound, with elliptic-linear fegments. Stem filky,
with few flowers. Calyx ereft, fomewhat hairy. Root
with ovate knobs. — Native of Italy, Greece, Syria, and
Barbary. The root, in Dr. Sibthorp's fpecimens, confifts
of many oval flefliy knobs, fcarcely half an inch long, inter-
mixed with fibres. Columna defcribes and delineates the
fibres as terminating the knobs ; a verj' material difference.
The Jlems, in the Greek and Italian fpecimens, are fimple
and fingle-flowered ; in the more luxuriant ones from Aleppo
and Tunis, fomewhat branched, bearing two or three flowers.
The Jlem-leaves are more numerous, as well as more com-
pound, than in the la(t. Floivers large. Calyx clofely
preffed to the corolla ; fometimes nearly fmooth. Fruit ob-
long. Seeds with fmall recurved beaks. We can fcarcely
doubt, notwithltanding the above-mentioned dive-fity re-
fpefting the root, that the fynonym of Columna belongs to
the preient, rather than the foregoing, fpecies.

75. R. ox\fpermus. Sharp-leeded Crowfoot. Willd.
n. 51. Lamarck Dift. n. 37. — " Radical leaves oblong,
obtufe, deeply and u:'.equally toothed ; ftem-leaves feflfile,
fingered, cut. Seeds awned." — Native of Siberia, near the
river Tereck. Root apparently annual. Radical leaves
(talked, ovate, obtufe, with unequal deep teeth ; ii.-.iry, like
their fnotjlalks, on both fides. Stem ered, branched, hairy,
a foot or more in height. Stem-leaves digitate ; the feg-
ments of the lower ones unequally pinnatifid ; of the upper
linear and entire. Calyx reflexed. Corolla yellow, the fize
of R. bulbofus. Fruit elliptical. Seeds rather comprcfled,

acute.

RANUNCULUS.

acute, with upright, awl-(hapcd, brillly points. IVill-

denow,

76. R. arvcnjis. Corn Crowfoot. Linn. Sp. PI. 780.
Willd. n. 52. Ait. n. 32, Fl. Brit. n. 12. Engl. Bot.
t. 135. Curt. Lond. fafc. 6. t. 36. Mart. Ruih t. 56.
Fl. Dan. t. 219. BuUiard. t. 117. Brugnon Mem. de
I'Acad. de Turin, v. 4. 108. t. 3. ( R. arvorum ; Ger.
Em. 951.) — Leaves ternate, three-cleft, with linear feg-
ments. Seeds prickly at each fide. Stem ereft.— Fre-
quent in corn-fields throughout Europe, flowering in the
middle of fummer. Root fibrous, annual. Stem one or two
feet high, much branched, many-flowered, leafy, nearly
fmooth. Leaves of a light green, (lightly hairy, ilalked,
once or twice ternate, as well as deeply three-cleft ; the ul-
timate fegments almoft; Imear, entire, or rarely notched.
Flowers fmall, lemon- coloured, fl;alked, lateral and terminal.
Calyx fpreading, liairy. Petals obovate, veined. Fruit de-
preifed. Seeds very large, compreiled, with erect, awl-
fhaped, hooked beaks ; their lides armed with numerous,
prominent, awl-fhaped prickles, largeft towards the margin.
From the obfervations of M. Brugnon, this appears to be
one of the moft virulent of its genus, efpecially when young,
caufuig fpeedy inflammation and gangrene in the tlomachs
of {heep and oxen ; who neverthcleis eat it with avidity.
Vinegar much diluted with waier, poured down their
throats, proved a quick and certain remedy. The expreded
juice of the plant, given to dogs, is no lefs fatal.

77. R. muricatus. Spreading Pnckly-feeded Crowfoot.
Linn. Sp. PI. 780. Willd. n. 53. Lamarck Dift. n. 75.
Ait. n. 33. Purfh n. 24. Sm. Fl. Grsec. Sibth. t. 522,
unpublifhed. ( R. creticus echinatus latifolius ; Alpin.
Exot. 263. t. 262. R. Apulei quibufdam ; Cluf. Hilt.
V. I. 233. R. parvMS echinatus; Ger. Em. 965. R. pa-
luftris echinatus ; Bauh. Hid. v. 3. 846. Feuill. Peruv.
58. t. 18. f. I.) — Leaves fimple, three-lobed, notched,
bluntifli, fmooth. Stipulas diltantly fringed. Seeds
prickly at each fide. Stem difFufe. — Native of watery
places in various parts of the fouth of Europe ; frequent in
Greece. It occurs alfo in North America, in old fields,
from Virginia to Carolina, flowering in June and July, ac-
cording to Mr. Purfh. The i-oot is annual, confifting of
numerous long fibres. Herb fmooth and fucculent, bright
green. Stems feveral, various in length, fpreading, and
moftly procumbent, leafy, round, ftiining ; purplifli in the
lower part. Leaves an inch and a half to three inches wide,
veiny, in three rather deep lobes, broadly and irregularly
notched. Footjlalks from one to four inches, or more, in
length, with a concave fheathing bafe, bordered with a
membranous _/?(/>;//«, whofe edges are regularly frirged with
diftant hairs. Flowers the fize of the lall, yellow, folitary,
en axillary ftalks, rather fhorter than the leaves. Calyx re-
flexed, nearly, or quite, fmooth. Petals obovate, almoft
twice as long as the calyx, at leafl; in the European fpeci-
mens, though they appear to be but of the fame length in
American ones. Fruit capitate. Seeds large, ovate, com-
prefled, with broad, a^vl-fliaped, angular, fomewhat re-
curved beaks ; their fides covered with fmaller, more uni-
form prickles, than in R. arvenjis. Cemmerfon gathered,
by the fea-fliore at Monte Video, a variety of this with
more luxuriant herbage, and fmaller flowers, of which Ven-
tenat makes a fpecies of the name of ventricojus, founding its
charadler on the inflated bafes of the footjlalks, of which,
however, we can lee nothing, in our original fpecimens from
Thouin's herbarium, lli Jlipulas are fringed precifely as in
our European muricatus, to which we agree with Poiret in
referring it, though we can fcarcely do the fantie by the fol-
Jowing;.

78. R. echinatus. Dwarf Prickly-feedcd Crowfoot.
Venten. Jard. de Cels t. 73. Purfh n. 2J. (R. murica-
tus y; Lamarck DiA. n. 75.) — Leaves fimple, three-
lobed, notched, fmooth. Stipulas bearded at the fummit.

Seeds prickly at each fide. Stem ered, branched Found

by M. Bofc, near Charleflown, South Carolina. This
fcems to difl'er from the lall, in its fimple, fhort, upright

Jlem ; but more efpecially, if Veiitcnat's plate and defcrip-
tioii be corredt, which we cannot doubt, in having each

Jlipula crowned with a tuft of hairs, iiillead of being dif-
tantly fringed throughout. The petals are faid to be larger
than thofe of the American variety, at leafl, of muricatus ;
but that circumftance is -of fmall moment here, as to a fpe-
cific diftinftion.

79. R. parvijlorus. Small-flowered Crowfoot. Linn.
Sp. PI. 780. Willd. n. 54. Ait. n. 34. Fl. Brit. n. 13.
Engl. Bot. t. 120. (R. hirfutus aniiuus, flore minimo ;
Raii Syn. 248. t. 12. f. i. Phik. Phyt. t. ^^. f. i.) —
Leaves fimple, three-lobed, notched, hairy. Seeds covered,
at each fide, with hooked prickles ; their beaks recurved.
Stem diffufe. — Native of the more temperate parts of
Europe. Found on banks, and in wafle as well as culti-
vated ground, in England, where the foil is gravelly ; as
alfo in Greece, flowering in the earlv part of fummer. The
root is annual. Stems proftrate. Whole herb hairy, fmaller
in every part than R. muricatus. Flower-Jlalks oppofite to
the leaves. Petals pale yellow, fcarcely longer than the
fpreading calyx, fugacious, and often imperfeft. Fruit
capitate. Seeds ovate, with a broad, fhort, hooked beak,
their flat brown fides denfely covered with fhort, hooked
prickles. R. trilobus, Desfont. Atlant. v. i. 437. t. 113.
Lamarck Diet. n. 77, feems a variety, not of this, but of
our hirfutus, n. 51.

80. R. orientalis. Spinous Oriental Crowfoot. Linn.
Sp. PI. 781. Willd. n. 5y. Lamarck Dift. n. 71. (R.
lefbius, pulfatillae foho, flore magno ; Tourn. Cor. 20.} —
Leaves deeply laciniated, acute ; all ftalked. Stem branched.
Calyx reflexed. Fruit cylindrical. Seeds dotted ; their
beaks recurved and fpinous. — Native of the Levant. Root
annual. Stem various in luxuriance, filky, leafy ; in the
Linnasan fpecimen much branched and divaricated, with
many flowers. Leaves ftalked, compofed in general of
three deeply laciniated, often pinnatifid, acute, hairy leaf-
lets. Flowers large, pale yellow, on long, ftout, fimple,
lateral or terminal, folitary, fpreading ftalks. Calyx rather
fpreading than decidedly reflexed, nearly fmooth. Fruit
three quarters of an inch long, (lightly elliptical, obtufe.
Seeds in many rows, comprelTed, minutely dotted at each
fide, gibbous at the bafe, each terminating in a very broad,
rather fhort, comprefTed, recurved, fpinous-pointed beak.
We know of no figure of this or the following.

81. R. grandijloriu . Large-flowered Oriental Crow-
foot. Linn. Sp. PI. 781. Willd. n. 56. Lamarck Did.
n. 63. (R. orientalis, aconiti folio, flore luteo niaximo ;
Tourn. Cor. 20.) — " Stem ereft, two-leaved. Leaves
many.cleft ; thofe of the ftem alternate, fefiile." — Ga-
thered by Tournefort in the Levant. We have feen no
fpecimen. Willdenow marks this as a perennial fpecies,
and indicates his having feen it in a dried ilate. We regret
that he did not fubjoin a defcription of the plant, the Lin-
naean fpecific charafter being very infufficient. What
Poiret has given is evidently com.piled from the fhort ma-
terials furnifhed by Linnaeus and Tournefort. The Abbe
Seftini is faid to have gathered R. grandiflorus near Conl\an-
tinople ; on whofe authority it finds a place in Prodr. Fl.
Grxc. v. I. 385.

82. R. faUatui. Sickle-feeded Crowfoot, Linn. Sp.

PL

RANUNCULUS.

PL 7S1. Willd. n. 57. Ait. n. 35. Jacq. Aiiftr. t. 48.
(Mclampyrum luteum ; Ger. Em. 90. Lob. Ic. 37.) —
Loas-es linear-wcdge-diapcd, in three deep many-clefl lobes.
Seeds with fickle-fhapcd beaks. Stalks radical, fiiiglc-
flowered. — Native of corn-fields in the fouth of Europe,
and the Levant; cultivated by Miller at Chelfea in 1739.
A fmall annual, flowering in the early part of funimer.
Root thread- (haped, with a few fibres. Stem none. Leaves
feveral, pale green, downy, about two inches long ; their
legments narrow and entire. Stalks fimple, downy, taller
than the leaves, each bearing a Imall yellow flniuer, whofe
calyx is ereft. Fruit large, ovate, or nearly cylindrical,
befet on all fides with the long, prominent, afcending,
incurved, compreffed, downy, fpinous-pointed beaks of the
feeds.

S3. R. polyphylliis. Many-leaved Water Crowfoot.
«< Waldtt. et Kitaibel Hung." Willd. n. 58.—'' Leaves
under water oblong, ftalked, capillary ; floating ones wedge-
fhaped, threc-lobed ; thofe above the water elliptical. Stem
ereft." — Native of the waters of Hungary. Annual. Stem
nine inches high, ereft ; branched in the upper part. Leaves
that are under water verv numerous, entirely covering that
part of the ftem, oblong, the length of the nail, each
fupported by a capillary footjlalk an inch long : the float-
ing leaves fmall, wedge-ihaped, three-lobed, entire, as long
as the former, their footjlalks thicker and (horter. Branches
an inch long, ereft, riling above the water, and bearing
elliptical obtufe leaves, tapering each way, from four to
fix lines long, on fliort footjlalhs. Flotuers extremely fmall,
yellow. IVilldeneiv.

84. R. hedcraceus. Ivy Crowfoot. Linn. Sp. PI. 781.
Willd. n. 59. Ait. n. 36. Fl. Brit. n. 14. Engl. Bot.
t. 2003. Curt. Lond. fafc. 4. t. 39. Fl. Dan. t. 321.
Dalech. Hift. 103 l. (R. hederaceus rivulorum fe exten-
dens, atra macula notatus ; Bauh. Hifl:. v. 3. 774.) — Leaves
fmooth, roundifli, kidney-lTiaped, with three or five entire
lobes. Stem creeping. Stamens from five to ten. Seeds
corrugated. — Native of watery places, on a fandy or gra-
velly foil, in England, Germany, France, &c. flowering
from May to Auguft. Roots fibrous, perennial. Steitis
either creeping or floating, proftratc, branched, round,
fmooth, and fucculent. Lmvcs ftalked, fmooth, and
(hining, nearly uniform ; often blacklfli in the diflc. Flowers
very fmall, on fimple, axillary or lateral, ftalks. Petals
linear-oblong, rather exceeding the c.ilyx in length, white,
with yellow claws. Stamens fcarcely ever more than ten.
Fruit globofe. Seeds ovate, incurved, fomewhat comprefled,
with a very fmall inflexed beak, and numerous, lateral, cor-
rugated or reticulated veins.

85. R. nquatilis. White Floating Crowfoot. Linn.
Sp. PI. 781. Willd. n. 60. Ait. n. 37. Fl. Brit. n. 15.
Engl. Bot. t. loi. Ger. Em. 829. — Leaves capillary un-
der water ; above fomewhat peltate. Stamens numerous.
Seeds corrugated. — Native of pools, ditches, and rivers,
throughout Europe, mantling the furface with its copious
white bloffoms, in the early part of fummer. The roots
are long, fibrous, and perennial. Stems floating under
water, long, round, branched, leafy. Leaves ftalked,
fmooth ; the uppermoft floating, ulually peltate, with va-
rious blunt notches ; the next deeply three-lobed, or even
ternate ; the lowermoft immerfed, repeatedly three-cleft,
with innumerable capillary fegmerts. Floivers floating on
long fimple ftalks, oppofite to the leaves. Petals obovate,
much longer than the calyx, white, with yellow claws.
Nedary tubular. Stamens thirty or more. Fruit like the
laft, but the feeds more numerous, and generally briftly,
fomewhat obovate.

Varieties, as we deem them, of this fpccics are, ift, thai
whofe leaves are all immerfed, and entirely capillary,
figured in Ger. Em. 827. f. 3 : 2dly, ihc circinalus of Sibth.
Oxon. 175, figured in Pluk. Phyt. t. 55. f. 2, whofe
leaves are all likewife in capillary divifiont, but finer and
fmaller than the former : 3dly, ihc Jluviatilis of Willdenow,
n. 61, peucedanoides of Uesfont. Atlant. v. i. 444, figured
:n Fl. Dan. t. 376, whofe leaves are not only in capillary
fegments, but confiderably elongated, by the influence, as
we conceive, of the running water, in which this fort is
always found. The feeds indeed are not briftly, in our
fpecimens of this laft variety, but naked, as in hederaceus,
which fpecics agrees with every variety of aquatilis, in the
corrugations of the feeds, as above defcribed.

We have thus added twenty-four fpecics to Willdenow's
number, following his arrangement, for the prcfcnt at leall ;
not only for the convenience of our readers, but becaufe
it would be very difficult to make a pcrfeft one on any
known principles ; the feveral fpecics being allied by lo
many charadters, and fo diflimilar in others, that nothing
could be more precarious than to feek the clue of nature
through fuch a labyrinth. The feeds perhaps ought to
form the balls of a fpecific arrangement, if they might not
even lead to generic diilinflions.

No fmall curiofity in the hiftory of this genus is the
R. alatus, of Poiret in Lamarck's Dift. n. 72, which, by
his defcription, proves to be no other than Gymnoflyles pte-
rojpenna of .luiTieu. (See GyM>loSTYLEv.i The pumilus of
Poiret, n. 82, appears to us a variety oi aquatilis, growing
in (hallow, and perhaps fluduating, waters ; whence,
though its /eaves are all deeply eut, their fegments are
not quite capilUary, but linear and obtufe. We have Swifs
fpecimens aniwering to this author's defcription.

Ranunculus, in Gardening, contdiins phnts o{ the hardy,
herbaceous, perennial kind, of which the fpecies cultivated
are, the Perfian crowfoot, or garden ranunculus, (R. afiali-
cus) ; the aconite-leaved crowfoot (R. aconitifolius) ; the
upright meadow crowfoot (R. acris) ; the creeping crow-
foot (R. repens); and the embracing-leaved crowfoot
(R. amplexicaulis). But there are other fpecies that may
be cultivated for variety.

Of the firft fpecies tiie varieties are exceedingly numer-
ous, being fometimes divided into two clafl'es, as the old
Turkey kinds, and the Perfian kinds, the varieties of the
latter amounting to many liuiidreds, and being confiderably
more various, rich, and beautiful in colour than thofe of the
others.

But in the former of thefe forts they rife with a ftrong
generally unbranching ftalk a foot high, terminated by one
large double flower, fometimes emitting one or two (mailer
ones from its fides, and of which there are red-flowered,
fcarlet-flowered, yellow-flowered, and fcarlet turban-flower-
ed, &c. ; but being feldom tinged with different colours, as
in the Perfian kinds.

And in the latter kind the plants rife eight or nine inches
high, generally branching from the bottom, producing
from five or ten to twenty or more flowers on each root,
and of which there are fingle-flowered, femi- double-flowered,
full-double-flowered, large and full like a double role, being
generally filled with petals to the very centre, forming a
regular globular body, of admirable elegance, of all forts
of the moit beautiful colours in different varieties, and of
numerous degrees of deeper and lighter (hades, ftripes, and
tinges in the feveral colours. Indeed Martyn obferves,
that the varieties produced of late years from the feeds of
femi-double flowers are unbounded ; and that Mr. Mad-
dock remarks that they are more numerous than of any
8 other

RANUNCULUS.

other flower. Accordingly hii catalogue, he fays, boafts
nearly eight hundred, all with their proper names : ranged
under the heads of — dark and dark purple ; light pur-
ple and grey, &c. ; crimfon, &c.; reds, &c. ; rofy, &c. ;
orange, &c. ; yellow and yellow fpotted, &c. ; white
and white fpotted, &c. ; olive, &c. ; purple and cofFee-
ilriped, &c. ; red and yellow-ilriped ; red >ind white
ftriped.

And according to -the above flower gardener a fine ra-
nunculus (liould have a ftrung rt.raight ftein from eight to
twelve inches high. The flower {hould be of an hemi-
fpherical form, at Icaft two inches in diameter, confifl;ing of
numerous petals gradually diminifliing in fize to the centre,
lying over each other, fo as neither to be too clofe nor too
much feparated, but having more of a perpendicular than
horizontal direction, in order to difplay the colours with
better effedl. The petals (liould be broad, with entire
well-rounded edges ; their colours dark, clear, rich or bril-
liant, either of one colour or varioufiy diverfified, on an
afh, white, fulphur or fire-coloured ground, or elfe regu-
larly ftriped, tpotted or mottled, in an elegant manner.

In the fecond fpecies there is a variety with double
flowers, whicli has been obtained by feeds, and is preferved
in many curious gardens for the beauty of its flowers. It
is by fome gardeners called the Fair Maid of France. The
root is perennial, and compofed of many ilrong fibres : the
leaves are divided into fine lanceolate lobes : the four fide-
lobes are upon footltalks coming from the fide of the principal
ilalk, and the middle one terminates it ; they are deeply fer-
rate, and have feveral longitudinal veins. The ft;alks rife a foot
and half high, and branch out at the top into three or four
divifions, at each of which there is one leaf, of the fame
fhape with the lower, but fmaller. The flowers are pnre
white, and very double, each (landing upon a (hort foot-
ftalk. The.flowers come forth in May.

In the third fort there is alfo a variety with double
flowers, which is the fort mod generally cultivated in the
garden. It is frequently among other herbaceous peren-
nials, under the name of Yellow Bachelor's Buttons.

And in the fourth fpecies there is a variety with double
flowers, which is the fort cultivated in the gardens for its or-
namental effects.

Method of Culture. — The firfl; fort and different varieties may
be readily increafed by the off-fets taken from the root, and
new varieties may be raifed from feed. In the firft of thefe
methods the ofF-fets fhould be feparated from the roots
in dry weather, in the latter end of fummer, when the
flowering is over, and the ftems and leaves are declining,
being placed in bags or boxes, in a dry place, till the au-
tumn, when they (hould be planted out in rows fix or
eight inches apart, and fix of them to each, in feparate
beds, prepared with light fandy earthy comport, to the
depth of two or three feet ; taking care to protect them
carefully from the frolt during the winter. When the
buds begin to break through the ground they (hould be
kept perfeftly clear from weeds, protefting them from
frolts ; and when they have flowered and the ftems are de-
c.iyed, the root fhould be taken up ; cleared from dirt, and
placed in bags or boxes till the autumn, when they mufl; be
planted again.

But in the fecond mode, the feed fliould be coUeftcd from
the beft plants of the femi-double kinds, and be fown in flat
pans or boxes, filled with light rich earth, in Auguft, cover-
ing it in about a quarter of an inch thick with the fame fort of
earth, placing them in a fliady fituation, fo as to have a lit-
tle of the morning fun. The pots (hould remain here till
the beginning of OAober, when the plants fometimes appear,

though it is often later before this happens, when they (hould
have a more open expofure with the full fun ; but when
froft is apprehended, they fliould be removed under a com-
mon hot-bed frame, being only covered in the nights and bad
weather with the glafles, guarding them well againll rains
and froil. In the fpring loUowing they (liould be expofed
to the open air, being very flightly refre[hed with water,
having a fituation to enjoy the morning fun ; and when their
leaves and items begin to decay, the roots may be taken up,
dried in a proper place, and then put up in bags to be
planted out in the fame manner a; the old roots in Oc-
tober.

In the following fummer they will produce flowers ; when
fuch as are good (hould be marked, and the others removed
from them. The plants intended to flower (hould not be fuf-
feredto run to feed, as roots which have produced feeds feldom
furnifh fine flowers afterwards. The difappointments expe-
rienced in purchafing thefe roots, chiefly depend upon this
circumltance.

It may be noticed that the roots intended for the borders
(hould be planted towards the fpring in little clumps or
patciies, three, four, or five roots in each, putting them in
either with a dibble or trowel, about two inches deep, and
three or four afi'.nder in each patch, and the patches from
about three to five or ten feet diftance, placing them in a
varied manner in the borders.

And in regard to their general culture after planting,
fuch of the forward autumnal-planted roots of the choice
forts in beds as have (hot above ground, (hould in winter,
where convenient, have occafional (helter from hard frofts,
by mats fupportcd on low hoop arches ; or in very fevere
weather be covered clofe with dry long litter, removing all
covering in open weather : and in the fpring, when the
flower-buds begin firft to advance, (helter them in frofty
nights with fupported mats, fuflering them, however, to
be open to the full air every day ; but the latter plantings,
that do not come up in winter, or very early in fpring,
wliilll frofty nights prevail, will not require any protection,
and all thofe diilributed in patches about the borders muft
alfo take their chance in all weathers : thofe of the different
feafons of planting will fucceed one another in flowering
from the beginning of April until the middle of June,
though the May blow generally (hews to the greateft per-
fection. After the blow is part, and the leaves and ftalks
withered, the roots (hould be taken up and dried in the
(hade, then cleared from all off-fets and adhering mould,
putting them up in bags or boxes till next planting feafon,
when they muft be planted again, as directed above.

But in each feafon of planting, it is highly necelTary, in
the principal fine varieties, to put them either in entire new
beds, or the old ones refrefhed with fome fre(h rich earth or
compoft, working the old and new well together, in order
to invigorate the growth of the plants.

All the other fpecies are capable of being eafily raifed by
the roots, which (hould be flipped or parted in autumn when
paft flowering, or in the fpring before they begin to (hoot,
and the flips be either planted at once, where they are to re-
main, or in nurfery-rows for a feafon, then planted out
finally. They fucceed in any common foil and fituation, and
may be difperfed about the different flower-borders and
clumps, where they conftantly remain, only trimming them
occafionally ; and once in a year or two, or when they have
increafed into large bunches, taking them up in autumn or
fpring, to divide them for further increafe, replanting them
again directly.

In faving feed for raifing new varieties, it muft be fuf-
fered to continue on the plant till it becomes brown and

dry.

RAP

dry, then be cut off, with the heads, and fpread upon paper,
in a dry room, expofcd to the fun, and when quite dry, be
put into a bag, and luing in a dry place till it is wanted.

All thefe plants arc hijrhly ornamental ; the iirll i'ort in
beds and pots, and the other i}i the borders, clumps, and
cither parts of pleafure-grounds.

Ranunculus, Globe, in Botany. See Hei.luboue.
Ranunculus l^iiidis, in Zoology, the name of an ani-
mal common in many parts of the world, and uiually known
by the name of the tree-frog, or rana arborea.

The creature is eaiily diftingnithed from the common
frog, by its being much fmaller, and of a green colour. It
ufually fits upon the leaves of trees and (hrnbs, and makes a
great noife in an evening ; but that is rather like the finging
of a fmall bird than the croaking of a frog.

Thefe creatures have been kept alive many years together
in glafs veliels, gi-ving them flies and other fmall infefts : and
in winter, when thefe arc fcarce, they ufually become very
lean and feeble ; but in fummer, when they are plentiful,
^ they will grow fat again, as if at their liberty. This is
elleemed a poifonous creature. Ray. See Rana.

RANZ des Viiches, a celebrated air among the Swifs,
played upon the bagpipe by the young cow-keepers on
the mountains. The air will be found on our mnfic-plates.
In the article Music, the powerful effects of this tune are
mentioned, from Roufleau's Diet, de Muilque.

RAOLCONDA, in Geography, the fcite of a diamond-
■ mine in Hindooftan, placed in Mr. Montrefor's map about
15 geographical miles to the weft of Ralicotte, and 12
from the north bank of the Kiftnah, but Mr. Rennell
does not know what authority he has for this pofition.
Tavernier, who vifited Raolconda, gives its diftance from
Golconda at i 7 gos, of 4 French leagues each. He eroded
a river that formed the common boundary of Golconda and
Vifiapour, about four gos, or more, before he came to
Raolconda"; and this river can be no other than the Bee-
mah, which to this day forms the eattern boundary of Vi-
fiapour, and pafl'es-about 80 or 82 miles to the weft of Gol-
conda, croffing the road from it to Ralicotte. If we reckon
the 82 miles at 13 gos, that is, forming a fcale from the dif-
tance between Golconda and the river Beemah, each gos will
be 6.3 geographical mdes in horizontal diftance (or nearer
three than four French leagues) ; and Raolconda will be
placed about 25 geographical mile; on the W. of the
Beemah, or 1 1 E. of Rahcotte.

RAON l'Etape, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Vofges, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrift of St.'Die, on the Meurte ; 7 miles N. of St. Die.
The place contains 2528, and the canton 5300 inhabitants,
on a territory of 70 kihometres, in 5 communes.

RAOUDA, or RouDDA, denoting ^^rfA-j.'j,, an ifland of
Egypt, in the Nile, in front of Old Cairo, about 500 yards
in breadth, where is built the Mehkias, fignifyuig meaiure,
or Nilometer, a pillar, by the gradations on which the rife of
the Nile is meafured. v

This ifland is called Roudd, or gardens, becaufe it is laid
out in gardens, and inhabited only by gardeners.

RAOUTTY, a town of Hindooftan, in Malwa ; 20 miles
N.N.E. of Tandla.

RAPA, in Botany, (an ancient name, of whofe etymo-
logy no plaufiblc account has come to our knowledge.) the
Turnip. See Brassica, fpecies 7.

PvAPAAPO, in Geography, a town of America, in New
Jerley ; 30 mil"s S. of Woodbury.

RAPACIOUS Animals, in the general, are fuch as live
upon prey.

Vol. XXIX.

RAP

Naturalifts divide birds into rapacioiu, carnivorous, and
frugivorous.

Thecharaacriftic notes of rapacious birds, whicfi arc the
Accipitres of Linna:us, are, that they have a great liead,
and a fhort neck ; hooked, ftrong, and fliarp-pointed beak
and talons, fitted for tearing of (leni ; lliong and brawny
thighs, for itnking down their prey ; a broad thick flefhy
tongue, like that of man ; twelve feathers in their train ;
and twenty-four flag-feathers in each wing, and the two
appendices, or blind guts, are always very fliort.

Rapacious birds have a membranous ftomach ; and not
a mulcnlous one, or a gizzard, fuch as birds have which live
on grain.

They are verj' lliarp-fighted, and gather not in flocks ;
but, gL-nerally fpeaking, are folitary ; though vultures will
fly fifty or fixty in a company.

RAPAKIVI, in Mineralogy, a name given to the ag-
gregate of felfpar and mica : its colour is brown, or
brownifh-red ; it moulders by expofure to the air, but that is
only when the mica is in excefs. When the felfpar exceeds,
it forms a durable ftone, called in Italy " Granitone.'*-
Kirwan.

RAPALLO, in Geography, a town of the I>igurian re-
public, Ikuated on a bay to which it gives name ; 12 miles
E.S.E. of Genoa.

R A PANE A, in Botany, according to De Theis, its
vernacular name in Guiana ; though Aublet fays nothing to
that efPea — Aubl. Guian. v. i. 121. JufT. 288. La-
marck Illuilr. t. 122. — Clafs and order, Pentandria Mono-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Berberidcs, or rather perhaps Rhamni,
or Sapotie ; Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, minute, of one leaf,
with five or fix teeth, permanent. Cor. of one petal ; tube
very fhort ; hmb in five or fix deep roundifh fegm.ents. Slam.
Filaments five or fix, inferted into the tube at the bafc of
each lobe of the limb ; anthers oblong, quadrangular, of
two cells. Pifl. Germcn fuperior, roundifh, of five or fix
cells ; ftyle very fhort ; ftigma obtufe. Peric. Drupa glo-
bular, of one cell. Seed folitai-)-, globofe.

Eff. Ch. Corolla in five or fix deep fcgments, oppofjte
to the ftameiis. Anthers quadrangular. Drupa fuperior.
Seed folitary, globofe.

I. R. guianetifis. Aubl. Guian. t. 46. '(Samara flori-
bunda; Willd. Sp. PI. v.' I. 665.) — Native of thickets, in
the fkirts of meadows, in Cayenne and Guiana, bearing
flowers and fruit in December. A fmall tree, whofe trunk
is five or fix feet high, and four or five inches thick, crowned
with branches ; the wood white, not very compaft. Leav::
alternate, on fhort ftalks, obovate, bluntifh, entire, fmooth,
two or three inches long, with one rib, and many tranfverfe
veins fcarcely vifible when frefh. Flowers copious, fmall,
white, in denfe lateral tufts. Fndt violet-coloured.— Mr.
Brown, in his Prodromus Nov. HoU. v. i. 53 3, fpeaks of
this fhrub as belonging to the genus Myr'^ine, fee that arti-
cle ; confequently Juflieu was moll correct in hinting its
affinity to his Sapots, an order from which Ventenat and
Brown have feparated their more recent one of MvRSiNEiE,
to which we refer the reader.

RAPATEA. apparently a vernacular name of the plant
in Guiana, Aubl. Guian. v. i. 305. t. 118. Juff. 44.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 226. SccMnasium.

RAPAX, in Ichthyology, a name given by Schoneveldt
to the corvus pi/cis ot fome writers, a fpecies of chub or
cyprinus, called rappc by the Germans, and by Gefner and
otfiers captto fhiviatilis rapax.

RAPE, Raptus, in Latv, a ra-vijhing; or the having

carnal knowledge of a woman by force, and againft her

3 I will.

RAP

will. If the woman conct-ived, the law formerly cllecmed
it no rape ; from an opinion, that fhe cannot conceive, unlefs
(he confented. But this opinion has been fmce quedioned.
Coke on Litt. lib. ii. cap. li.

This crime, by the Jcwifli law, Deut. xxii. 2J. was pu-
nifhed with death, in cafe the dami'el was betrothed to an-
other man ; and in cafe fl»c was not betrothed, then a heavy
fine of fifty (hekels was to be paid to the damfel's father, and
flie was to be the wife of the raviflier all the days of his life ;
without that power of divorce, which was in general per-
mitted by the Mofaic law.

The civil law (cod. 9. tit. 13.) punirties the crime of ra-
vifhment with death and confifcation of goods ; including
JLnder this crime both the offence of forcible abdiidtioii, and
alfo that of forcibly didionouring ; either of which, witlunit
the other, is in that law fufiicient to conftitute a capital crime.
And the ftealing away a woman from her parents or guar-
dians, and debauching her, is equally penal by the emperor's
edid, whether ihe confent, or is forced.

Rape was punifhed by the Saxon laws, particularly thofe
of king Athenian, with deatli ; which was alfo agreeable to
the old Gothic or Scandinavian conititution. Inilead of
this, another punilhment was inltituted by William the
Conqueror, viz. caftration and lofs of eyes, which conti-
nued till after Brafton wrote in the reign of Henry III.
But it was then the law, and (liU continues in appeals of
rape, that the woman fhould immediately after go to the
next town, and there make difcovery to fome credible per-
fons of the injury {he has fuffered ; and afterwards fliould
acquaint the high conftable of the hundred, the coroners
and the (heriff, with the outrage ; the time of limitation for
this purpofe was by ftat. Weftm. I. cap. 13. extended to
forty days. But tihere is now no time fixed ; for as it is
now ufually punifhed by indiftment at the fuit of the king,
the maxim of law takes place, nullum tempus occurrit regi :
however, the jury will rarely give credit to a flale complaint.
During the former period it was alfo held for law, that the
woman (by confent of the judge and her parents) might re-
deem the offender from the execution of his fentence, by ac-*
cepting him for her hufband, if he alfo was willing to agree
to the exchange, but not otlierwife.

In the 3 Edw. I. by the flat. Weflm. i. cap. 13. thepu.-
nifhment of rape was much mitigated : the offence being re-
duced to a trefpafs ; if not profecuted by the woman within
forty days ; and fubjefting the offender only to two years
imprifonment, and a fine at the king's will. But in the
13 Edw. 1. it was found neceffai-y to make the offence of
rape felony, by ftat. Wellm. 2. cap. 34. And by iSEliz.
cap. 7. it was made felony without benefit of clergy ; as is
alfo the abominable wickedncfs of carnally knowing or
abufing any woman-child, under the age of ten years ; in
which cafe the confent or non-confent is immaterial, as, by
reafon of her tender years, flieis incapable of judgment and
difcretion. Sir Matthew Hale is indeed of opinion, that
fuch profligate aftions committed on an infant under the age
of twelve years, the age of female difcretion by the com-
mon law, either with or without confent, amount to rape
and felony, as well fince, as before the flatute of queen
Elizabeth ; but the law has in general been held only to ex-
tend to infants under ten. A male infant, under the age of
fourteen years, is prefumed by law incapable of committing
a rape ; and, therefore, cannot be found guilty of it.

The civil law feems to iuppofe a proftitute incapable of
any injuries of this kind ; not allowing any punifhment for
violating the chaflity of her who hath indeed no challity at
all, or at Icall hath no regard to it. But the law of Eng-
land holds it to be felony to force even a concubine or harlot ;

11 A P

becaufe the woman may liave forfaken that unlawful courfe
of hfe.

As to the material faAs requifite to be given in evidence
and proved upon an indidtment of rape, we (liall here only
obferve, tliat the party raviflied may give evidence upon
oath, and is in law a competent witiiefs ; but the credibility
of lier teilimony mull be left to the jury, upon the circum-
itances of fa£t that concur in tliat tciUmony : e. gr. if the
witnefs be of good fame ; if fhe prefently difcovered tlie
offence and made fearch for the offender ; if the party ac-
cufed fled for it : tliefe and the like are concurring circum-
ftances, which give greater probability to her evidence. But,
on the other fide, if fhe be of evil fame, and Hands unfup-
ported by others ; if fhe concealed the injury for any con-
liderable time after ihe had opportunity to complain ; if the
place, where tlie faft was alleged to be committed, was
where it was poffible (he might have been heard, and (he
made no outcry ; thefe and the like circumllanccs carry a
ilrong, but not conclufive, prefnmptioB, that her teilimony
is falfe or feigned. Moreover, if the rape be charged to be
committed on an infant under twelve years of age, fhe may
Hill be a competent witnefs, if fhe hath fenfe and under-
ftanding to know the nature and obligation ot an oath ;
and, even if fhe hath not, it is thought by fir Matthew-
Hale that file ought to be heard, without oath, to give the
court information ; though that alone will not be fufiicient
to convict the offender. And, indeed, it is now fettled, that
infants of any age are to be heard ; and if they have any
idea of an oath, to be alfo fworn : it being found by ex-
perience, that infants of very tender years often give the
clearefl and truefl teflimony. Blackit. Com. book iv.

The civilians make another kind of rape, ciiWeAfuboniatlo,
rape of fuboniatkn, or fedudion ; which is, when a pcrfon
feduces or entices a maid to uncleannefs, or even marriage,
and that by gentle means ; provided there be a confiderable
difparity in age or condition between the parties. In this
cafe, the father and mother intend their aftion reciprocally
for the crimen raptus, or fubornatlonis .

The French laws make no difference between the rape of
violence and that of folicitation, or fubornation ; they make
both capital. This kind of rape our laws call Ravi/hment ;
which fee.

Rape of the Forejl, is a trefpafs committed in the foreft
by violence.

This is mentioned in the laws of Henry I. as one of the
crimes cognizable alone by the king.

Rape is alfo a name given to the wood or ilalks of the
clufters of grapes, when dried, and freed from the fruit.

The rape is ufed in making vinegar, fervitig to heat and
four the wine : but it is firft put into a place to four itfclf,
before it be call into the vinegar vefTel ; to- which end, pre-
fently after the vintage, it is carefully put up in barrels,
left it take air, otherwife it would heat itfelf and be Ipoiled.
There is no other way of keeping rape hitherto difcovxred,
but to fill the velll'l, in which it is contained, with wine or
vinegar.

Rape, Rapa, is alfo ufed for a part or divifion of a
county ; fignifying as much as a hundred.

Though fometimes rape is taken for a divifion containing
feveral hundreds. Thus Suflex is divided into fix rapes,
nnz. thofe of Chichefter, Arundel, Bramber, Lewes, Peven-
fey, and Haftings : every one of which, befides its hundreds,
has a caftle, a river, and forell belonging to it.

The like parts in other counties are called lithwgs, lathes,
or '■wapentakes.

Rape, in Botany. See Napus.

KavF; Broom. (See Orobanciie.) It frequenfly grows
1 to

RAP

to the roots of geiiifta or broom, wlicncc it is called rapum
genijld:, or broom rape : it is alfo found among corn. The
herb prclcrvcd, or its lyrup, is faid to be of excellent life
in Iplenetic or hypochondriac diforders, and an ointment
prepared of it with (wine's fat, is good for hard and fcirrhous
tumours.

Rape, IVllJ. See Mu.stard.

Rape, in Gardtning, the common name of a plant of the
cabbage kind. The variety called the French turnip, or
BraJJlca ntipus, has been long cultivated upon the continent,
and preferred to the common turnip as a culinary vegetable.
And it has been lately noticed in the " Traiifaiilions of the
Horticultural Society," that it has been brought to tlie
principal London markets for more than twelve years pad
by one perfon only, and fold chiefly to foreigners, thougli,
when once fully known, it will be found a very uleful and
acceptable root in molt families, as being more delicate in
its flavour than the common turnip. It is ufed in much the
fame manner. It enriches foups, and there is not any necef-
fity for cutting away the outer flcin or rind, but only to
fcrape it, as it is a great deal thumer than that of the turnip.
When lleived with gravy it forms an excellent dilh, and
being white and fliaped like the carrot, when laid alternately
with thofe on a dilh, they become very ornamental. The
French drefs them fomewhat in this manner.

The roots are to be walhed quite clean by means of a brulh ;
then fcraped, cutting a thin fliee away from the top and
bottom parts, fo as to make them all of equal lengths :
after which boil them in water, with a httle fait, until they
are tender; then put them into a flew pan, with a gill of
veal gravy, two fpoonsful of lemon pickle, one of mufliroom
ketchup, a little mace, and fait, letting them jull fimmer,
but by no means boil, for a quarter of an hour ; afterwards
thicken the gravy with flour and butter, ferving the whole
up quite hot. Some add a few fpoonfuls of cream mixed
with yolk of egg to this, juft before difhing up ; and others
drefsthem in a limilar mannerto theabove, diced ratherthinly,
with Madeira, or other wines, after they have been fried to
a brownifh colour. See Bras.sica.

Rape, in Agriculture, the name of a plant much cultivated
for its feed, and alfo as a green food for cattle and (hcep.
The methods of culture and management that are necelfary
m raifing crops of this fort, have been already defcribed and
explained. (See Cole.) It may, however, be here necef-
fary to detail a few of the experiments that were made
under the direftion of the Dublin Society, by Mr. Whyn
Baker, about the years 1769 and 1770, as they tend to
throw additional light on the nature of the plant, as well as
its cultivation, though the foil was not the moll fuitable for
it." It was a fliallow foil, of a itrong adhefive nature when
wet, and when perfeftly dry, in lumps, almolt impregnable ;
but between wet and dry, reducible. It lies upon a bed ot
linie-ftonc quarry, and has a natural declivity to the north-
well ; naturally very poor, and, he believes, never received
any manure until he drefled it. Three acres of this land were,
in 1768, under potatoes, in the ordinary method of the
country, in feven-feet beds, and four-feet trenches. In
1769 they were under drilled turnips.

The froft, fnow, hail, and rain which they had this year

in the months of March and April, rendered it impoffiblc

fo get the grouud in any tolerable condition for the rape-

f^^ed before the 28th day of April. On that day twenty

Rows.

ton
N"" I. Single row produced . . . - i

2. Double row ditto .... 1

3. Single row ditto .... 1
J.. Doi'.ble row ditto . . . - i

R A V

broad fets were fown, with twelve ounces of rape-feed to
each fet or ridge. He intended to have fown it earlier, but
the event wdl fliew, that, as it was, he fowed it too early,
at lead upon this ground.

It was (low in coming up, and made but a poor figure
until July. After which it (hot forward ; but inftead of
aflbrding a plentiful mowing crop for the purpofe of fod-
dering cattle, it foon began to run up very fall, broke out
into branches, with few and fmall leaves, like rape in
blodom from the autumn fowing, but with (Irong branches
and few leaves ; and, in a fhort time after, began to groiv
hard, pipey, and the feed to form.

It September he began to mow it far cattle, and they ate
it with great cagernefs, but every day it became worfe, by
growing harder ; infomuch, that before it was exhaufted there
was very great walle, as to the object of (odder, but it won.
derfuUy raifed the dung.hill, which, in his mind, is of the firlt
moment to the farmer ; for if he has manure in plenty, and
difpofes of it judicioufly, there is hardly any thing he need
to fear, except climate.

It was pretty far in Oftober before all his rape was cut,
(and the feed coming forward very fall,) although it was
brought home in great profufion. It was fo ftrong, that
the mowing of it could not be accomplilhed with a common
fcythe ; it would have broken an hundred ; but he had by
him a Ihort ftrong fcythe, with a thick back, intended to
mow budkes and other rubbifli ; with this inftrument he
got it mowed, but not fo clofe to the ground as lie wilhed,
it being next to impoflible to mow fuch ftrong plants as
thefe were clofe to the ground ; and he became the lefs foli.
citous about it, as from the ftrength of the rape ftumps and
roots, and the weeds which were upon the ground, owing
to the rape Ihooting up in tall ftems, he gave up his inten-
tion of fowing the ground with wheat, as was originally
intended. Hence he concludes, tlwt the rape was fown
much too early.

On the 1 6th of July he tranfplanted fome of this rape in
rows upon ridges (our feet wide ; thefe plants flouri(hed
much better than the former, and were at leaft four times
the fize of any of thofe left in the ground where they were
fown. Neverthelefs, thefe alfo ran to feed ; but the cold
nights coming on prevented their forming their feed like
the former. They were vaftly more fappy, and much
better food for cattle.

On the 24th of July, he drilled rape-feed upon the fame
ground.

N° I. Six ridges four feet wide, and thirty-two perches
long in (ingle rov.s.

N° 2. Six ridges the fame length and breadtli, in double
rows, ten inches afunder.

It is obferved, that the double and fingle rows were drilled
alternately on the fame ground, on the i8th day of July.

N° 3. Six ridges four feet wide, and thirty-two perches
lonsj, drilled in linjrle rows.

N° 4. Six ridges the fame length and breadth, in double
rows, ten inches afunder.

He remarks, that thefe were fown in alternate rows, on
the fame ground, on the 24th of Jul.y. And that the feveral
rows were thinned the latter end of Auguft, and twice
horfe-hoed during the fummer. On the third of April
1 77 1, he had a row of each of thefe cut and weighed, and
the produce was as follows :
Weight. Prod. p. Plant, acre.

. cwt. qr. II). t n. cwt. qr. lb.

2 1 II 7 c II 0^1, f 29 6 I 16

!■ Sown July i8th -j ,; ,, , ,,

4 3 13 J ' J 32 12 2 23

5 ; «} Sown July 24th {33 H « ^6

3I 2

R A 1'

R A P

On the whole, it is ftatcd, that the laft fowing in July
afforded confuUrably greater produce than the firlt, for the
plained reafon, that tlie earlier we fow this feed, the fooncr
it runs ; and tonfitiueiitly affords the lefs produce for the
purpofe of foddering cattle in the yards for making dung,
and feems to account very flrongly for the llatc of the iirft
experiment.

And the double rows produced uniformly more than the
fingle rows ; and indicate that the double are to be pre-
ferred in drilling rape for foddering cattle.

The following trials are on fowing rape-feed broad-caft.
On the 24th of July two acres were fown broad-caft, with
ten pounds of feed to each acre, in the fame field where the
other experiments were carried on ; but the foil not fo
ftiff by a good deal, has abundantly fewer loofe ftones'in it,
is very fhallow, and poor, to an incapability of producing
any thing to profit, without great alliilance of manure.

In July he manured it with the dung of his yard, confift-
ing of that of horned cattle, horfes, and fwine. The
drcfling was indeed very high ; about two fmart one-horfe
cart-loads to a perch. He having ever found that one acre,
highly improved, is much more valuable than five imperfeftly
handled, was the reafon why he gave this poor piece fo liberal
a drefTing.

The rape came up but flowly for a time, as he finds to
be the nature of the plant', but at length it fliot forward,
and flouriihed away : but in winter it met with a fate which
he was not aware of, nor did he expeft. The wood-pigeons
lay upon it prodigioudy, and did it great damage. Some
plants he obferved in the froll to appear as if they had been
finged : whetiifr that was owing to the wounds given by
the birds, and thereby giving the froft the greater force, or
whether it was owing entirely to the feverity of the froft, is not
in his power to determine. However, very early in the fpring
this rape fiiot forward, and as the days lengthened the vifits
of the pigeons were lefs frequent, until they totally left it.

From this rape breaking out into bloflom fooner than he
expected, he is inclined to believe that the 24th of July is too
early to fow it for the purpofe of foddering cattle in the yard.
However, early in April he began to mow this rape for
the horned cattle, fuch as cows, plough bullocks, young
cattle, calves, and fwine. They all ate it with the greateft:
eagernefs, and were foddered with it every evening, until
the 19th of May inclufive, and wheat ftraw in a morning,
fave four calves of the preceding year ; and they were fod-
dered twice a day with rape, and had ftraw before them alfo,
and throve upon it vaftly better than the other cattle ; for
no other reafon, he believes, than becaufe they were allowed
more than the others : in fhort, they were in fuch order, that
he dares believe the butchers would have been glad to have
had them for killing.

He obferves, that he need not tell the farmer how necelfary
it is to be frugal of provender in an liarfli dry fpring, ae the
laft was, when he was like to be hard run with forty head of
caitle, many of which he (hould actually have been obliged
to fell at fo improper a leafon, had he not been podeffed of
thefe two acres of rape. He adds, that there is yet another
circumtlance which renders this a truly valuable fodder.
Thcnnlk of the cows increafed prodigioufly ; and the milk
and butter were as good, fweet, and well-flavoured, he thinks,
ill every particular, as ever he tafted in June. Even the
cream for the tea appeared to be perfedfly free from any
foreign flavour. The cows got hay every day, in the fame
manner as he has in former years mentioned them to have,
when feeding upon cabbages.

The fimplicity of the culture for rape, for the purpofe
of feeding cattle, he cannot but think a particular recom-
mendation to the farmer, and the cheapnefs of the feed
in purchafc, or the eafe with which he may raife it, are
objefts which cannot fail, he thinks, of being perfuafive to
him. And all perfons, w ho have annexed to their farms any
bog, or other wafte ground, the improvement of which can
be executed by burning, might furely raife fuch quantities
of rape for the purpofe of mowing pafture, as would enable
them to keep almoll any number of cattle ; by which they
would not only be bringing in the wafte land, but making
that the foundation of improvement to their found land, by
the immenfe quantities of dung they might raife by this means
from the wafte land. Here the advantage to the cultivator
would be double.

On the tirft day of May he had four perches of this rape
meafured out for weighing. It was mowed, immediately
drawn home, and weighed. The four perches afforded feven
hundred and two quarters : multiplying this by forty, (hews
the acreable produce to be fifteen tons. The quantity in-
deed bin fmall. However, the feafon in which it is to be
had renders it more than ordinarily valuable, and, he thinks,
bids fair to make it an objedt of huftsandry, as a pafture for
cattle.

This year, 1770, Mr. Baker ploughed up fix acres of
wheat ftubble, as foon as the wheat came off, harrowed it down
the 1 2th, 13th, 14th, and 15th of September, then fowed
rape-feed over the whole field, and gave it a hght bufh har-
rowing. The rape came up very thin, and made fo poor an
appearance in the fpring, that he ploughed up the field, and
fowed fpring corn. Thif is a itrong indication that but
little is to be expefted from fowing rape upon wheat ftubble ;
becaufe after the wheat comes off it feems to be too late in
the year to fow rape. But fomething may be charged, as he
obferves, to the natural moifture of the foil. See Cole.

The following is the recapitulation of his experiments ob
rape, as pafture for cattle.

Exp. I. April fowing.

11. Ditto tranfplanted.

III. July 18, fowing.

July 24.

IV. Ditto

Ran, not anfwering the purpofe.
Ran, but not fo foon as the other.

f Single rows produced per acre
\ Double rows ditto
f Single rows ditto
■[Double ....

Broad- caft ditto ...

V. September fowing on wheat ftubble ditto

Rape is a great deal cultivated in fome diftrifts in the
county of Effex for the feed. The fy ftem is very profitable,
but this fort of crop is found to draw or exhauft the land a
good deal. It is thought by fome to prepare well for wheat,
efpecially when fed off upon the land. In fome places they,
however, confider it more beneficial to till, after this crop

Produce.

Ten.

cwt. qr.

lb.

29

6 I

16

32

12 2

23

34

14 I

26

35

18 0

9

15

0 0

0

0

0 0

0

has been feeded for fpring corn, than to put in wheat, which,
however, is flill the moft common praftice. Clover would
certainly be better than either method.

In other places they conceive that feeding rape is much
on the decline, from the general experience, that it leaves
the beft prepared lawd in an unfavourable ftate for oats and

clover.

RAP

clover, and is confequently prpjudicial to the ntxt fuccecd-
iiig winter crop. Othicr diilriits think very difforiMitly on
this point. In feeding the crop, the produce is hcrccon-
fidered to be in general from twenty-nine to thirty-four
bnihels the acre. In the greateft crops and bell feafons, in
particular parts it is fuppofed to riie even fo high as five
and fix quarters the acre. ,

In Berklhire this fort of crop is not fo much cultivated as
it fhould be, as it will fuccecd well on ioil where turnips
will not, and with equally beneficial effects to the future
crops, when fed off on the ground. When employed it is
ufually fown and managed fo as to come into a high Hate of
perfeftion in the early fpring months, when rtieep feed is
moilly fcarce. It is grown by fome to fupply the deficiency,
and found remarkably ufeful, one acre of it affording more
feed than two of turnips.

This fort of crop is itill lefs grown in Oxfordlhire, though
occafionally had rc-courfe to, efpecially on the rich red land
about Banbury. Some fow it in mixture with the tankard
turnip feed, for the pnrpofe of weaning lambs upon : they
hegin with the rape, and it teaches them to eat the
turnips : it is found to be a very good food for this fort
of ftock.

In the county of Suifex, the South Down flieep farmers
hold it in great eftimation, fovving it either alone or in mix-
ture with tares as a food for their Ihcep ; very rarely for the
purpofe of feeding. The ewes and lambs are wattled upon
it in the fpring, and it is very generally allowed to be moll
efficacious, and highly nutritious to the young lambs. Some,
at the lambing feafon, hardly allow their ewes any other
food but this, as the rape is found to produce a larger fupply
of milk than turnips ; which, it is fuppofed, has the effect of
extending the udder, without affording any confiderable
flow of milk. This crop is conjeftured, however, in fome
cafes, to have the effeft of caufing the flipping of the lambs,
where the ewes are fed upon it. But fuch an effeft is very
improbable to arife in tliis vi'ay ; other caufes may have been
overlooked. In fome cafes on Down land ray-grafs is fown
with the rape for {beep feed, one gallon of rape-feed and
two of ray-grafs to the acre. The rape is firft fed off ; and
after that the ray-grafs rifes and affords a bite for the
fpring feafon. The rape ci'op is ufually put in about June,
or the following month, one gallon to the acre. When
folded off, a rood and a half is a fuflicient daily confumption
for a tlock of fix hundred llieep, or rather more.

As it has been found in the improving of peat boggy
moraffy lands, that what is principally wanted is a crop which
can be fown and reaped in the fummer months ; and which
may require neither labour nor attendance during the moid
feafons of autumn, winter, and fpring ; the writer of the
" Treatife on Landed Property" has fuggefted that fortu-
nately, fuch a crop is natural to, and has long been inured to
the climate of this ifland, as well as one of the' moft profitable
in the agriculture of it ; and that this is rape : which is not only
fown, but reaped, in the very height of fummer ; and which
is known to delight in a foil of this nature. It has, however,
only lately been f-iund capable of being raifed with advan-
tage oa crude moffy ground, as a firft crop after draining,
from fome recent trials made in the north, after the above
operation, levelling, paring and burning, and turning the
aflies in. The reiult of which was, though the crop was
too late in being put in, and the land laid in an improper
manner, fuch as to prove clearly that rape-feed may be raifed
with profit as a firft crop on drained moory foils. And it is
thought highly probable that many extenfive trails of land,
which now lie entirely wafte, and as nufauces in their neigh-
bourhoods, may through this means be improved with immenfe

RAP

profit to their proprietors. The experiment may be tried at
a fmali expcnce. The coll of the labour and feed required
for a fufficient trial arc inconfiderable. The proof, it is fup-
pofed, IS not whether rape will thrive as herbage, but whetlier
It Will mature its feed, on the given foil, in the given
liluatipn.

After being recompenfed for the previous cxpcnccs, in
one or more rape crops, as there is hc-ie no danger of the
exhauftion of the foil, — of impoverifhing, perhajjs, ten feet
depth of vegetable mould, it remains to lay the foundation
of more permanent profits, which is to be done by fowin-r
grafs feeds either with or over the rape crop, or by liTht
cautious flocking after removing the (talks, as may be neccf-
fary, until there is a firmncfs of furface and a litnefs for
mixed cultivation, which may be much haflened by the ufe
of heavy calcareous and earthy fubftauces at any time durin^r
the procefs of improvement. "

Rape Caie, the refufe or cake remaining after the oil has
been expreffed from rape-feed. It is faid'to be ufeful as a
manure. Sec Manmjuk.

This fubftance is found by chemical trials to contain a
large quantity of mucilage, fome albuminous matter, and a
fmall quantity of oil. It ffiould be kept as dry as pofTible
before it is applied to the foil, and be employed in that way
while it is in a freffi ftate. It is fucccfsfully applied in fe-
veral ways and intentions, and affords an excellent drefling
for turnips. See the next article.

Rai'e Z)///?, the fmall reduced parts of the dried refufe of
rape-feed, or the rape cake, after the oil has been obtained
from it. This fubftance has been found ufeful as a top-
dreffing for crops of different kinds.

The rape cake, when reducedS into powder or duft by
means of a machine, has been extenfively ufed in Norfolk ;
and when for turnip crops, it has been the cuftom to fow it
fome weeks before the feed of that root is put into the
ground. In the praftice of Mr. Coke of that diftricl, it
has, however, been found, that by having it brought into a
fine powder it may be drilled from the fame machine, at the
fame time with the turnip feed ; and that, by thus delivering
the manure and the feed from the fame pipes and (hares of
the drill machine, a ton of duft does fix acres in the place
of three. See Tuknip.

In Lancafhire fome farmers ufe it with great advan-
tage as a manure for potatoes, putting it in with the
fets in the proportion of about tiiirty-twa bulhels to the
ftatute acre ; but if the ground were well prepared, and
the duft carefully depofited for the reception of the feti;, it
is fuppofed, a much fmaller quantity would be fufficient.
It produces much luxuriance in the crops, and a very fine
produce.

Rape 0/7, the oil obtained by means of expreffion from
the feeds of this plant, in mills conftructed for the purpofe.
The refufe oily fubftance of this kind may be employed as
manure in mixture with rich earthy matters, with great ad-
vantage, wherever it can be procured in any quantity at a
reafonable price.

RAPEL, in Geography, a river of Chili, which runs
into the Pacific ocean, S. lat. 34° 8'. — Alfo, a town of
Chih, on the forementioned river ; 70 miles S. of Val-
parayfo.

RAPERLAH, atownof Hindoottan, in theCamatic;
13 miles N.E. of Ongole.

RAPHA, in Anatomy. See Raphe.

RAPHAEL, one of the feven archangels, who are faid
to be continually before the throne of God, and ready to
perform his commands. We have no fuch name in the Old

RAPHAEL.

or New Teftamcnt ; but 1.1- luftory occurs in the book of

Tobit, c. xii. . . , , , ,

If the ftory of Toljit b^" true, it is not improbable that
the angels, both good and bad, vvliofe names do nut appear
to have been known before the Babylonifli captivity, are
figurative perfonages ; and Raphael might only denote the
falutary protefting agency of divine providence, fo difpofing
events as to produce a happy iflue.

Raphael Saszio, da Ukbino, in Biography, during
whofe life, and by the exertion of whofe talents, in con-
junftion with thofe of Lionardo da Vinci, Titian, Michael
Angelo, and fome few others, the art of painting reached
its acme in modern times, was born in the city of Urbino,
on the morning of Good Friday, in the year 1483. He
was defcendcd "from a refpedlable family, and many of his
anceitors had been painters ; as was his father Giovanni
Sanzio, whofe talents, however, did not elevate him to the
firll rank. He cultivated with care tlie inclination which
his fon Raphael exhibited, at an early age, for painting;
and was foon repaid by the afliftance he acquired from him,
in feveral of the piftures he was employed to paint in his
native city of Urbino. But finding that the tafte of Ra-
phael merited more (Ivilful guidance than he was able to
give it, he placed him under the tuition of Corradini, better
known by the name of Carnevale, for a ihort time, till he
could be received as a pupil by Pietro Pcrugino, at Pe-
rugia.

This mailer was then in very high efteem, though his
ftyle was dry and meagre, in comparifon with that of Ma-
faccio, and others of the Florentine fchool. It is not fur-
priiing that Raphael, endowed as he was by nature, and
trained as he had been in art, fhould foon become the rival,
rather than the pupil, of fuch an artift. Accordingly we
find, that his aptitude for the praftice of art enabled him
quickly to acquire his mailer's manner, and that in fo per-
feft a degree, that connoiffeurs were puzzled in their judg-
ments upon the works which proceeded from Perugino's
fludio ; and ordinary obfervers completely deceived. Vafari
fpcaks of an Ad'umption of the Virgin, crowned by her
Son, and the twelve apoftles below, round licr tomb, con-
templating the celcllial glories'; with three fmall piftures
in the fame frame below it, of the Annunciation, the
Adoration of the Magi, and Simon embracing the Saviour,
painted at this period by Raphael, as being wrought with
extreme beauty, and precifely like the work of Peru-
gino.

We have to lament that we are left ignorant of the time
when Raphael went as a pupil to Pietro, how long he re-
mained with him, or when he left him, or rather was left by
him ; as that mailer returned to Florence, to fini(h fome pic-
tures he had begun there fome time before. He mult cer-
tainly have been very young, from the number of piftures
whicli he lubfequently executed, previous to his going to
Rome in his 25th year, and probably not more than 16 or
17, when he acquired his liberty by the departure of Peru-
gino.

From Perugia he went to Citta di Caftello, where he
painted a St. Nicola crowned by the Virgin and St. Auguf-
tin, for the church of St. Auguftine ; and for that of St.
Dominico, a pidlure of the Crucifixion of Chriil, accom-
panied by angels, the Virgin, St. Joiin, &c. ; which would
certainly have been coniidered as Perugino's, if Raphael iiad
not fet his name to them. But he was confvdered to have
much furpalled him in another work, reprefenting the mar-
riage of the Virgin and St. Francifco, for the church of St.
Francifco, in the fame city. He acquired by thefe pro-
duftions a great and deferved extent of fanv,', and thus early

entered with fuccefs that courfe, which condu&cd liim tu
the higlicll pinnacle of renown as an artill.

Attached to his perfon by friendlhip, and attrafted by
his flcill as a defigner, Pinturitcio, then employed by pope-
Pius n. to adorn the library of the Duomo at Sienna,
fought the aflillance of Raphael, and engaged him to com-
pofe defigns for his work. This he undertook, but pro-
ceeded only to the preparation of fome of the cartoons,
when his ambition and his curiofity were ilimulated, and
his work interrupted, by the renown fpread through the
country of the cartoons painted by thofe great rivals, Lio-
nardo da Vinci and M. Angelo, for the council-hall at Flo-
rence. He immediately determined, in conjunftion with
almoft all his brother artills of the day, upon going to fee
and form his judgment upon them for himfelf ; and cenfe-
quently left his engagement with Pinturiccio, and pro-
ceeded to Florence.

In this city he found fo many attraftivc beauties, both of
nature and art, that he refolved to fix his refidence there for
fome time. His agreeable perfon and manners, combined*
with the extraordinary talents he had manifelted, infured
him friends ; and he became intimate with feveral artifls of
celebrity, among whom were Ghirtandaio, St. Gallo, and
Taddeo Taddi ; the latter of them, a learned man, and friend
of cardinal Bembo, took the youthful painter to his ho^ife
and table, and thus afforded him the bed introduction to the
world, while he purfued his more immediate fludies. This
kindnefs the gentle heart of Raphael accepted with grateful
emotion ; and as he painted feveral pictures during his refi- "
dence in that city, he prefented two of them to Taddi. One
of thefe pi&ures, a Madonna with the Child, and St. John
bringing a little bird to him, the heirs of Taddi fold to the
archduke Ferdinand Charles of Aullria at a great price :
the other is loll fight of. He alfo prefented a picture to
his friend Lorenzo Nafi, which afterwards found a place iu
the Medicean gallery, and a duplicate in that of the monaf-
tery of Valombrofa.

From Florence Raphael was recalled to Urbino, by the
death of both his father and mother ; and there, when he
had arranged his private affairs, he was engaged by Giudo-
baldo de Montefeltro, and feveral others, to paint religious
fubjefts for the altars of their chapels : and among thofe he
painted at this time, were the two little St. Georges, now
in the gallery of the Louvre. Thefe commifiions he exe-
cuted with great tafle and dehcacy ; and Vafari, who enu-
merates them, more particularly fpeaks of one of Chriil
praying in the garden, painted for Franccfco Maria, duke
of Urbino, as being finifhed with all the neatnefs of a minia-
ture. What is become of moll of thefe pictures, it is not
eafy to afcertain ; but it is a curious fact, that not one of
them remains at this time to adorn the native city of this
great artift.

Thence he returned to Perugia, and painted feveral pic-
tures. For the church of the Frati de Servi, one of the
Virgin, , with St. John Baptift, and St. Nicholas. For
that of St. Stevens, in tlie chapel of our Lady, he painted
in frefco a picture of Chriil in gloq-, with God the Father,
furrounded by angels and fix faints, three on each fide.
Upon this pifture he wrote his name in large letters of gold,
and very confpicuoufly, as if he himfelf was plcafed witii
the performance of it. He alfo painted here a picture for
the nuns of St. Antonio da Padua, of our Lady with the
Infant upon her lap clothed, and near her St. Peter, St.
Paul, Sta. Ceciha, and Sta. Catherina. The airs and at-
tire of the two female heads were regarded as the mod talle-
ful work of the time, wrought with the greatell degree of
beauty and grace. Above the picture, in a femicircle, was

reprefented

RAPHAEL.

reprefented the Almigiily Fatiier ; and nt the foot of it, in
three compartments, ueie tlje fceiics of our Lord's fuffer-
ings, "via. his agony in the garden, carrying his crofs, and
dead upon the lap of the Virgin. It is not known what is
become of ttie centre pitlure, or the uppermoll compart-
ment ; the lower ones formed a part of the Orleans collec-
tion. The execution of thcfe works was performed in a
ftyle much improved upon that of Perngino ; with more
breadth, more foftncfs, and more freedom and variety of
nftion ; proving that he had not ill fpent the time he had
devoted at Florence to the ihidy of the works of other
painters. Hence we may date the commencement of what
is termed his fccond manner, from his fu-lt vifit to that
city.

Soon after he had produced thefe works at Perugia, that
zeal tor cultivation, which always accompanies true genius,
led him to determine upon again vifiting Florence, at that
time the emporium of fcience and of art. Though the na-
tive ftrength and purity of his mind were fuch as to conduft
him, under favourable circumttances, to his future prominent
ftation ; yet he does not appear to have been fo extraordinary
and original an inventor in the art itfelf as M. Angelo, or his
great predeceffor and rival, Lionardo da Vmci. He knew
how to take a hint of what was offered to his view, and to
cultivate and improve it to his purpofe ; but it yet remains
a problem, whether Raphael, alone, and without the lead-
ing aid of thofe great and original artills, would have ever
feen the fublimc of pamting. His power may rather be
faid to have confilted in ability to employ the materials fur-
niflied by'their invention, viz. tjic llyle of Michael Angelo,
in form ; and of Lionardo da Vinci, in chiaro-fcuro and
colour ; in beautiful conceptions, illullrative of the charac-
ter and pallions of man ; and in an admirable feleCtion of
fubjeft, and mode of conveying it.

He himfelf appears to have been confcious of this ; for
we find him in the midll of honourable employment, leaving
the profecution of it, to (Uidy and improve himfelf by a con-
itant obfervation of the works of other renowned artills,
and again repairing to Florence, where alone he could lind
the true fource of found cultivation, and in which he made
fo good ufe of his time, as to lit him in great meafure for
the glorious field of exertion which awaited him.

On his return to the renowned abode of thefe great artilts,
from whofe works he fought improvement, he had a letter
of recommendation and introduftion from the duchefs of
Urbino to Pietro Soderini Gonfaloniere of the city ; and
was thus introduced to the beft circle of improvement and
information.

It would have been highly gratifying to have been enabled
to trace the fleps of a man fo diftinguifhcd in the art, from
the earlielt commencement of his Ihidies ; but the negleft
of dates, by his hillorians, counteracts every with to follow
them more clofely ; and the record of fafts leaves us only
the means of conjecture. That he began to paint original
piiftures very foon after he was placed with Perugino is evi-
dent, and he mufi then have been very young, for it is on
record, that the piftures by Pinturiccio, for which he made
the cartoons at Sienna, were completed in 1503, at which
time he was 20. If we allow, as we realonably may, two
years for their execution, it will place his firfl vifit to Flo-
rence in 1 50 1, at the age of 18 ; and it certainly cannot
have been far from that period. In every part of his life,
ciodefty, ingenuity, and the ardour of a mind entirely de-
voted to his art, charafterized his conduii;t. His induftry
and ingenuity feem to have kept equal pace ; and the ra-
pidity and certainty with which lit mult have painted, to

produce fo many pittures in fo ihort a fpacc of time a« he
lived, are not the leall extraordiinry part of hia hillory.

On this, his lecond abode at Florence, he Itudied deeply
the works of Mafaccio, and the cartoons of Angelo and
Da Vinci J and attached himlelf in friendfhip to Baccio della
Porta, better known by the name oi Fra. Bartolomto ;
than whom no one was better qualified to direct him rightly
in whatever was grand and dignified, and from whole ju-
dicious information in the art of calling draperies and of
colouring, Raphael evidently improved exceedingly ; while
he had the pleafure, in return, of communicating to his friend
the principles of pcrfpeftive. Yet notwithftanding thefe
helps, he did not entirely free himfelf from the formal and
dry inanner of his mailer, though he painted afiiduoufly
both in portrait and hillory. In the former he produced the
portraits of Angelo Doiii and his lady Maddalena Strozzi ;
and in the latter he painted for Dominico Caneggiani, a
Madonna, w ith the Infant playing with St. John brought '
by E,li/.abeth, who regards St. Jofeph as he (lands near,
leaning both his hands upon a Hick, and inclining his head
towards lier. This pifture appears to have been re-touched,
or poiiibly completed only in 1516, as the name of Raphael,
with that date, in letters of gold, is written upon the dra-
pery of the Virgin. He alio made a cartoon during his
refidence in Florence for a pidture which he had previoufly
engaged to paint for the Uaglioni family at Perugia, and
left the city to go and paint it in the church of St. Francefco
in that place. Tiie iubjedl of it was our Saviour carried to
the fepulchre, accompanied by the Virgin, St. John, &c. ;
and it was exceedingly admired for the beauty and cxprelfion
of the figures, and the lie ill and pcrfeftion of the draperies.
This picture was removed from Perugia by pope Paul V.,
and a copy, by Cefare d' Arpino, placed in its llead : it after-
wards found a llation in the Borghefe palace at Rome.

When Rapiiael had completed this work, he returned to
renew his lludies at Florence, and was employed by the
family of Dei, to paint a picture for their altar in Santo Spi-
rito, which he began, and condudled tlirough the preparatory
parts ; and in the mean time painted another for the city of
Sienna, of the Madonna in an open country, with the Child
Handing by her, and St. John kneeling before him, but
was interrupted, in its execution, by a fummons from pope
Julius II. to Rome, and left it in the hands of his friend
Ghirlandaio, to nnifh a piece of blue drapery which it
wanted. This pifture was afterwards fold to Francis, king
of France, and is at prefeiit in the French collection, known
by the name of the Belle Jardiniere. The unfinilbed iketch
of the pifture begun for the Dei fanfily, was bought, after
the death of Raphael, from his heirs, by Baldalfare Turini,
and placed by him, in its original ftate, at the altar of his
country church ; it afterwards came into poflenion of the
houfe of Buonvicini di Pefcia, and was fold, by that family,
to the grand duke Ferdinand, who, on removing it, placed
a copy by Carlo Sacconi in its llead. This was done at
night, and with the utmoft fecrecy, tor fear of a difturbance
among the populace, by whom it was highly prized.

Raphael was indebted for the high patronage of the pope,
which placed him in the proper fphere for the exercife of ta-
lents fuch as he pofleffed, to the friendlhip of lii3 relation Bra-
mante d' Urbino the architect ; and never was recommendation
better fupported by ability. Upon his arnval in Rome, m
1508, he was received with great courtefy by Julius, and the
Camera della Segnatura, in the Vatican, afiigned to him. He
immediately began the preparation for his firil picture, which
was the Scliool of Theology, better known by the name of
the Dilpute of the Sacrament, and in obfcrving which, it is

worthy

RAPHAEL.

worthy ot remark how his mind enbrged, in regard to ftyle
in the art, as he became accuftomed to confider largely of
his work ; and according to the field of employment which he
found before him. The difference in ftyle between one part
of the pifture, and that of the other, evidently points out
where he began it ; viz. on the rigiit of the upper part,
where the remains of the fchool of Perugino appears, and is
fpread through the centre, where the glory winch furrounds
our Saviour is reprefented in the Gothic manner, by
rays of gold. As he proceeded, his ftyle enlarged, and
the lower part of the pifture exhibits an immenfe im-
provement, and is almoft equal to any of his fubfequent pro-
duftions.

In the fame room are the pidures of the School of Athens,
tlieParna'luK, painted in 15 12, (where, furrounding Apollo
and the Mules, lie has introduced portraits of the great
poets, both of antiquity and of his ovifn time,) and the
Jurifprudence, coniprizijig two fubjefts, one of the em-
peror Juftinian delivering the digeft of his code of laws to
Tribonius, and another of pope Gregory IV. giving the
decretal to a member of the confillory. Over each of thefe
fubjedls, refpedtively, are painted circular ones of fingle
figures, rep.-efenting Theology, Philofophy, Poetry, and
Juftice.

When pope Julius faw the fuperior tafte and talent with
which Raphael produced the former of thefe works, he im-
mediately ordered the whole of the ftanze, or chambers,
which it was intended to decorate, to be entrufted to him ;
and all that had previouily been done by Perugino, Pietro
del Borgo, 11 Soddoina, and Bramante di Milano, to be
removed. But of this order Raphael made only a partial
ufe ; preferving entire the work of his firll mafter, and, par-
tially, the ornamental labours of II Soddoma.

While he was engaged upon thefe great works, he was
not altogether indifferent to the more agreeable exercife of
the pencil, and he painted for the church of the Auguftines,
the piftures of the prophet Ifaiah, and the Sibyls who are
fuppofed to have predicted the coming of Chrift. He alfo
painted the portrait of his great patron, Julius, now in the
Louvre, and feveral fmallcr eafel pictures of Madonnas, and
other religious fubjefts. By thefe labours he acquired the
renown they fo well merited, and his manners appear to have
been in perfeft accordance with the beauties of his mmd.
His perfon alfo was handfome, and he was beloved, efteemed,
and admired. Yet he continued to ftudy, and to improve his
talents, employing perfons to coUeft Ipecimens and make
drawings from Grecian remains. Full of tafte and feeling,
he fpared no pains to perfeft his powers by a thorough know-
ledge of all that had been done in aft, both ancient and mo-
dern. In confequence, however, the faft, related by Vafari,
may be doubted, of his being admitted, while Michael An-
gelo was abfent, to fee the work of that great artift in the
chapel of Sixtus IV. ; the tafte in which he wrought became
aggrandized, and fimilar to that introduced by M. An-
gelo. About this time he painted the Galatea for Agoftini
Ghigi, and the Madonna di Foligno, at the defire of Sigif-
mondo Conti, fecretary of pope Julius II., for the great
altar of the church at Araceli, and which is now at the
Louvre.

In another chamber of the Vatican he painted four other
large pittures, the fubjefts of which are, the miracle of
Bolfenna, when the officiating prieft, who doubted of the
real prefence in the Eucharift, is offering up the hoft, and
perceiving, with aftoniftiment, that it diftils drops of blood ;
the releafe of St. Peter from prifon ; the Heiiodorus ; and
Attila arrefted, in his journey to Rome, by a viilon of St.

Peter and St. Paul; thefe were completed in 1512, 13,
and 14.

In thele piAures his great improvement in colouring
and ftyle is moft evident, and he continued to carry it ftiil
further into prafiice in another room, for which alfo he had
coinpofed four other fubjects, known as the Incendio del
Borgo ; the coronation ol Charlemagne by Leo HI. ;
the fame pope defending his conduft to the fame emperor ;
and the deicent of the Saracens at the port of Oftia.

Wlulft Raphael was engaged on the Heiiodorus, his firft
great patron, Julius II., died ; but fortunately for the arts,
if not for the tiara, he was fuccecdcd by another, Leo X.,
who was even more attached to them, and more fond of the
renown arifing from the cultivation of whatever adorns fo-
ciety. By him, therefore, Raphael was ardently encou-
raged to proceed with his labours, and he continued to
make defigns for other apartments, particularly for the
great hall of Conftantine, as it is now called ; but he did
not live to execute them. The Incendio del Borgo was the
laft upon which he himfclf wrought ; the reft v;ere com-
pleted by Julio Romano. He was alfo employed by Leo
to make the cartoons now at Hampton Court, as exemplars
for works in tapeftry, to be executed in Flanders, and which
were completed at the expencc of 70,000 crowns. For-
tunately for us the originals were never returned to Rome*
and were purchafed afterwards by Charles I.

Upon the death of Bramante, in 1514, the fuperintcnd-
ance of the architeftural concerns ot the Vatican was en-
trufted to Raphael, who had already exhibited his know-
ledge and tafte in that art, by the introduction he had made
of it in his pidlures. He invented and began a palace for
himfelf, and made feveral defigns for others.

Notwithftanding the immenfe application neceffary for the
invention and completion of thefe important labours, toge-
ther with the defit^ns he compofed for the ornamental parts,
and the fcriptural fnbjefts on the ceilings and the covings of
the loggia and ftanze of the Vatican, he found time to exe-
cute in frefco the defigns which adorn the palace of Agoftino
Ghigi ; the capital portrait of his great friend Leo X.,
with the cardinals de Medici and Rofli, now in the Louvre ;
the St. Michael, and the viilon of Ezekiel, both in the
fame grand depot ; a Madonna, Child, and St. Anne, for
Florence ; and a large pifture of Cliriil bearing his Crofs,
for the monaftery of St. Maria della Spafimo, at Palermo.
Of this picture it is reported, that being fcnt on ftiipboard
to go to Sicily, the veffel was beaten from its courfe by a
tempeft, and the mariners loft ; when it drifted to Genoa,
and of courfe its prefervation was attributed to the divine
influence of this great work. The Genoefe chefe alfo to
fuppofe that the hand of God had thus pointed out their
city as the proper place for its refidence ; and would not
relinquilh it for a length of time, till the papal influence in-
terfered, when it was configned to its original deitination.
He alfo painted the pifture of St. John, which adorned the
Orleans colleftion ; and laft of all, the Transfiguration ;
which indeed he had not quite finilhed when the unrelenting
hand of death fet 2 period to his labours, and deprived the
world of further benefit from his talents, when he had only
attained an age at which moit other men are but beginning
to be ufcful.

The immediate caufe of his death is allowed to have been
brought on by too great an indulgence in gallantry, and,
Vafari adds, by mifmanagement of his phyficians, who bled
him when they ought to have adminiftered rcttoratives. On
his death bed he made his will, leaving his favourite pupils,
Julio Romano and II Fattore, his heirs, and ordering his
7 burial

11 A P

burial to take place in the Pantheon (the church of Santa
Maria Rotunda), where a monument Hill remains to his
honour. He died on the fame day of the year on which he
was born, Good Friday, in 1520, at the age of 37, deeply
lamented by all who knew his value. His body lay for a
while in flate, in one of the rooms wherein he had difplayed
the powers of his mind, and he was honoured by a public
funeral ; his laft produce, the Transfiguration, being carried
before him in the proceilion : and, that Rome miglit not be
deprived of io noble a memorial of tliis extraordinary man,
it was placed by the cardinal de Medici in the church of St.
Pietro a Montorio, inllead of being lent to France, as was
originally intended.

Mr. Fufeli, in his edition of Pilkington, has given fo dif-
criminating and jn(l an idea of the peculiar excellencies of
Raphael, that we fhall conclude our hillory of him by quot-
ing it. " The general opinion lias placed Raphael at the
head of his art, not becaufe he pofieded a decided fuperiority
over every other painter in every branch, but becaufe no
other artiil ever arrived at uniting with his own peculiar ex-
cellence all the other parts of the art in an equal degree with
him.

" The drama, or in other words the reprefentation of cha-
rafter in conflift with paflion, was his fphere ; to reprefent
this, his invention in the choice of the moment, his compofition
in the arrangement of his aftors, and his exprellion in the
dehneation of their emotions, wei-e, and are, and perhaps
will be unrivalled. And to this he added a itylc of defign
diftated by the fubjett itfelf, a colour fuited to the fubjeft,
all the grace which propriety permitted, or fcntiment lug-
gelled, and as much chiaro-fcnro as was compatible v\'ith
his fupreme defire of pcrfpicuity and evidence. It is there-.
fore only when he forfook the drama, to make excurfions
into the pure epic or fublime, that his forms become inade-
quate, and were mferior to thofe of M. Angelo : it is only
in fubjetls where colour from a vehicle becomes the rulisg
principle, that he is excelled by Titian ; he yields to Cor-
reggio only in that grace and that chiaro-lcuro which is
lefs the miniller of propriety and fentiment, than its charm-
ing abufe, or voluptuous excefs ; and which facrifices to the
eye what was claimed in vain by the mind.

" Michael Angelo appears to have had no infancy : if he
had, we are not acquainted with it : his earlieft. works equal
in principle and elements of llyle the vigorous offsprings of
his virility : Raphael we fee in his cradle, we hear him itam-
mer : but propriety rocked the cradle, and charafter formed
his Jips. Even the trammels of Pietro Perugino, dry and
iervile in his llyle of defign, formal and gothic in his com-
pofition, he traced what was eflential, and feparated it from
what was accidental, in figure and 'fubjci^t. The works of
Lionardo, and the cartoon of Pifa, invigorated his eye, but
it was the antique that completed the fyllem which he had
begun to ellablilh on nature. From the antique he learned
difcrimination and propriety of form. He found that in the
conllruCtion of the body, the articulation of the bones was
the true caufe of eafe and grace in the aftion of the limbs,
and that the knowledge of this was the true caufe of tJie
fuperiority of the antients. He difcovered that certain fea-
tures were fitted for certain exprefhons, and peculiar to cer-
tain characters : that fuch a head, inch hands, and fuch
feet, are the itamen or the growth of fuch a body, and on
phyfiognomy eftablilhed uniformity of parts. When he de-
iigned, his attention was immediately direfled to the primary
intention and motive of his figure, next to its general mea-
fure, then to the bones and their articulation, from them to
the principal mufcles or thofe eminently wanted, to their at-
tendant nerves, and at laft to the more or Icfs ellential
Vol. XXIX.

II A P

minutia: ; but the charafter part of the fobjeft is infallibly
• tile charatlorilUc part of his defign, whether it be a rapid
fkctch, or a more linidied drawing. The Rrokcs of his pen
or pencil themfelves are charaderiftic : liiey foll(jw the di-
rection and texture of the part ; ficfti in their rounding,
tendons in flraight, bones in angular lines.

" Sucli was the felicity aud propriety of Raphael, when
employed in the dramatic evolutions of cliaradler ! both fuf-
fered when he attempted to abftraft the forms of fublimity
and beauty ; the painter of humanity, not often wielded
with fuccefs fuper-human weapons. His gods never rofe
above prophetic or i>atriarchal forms ; if the finger of Mi-
chael Angelo imprelTed the divine countenance oftener with
fternneis tliaii awe, the gods of Raphael are fometimes too
affable or mild, like him who fpeaks to Jacob, in a ceiling
of the Vatican ; or too violent, like him who feparates light
from darkncfs, in the loggia of the fame place. But
thougli, to fpeak with things, he was chiefly made to walk.
with dignity.on earth, he foared above it in the conception
of Chrill on Tabor, and dill more in the frown of the an-
gelic countenance that witliers the llrength of Heliodorus.

" Of ideal female beauty, though he himfelf, in his letter
to count Caftiglione, tells us, that from its fcarcity in life,
he made attempts to reach it by an idea formed in his ow^
mind, he certainly wanted that dandard which guided him
in charafter : his goddcdes and mythologic females arc no
more than aggravations of the generic forms of Michael
Angelo. When the drama infpircd Raphael, his women
became definitions of grace and pathos at once. Such is
the exquifite line and turn of the half-averted kneeling
female with two children, among the fpecfators of the
punidiment inflifted on Heliodorus ; her attitude, the turn
of her neck, fupplies all face, and intimates more than he
ever exprefied by features."

Raphael, in Geography, a fertile and healthy diftricl,
being the vvefliernmoft in the Spanidi part of St. Domingo.
Its northern boundary is found in part of the French
paridi Gonfalves. The air round St. Raphael in very fa-
lubrious, but the town, which is in a hollow, is very hot;
10 leagues S. of Cape Frangois.

Raphael, Si., Cape, lies at the S. end of St. Domingo,
and is the S.E. hmit of Samana bay.

RAPHANEA, in ^Indent Geography, a city of Syria,
between which and Area, or Arac, a city of Judca be-
longing to the kingdom of Agrippa, the Sabbatical river
flowed. Jofeph. de Bell. 1. vii. c. 24. Raphanea is, per-
haps, the Arpal of fcripture. 2 Kings, xviii. 34. xix. 13.
If. x. 9. xxxvi. 19. xxxvii. 13. Jerem. xhx. 23.

RAPHANIA, in Medicine, an appellation given by
Linnsus, and afterwards by Dr. CuUen and others, to a
fevere and fatal difcafe, which has been defcribed as epi-
demic in Sweden at particular feafons, and imputed to the
ufe of the raphaiuis raphaniftrum of Linna;us as food.

It is not necefl'ary to defcribe the I'ymptoms of this dif-
eafe in this place ; lince it is, in faCt, the fame malady which
has been epidemic in various other countries of Europe,
during feafons of fcarcity ; and has been attributed to va-
rious other fpecies of unwholefome grain, but more efpe-
ciafly to difeafed rye, affefted with the ergot, to the lolium
temulentum, to charlock, &c. We have already entered at
great length into the hiftory of the fymptoms and imputed
caufes of this formidable malady, which has been more com-
monly denominated ergot, from one of its fuppofed fources.
(See EuGOT.) We have endeavoured alfo to diew, that it
conilituted one of the varieties of epidemic difeafe, defcribed
by the ancients, under the appellation of Ignis Saeer (which
fee) ; and that, inilead of being properly imputed to the
^ K adiuii^turc

11 A P

R A P

admixture of any of thefe fiibilanccs with tliL- corn uild for
food, the difeafc is to be afcribed witii more probabihty to
the infuflicient nourifliment afforded by damaged corn, or
the adlual dearth of it, which ufually occur togetlier ; efpe-
cially as thefe difeafcs have commonly been epidemic in
years of fcarcity, which is the only circumftancc that can
be obferved in common to all the epidemics defcribed by
authors. In addition to the works, on ergot and ignis
facer, formerly referred to, c.onfult, for an account of ra-
phania, Pulteney's View of the Writings of Linnaeus ;
Rothman's Paper, in the Amcenitatcs Academ. of Sweden ;
Tiffot. Epiftoke Med. PraA.

RAPH ANIS, in Bolatiy, the name by which the Attics,
among the Greeks, called the radifli ; for the word ra-
phanos, or raphiimu, with thi-ni, does not exprefs the radilh,
but the cabba:^e. The Greek of all other places concurred
in caUing the radilli riiphanm, and the cabbage crambe ; and
it is owing to this that we have many authors who confound
too-ether thefe two plants, though fo very unlike one ano-
ther in appearance and ufe. It is generally to be under-
fiood, that wherever '!. neophraltus mentions the word ra-
phanos, he means by it the cabbage ; and the fame being ob-
ferved, in regard to all the other Attic writers, the whole
danger of confufion and error will ceafe.

RAPHANLSTP-UM, a name given by botanifts to the
wild radilh, and defigned to exprefs its affinity to the culti-
vated one. See Rapiianus.

RAPH ANUS, an ancient name for the Radifh, a fpecies
of this genus, derived from fa, eaftly, or quickly, and <iti.vi(,^.oi.i,
to appear, ox come forth, in allufion to the quickncfs of its
vegetation. — Linn. Gen. 343. Schreb. 445. Willd. Sp.
PI. v. 3. 560. Mart. Mill. Di6l. v. 4. Ait. Hort. Kew.
V. 4. 129. Sm. Fl. Brit. 723. Prodr. Fl. Grxc. Sibth.
V. 2. 32. JufT. 238. Tourn. t. 114. Lamarck lllullr.
t. 566. Gaertn. t. 143. (Raphaniilrum ; Tourn. t. 115.
Gartn. t. 143.) — Clais and order, Tctradynamia SUiquofa.
Nat. Ord. SiliquoJ.r, Linn. Cruc'tfera, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, ereft, of four oblong,
jTfirallel, converging, deciduous leaves, gibbous at the bafe.
Cor. cruciform, of four inverfely heart-fhaped, fpreading
petals, whofe claws are rather longer than the calyx. Nec-
' tariferous glands four ; one at each iide, between the (horter
(famen and the piftil ; and one at each of the oppofite fides
between the longer (larHens and the calyx. Stam. Filaments
fix, awl-(haped, ereft ; two oppofite ones the length of the
calyx ; the relt as long as the claws of the corolla ; anthers
firaple. Pijl- Germen oblong, tumid, tap?ring, the length
of the flamens ; Ityle fcarcely any ; itigma capitate, undi-
Tided. Per'tc. Pod oblong, pointed, fwelling here and
there, imperfeftly jointed, without valves. Seeds roundiili,
fmooth.

Obf. Raphanus of Tournefort and Gaertner has a fpo.igy
fruit, of two cells, not burfling. Raphaiiijlrum of the fame
authors has a jointed fruit, feparating at the joints.

Efl. Ch. Calyx clofed. Ncttariferous glands four.
Pod fwelling out into knobs, imperfectly jojnted, without
valves.

.1. R. fci/ivus. Common Garden Radifh. Linn. Sp. PI.
935. Willd. n. I. Ait. n. i. Ger. Em. 237. ' (R.
primus; Matth. Valgr. v. i. 399.) — Leaves lyratc. Pod
roundifh, tumid, of two cells. — The native country of this
well-known plant, fo commonly cultivated in •gardens, is not
afcertaiiied. Linnaeus mentions China ; but his authority
does not appear. Its chief value with us confifts in the
root, efteemed for its grateful pungency, mixed with a wa-
tery coolnefs. The fhape of this part varies, from its na-
tural fpindle-Iike figure, to a globular one, and the colour
ir

of the (kin from purple to white. We doubt much whether
the R. iiigcr of Bauliiii, commonly called the Black Spanifli
Radifli, which IJnna;u8 marks ji, can belong to this fpecies.
Ito tinnnefs, and black rugged coat, feem to indicate more
than a mere variety. We have not examined the herbage.
The leaves of R. falivus are lyrate, notched, and rough,
efpecially the lower ones ; the upper part of the herb is
fmoother, and fotnewhat glaucous. Stem branched. Flotucrs
purple, coryinbofe ; foon raccmofe. Pods ereft, tumid,
juicy, pale, glaucous, fmooth, flightly ilriated, various in
length and thick nefs, tipped with an awl-fhaped beak.
Linnaeus cultivated at Upfal a Chinefe variety, or poflibly
fpecies, whofe leaves are broader and fmoother, and its whole
habit more lax. The oil of the feeds is faid to be ufed in
China.

2. R. caudatus. Long-tailed Radifh. Linn. Mant. 95.
Linn. fil. Plant. Rar. fafc. I. 19. t. 10. Willd. n. 2.-r-
Leaves lyrate. Pod compreffed, of one cell, wavy, longer
than the whole plant. — Native of Java, where, according
to the younger Linnxus, it is cultivated, and the pickled
pods known by the name of Mougri. In Sweden, as well
as in England, it may be treated as a hardy annual, like the
foregoing ; but the prefent fpecies does not occur in Hort.
Kew., though Mr. Lambert met with it laft year in a
country garden in Wiltdiire. The appearance of the pL.nt,
weighed down to the ground by its immoderately long fer-
pentine pods, is altogether extraordinary. The lobes and
indentations of the leaves are tliarper than in the Common
Radifh, but the flowers and other parts, except the pods,
fcarcely betray any difference.

3. K. Raphan'tjlrum. Wild Radifh, or Jointed Charlock.
Linn. Sp. PI. 935. Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 2. Fl. Brit,
n. I, a,0. Eng. Bot. t. 856. Curt. Lond. fafc. 4. t. 46.
Mart. Ruft. t. 71. Fl. Dan. t. 678. (R. fylveff ris ;
Ger. Em. 240.) — Leaves fimply lyrate. Pod round,
jointed, even, of one cell. — A troublcfome weed in tke corn-
fields of Europe, ilowering in June and July. The root is
annual, fmall, and tapering. Stem branched, round, glau-
cous, rough with prominent bnllles, leafy. Leaves rough,
lyrate ; the upper ones oblong, fimply toothed. Flowers
numerous, lemon-coloured, changing to white in decay,
with purple veins ; fometimes the petals are white from the
firfl. Pods cylindrical, or rather tapering, beaked, knobbed
or imperfeftly jointed, fmooth, becoming ftriated as they
ripen. In" a young llate they are divided into two cells, but
the partition is obliterated, and confounded in one fpungy
mafs, as they ripen. Linnxus was of opinion that the feeds
of this plant caufed a convulfive difeafe, thence termed by
him Ri:phama, of which he has given a hiftory in Amoen.
Acad. v. 6. 430, with a figure, and elaborate fynonymy
of the plant. We have never met with any circumftance to
corroborate this hypothefis.

4. R. markirnus. Sea Radifh. Sm. Engl. Bot. t. 1643.
Ait. n. 3. ( R. Raphaniftrum y ; Fl. Brit. 723. R. ma-
ritimus, flore luteo, filiquis articulatis, fecundum longitu-
dincm eininenter ftriatis ; Raii Syn. 296. Raphaniilrum
fiiiqi:a articulata Itriata maxima ; Moril. v. 2. 266. Raii
Hiil. V. I. 806.) — Radical leaves interruptedly lyrate.
Pod round, jointed, fmooth, deeply furrowed, of one cell. —
Found on the fea-fliore in various parts of Britain, flowering
in May. The late Rev. Dr. Walker, and M^. J. Mackay,
obferved it on the weftern coafts of Scotland ; and the
former cultivated this plant, till his death, as an efculent
root, preferable to horfe radifh ; he alfo found that cattle
were very fond of the leaves. Mr. Turner and Mr. W.
Borrer gathered the fame on rocks, near Beachy Head,
SufTex. The root is large and fucculent, lafting two or

three

RAPHANUS.

three years. Stems tlirec or four feet high, round, rouglieft
atdie bafe. Leaves all rough, and rather fliarply toothed ;
the radical ones interruptedly lyrate, which we have never
obfervtd in the laft delcribed fpecies. T^/oTOfrj of a deeper
yellow, and Icfs veiny. Pods ilrongly jointed, and very
deeply furrowed longitudinally, deftitute of hairs or other
roughnefa. There can be no doubt of this being a dilHnft
fpecies from the former, though generally confounded
therewith.

5. R. Jibirirris. Siberian Radifh. Linn. Sp. PI. 935.
Murray Conuncnt. Gott. for 1775. 48. t. 11. (R. n. 28 ;
Gmel. Sib. v. 3. 266.) — Leaves pinnatifid, fomevvhat
toothed. Pod round, beaded, downy, of one cell. — Native
of Siberia. The feeds were lent by Profeflor Pallas to the
Goettingen garden, where the plant flowered in June. Roof
annual, long, and (lender. Stems from three to fix inches
high ; or more, as the feeds ripen, afcending, leafy, hairy,
fimple or branched. Leaves fometimes elegantly and neatly
pinnatifid, almofl: peiStinate, either in a fimple or interrupted
manner, rcHigliifii at the edge only, fometimes more dilated,
with diftant and broader lobes. Floivers large, yellow,
fvveet-fcented in an evening, xhar petals Ilrongly emarginate.
Pods inflexed, copioufly and neatly beaded in appearance,
rather than diftindtly jointed, downy, each with a fharp
taper beak.

6. R. tcnelliis. Slender Purple Radifh. Pallas Trav.
V. 3. append. 741. t. L. f. 3. Willd. n. 5. Ehrh. Sel.
B. 38. (Chorifpennum tenellum ; Brown in Ait. H. Kew.
V. 4. 129.) — Leaves fmooth, oblong, toothed; the lower?
moit pinnatifid. Pod awl-fliaped, jointed, fmooth, of two
cells. — Native of deferts near the Cafpian fea. A hardy an-
nual in our gardens, flowering in June and July. Root
long, fimple, tapering, and flender. Herb fmooth, fcarcely
branched, leafy. Leaves elliptic-oblong, toothed or pin-
natifid, tapering down into longifli footilalks. Floivers
fmall, purple. Beak of the pod very long and flender.
The ingenious Mr. Brown feparates this from Raphanus
chiefly, as it feems, becaufe the cotyledons are flat, not
folded.

7. R. arcuatus. Curve-podded Radifli. Willd. n. 6. —
" Leaves oblong-lanceolate, toothed. Pod awl-fhaped,
curved, two-celled, fmooth." — Native country unknown.
Willdenow cultivated the plant, which he defcribes as an-
nual, with an ere£t branched Jlem, hardly a fpan high.
Leaves fl:alked, oblong-lanceolate, very fmooth, with broad
fliallow teeth. Flowers fmall, violet. Pods round, of two
cells, jointed, curved, fmooth, ftriated, with an awl-fliaped
beak. The figure of Hefpcris arenaria, Desfont. Atlant.
V. 2. t. 162, anfwers exadlly to tliis plant, except the
pods. Willdenoiu.

8. R. lanceolatus. Lanceolate Radifli. Willd. n. 7

" Leaves oblong-lanceolate, fomewhat toothed at the apex.
Pod tumid, fmooth, two-celled, with a fquarifli beak." —
Native of the Weft Indies. Stem a foot and half high,
eredl, zigxag, with ftiort branches, fmooth like every other
part of the plant. Leaves italked, oblong-lanceolate ; the
uppermoft lanceolate, narrow, entire ; the lower ones
bluntly toothed at the extremity. Floiuers of a middhng
fize, yellow, in a terminal clutter, fix inches long. Pods
half an inch long, witli a long, obtufe, obfcurely quadran-
gular beak. IVilldenoiv.

9. R. pllofus. Hairy-ftalked Radifli. Willd. n. 8.—
" Leaves lanceolate-linear, pinnatifid at the bafe. Stem
reugh with briftly hairs. Pod round, fmooth, jointed, of
one cell." — Native of Guinea. Stem, two feet, or perhaps
more, in height, branched, divaricated. Leaves three inches
long, narrow, fmooth, pointed ; pinnatifid at the bafe ;

toothed in the middle ; entire at the extremity. CluJUr:
axillary from every leaf, of few flowers. Pods an inch and
half long, round, jointed, of one cell, with a fliort beak, all
ot them turned one way. H^illdenow.

R. erucoides, Linn. Suppl. 299, is rightly referred by
Mr. Brown, in Ait. H. Kew. v. 4. 126, to Slnapis /llMli,
Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. t. 168. Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 5^7.
(See SlNAl'ls.) Willdenow cites it, doubtingly, under
Brajfua Cheiranthus of Villars, a very different jWant ; for
which he alfo by miftake quotes Barrel. Ic. t. 1016, a fy-
noiiym properly belonging to Sifymbrium Jiarrelierl.

Linnaeus once referred Biinias Cakile to this genus of
Raphanus.

Raj'JIanus, in Gardening, contains plants of the her-
baceous, annual, efculent kind, of which the fpecies culti-
vated is, the common garden radifli (R.fativus).

There are feveral varieties ; fome of which have the ap-
pearance of diflinft fpecies, from their fliape, fize, and co-
lour of the roots ; as the long^rooted, which is that com-
monly cultivated in kitchen-gardens for its roots. Of lliib
there are feveral fubordinate variations : as the fmall-topped,
and the long-topped ftriped radifli. The fmall-topped
is mofl; commonly preferred by the gardeners near London,
as they require much Icfs room than thofe with large
tops ; for as forward radiflies are xvhat produce the greateft
profit to the gardener, and thcfe are commonly fown upon
borders near hedges, walls, or pales, the large -topped forts
would be apt to grow moftly at top, and not fwell fo much
in the root as the other, efpecially if the plants fliould be left
pretty clofe.

The fmall round-rooted, which is not very common here,
but in many parts of Italy it is the only one cultivated ;
the roots of this are very white, round, fmall, and very fweet.
It is now frequently brought to the London markets in the
fpring, generally in bunches, and is fometimes miilaken there
for young turnips : when eaten young, it is crifp, mild, and
pleafant.

The large turnip-rooted, or nuhite Spantjh, which has a
moderately large, fpheroidal white root, and is efleemed
chiefly for eating in autumn and the early part of winter.
Both thefe forts are commonly called indilcriminately tur-
nip radiflies.

The black turnip-rooted SpaniJIi, which has a root like
the preceding, white within, but with a black flcin ; and
is greatly efl;eemed by many for autumn and winter eating.

There are likewife fome other fubvarieties of the radifli
noticed by gardeners, as the common falmon radijh, and the
fliort-topped early falmon radiflj. Alfo the fmall red
turnip-rooted radi/l.\ Gardeners, too, often call the long-
topped fort \\ie fallad radifh.

Method of Culture — Thefe are raifed from feed by dif-
ferent fowings from the end of October till April, or the-
following month. They fliould have a light fine mould,
and the more early fowings be made on borders, under
warm walls, or other fimilar places, and in frames covered
by glades. The common fpindle-rooted, fliort-topped forts
are moftly made ufe of in thefe early fowings, the feed
being fown broadcall over the beds after they have been pre-
pared by digging over and raking the lurface even, being
covered in with a flight raking. Some fow carrots with the
early crops of radiflies.

It is ufnal to proteft the early fown crops in the borders,
during frofty nights and bad weather, by mats or dry wheat
ftraw, which fliould be carefully removed every mild day.
By this means they are brought more forward, as well as
form better roots. When mats are ufed, and fupported by
pegs or hoops, they are readily applied and rcKioved.

3 K 2 A fecond

RAP

A f'-cond more general fowing fhould be made in Janu-
ary or Ftbruary. Wlien the crops liave got their rough
leaf, they fhoulJ be tiiinned out, where they are too thick,
to the dillance of two inches, as tliere will be conllantly
more thinning by the daily drawing of the young radifhcs.

When the weather is dry in March, or the following
month, the crops ihould be occalionally well watered, which
not only forwards the growth of the crops, but increafes
the fize of the roots, and renders them more mild and crifp
in eating.

And thefowings fhould be continued at the diltance of a
fortnight, till the latter end of March, when they fhould
be performed every ten days, until the end of April or
beginning of the following month. In fowing thefe later
crops, it is the praftiee of fome gardeners to fow cofs-let-
tuces and fpinach with them, in order to have the two crops
cominT forward at the fame time, but the praftice is not to
be mucfc recommended, where there is fufTicient room.

But in fowing the main general crops in the open quar-
ters, the market-gardeners generally put them in on the
fame ground where they plant out their main crops of cau-
liflowers and cabbages, mixing fpinach with the radifli-ieed
as above, fowing the feeds firil, and raking them in, then
planting the cauliflowers or cabbages ; the radifhes and
fpinach come in for ufe before the other plants begin to
fpread much, and as foon as thofe fmall crops are all
cleared off for ufe, hoe the ground all over to kill weeds and
loofen the foil, drawing earth about the Hems of the cauli-
flowers and cabbages.

The turnip radifli fliould not be fown till the beginning
of March, the plants being allowed a greater dillance than
for the common fpindle-rooted fort. The feeds of this fort
are apt to degenerate, unlefs they are fet at a diilance from
that kind.

The white and black Spanifli radifhes are ufually fown
about the middle of Jidy, or a little earlier, and are fit for
the table by tlie end of Auguft, or the beginning of Sep-
tember, continuing good till froll fpoils them. Thefe (hould
be thinned to a greater diftance than the common fort, as
their roots grow as large as turnips, and (liould not be left
nearer than fix inches.

To have thefe roots in winter, they fliould be drawn
before hard froll comes on, and laid in dry fand, as praftifed
for carrots, carefully guarding tliem from wet and froft ; as
in this way they may be kept till the fpring.

In regard to the culture of the general .crops, they re-
quire very little, except occafional thinning where they are
too thick, when the plants are come into the rough leaf,
either by hoeing or drawing them out by hand : though for
large quantities, fmall hoeing is the moil expeditious mode
of thinning, as well as moll beneficial to the crop by loofen-
ing the ground ; in either method thinning the plants to
about two or three inches diilance, clearing out the weakeft,
aad leaving the ftrongell to form the crop.

In order to fave the feed, about the beginning of May
fome ground fliould be prepared by digging and levelling ;
then drawing fome of the ilraightell and beil-coloured
radiflies, plant them in rows three feet dillant, and two
feet afunder in the rows ; obferving, if the feafon be dry,
to water them until they have taken root : after which they
\vill only require to have the weeds hoed down between them,
until they are advanced fo high as to overfpread the ground.

When the feed begins to ripen, it fliould be carefully
guarded againit the birds. When it is ripe, the pods will
turn brown : t^ien it mull be cut, and fpread in the fun to
dry ; after which it mull be thrallied, and laid up for ufe
where no mice can gome at it.

R A P

MetJioiliiJ Culture on Ilol-heds. — Tiiis method is foinetime-.i
practifed in order to liavc the roots early, as in January oi
the following month. They (hould have eighteen inches
depth of dung to bring them up, and fix or feveii inches
depth of light rich mould. The feed fliould be fown mo-
derately thick, covering it in half an inch thick, and put-
ting on the lights : the plants ufually come up m a week
or lefs ; and when they appear, the lights (hould be lifted
or taken oft occafionally, according to the weather ; and
in a fortnight thin the plants to the diilance of an inch and
half or two inches, when in fix weeks they will be fit to
draw. Where there are no frames to fpare, the beds may
be covered with mats over hoops, and the fides fecured by
boards and ftraw-bands. And when in want of dung, if
the beds be covered with frames, and the lights put on at
night and in bad weather, the plants may be raifed for
ufe a fortnight fooner than in the open borders.

RAPHE, in jinatomy, a Greek term, fignifying future,
applied to fome parts of the body ; thus we liavc the
raphe corporis callofi in the brain (fee Brain); raphe
perinei, fcroti, and penis. See Generation.

RAPHELENGIUS,fometimes called Raulenghien,
Francis, in B'wgrnphy, a learned orientalifl, was born in
1539 at Lanoy, near Lille, in Flanders. He had the early
part of his education at Ghent, but on the death of his
father, it was intended to bring him up to trade, and for
that purpofe he was lent to Nuremberg. Here he had
accefs to books, relumed his lludies, and took an opportu-
nity of going to Paris, where he made great progrefs in
the Greek and Hebrew languages. The civil wars obliged
him to quit France, and he came to England, where, for
fome time, he taught Greek in the univerfity of Cam-
bridge. After this he returned to the Low Countries, and
became a cor'reclor of the prefs to the celebrated printer
Plantin, whofe daughter he married in the year 1565. He
made himfelf very ferviceable in the printing office, efpecially
with refpeft to the famous Antwerp Polyglot Bible, printed
in 1 57 1 by order of Philip II. of Spain. When Plantin
removed to Leyden, he left his bufinefs at Antwerp under
the care of Raphelengius, and upon his return the latter
went to Leyden. The curators of the univerfity of that
place conferred upon him the profeflbrlhip of Hebrew, to
which was added that of Arabic. He died in 1597. His
literary works were " Varise Leftiones et Emendationes in
Chaldaicam Bibliorum Paraphrafin ;" " Grainmatica He-
brsea ;" " Didlionarium Chaldaicum ;" and " Lexicon
Arabicum." He had a fon of the fame name, a man of
talents and learning, who publifhed " Notes upon Seneca's
Tragedies," and " Eulogies, in Verfe, of fifty Perfons, with
their Portraits."

RAPHIA, in Botany, from pa^i:, a point or needle, fo
that it ought to have been Rhaphia, a genus of Palms, with
a very pointed fruit, efl;ablillied by Palifot Beauvois, in his
Flore d'Oivare et de Benin, falc. 8.

Raphia, in Ancient Geography, a famous city in the Me-
diterranean, between Gaza and Rhinocorura. This was
perhaps Gatli of the Rephiam. Raphia is famous for the
vitlory of Philopator, king of Egypt, over Antiochus the
Great, king of Syria. (3Maccab. i. 11.) Jofephus fays
(Aiitiq. 1. xiii. c. 21.) that Raphia was taken by Alexander
Jannieus, and after being ruined in the wars, was repaired
by Gabinius. There are extant fome ancient medals ilruck
at Raphia, and fome bifliops of this city are found in the
lifts of the eallern councils.

RAPPIIDIA, in Entomology, a genus of infe£ls of the
order Neuroptera, of which there are two fpecies. The
generic charafter is as follows ; Mouth with a curved

toothed

RAP

RAP

tootlied horny mandible ; the thorax is long and cylin-
drical ; it has three ftcmmata ; the wings are deflcftcd ;
the aiitenns filiform, as long as the thorax, the anterior
part is eloHgated and cylindrical : it has four feelers, which
are (hort and filiform ; the tail of the female is terminated
by a large recurved briille.

* Ophiosus. The wings of this fpecies are immaculate.
It inhabits divers parts of Europe in woods, and preys on
other infedls.

* NoTATA. Wings with a brown marginal fpot. It
inhabits England, and has been thought to be only a va-
riety of the former. The body is black ; the head is alfo
black with a teftaceous ipot ; the legs are tellaccous ; the
appendage of the female is as long as the body.

RAPHOE, in Geography , ahiihopnc of Ireland, in the cc-
clefiaitical province of Armagh, which comprifes the greater
part of the county of Donegal, being 44 miles in length
from north to fouth, and 32 in breadth, comprehending
515,250 Irifh acres. It contains 31 parifhes, m which are
32 churches. The dean, archdeacon, and four prebendaries,
compofe the chapter. The patronage of 6 parilhcs, which
form the corps of the deanery, is in the crown; of 15
others, in the bifliop ; of 7, in the univerfity of Dublin ; and
of 3, in lay hands. It is not precifely known at what time
this fee was founded, but it mull have been as early as the
ninth century, fince bifiiops of Raphoe are mentioned at
that time. Beaufort.

Raphoe, a fmall poft-town of Ireland, the parilli church
of which ferves as a cathedral, where is the bifiiop's pa-
lace. It is 107 miles N. by W. from Dublin.

Raphoe, a townfhip in Lancafter ceunty, Pennfylvania,
containing 2814 inhabitants.

RAPHON, in Ancient Geography, a city beyond Jordan,
on a brook, not far from Carnaim.

RAPICIO, GnoviTA, in Biography, an Italian man of
letters, was born about the year 1480, at Chiari, in the ter-
ritory of Brefcia. Devoting himfelf to the inllniftion of
youth in literature, he firft opened a fchool at Bergamo,
where he wrote a Latin treatife on the'education of youth,
which was afterwards printed at Venice. He next taught
at Vicenza, and various other cities in Italy, and was for
many years employed at Venice in inftrufting, in polite li-
terature, the youths deilined for public life, and among
others, the care and inftruftion of the fons of cardinal
Bembo were devolved upon him. Cardinal Pole, in one of
his letters, fpeaks of Rapicio in high terms of commenda-
tion. He died at Venice in 1553. He was author of va-
rious harangues, poems, ard epiftles, but his chief work
was entitled " De niunero Oratorio," in five books, printed
at Venice in 1544. " In this," fays his biographer, " he mi-
nutely inveftigates the principles of writing the Latin lan-
guage with i'wectnefs and harmony, and he replies to Me-
lanfthon's afl'ertion, that rules of this kind are rendered
ufelefs by our ignorance of the ancient pronunciation.
Moreri."

RAPID Ann, in Geography, a fmsll river of Virginia,
which runs into the Rappahanock, about 10 miles above
Frederickfburg.

Rapid Pl^f, IJle m, a fmall ifiand of Upper Canada, in
the ri-ver St. Lawrence, in front of the townfhip of Ma-
tilda, containijig about 200 acres.

Ratio River, a river which runs into Hudfon's Bay.

RAPIDES, a county of the territory of Orleans, con-
taining three parities, viz. Rapides, including 2200 inhabit-
ants, Catahula 1 1 64, and Avoyelles 1209.

RAPIER, properly denotes a long, ordinary, old-

5

fafliioncd cutting fword, fuch as thofc worn by the com-
mon foldiers.

Tiie word is formed from the French rap'tere, of the Greek
fxm'^iiv, cxdcre, tofmile, ax Jlrike.

In this fenfc do the French Hill ufe the term ; fo that
among them, to take the rapier, is to enter in tlie army.

Rapikk, in a modern fenle among us, iifually denotes a
fmall fword, r.s contradiiUnguiflied from a back-fword, or
cutting-lwoid.

RAPILLO, in Mineralogy, the name given by the Ita-
lians to the fand or powders (improperly called a(he8) thrown
from the craters of volcanoes in immenfe quantities, towards
the conclufion of an eruption. See Volcano, and Vol-
canic Proditcls.

RAPIN, Rkni:, in Biography, a Jefuit, was born at
Tours in 1621. He entered the fociety in 1639, and was
a teacher of the belles lettres in it during nine years. ~ He
became eminent by feveral publications in the Latin and
French, and obtained a high rank among the Ktcrary cha-
radlers of his time. It is, however, as a Latin poet that he
is chiefly known : his didadtic poem on Gardens, entitled
" Hortorum, lib. iv." firit printed in 1665, has palled
through many editions, and has been regarded as one of the
moll elegant and claffical pieces of modern Latin verfe. By
others it has been thought a work of art and lludy, rather
than an efFufion of poetical feeling and fancy, and treats on
gardening more as a branch of rural economy than as one of
the fine arts. His other Latin poems are facred eclogues,
heroic, elegiac, and lyric poems. Father Rapin died at
Paris in 1687. 'He was no Icfs eileemed for his virtues
and amiable qualities, than admired for his talents ; aiid he
pofleiled all that pohlh and fitnefs for the fociety of the
great world, which have dillinguidied this order from other
religious communities. His works were collected and pub-
lifhed, in 3 vols. i2mo. 1681. There is a fine edition of his
" Hortorum," publiihcd by Brotier at Paris, in 1780. Ra-
pin was great as a critic, in which line he is known by his
"Reflexions fur 1' Eloquence, fur la Poefie, fur THilloire,
et fur la Philofophie ;" and alfo by his " Comparaifons de
Virgile et d'Homere," printed in 2 vols. 4to. Bayle.
Moreri.

Rapin de Thovras, Paul, well known as the hiftorian
of England, was born at Callres, in Langucdoc, in 1661.
He was dcfcended from a noble family of Savoy, which
came into France in the reign of Francis I. for the fake of
profefiing the reformed religion. The fubjecl of this article,
after having received his education, went to his father, who
was an advocate in the chamber of the cdiA at Nantes, for
thepurpofe of iludying the law. He was in due time ad-
mitted an advocate, but the chamber being fuppreiied in the
fame year, he went with his father to Touloufe. On the
revoealion of the edicT: of Nantes, in 1(785, he withdrew to
England, after which he went to Holland, and entered into
a company of French cadets at Utrecht. In 1689 he fol-
lowed the prince of Orange into England, and obtained an
enfigncy in lord Kingllon's regiment, which went to Ireland.
He was engaged in feveral battles, particularly at the fieges
of Carrickfergus and Limerick, and at the battle of the
Boync, and fo much diitinguifhed liimfelf, that he ob-
tained a captain's commiirion. In 1693 he was nominated
governor to the fon of the earl of Portland, refigned his
commifTion to a younger brother, and received from the
crown, for his pall fervices, 100/. a-year. He travelled to
different countries in company with his pupil, and refided with
him fome lime at the I-Jague. By the deatii of king William
he was deprived of liis penfion, and his engagement as private
tutor being over, he retired, in 1707, to Wefel, in the duchy

of

RAP

RAP

of Cleves, wliere he devoted himfelf to the compofition of
the hidoiy of England. Here he died in 1725. He had, pre-
vioufly to'hisdeceafe,pubhnied inthe year 1 7 17, "Dilfertation
fur les Whigs etTorys," which was tranflated into Enghfli.
His great work, " L'Hiftoire de Angletcrre," was printed
at the Hague in 9 vols. 4to. in the years 1725 — 6. It com-
mences with the remoteft periods, and is brought down to
the proclamation of William and Mary. It lias been twice
tranflated into our own language, and was, till the appear-
ance of Hume, the mod popular hillory of England, and
Tindal's, or rather Birch's, and other continuations, have
been adapted to it. It is vvi-itten in a prolix and unanimated
ftyle, but defervee the praifc of much folid information.
" His work," fays an excellent writer, "is of great authority,
on account of his perpetual references to original documents,
and the ample quotatioivs which he frequently makes from
important Hate papers, confer upon it additional value. He
has fo copioufly detailed the matters which were agitated in
the turbulent, but prudent parliament of Charlc-:. 1., as to
give a clear view of the rife of thofe parties which to this
day divide the people of England. On the dark and horrible
tranfa6tions of the reign of Charles II. he perhaps throws
as much light as it is now poflible to obtain. In reference
to that important period, he has rtated hiftorical difficulties
with candour, and in difcuffing the merits and demerits of
parties, he has weighed evidence with laudable fcrupulofity."
(See Shepherd's Syftematic Education.) Rapin, during
the collcftion of his materials, undertook the ufeful labour
of making an " Abridgment of Rymer's Foedera," which
was publilhed in Le Clerc's " Bibliotheque Choifie ;" and
tranflated into the Englifh by Mr. Stephen Whatley, and
publiflicd in 1733, under the title of " Afta Regia," and
in folio.

RAPINE, Rapina, in Law. To take a thing in pri-
vate; againfl the owner's will, is properly /Z'f/i' ; but to take
it openly or by violence, is rapine, or robbery.

RAPINIA, in Betaiiy, was fo called by Loureiro, Fl.
Cochinch. 127, after father Rene Rapin, a French Jefuit,
author of an elegant Latin poem on gardens, who died in
1687, aged 66. If this writer contributed nothing to im-
prove the fcience of botany, he has, doubtlefs, helped to
promote a love of plants, and may therefore claim a botanic
wreath. A Jefuit of his day is doubly entitled to refpecl,
for having, like the good Loureiro, turned his mind to an
elegant and improving purfuit, from thofe two corrupters
of the human heart and underltanding, political intrigue, and
fcholaitic divinity ; in which moft of his brethren fought
their temporal, and oftenfibly their eternal, good. The Ra-
pln'ta of Loureiro however, proved, on the examination of
his fpecimens by the late Mr. Dryander, to be the Sphe

than the calyx. Stam. Filaments fix, about the lengtli of
the calyx, the four oppofite ones rather the longeft ; anthers
fimple. Ptjl. Germen oblong ; ityle awl-{haped, the length
of- the calyx ; iligma obtule. Perk. Pouch lenticular,
pointed, corrujrated, of two cells, and two cohering, not
ipontaneoufly feparatiug, coriaceous valves ; partition mem-
branous. Seeds roundilh, folitary in each cell j cotyledons
flat.

Efl'. Ch. Calyx fpreading. Pouch of two cells, and two
convex valves, not burfting.

I. R. paniculatum. Panicled Rapiltrum. Ait. n. 2.
(R. arvenfe, folio auriculato acuto ; Tourn. Inft. 211.
Myagrum paniculatum ; Linn. Sp. PI. 894. Willd. Sp.
PI. v. 3. 409. Fl. Dan. t. 204. Myagro fimilis, fihqua
rotunda; Bauh. Prodr. 52.) — Native of cultivated fields in
various parts of Europe, from Sweden to Greece, but not,
as yet, obferved in Britain. Root annual, tapering. Stem
about two feet high, ereft, round, roughifh, leafy, branched.
Leaves oblong, acute, undivided, rough, fomewhat toothed,
clafping the Item with their arrow-fhaped bafe. Floiuers
fmall, yellow, in numerous clullers, which become greatly-
elongated when in fruit. Pouch fcarcely bigger than muftard-
feed, a little abrupt, finely reticulated. One of the feeds
is often, but not always, abortive. Mr, Brown refers to
this genus the Bunias icgyptiaca of Linnaeus, which agrees
with our R. paniculatum in having flat, not fpiral, cotyledons,
but has otherwife the charadlers of Bunias.

Rapistrum is alfo a fpecies of the fea-cabbage, or
crainbe.

RAPOLLA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Bafi-
hcata, the fee of a bifhop, united to Melfi ; fix miles W.
of Venofa. N. lat. 40° 58'. E. long, i;^ 44'.

RAPORE, a town of Naples, in Principato Ultra ;
9 miles E. of Conza.

RAPOSO, a town of South America, in the country
of Popayan. — Alfo, a river of Popayan, which runs into
the Pacific ocean, N. lat. 3° 48'. — Alfo, a finall ifland in
the Pacific ocean, near the coaft of Popayan. N. lat. 4^.

RAPPAHANOCK, a large navigable river of Virgi-
nia, which rifes in the Blue Ridge, ;>■ ' , u.13 about 130 miles
from N.W. to S.E., and ent. 'lefapeak bay, be-
tween Windmill and Stingr;.;^ ^ It waters, in its

courfe, the towns of Falmouth, Frederickfburg, Port-Royal,
Leeds, Tappahannock, and Urbonne.

RAPPE, in Commerce, a money of account in Switzer-
land, 10 of which are equal to a good batze ; and 6 are
equal to a plappert, (hiiling, or efcalin. This is the cafe at

Bafil, but at Lucern the plappert is only 3 rappen, and
the Zurich efcalin = 3f rappen.

Rappe, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome to the

NOCLEA of Other authors ; and this lad-mentioned name is - cap'iio Jluinatilis rapax of Gelner, more frequently known by

now generally adopted. See that article.

RAPING, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo
Citra ; nine miles S. of Civita di Chieti.

RAPISTRUM, in Botany, originally the wild turnip,
fo called from its affinity to Rapa,^\ie cultivated one.
Tournefort, however, ufes the word generically, for fome
fpecies referred by other botanids to Myagrum. In this he
is followed, as far as concerns M. paniculatum, by Gartner,
and by the writer of the prefent article, in the Prodr. Fl.
Grsec. — Tourn. t. 99. Girtn. v. i. 2S5. t. 141. Sm.
Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 2. I. Brown in Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 4. 74. — Clafs and order, Tetradynamia Siliculofa.
Nat. Ord. Siliquo/a, Linn. Crucifera, Jufl".

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of four oblong, fpreading,
deciduous leaves, gibbous at the bafe. Cor. cruciform, of four
ebovate, entire, fpreadmg petals, whofe claws are fliorter

th? name of the corvus p'lfcis.

RAPPERSCHWEIT, in Geography, a town of Switzer-
land, and capital of a didrift to which it gives name ; fituated
on the N. fide of the lake of Zurich, over which there is a
bridge, 1852 paces in length, built in 1358 by the counts of
Habfljurg. The town was founded in 1091, and formerly
had its own counts. In 1358 it was fold to the fons of Al-
bert, archduke of Audria. In 1464 it put itfelf under the
cantons of Uri, Schweitz, Unterwalden, and Glarus, with a ■
referve of its liberties ; but the cantons gradually made
themfelves maders of it. At the peace of Arau in 1 7 1 2, its
liberties were reftored, though the country remains fubjeft
to the fovereignty of Zurich and Berne ; 15 miles S.E.'of
Zurich.

RAPPIN, a town of Anterior Pomerania ; 7 miles N. of
Bergen.

RAPPO

R A R

RAPPO Rai'PO, a bay on the coafl of Mowce, one of

the Sandwicli iflands.

RAPPOLTSKIRCHEN, a town of Auftria; five
miles S. of Tiihi.

RAPPORT, Fr. in Miijic, is foinetiincs ufetl for propor-
tion, and foinetimcs for relation, words wliich will be ex-
plained in their places.

RAPPS, in G'Sography, a town of Auftria, on the river
Taya ; four miles S. W. of Drofendorf.

RAPSO, a town of litria ; 52 miles S.E. of Capo
d'Iftria.

RAPTEC, a river of HinJoortan, which runs into the
Dewah, five miles S.VV. of S-lkmpour.

RAPTU H^KEDIS, in Law, an ancient writ which lies
for taking away an heir, holding" in focage ; of which there
are two forts ; one when the heir is married, the other when
not. See Ravishment.

RAPTURE, Raptuua, an cxtafy, or tranfport of
mind. .See ExTASY, Enthusiasm, Rhapsody, &c.

RAPUNCULUS, in Botany, the Rampioii, owes its
name to a reiemblancc in the root to a Rape, or oblong
Turnip. This root, Campanula Rapunculus of L'-unxus, is
biennial, fcarcely larger than a radiih, vs'hich it refembles
alio in fhape, but the colour is white. Its flavour is iweet
and mild, notwithftanding fome degree of inilkiueis in the
juices, in which it accords with other, ufually bitter and
acrid, fpecies of its genus. The Rampion is now mubh lefs
cultivated than formerly, and almolt a itranger at our
tables.

RAPUNTIUM, a name ufed by Tournefort and Mori-
fon for fome plants referred to Lobelia by Linnajus. See
L.OBELIA. ) Gartner, having adopted Plumier's Lobelia, the
Linnasan Scisvala, reftores Rapuntium ; but fuch a meafure
could now lead to inconvenience only.

RAPLITIA, fo called by Aublet, becaufe the plant
grows in the iorells of Orapu in Guiana. Jufiieu and La-
marck have retained this curious name. Schreber has
changed it for SciuRls ; fee that article hereafter.

RARAKIT, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Ceram, at the foot of a mountain covered with trees, which
ferves as a harbour for pirates.

RARE, in Phyjir.s, denotes a body that is very porous,
whofe parts are at a great diftance from one another, and
which contains but little matter under a great deal of bulk.

In this fenfe rare Hands oppofed to dtnfe.

The corpufcular philofophers, i'i=. the Epicureans, Gaf-
fendiits, Newtonians, &c. aflert that bodies are rarer fome
than others, in virtue of a greater quantity of vacuity in-
cluded between their pores. The Cartefians hold, that a
greater rarity only confifts in a greater quantity of materia
fubtilis included in the pores. Laftly, the Peripatetics
contend, that rarity is a new quality fuperinduced upon a
body without any dependence, either on vacuity, or iubtile
matter.

RARECOURT, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Meuie ; lo miles S.W. of Verdun.

RAREE, a town of Hindooftan, in Concan ; zo miles
N.N.W. of Goa. — AU'o, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ;
II mile's N.N.W. of Durbungah.

RAREFACTION, Rarefactio, in W-v/z^j-, the atl by
which a body is rendered rare; that is, is brought to poH'efs
more room, or appear under a larger bulk, without ac-
ceffion of any new matter.

Rarefa3hn is oppofed to comlaij'alion.

Our more accurate writers reftrain rarefaftion to that
expanfion of a mafs into a larger bulk, which is cffedled by

R A R

means of heat. All expanfion from other caufes they call

dilatatujtt.

The Cartefians deny any fuch thing as, abfolute rare-
faftion : cxtenfion, with them, coiiftituting the efl'ence of
matter, they are obliged to hold all extenfion equally full.

Hence, they make rarefadtion to be no other than an ac-
ceffion of fredi, fubtilt, and infenfible matter, which, enter-
ing the parts of the body, fenfibly diftends them. See this
difproved under Vacuum.

It is by rarefadion that gunpowder has its effc-ft ; and
to the fame principle alfo we owe our asohpilcs, thermo-
meters, &c.

The degree to which the air is rarefiable exceeds all ima-
gination : Merleunus, long ago, by means of an intenfe
heat, found that air might be rarefied fo as to poflefs more
than feventy times its former fpacc.

Mr. Pioyle afterwards found, tiiat air, by its own elafticity,
and without the help of any heat, would dilate itfelf fo as
to take up nine times its former fpace ; tlien 31 times;
then 60 ; then i 50 : at length, by many degrees, he found
it would reach tu 8000 times, then 10,000, and finally to
I3.,679.

Such is the rarefaftion of common air, from its own
principle of elafticicity, and without any previous condenfa-
tion ; but if it be comprelled, the fame author found its
greateft fpace when moit rarefied, is to its leaft when moft
condenfed, as 55,000 to i.

Such an immenfe rarefaftion, ur Ifaac Newton Ihews,
is inconceiveable on any other principle than that of a
repelling force inherent in the air, by which its particles
mutually fly from one another.

This repelling force, he obferves, is much more confider-
able in air than in other bodies, as U,eing generated from
the moft fixt bodies, and that with much difficulty, and
fcarcely without fermentation ; thofe particles being always
found to fly from each other with the molt force, which,
when in contaft, cohere the moft firmly. See Air.

The members of the French Royal Academy have be-
llowed mucii attention on the different rarefadtions, or rather
the different rarities of the air at different heights. M.
Mariotte eftabliflied this as a principle, from experiments,
that the different rarefaflions, or condenfations, of the air,
follow the proportion of the weights with which it is
preffed.

Hence, fuppofing the mercury in the level of the fea
fufpended to twenty-eight inches, which is the weio-ht of
the whole atmofphere ; and that fixty feet height of air
are equivalent to a line, or one-twelfth of an inch of mer-
cury ; fo that the barometer, at the height of fixty feet
from the fea, would fall a line ; it is eafy finding what
height of air would be equal to a fecond, or any other line
of mercury : for as twenty-eight inches of mercury one-
tweifth are to twenty-eight inches, fo is the height of fixty
feet of air to a fourth term, which is the height of air cor-
rcfponding to a fecond line of mercury.

And after the fame manner may the height of air cor-
refpoiiding to each line be found ; which vi'ill make a geo-
metrical progrefiion, the fum of which will be the whole
height of the Atmosphere (which fee) ; and, of confe-
quence, a certain part of that fum will be the height of a
mountain, at whofe top the barometer (hall have funk a
certain quantity.

Mefl'rs. Caflini and Maraldi, upon meafuring the heights
of leveral mountains, found, that this progrefiion of M.
Mariotte was dcfefrtive ; that it always j;ave the height of
the mountains, and confequently the rarefactions, lefs than
they really were ; and from fome farther experiments,

M. Amon-

HAS

R A S

M. Amontons found, that the principle will only hold
in the mean rarcfaftions, not in the extremes. See
Barometkk.

RAREN, or Raron, in Geography, a town of the Va-
lais, and capital of a tithing ; 21 miles E. of Sion.

RARGIARA, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 32
miles S.W. of Bahar.

RARITON, a river of America, in NewJerfey, formed
by two confidcrablc ftreams, called the north and fouth
branches ; the one rifes in Morris county and the other in
the county of Hunterdon. This river pafTes by Brunfwick
and Amboy, and, uniting with the waters of the Arthur
KuU found, helps to form the fine harbour of Amboy. At
Rariton hills, through which this river pafTes, is a fmall
cafcade, with a fall of water from fifteen to twenty feet,
romantically fituatcd between two rocks. Copper ore has
been found upon the upper part of this river.

Rariton, a town of New Jerfey, fituated between the
mouth of the N. branch of the above river and Boundbrook ;
12 miles N.W. of Brunfwick.

RARO, a town of Hungary ; 8 miles E.S.E. of Al-
tenburg.

RARONGHAKON, a large lake of Thibet. N. lat.
31° 4'. E. long 85"-- 52'.

" RARUM, Non-Spifum, in the Jncient Mufic. See
Apycnon.

RAS, in Geography, a town of Syria, anciently called
" Conna," fituated near the fource of the Orontes ; 24
miles N. of Balbec.

Ras Abad, or Baha, a cape on the coafl. of Arabia, in
the Red fea ; 10 miles S.S.W. of Jiddah.

KAS-Acon-natter. See Caxines.

Ras Adder. See Cape Bon.

Ras Ahaha%, a cape on the coaft of Arabia, in the Red
fea. N. lat. 18° 19'. E. long. 37^ 48'.

Ras Ain, or Am Verdeh, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Diarbekir ; 80 miles S. of Diarbekir. N.
lat. 36° 34'. E. long. 39^48'.

Ras el Amoufhe, a cape of Africa, on the coaft of Algiers ;
42 miles E. of cape Tennes. N. lat. 36° 41'. E. long.
2° 48'.

Ras Affah, a cape on the coaft of AbyfGnia, in the Red
fea. N. tat. 13° 8'. E. long. 43° 10'.

Ras el Camir or Kanjir, or cape of the wild boar, a town
of Syria, in the pachalic of Aleppo, near a cape on the fea-
coaft ; 16 miles W. of Alexandretta.

Ras el Door, a cape on the coaft of Nubia, in the Red
fea. N. lat. 21"^ 21'. E. long. 36° 9'.

Ras el Anf or Enf, I. e. cape of the Rofe, a cape on the
coaft of Egypt, in the Red fea ; without tree or herb ; in
the front of the point are the remains of a large temple. N.
lat. 23° 57'.

Ras Fartach. See Fartach.

Ras Fillam, a cape on the E. coaft of Arabia; 18
miles S.E. of cape Mozendum. N. lat. 29° 59'.

Ras Ibrahim, a cape of Arabia, in the Red fea ; 6 miles
S. Ghunfude.

Ras Iggidld, or Ras el Jidid, a cape of Nubia, in the
Red fea ; near which is a harbour, refembling a cauldron,
and round as the arch of a circle ; the entrance is formed
by two points, N. and S. of each other, with 18 fathoms of
water, and in the harbour 13. This port is fubjeft to no
inconvenience, except from the eaft. N. lat. 22"^ 15'. E.
long. 36°. ,

Ras al Mahbees, a cape of Africa, on the coaft of Tri-
poli. N. lat. 32° 18'. E. long. 1 1° 49'.

Ras Mohammed, a cape ou the coail of Arabia, in th*
Red fea. N. lat. 27" 54'.

Ras al Mar, a town of Perfia, in the province of Se-
g:ftan ; 200 miles S.W. of Zareng.

Ras al Najlief, a cape of Egypt, in the Red fea. N.
lat. 23° 16'.

Ras Rouze, a cape on tlie E. coaft of Arabia. N. lat.
21° 55'.

Ras V'lre, a cape on the coaft of Arabia, forming the
S. point of tlie gulf of Curia Muria. N. lat. 17° 25'.

Ras Zafrane, a cape on the coaft of Egypt, in the Red
fea ; 32 miles S.S.E. of Suez. N. lat. 29'^ 14'.

RASA, a fmall ifland in the Indian fea, near the coaft of
Africa, S. lat. 17° 8'.

RASAlN, a town of Pwrfia, in- the province of Ears or
Farfillan ; 1 10 miles N.W. of Schiras or Shirauz.

RASAL, or Rasal-sem, Cape, a cape of Africa, on
the coaft of Tripoli. N. lat. 32^ 36'. E. long. 21° 10'.

RASALEMA, a river of Africa, which waters the city
of Fez.

RASALGATA, Cape, or Ras Roufe, a cape on the
E. coaft of Arabia. N. lat. 22^ 25'. E. long. 58' 15'.

RASANT, or Razant Jlank, in Forttfica:'.on. See
Flank.

The defence of the baftion is rafant.

Rasant Fire. See Fire.

RASCA, in Geography, a river of Servia, which joins
the Ibar ; i(5 miles N.E. of .Tenibafar.

RASCETA, a word ufed by the Arabian phyficians to
exprefs the wrilt or ankle.

RASCH, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, in the terri-
tory of Nuremberg ; two miles S.S.E. of Altorf.

RASCHNA, or Rizana, a town of Servia ; eight
miles S. of Parakin.

RASCHOWITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Leitmeritz ; four miles E. of Aufche.

RASCIA, a port of Servia, watered by the Rafca.

RASCINES, a town of Spain, in the province of Bif-
cay ; 21 miles S.E. of Santander.

RASE, Rasaril'm, in our Old Writers, feems to have
been a meafure of corn now difufed ; toll (hall be taken by
the rafe, and not by the heap or cantel.

Rase, in the Manege. To rafe, or glance upon the
ground, called in French razer le tapis, is to gallop near the
ground, as our Englifh horfes do.

RASEB, Al, in Geography, a fortified pafs in the
mountains of Grand Bucharia ; 60 miles N. of Vafhgherd.

RASEBORG, a fea-port town of Sweden, in the gulf
of Finland ; 30 miles S.E. of Abo.

RASEC, a town of Perfia, in the province of Segeftan ;
60 miles S.W. of Zareng.

RASGRAD, or Rasgrat. See Hrasgrad.

RASH, in Clock-lVork. See Ratch.

Rash, in Medicine, an eruption or efBorefcence upon the
fliip, thrown out in fevers, or furfeits.

RASHAUA, in Geography. See Rassagu.

RASHED, a town of Nubia, in Sennaar ; 15 miles N.
of Giefiim.

RASICULMO, Cape, a cape on the N. coaft of Sicily.
N. lat. 38' 18'. E. long. 12^49'.

RASIERE, or Raziere, in Commerce, a meafure of
corn in Dunkirk and Flanders. At Dunkirk, they have the
fea rafierc, and the land rafiere ; 8 of the former being =
9 of the latter ; 54 fea rafieres or 6of land rafieres anfwer
to 31 EngHfti quarters. Each fea rafiere contains 9884
inches, and each land rafiere contains 8786 inches ; 17.40 of
the former, and 19-57 of the latter, are equal (each) to 10

Englilh

R A S

Englilh quarters. At Dixmude 29.51 raficres arc equal to
10 Englifh quarters, and each rafiere contains 5821 inches.
At Gravelines 21.29 rafieies are equal to lo Englidi quar-
ters, and each contains 8080 inches. At Nieuport 16.93
raficres are equal to 10 Engli(h quarters, and each rafiere
contains 10157 cubic inches. At Oftend 16.02 rafieres are
equal to 10 Englilh quarters, and each of them contains
10733 inches. At St. Omer 21.77 rafieres =i 10 Engli(h
quarters, and each contains 7900 cubic inches. At Lifle
or Lille, the rafiere is divided into 8 parts ; of thefe there
are two forts, one, ufed for wheat or rye, the other, called
rafiere de Mars, for oats or beans ; 38 of the former, and
40 of the latter, are reckoned for one laft. The rafiere
of wheat weighs about I281bs., and 41 of thefe are equal
to 19 fetiers, Paris meafure, or about 10 j Englifli quarters ;
39.64 rafieres of Lifle are equal to 10 Enghih quarters, and
each contains 4339 cubic inches.

RASILIS JEnvGO, in the Materia Medlca of the An-
cients, one of their kinds of verdigris. It was prepared in
the following manner ; they fet foine (harp vinegar over the
fire in a ftrong earthen veflel, and covered it with a brafs pot
inverted, well cleaned, and without any vent-hole. And
after fome time the veffels were to be ieparated ; and the
verdigris, which was found concreted on the infide of the
brafs pot, was fcraped off, and put up for ufe.

RASILITA, in Geography, a town of Italy, in Friuli ;
26 miles S.S.E. of Friuli.

RASIN, a town of Hindoollan, in Dowlatabad ; 18 milea
W.S.W. of Carmullali.

RASINTA, a town of Italy, in Friuli; 14 miles N.
of Udina.

RASKOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw ; 54 miles S. of Braclaw.

RASMAN, an ifland in the Red fea. N. lat. 13° 58'.

RASMEND, a mountain of Perfia, in the province of
Irak ; 60 miles N.E. of Nehavend.

RASNO, an ifland in the Adriatic. N. lat. 44° 6'.
E. long. 15° 25'.

RASO, or £11 of Turin, in Commerce, is equal to 2f Ge-
noefe palmi, or 23^ Englilh inches ; the foot 143.2 French
lines, or 3^ Englifli inches; hence 180 Fiedmontefe rafi
are equal to 119 Englifli yards, and 33 Fiedmontefe feet =
^^ Englifli feet. At Cagliari, 166.7 i"^'' — '^1° Englifli
yards, and each of them equal to 21.6 Englifli inches. At
Chamberry 158.5 rafi — 100 Englifli yards, and each =
22.7 Englifli inches. At Nice, 166.7 rafi = 100 Englifli
yards, and each =21.6 Englifli inches ; 1 54-5 rafi of Turin
= 100 Englifli yards, and each = 23.3 Englifli inches.

RASP, a coarfe fort of file.

RASPACH, in Geography, a town of Auftria ; eight
miles E. of Zwetl.

RASPATORIUM, (from rado, to fcrape,) a furgical
inftrument with which the periofl;eum was, by the old prac-
titioners, fcraped from the bones, and the bones themfelves
fometimes rafped.

RASPBERRY Bush, in Botany. See Rubus.

For the dietetic and medicinal ufe of rafpberries, fee Sum-
mer Fruits.

RASPECON, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome to
the uranofcope, or ftar-gazer.

RASPENBURG, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the principality of Weimar, near which are fome medi-
cinal fprings ; 12 miles N. of Weimar. N. lat. 51° 13'.
E.long. 1 1'^ 35'.

RASPHUYS, or Rafp-houfe, a celebrated work-houfe,
or houfe of correftion, at Amfterdam. See Vf OKK-houfe.

Vol. XXIX.

RAT

RASPUGLY, in Geography, a town of Bengal; four
miles S. of Calcutta.

RASSADES, aclufterof fmall iflands, in the river St.
Lawrence. N. lat. 48° 15'. W. long. 68"^ 48'.

RASSAGU, one of the Kurile or Kurilflioy iflands,
lying 40 verfts from Mutova, and in extent about 30 verft.s
meafured either way. It has lofty mountains and ftcep
rocky fliorcs, with very few fandy bogs. On the mountains,
here and there, is a good forcll of birch, alders, and the
nut-bearing pine ; the vales and flats abound in herbs. On
the land is no other animal bcfides the fox, but the cliffs of
the rock afford neiting-places for all kinds of fea-birds ; and
tiie beavers and feals lie fcattered on fevcral parts of the
ftrand. Here are no fl;reams that yield fifli. The Kurils on
this ifland are not numerous, and fome of them are baptized.
N. lat. 48° 20'. E. long. 154° 14'.

RASSE CoRONDE, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by
the Ceylonefe to a peculiarly fine kind of cinnamon, which
is the bark of a tree, growing no where but in that ifland.
The name they give it fignifies Jharp or hithig cinnamon.
This choice kind was formerly exported annually, in con-
fiderable quantity, by the Dutch Eall India company, who
prohibited the mixing any other kind of cinnamon with it,
under a very fevere penalty. Phil. Tranf. N'^ 409.

RASSOOLPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hin-
dooftan, in the circar of Nagore ; 22 miles N.W. of Did-
wana. — Alfo, a town of Hindooflan, in the circar of Go-
hud, on the Jumnah ; 40 miles E. of Gohud.

RASSOVAT, or Axioi-oLi, a town of European Tur-
key, in Bulgaria ; 24 miles N. of Driftra. N. lat. 44° 25',
E. long. 27° 37'.

RASTADT, a town of the duchy of Baden, fituated
OH a large plain on the river Merg ; the town is new, and re-
gularly built, and the principal ftreet is broad and hand-
fome ; i6miles S.W. of Durlach. N. lat. 48° 52'. E.long.
8° 15'. — Alfo, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Bam-
berg ; five miles N.W. of Bamberg. — Alfo, a town of the
duchy of Wurzburg ; three miles S. of Melrichfladt.

RASTAGARA, a town of Egypt ; 90 miles E. of
Cairo.

RASTEDE, a town of Germany, in the country of
Oldenburg ; 1 1 miles N. of Oldenburg.

RASTENBURG, a town of Pruffia, in the province
of Natangen, founded in 1329, and after having been
deitroyed by the Lithuanians in 1348, was rebuilt, together
with its caftle, and put into a better ftate of defence ; it is
enclofed by a wall, and, in 1669, furrounded by a rampart.
The burghers, moft of whom are Lutherans, are about 200.
The inhabitants derive their fubfiftence from a little com-
merce, brewing, agriculture, and mechanic trades ; 46 miles
S.E. of Konigflierg. N. lat. 53° 58'. E. long. 21° 27'.

RASTICO Harbour, Grand, a bay in the gulf of St.
Lawrence, on the • N. coatl of the ifland of St. John.
N. lat. 46° 25'. W. long. 62° 50'.

RASTORFF, a town of Auftria; feven miles E. of
Ehrnfprunn.

RASTOWICA, a river of Poland, which runs into the
Dnieper, on the borders of Ruflia.

RASURA, a word ufed by the pharmaceutic writers to
exprefs the (havings of woods, or other hard fubftances, to
make them readily yield their virtues by decotlion. Phyfi-
cians alfo ufe it to exprefs the corrofion of acrid humours,

RASURE in a Deed, in Latv. See Deed.

RASZNA, in Geography, a town of Servia; 24 miles
N. of Nifl"a.

RAT, in Zoology. See Mus.

sL ft

RAT.

It has been obfcrved that this country was formt^^rly iii-
fefted with two kinds of rats, the houfe-rjX and the ivater-
rat ; but that it is believed that the latter, within this lalt
half century, hat deftroyed the former. This is probably,
however, only imaginary, Ance it is well known that the
houfe-rats are frequently brought, in great abundance, into
the different fea-ports of the kingdom, in corn, and other
veilels. It feems not improbable, but that thefe different
varieties of rats may intercopulate, and by that means the
latter become houfe-rats, as there is confiderable diverfity in
the colours of the houfe-rats, fome approaching to nearly
black, which is the natural colour of the water-rat, while
the genuine houfe-rat is always of adarkifh or dapple brown.
In their habits thty have fome circumftanccs in which they
agree, as in that of making burrows in the ground ; but
the water-rat is capable of living much in the water, and of
feeding on iifli and other aquatic animals, while the houfe-
rat mollly lives upon grain, and other produce of that kind.
The water-rats are alio fald, by Dr. Darwin, to cat the fo-
liage as well as the feeds and fruits of vegetables, as he has
feen a young rat of this kind devour a large leaf of the
water-plantain (idifma plantago). They likewife, as well
as the houfe-rats, are deftruftive of young animals, fuch as
duckhugs, goflings, chickens, and rabbits. But the great
mifchitf which the water-rats produce, is in feeding on, and
deftroying, the roots of a great variety of vegetables, in
their innumerable burrows. The above writer remembers
to have feen fome new-planted apple-trees taken out of the
ground with nearly the whole of their fmaller roots eaten,
and the larger ones peeled by them. With the houfe kind,
they are, likewife, extremely deftruftive of the food of
poultry, and fwine, and of courfe are highly detrimental
near waters. It is remarked by the above able writer, that
as thefe animals, hke the dog, are of a lafcivious nature,
and, as fome materials have a ftrong fcent, refcmbling, per-
haps, that of their venereal orgafm, they are liable to be
attrafted by fuch fmells, as dogs are, on the fame account,
he fuppofes, inclined to roll themfelves in putrid carrion ;
and male cats- to eat marum valerian, and cat-mint. It is of
this principle that rat-catchers avail themfelves, and by in-
dulging the propenfity, deceive them to their deftruftion,
by blending with their favourite foods different ftrong-
fcented fubttances, fuch as the effential oil of rhodium, or
mulk, with the poifonous powders of ftrychnos nux vomica,
or of delphinium ftavifagria, or perhaps of arfenic.

The firll ftep taken by rat-catchers, in order to clear a
houfe, &c. of thofe vermin, is to allure them all together,
to one proper place, before they attempt to deftroy them ;
for there is fuch an inltinftive caution in thefe animals, accom-
panied with a furprifing fagacity in difcovering any caufe of
danger, that if any of them be hurt, or purfued, in an un-
ufual manner, the reft take the alarm, and become fo (hy
and wary, that they elude all the devices and ftratagems of
their purfuers for fome time after. The place where the
rats are to be alfembled, (hould be fome clofet, or fmall room,
into which all the openings, but one or two, may be fe-
cured ; and this place Ibould be, as near as may be, in the
middle of the houfe, or buildings. It is the praftice, there-
fore, to attempt to bring them all together in fome fuch
place before any attempt be made to take them ; and even
then to avoid any violence, hurt, or fright to them, before
the whole be in lii" pi v..r of the operator. In refpeft to
the means ufed to allure ;hfm to one place, they are various ;
one of thole moft eafily and efScacioufly praftifed is the
trailing (ome piece of their moll favourite food, which
ihould be of the kind that has tne ftrongeft fcent, fuch as

toafted chcefe, or broiled red-herring, from the holes or en-
trances to their acccfl'cs in every part of the houfe, or con-
tiguous buildings, whence it is intended to allure tfiem. At
the extremities, and in diflercnt parts of the courfe of this
trailed traft, fmall quantities of meal, or any other kind of
their food, (hould be laid, to bring the greater number into
the tracks, and to encauragc them to purfue it to the centre
place, where they are intended to be taken ; at that place,
where time admits of it, a more plentiful repall is laid for
them, and the trailing repeated for two or three nights.
But befides this trailing, and way-baiting, fome of the moit
expert of the rat-catchers have a (horter, and, perhaps, more
effectual method of bringing them together, which is, the
calling them, by making fuch a kind of w liftling noife as
rcfembles their own call, and by this means, with the affift-
ance of the way-baits, they call them out of their holes, and
lead them to the repail prepared for them at the place de-
figned for taking them. But this is much more difficult to
be praftifed than the art of trailing ; for the learning the
exadt notes, or cries, of any kind uf beafts or birds, fo as
to deceive them, is a peculiar talent, not eafily attained to
in other cafes.

And in praftifing either of thefe methods great caution
muft be ufed by the operator to fupprefs, and prevent, the
fcent of his feet and body from being perceived ; which is
done by overpowering that fcent by others of a ftronger na-
ture. In order to this the feet are to be covered with cloths
rubbed over with affafoetida, or other ftrong fmelling fub-
ftanccs ; and even oil oi rhodium is fometimes ufed for this
purpofe, but fparingly, on account of its dearnefs, though
it has a very alluring, as well as difguifing effeft. If this
caution of avoiding the fcent of the operator's feet, near
the track, and in the place where the rats are propofed to be
collefted, be not properly obferved, it will very much ob-
ftruft the fucccfs of the attempt to take them ; for they are
very ftiy of coming where the fcent of human feet lies very
frelh, and intimates, to their fagacious inftinft, the pre-
fence of human creatures, whom they naturally dread. To
the above-mentioned means of alluring by traihng, way-
baiting, and calling, is added another of very material effi-
cacy, which is the ufe of oil of i-hodium, which, like the
marum fyriacum in the cafe of cats, has a very extraordi-
nary fafcinating power on thefe animals. The oil is ex-
tremely dear, and therefore very fparingly ufed. It is ex-
haled in a fmall quantity in the place, and at the entrance of
it, where the rats are intended to be taken, particularly at
the time when they are to be laft brought together in order
to their deftruftion ; and it is ufed alfo, by fmearing it on
the furface of fome of the implements ufed in taking them,
by the method before defcribed, and the effeft it has in taking
off their caution and dread, by the delight they appear to
have in it, is very extraordinary.

It is ufual, likewife, for the operator to difguife his
figure as well as fcent, which is done by putting on a fort of
gown or cloak, of one colour, that hides the natural form,
and makes him appear like a port, or fuch inanimate thing ;
which habit muft hkewife be fcented as above, to over-
power the fmell of his perfon ; and befides this he is to avoid
all motion, till he has fecured his point of having all the rats
in his power. When the rats are thus enticed and collefted,
where time is afforded, and the whole in any houfe or out-
buildings are intended to be cleared away, they are fuffered
to regale on what they moft like, which is ready prepared
for them ; and then to go away quietly for two or three
nights ; by which means thofe which are not allured the
firft night are brought afterwards, either by their fellows, or

OI the

RAT.

the effefts of tlie trailing, &c. and will not fail to come duly
again, if they arc not dilbirbed or molcltcd. But many
of the rat-catchers make (horter work, and content them-
felves with whit can be brought together in one night or
two ; but this is never effectual, unlcfs where the building
is fmall and entire, and the rats but few in number.

With refpcdi to the means of taking them when they are
brought together, they are various. Some entice them into
a very large bag, the mouth of which is fufficiently capacious
to cover nearly the whole floor of the place where they are
coUeiSed ; which is done by fmearing fome veU'el, placed
in the middle of the bag, with oil of rhodium, and laying
in tlie bag baits of proper food. This bag, which before
laid flat on the ground, with the mouth fpread open, is to
be fuddenly clofed when the rats arc all in it. Others drive
or frighten them, by flight noife? or motions, into a bag of
a long form, the mouth of which, after all the rats are
come in, is drawn up to the opening of the place by whrch
they entered, all other ways of retreat being fecured.
Others, again, intoxicate or poifon them, by mixing with
the repaft prepared for them the cocculus indicus, or the nux
vomica. A receipt for this purpofe has appeared, which
direfts four ounces of cocculus indicus, with twelve ounces
of oatmeal, and two ounces of treacle or honey, to be made
up into a moift pafte with ftrong beer ; but if the nux
vomica be ufed, a much Icfs proportion will ferve than is
here given of the cocculus. Any fimilar compofition of thefe
drugs, with that kind of food the rats are moil, fond of,
and which has a itrong flavour, to hide that of the drugs,
will equally well anfwer the end. If, indeed, the cocculus
indicus be well powdered, and infufed in itrong beer for
fome time, at leall, half the quantity here direfted will
ferve as well as the quantity before mentioned. When the
rats appear to be thoroughly intoxicated with the cocculus,
or fick with the nux vomica, they may be taken with the
hand, and put into a bag or cage, the door of the place
being firft drawn to, left thofe which have ftreugth and fenfe
remaining ihould efcape. By thefe methods, when well
condufted, a very confiderable part of the rats in a farm, or
other houfe, and the contiguous buildings, may be taken
and defl;royed. But various other methods have been
praftifed.

In the Tranfaftions of the Bath Agricultural Society, the
following compofitions are advifed for deftroying thefe mif-
chievous creatures, and which are ftated to have been at-
tended with great fuccefs. Firll, to a quart of oatmeal,
add fix drops of oil of rhodium, one grain of mufk, and
two or three of the nuts of nux vomica finely powdered ;
make them into pellets, and put them into the rat -holes.
This, it is faid, was at iiril greedily eaten, and did great
execution ; but the wife animals, after a time, ceafed to eat
it. Secondly ; this confifted of three parts of oatmeal and one
of ftave's-acre, mixed well into a paile with honey. Pieces
of this palte were laid in their holes, and again did great
execution. Thirdly; this is a method of deftroying them by
laying a large box down on its front fide, with the lid fup-
portcd open by a (Iring over a pulley ; and by trailing toailed
cheefe and a red-herring from their holes to this box,
and placing oatmeal and other food in it, which they are for
a few nights to be permitted to eat unmoleiled ; and iinally
to watch them by moon-light, the infide of the box being
painted white ; and, when many of them are feen, to let down
the lid ; by which contrivance fixty of them are ilated to
have been taken at one time.

But though the ufual ways of deftroying rats are by traps
and poifon, Mr. Forfyth advifes never to ufe arfenic, or
corrofivc fublimate, for that purpofe, except under parti-

cular circumflanccs, as they are deadly poifons : nux vomica
will, he thinks, generally anfwer the end as well, without
the danger. He fuggells it as a very good plan, to prevent
accidents, to enclofe the traps in cafes, having holeb ii; the
ends of them large enough to admit rats, but fmall enough
to exclude dogs, cats, &c. And that, as a bait for rat-
traps, the following compofition may be made ufe of with
advantage. Take a pound of good flour, three ounces of
treacle, and fix drops of the oil of carraways : put them all
in a difh ; and rub them well together till they are properly
mixed : then add a pound of crumb of bread. The trapt
baited with this mixture fhould be fet as near their haunts as
poiTible ; but, for two or three days, fo as not to fall or
ilrikc on the rats going in, but letting them have free liberty
to go in and out at pleafure, as this makes them fearlefs.
Some of the bait fliould alfo, he thinks, be laid at the rat-
holes, and a little of it fcattered quite up to the traps, and
fo on to the bridge of each trap, where a handful may be
placed. It may alfo, he thinks, be proper to fcent the
traps with the following mixture, for the purpofe of entic-
ing the rats into them. Take twenty drops of the oil of
rhodium, fix or feven grains of mun<, and half an ounce of
oil of anifeed ; put them in a fmall phial, and fhake it well be-
fore ufing ; then dip a piece of twifted paper or rag in the
mixture, and rub each end of the trap with it, if a box
trap, and put two or three drops on the bridge, leaving the
paper or rag in the trap. Of whatever kind the trap is, it
Ihould be fcented ; but once in a twelvemonth will be fuffi-
cient. Then throw fome chaff mixed with a little wheat
about the bottom of the trap, in order to deceive the rats ;
for they are very fagacious, and will not enter a fufpicious
place. This will be neceifary to be done only at the firft
time of fetting the traps ; for, after fome rats have been
caught and have watered and dunged in them, rats will enter
boldly when they find others have been there before them :
do not, therefore, waih or clean out the trap, as fome people
do before they fet it again, but let the dung and urine remain
in it. Keep the places where the traps are fet as private as
poflTible ; and when they are fet for catching, mix no bread
with the bait, as the rats will, in that cafe be apt, to carry it
away.

An-d it is ufeful, this writer remarks, when the holes are
found quiet, and that no rats ufe them, to ilop them up
with the following compofition. Take a pint of common
tar, half an ounce of pearl-afhes, an ounce of oil of vitriol,
and a good handful of common fait, mix them all well toge-
ther in an old pan or pot. Take fome pieces of paper, and
lay fome of the above mixture very thick on them ; then
ilop the holes well up with them, and build up the mouth
of the holes with brick or ilone, and mortar ; if this be
properly done, rats will, he aiTerts, no more approach thefe
while either fmell or tafte remains in the compofition.

But with a view to deftroy rats in places where traps can-
not be fet, it is recommended to take a quart of the above
bait, then to rafp into it three nuts of nux vomica, and
add a quarter of a pound of crumb of bread, if there was
none before ; mix them all well together, and lay it into the
mouth of their holes, and in different places where they fre-
quent ; but firft give them of the bait without nux vomica,
for three or four fucceeding nights ; and when they find
it agrees with them, they will eat that mixed with the nut
with greedinefs.

However, as it is frequently found that rats are very
troublefome in fewers and drains, in fucli cafes arfenic may
be ufed with fuccefs in the following manner. Take fome
dead rats, and having put fome white arfenic, finely
powdered, into an old pepper-box, fhake a quantity of it

3 L 2 Oil

RAT

RAT

en the fore-parts of the dead rats, and put them down the
holes, or avenues, by the fides of the fewers at which they
come in ; this puts a llop to the live ones coming any further :
for when they perceive the arfenic, they will retire immedi-
ately ; whereas, if they were put down without the arfenic,
the live ones would cat them.

It is by means of arfenic, notwithftanding the above ob-
fervations, that the mofl certain method of dellreying thefe
troublefome vermin, (provided they can be made to eat it,)
takes place ; which we have found to anfwer bett, when it
is prepared by being finely levigated, and mixed up with very
ilrong old cheefe and oatmeal.

In a note in the Agricultural Survey of Lancafhire, it
is ftated, that it is greatly to be lamented that Mr. Heath-
cote's method of detlroying rats and mice is not generally
known and praftifed ; if it were, there would be a total ex-
tirpation of thofe obnoxious and deltruftive animals ; for in
one night he totally deftroys them (where he is employed),
be tliey ever fo numerous, as can be well attclled by hundreds
in the neighbourhood of Ormfliirk, who have employed
him. And it is added, that the compofition he makes ufe
of he puts in their holes and burrows, and from the fmall
quantity he ufes, it is aftoni(hing it fhould have fuch an efFeft :
it will keep good two years. It is alfo ilated, that a farmer
recommends, for the deftruftion of rats, one ounceof pounded
quick-lime to four ounces of tallow cake, to be beaten toge-
ther and made into balls, and placed in their runs, which has
cleared many buildings. But it has been proved by expe-
rience, is is faid, that an ounce of aerated barytes finely
powdered, mixed with the tallow, in place of hme, is more
effedlual. And it has been remarked by the author of Phy-
tologia, with the view of deftroying the water-rats, that
they poflefs fome kind of ingenuity fimilar to the beaver in
the conftruftion of their houfes near the brinks of rivers and
pools ; which have two apertures, one above ground
amongft the grafs, and the other beneath the furface of the
water ; and unlefs they can hide their upper opening amid
weeds, or grafs, they forfake the fituation. Thus, if a
rim, three or four feet in breadth, round a fifli-pond be kept
fo low as to rife only two, three, or four inches above the
level of the water ; and if this be kept clean from high grafs
er weeds, the rats will defert the pond.

But after all, it is probable that this highly deftruftive
animal, and great peil to the farmer, might be moft readily
exterminated by parifties uniting for the purpofe, and raif-
ing certain fums of money to be applied in this way, under
the direftion of a proper perfon who is fully acquainted with
the bufinefs.

In many grain and other diftridls in the kingdom thefe
animals prevail very much, efpecially the grey kind, parti-
cularly in all thofe where there are no regular raifed Saddles
or Hands for the grain ftacks to reft upon, which is the cafe
in a great number. The mifchief, injury, and deftruftion of
grain whieh is produced in this way, is fcarcely to be cal-
culated ; and they are befides very mifchievous, troublefome,
and inconvenient in feveral others ; fo that they (hould be
every where extirpated as much as poffihle. And in corn
trafts. Hands or ftaddles (liould every where be provided
in order to prevent mifchief being done by them. • See Ver-
min, and Stanh, Corn.

Rat, Beaver. See Mus Coypus.

Rat, Black. See Mus Rattus.

Rat, Blind. See Mrs Typhlus.

Rat, Field. See Mu.s Silvatiais.

Rat Mole. See Mus.

Rat, Mountain. See Marmot Talpimis, &c.

Rat, Mu/i. See Mus Zibethicus.
6

Rat, Nornuay or brown, mus Noriueglcus, {Mus decu
fwanuj) is a rat whofe head, back, and fides are of a ligin
brown colour, mixed with tawny and a(h.colour ; the brealt
.ind belly are of a dirty white ; t-he feet naked, and of
a dirty fiefh-colour ; the fore-feet are furnifhed with four
tocB, and a claw inilead of the fifth : the lengtii from the
nofe to the tail is nine inches, and the tail is of the fame
length. This animal is more ftrongly made tlian the common
black rat, or mus rattus.

This fpecies of rat, which is the fame animal that is
called in the Eaft Indies a bondicote, now inhabits moft parts
of Europe ; wliither it is fuppofed to have been brought
within the laft century, in fomc of the India /hips. It
came into Great Britain about 70 or 80 years ago, but has not
been known in the neiglibourhood of Paris above half that
time. They fwarm in Peterfburg, and are known in Pruflia ;
but have not yet reached the oppofite fide of the Baltic, as
Linnxus takes no notice of this fpecies. Thefe were pro-
bably the mures Cafpii of jElian, which made periodical vifits
in great multitudes to the countries bordering on the Cafpian
fca, fwiiaming boldly over the rivers, holding by one an-
other's tail. (.£han. Hill. An. 17. cap. 17.) They burrow,
like the water rat, on the fides of ponds and ditches ; fwim
and dive well ; live on grain and fi-uits, but vnW deftroy
poultry and game ; increafe faft, producing from fourteen to
eighteen young at a time ; are very bold and fierce ; will turn,
when clofely purfued, and faften on the ftick or hand that
offers to ftrike them : they have deftroyed the common black
rat in moft places : they inhabit the fields part of the year,
but migrate in great numbers into houfes, and do much
mifchief. The bite of thefe rats is not only fevere but
dangerous ; the wound being immediately attended with a
great fwelhng, and healing very {lowly. Pennant. See
Mus Decumanus.

Rat, Norway, is alfo a name given by fome writers to
the lemming, or fable moufe. See Mus Ltmmus, and Sable
Mouse.

Rat, Water. See Mus Amphibius.

Rat, in the Sea Language, is ufed to exprefs a part of
the fea, where there are rapid and dangerous currents, or
counter-currents.

Rat-Goo/^, in Ornithology, the name of a fmall fpecies of
wild goofe, common in fome of the northern counties of
England.

B^AT-Tails, in the Manege. See Arrets.

KAT-Tailed. A horfe is thus called that has no hair upon
his tail.

KAT-Tailed Worms, in Natural Hijlory, a fpecies of fly-
worms with long tails, refembling thofe of rats, whence
they have their name. They are of feveral fizes, and found
alfo in different places, but all change into two-winged flies,
having very much the refemblance of bees, and commonly
called bee-Jlies. See Drone-/'/)'.

Rat, Cape, in Geography, a cape of Africa, in the Red
fea. N. lat. 14° 55'.

Rat IJland, a fmall ifland in Milford Haven. — Alfo, an
ifland in the Red fea. N. lat. 14^ 55'. — Alfo, a fmall
ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the W. coaft of Sumatra.
S. lat. 3° 57'. E. long. 101° 55' — Alfo, a fmall ifland in
the Mergui ArchipeLigo, S.W. of Olive ifland.

RATA pro Rata. See Pro rata.

Onerando pra Rata poriionis. See Oneraxdo.

RATAFIA, a fine fpirituous liquor, prepared from the
kernels, &c. of feveral kinds of fruits, particularly of cher-
ries and apricots.

Ratafia of cherries is prepared by bruifing the cherries,
and putting them into a veflel in which brandy has been long

kept J

RAT

kept ; then adding to them the kernels of cherries, with
flrawberries, fugar, cinnamon, white pepper, nutmegs,
cloves ; and to twenty pounds of cherries, ten quarts of
brandy. The veilcl is left open ten or twelve days, and
then (lopped clofe for two months before it be tapped.

Ratafia of apricots is prepared two ways ; viz. cillicr by
boiling the apricoto in white wine, adding to tlie liquor an
equal quantity of brandy, with fugar, cinnamon, mace,
and tlie kernels of apricots ; iiifufiiig the whole for eight
or ten days ; then llraining the liquor, and putting it up tor
life : or elfe by infuiing the apricots, cut in pieces, ii: brandy,
for a day or two ; paiTing it through a Itraining-bag, and
tlien putting in the ufual ingredients.

RATAN, in Geography., a fmall ifland on the W. fide

of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 58'. E. long 20° 39'.

RATCH, or Rash, in Cloch Work, a fort of wheel

having twelve fangs, which ferve to lift up the detents every

hour, to make the clock ftrike.

RATCHETS, in a Watch, are the fmall teeth at the bot-
tom of the fufee, or barrel, which flop it in winding up.

RATCHIN LoPA, in Geography, a large lake of Thibet.
N. lat. 30" 43'. E. long. 82^ 27'.

RATCLIFF, a town of America, in Maryland; 22
miles S. of Salilbury.

RATE, a ilandard or proportion, by which either the
quantity or value of a thing is adjufted.

The rates of bread, &c. in London, are fixed by autho-
rity. See Affife of Bread.

The rate of intereft, as now eftabliflied by law in Eng-
land, is five per cent. The rate of intereft in Italy, is three
per cent. ; in Sweden, fix ; in France, five ; in Spain, ten ;
in Barbadoes, ten ; in Ireland, twelve ; in Turkey, twenty.
Low rates of intereft advance the prices of land.

The rates or fares of hackney-coachmen, chairmen, and
watermen, are fixed by aft of parliament. See Hackney
Coaches, &c.

The rates of exchange, fadlorftiip, &c. are different. See
Exchange, Factorage, &c.

Rate of a Ship of War, is its order, degree, or diftinc-
tion, as to magnitude, burden, force, &c.

The Britifli fleet is accordingly diftributed into fix rates,
exclufive of the inferior veflcls that ufually attend on naval
armaments ; as floops of war, armed ftiips, bomb-ketches,
fire-fhips, and cutters or fchooners, commanded by lieu-
tenants.

Ships of thejirji rate mount a hundred cannon, and fome
more, having forty-two-pounders on the lower deck, twenty-
four-pounders on the middle deck, twelve-pounders on the
upper deck, and fix-pounders on the quarter-deck and fore-
caftle. They are manned with eight hundred and fifty men,
including their officers, feamen, marines, and fcrvants.

In general, the fhips of every rate, befides the captain,
have the mafter, the boatfwain, the gunner, the chaplain,
the purfer, the furgeon, and the carpenter ; all of whom,
except the chaplain, have their mates or afliftants, in which
are comprehended the fail-maker, the mafter at arms, the
armourer, the captain's clerk, the gunfmith, &c. The num-
ber of other officers is always in proportion to the rate of
the fhip. Thus, a firil rate has fix lieutenants, fix mailer's
mates, twenty-four midftiipmen, and five furgeon's mates,
who are confidered as gentlemen ; befides the following petty
officers : quarter-mafters, and their mates, fourteen ; boat-
fvvain's mates, and yeomen, eight ; gunner's mates and af-
fiftants, fix; quarter-gunners, twenty-tive; carpenter's mates,
two, befides fourteen affiitants ; with one fteward, and ftew-
ard's mate to the purfer.

Ships of the fecond rate carry ninety-eight and ninety

R A T

guns upon three decks ; of wliicli ihofc on the lower battery
are thirty-two-pounders ; thofe on the middle, eighteen-
pounders ; on the upper deck, twelve-pounders ; and thofc
on the quarter-deck, lix-pounders, which ufually amount to
four or fix. Their complement of men is feven hundred
and fifty, in which there arc fix lieutenants, four mailer's
mates, twenty-four midlhipmen, and fuur furgeon's mates,
fourteen quarter-mafters and their mates, eight boatfwain's
mates and yeomen, fix gunner's nrates and yeomen, with
twenty-two quarter-gunners, two carpenter's mates, with
ten afliftants, and one fteward and fteward's mate.

Ships ot the third rate carry from tixty.four to eighty
cannon, which are thirty-two, eighteen, and nine-pounders.
The eighty-gun fhips, however, begia to lofe their repute,
and give way to thofc of feventy-four, feventy, &c. which
have only two whole batteries ; whereas the former have
three, with twenty-eiglit guns planted on each ; the cannon
of their upper deck being tlie fame as thofe on the quarter-
deck and forecaftle of the latter, which are nine.^ounders
The complement in a feventy-four is fix hundred and fifty ;
and in a fixty-four, five hundred men : having in peace, foui
lieutenants, but in war, five, and when an admiral is aboard,
fix. They have three mafter's mates, fixteen midfhipmen,
three furgeon's mates, ten quarter-mafters and their mates,
fix boatfwain's mates and yeomen, four gunner's mates and
yeomen, with eighteen quarter-gunners, one carpenter's mate
with eight affiftants, and one fteward and fteward's mate
under the purfer.

Ships of the/o«r/^ rate mount from fixty to fifty guns,
upon two decks and the quarter-deck. The lower tier is
compofed of twenty-four-pounders ; the upper tier, of twelve,
pounders ; and the cannon on the quarter-deck and fore-
caftle are fix-pounders. The complement of a fifty-gun
fhip is three hundred and fifty men, in which there are three
lieutenants, two matter's mates, ten midfhipmen, two fur-
geon's mates, eight quarter-mafters and their mates, four
boatfwain's mates and yeomen, one gunner's mate and one
yeoman, with twelve quarter-gunners, one carpenter's mate
and fix affiftants, and a fteward and fteward's mate.

All veftels of war under the fourth rate, are ufually conv
prehended under the general name of frigates, and never
appear in the line of battle. They are divided into the Jfth
zndjixth rates, the former mounting from forty to thirty-
two guns, and the latter from twenty-eight to twenty. The
largeft of the fifth rate have two decks of cannon, the lower
battery being of eighteen-pounders, and that of the upper
deck of nine-pounders ; but thofe of thirty-fix and thirty-
two guns have only one complete deck of guns, mounting
twelve-pounders, befides the quarter-deck and forecaftle,
which carry fix-pounders. The complement of a fhip of
forty-four guns is two hundred and eighty men ; that of a
frigate of thirty-fix guns, two hundred and forty men. The
firft has three, and the fecond tvi^o lieutenants ; and both
have two mafter's mates, fix midfhipmen, two furgeon's
mates, fix quarter-mafters and their mates, two boatfwain's
mates and one yeoman, one gunner's mate and one yeo-
man, with ten or eleven quarter-gunners, and one purfer's
fteward.

Frigates of the fixth rate carry nine-pounders ; thofe of
twenty-eight guns having three-pounders on their quarter-
deck, with two hundred men for their complement ; and
thofe of twenty-four, one hundred and fixty men : the
former has two lieutenants ; the latter, one ; and both have
two matter's mates, four midfhipmen, one furgeon's mate,
four quarter-mafters and tlieir mates, one boatfwain's mate
and one yeoman, one gunner's mate and one yeoman, with
fix or feven quarter-gunners, and one purler's fteward.

The

11 A T

RAT

The floops of war carry from eigliteen to eight cannon : tythe for them pro rata, according to the cuftom of the
the largcft of which have fix-pounders ; and the fmallcft, place.
i)tz. thofe of eight or ten guns, four-pounders. Their R.\y%,_'m Geogrnphy, a town of Hindooflan, in Myfore ;

officers are generally the fame as in the fixth rales, with
little variation ; and their complements of men are from one
hundred and twenty to fixty, in proportion to their force or
magnitude.

Bomb-veflels are on the fame eftablifhment as floops ;
but iire-(hips and hofpital-fliips are on that of fifth rates.

If the dimenfions of all (liips of the fame rate were equal, knap, is frized

25 miles E. of Rattitigiiery.

RATEEN, or Ratten, in Commerce, a thick woollen
ftuft, quilled, woven on a loom with- four treddles, like
ferges, and other Huffs that h;ive the whale or quilling.

There are fome rateens drcfled and prepared like cloths ;
others left fimply in the hair ; and others where the hair, or

it would be eafy to colleft them into one point ot view in a
table ; but as there is no invariable rule for the general di-
menfions, we (hall felea thofe of fome of a late conllruc-
tion in each rate.

Leiigtli
Guns. ^•="i;'^',°f "^ '^"^

Extreme

Depil-
m the

Bur-
then

1 tlic: keel.

lower

liti-adih.

hold.

in

1

deck.

tons.

Kates.

Ft. In.

Ft. In.

Ft.

In.

Ft. In.

ift Vidory

100 151 3

186 0

51

10

21 6

2162

2d Barfleur

90 144 of

177 6

50

0

21 0

«934

r Arrogant
^ I Europa

74 1138 0

'68 3

47

4

19 9

1644

64 139 0

159 0

44

4

19 4

1366

4th Salifbury

50 120 8

146 0

40

4

17 4J1044

5th If,'''^"'''
^ [^ Venus

44

116 II

140 9

37

li

16 0 856

36

106 3

128 4i

35

9

12 4 722

6th l^lf
\ Dolphin

28

97 3^

118 4

33

8

10 6 586

24

93 4

113 0

32

I

II 0 511

Sloop Nautilus

16

80 71

98 0

27

2

12 8 316

Ships of one hundred guns, and above, and downwards

to fixty-four, are termed fhips of the line.

Ships of the line, fifties, frigates, and royal yatchs, are

commanded by poft-captains ; floops of war, bombs, fire-

fliips, armed (hips, ftore-fhips, and armed en jlute, under

fifty guns, by commanders ; fchooners, cutters, &c. by

lieutenants ; (lop-(hips occafionally by mafters ; and fmall

craft by mid(hipmen, who have pafTed for lieutenants.

Ships of the fecond rate, and thofe of the third, which

have three decks, carry their fails remarkably well, and

labour very little at fea. They are excellent in a general

aftion, or in cannonading a fortrefs. Thofe of the third

rate, which have two tiers, are fit for the line of battle, to

lead the convoys and fquadrons of (hips of war in aAion ;

and, in general, to fuit the different exigencies of the naval

fervice. The fourth rates may be employed on the fame

occafions as the third rates ; and may be alfo deftined for

fervice among the foreign colonies, or on expeditions of

great dillance ; fince tlicfe veffels are ufually excellent for Wellmeath, Ireland, which gives name to a barony,

keeping and fuftaining the fea. Vefiels of the fitih rate are ' »t • -"^t r t^ 1 i-

too weak to fufFer the (hock of a Hue of battle ; but they
may be deftined to lead the convoys of merchant fliips, to
protect the commerce in the colonies, to cruife in different
ftations, to accompany fquadrons, or be fent exprefs with
neceffai-y intelligence and orders. The fame may be ob-
ferved of the fixth rates.

The frigates which mount from twenty-eight to thirty-
eight guns upon OBe deck, with the quarter-deck, are ex-
tremely proper for cniifing againft privateers, or for fhort
expeditions, being light, long, and ufually excellent failers.
Falconer.

Rates, Booh! of. See Book and Customs.
Rate, Poor. See Poor.

Rate-Tj'/Ac When (lieep, or other cattle, are kept in
a pari(h for lefs time than a year, the owner muft pay

Rateens are chiefly manufaftured in France, Holland, and
Italy ; and rnoflly ufed in linings.

The frizc is a fort of coarfe rateen ; and the drugget is a
rateen half linen, half woollen.

RATEL, in Zoology, a name given by the Hottentot*
to an animal inhabiting the Cape of Good Hope, which
lives on honey, and is a great enemy to bees : hence called
the VlVERKA Mellivora: which fee. It has a blunt black
nofe ; no external ear.'!, but a fmall rim round the orifice ; a
rough tongue, (hort legs, very long claws, which are llraight
like thofe of a badger, and guttered beneath : the colour of
the forehead, crown, and whole upper part of the body, is
a cinereous grey ; the cheeks, and fpace round the ears,
throat, breaft, belly, and hmbs, black ; from each ear to
the tail extends along the fides a duflty hne, leaving beneath
another of grey. Its length from the nofe to the tail is
forty inches, and the tail twelve.

This animal preys in the evening, and afcends to the
highefl parts of the defert to look about ; and will then put
one foot before its eyes, to prevent the dazzling of the fun.
The reafon of its going to an eminence is for the fake of
feeing or hearing the honey -guide cuckoo, or cuculus indi-
cator, which lives on bees, and, as it were, condufts it to
their haunts. Pennant.

RATENSTADT, in Geography, a town of Hungary ;
16 miles S.E. of Baes.

RATESPONTE de Mulher, a town of Portugal, in
the province of Entre Duero e Minho ; 15 miles N.E. of
Villa de Conde.

RATH, a word ufed in the compofition of names of
places in Ireland, as Rathdrum, &c. It fignifies an in-
trenchment, or fort.

Rath, ripe, in yigrkulture, a term applied to fome early
ripe corn crops, and which have a degree of rednefs in the
ftraw ; fuch as fome varieties of barley, &c.

RATHANGAN, in Geography, a pod-town of the
county of Kildare, Ireland, fituated on the Athy branch of
the Grand Canal ; 285 miles W. from Dublin, and 5 miles
N.N.W. from Kildare.

RATHCONRATH, a fmall town of the county of

It is
44 miles N. by W. from Dublin, on the road to Lanef-
borough, and 6 miles W. from MuUingar.

RATHCOOLE, a fmall poft-town of the county of
Dubhn, Ireland, where fairs are holden for cattle and ped-
lars' wares. It is on the great fouthem road, 7^ miles S.W.
from Dublin.

RATHCORMUCK, a poft-town of the county of
Cork, Ireland, which returned two members to the Irifh
parliament, before the union. It has gone much to decay,
in confequence of the profperity of Fermoy, which is little
more than three miles diflant. It is near the river Bride,
II I miles S.W. from Dublin, and 135 N.E. from Cork.

RATHDOWNY, a poft-town of the Queen's county,
Ireland ; 59 miles S.W. from Dubhn.

RATHDRUM, a poft-town of the county of Wick-
low, Ireland, fituated on the river Ovoca. It has a monthly

fair

RAT

fair for fiannch, of which there is a confidcrable manufafture.
The adjoining country is very intcrefting, and the Wicklow
copper-mines are not far diftant. Rathdrum is 29 miles S.
from Dublin.

RATHENAU, or Ratemao, a town of the middle
mark of Brandenburg, on the Havel ; 38 miles W. of
Berlin. N. lat. 52 38'. E. long. 12° 30'.

RATHER, or Neitheu, a river of England, which
runs into the Lune, four miles N. of Kirkby Lonldale, in
the county of Wcilmoreland.

RATHERIUS, in Biography, a very learned prelate in
the tenth century, commenced his ecclefiailical career by
embracing a monailic life at the abbey ot Lobbes, or Laubes,
ia Flanders. Here he dillinguifhed himfelf by his abilities
and acquirements. In the year 928, after Hilduin had been
driven out of the fee of Liege, he accompanied him into
Italy; and in 931 he was, by the exprefs order of the
pope, put in pofleffion of the fee of Verona. As, however,
this was in direft hoftility to tlie king of the country, he
was expofed to much perlecution, and at length bani(hed
from Italy. After fpending five years in exile, he returned
with the hope of regaining his bifhopric : but he was un-
fuccefsful, and was ordered to withdraw. He obeyed, and
retired into Provence : from this place he went to the abbey
of Lobbes, where the recolleClion of the honour, which he
had formerly refiefted on that eilablifhment, fccured him a
welcome reception. Shortly after this, he was fent for by
the emperor Otlio, who placed him near the perfon of his
brother Bruno. This prince, having been made archbifhop
of Cologne in the year 953, prefented Ratherius to the
biftiopric of Liege ; from which, however, he was driven
in about two years. As the emperor Otho was at this time
in Italy, our prelate made an effort to recover his former
fee of Verona. Accordingly he laid his cafe before a fynod
aflembled at Pavia, which pafled a decree that he fliould be
re-eftabh(hed in that bifhopric. His peace was foon inter-
rupted by controverfies with the clergy, vv' o could not en-
dure his reproofs of their irregularities and corruptions ; till
at length they became fo irkfome to him, that he determined
to take his hnal leave of Italy. He accordi:)gly went to
France, where he purchafed fome eftates, and obtained the
abbies of St. Amand, Aumont, and of Aunay. He died
at Namur, about the year 973. Hia works are numerous,
fome of which are inferted in father d'Achery's " Spici-
legium." They are faid to afford evident proofs of great
fagacity and judgment, while they breathe throughout an
ardent love of virtue. They alfo fticvv, that he was mod
zealous and intrepid in expofing the irregularities and vices
of the times, and particularly the corrupt morals of ec-
clefiaftics. Moreri. Moflieim.

RATHFRILAND, in Geography, a poll-town of the
county o'^ Down, Ireland. It is lituated on a rifing ground,
and has four great itraigiit roads leading up to it, and cen-
tering in the town. It is on the road to Downpatrick, and
much frequented. The neighbourhood abounds with gra-
nite of a clofe texture, and fit for building. On the fummit
of the hill are the ruins of a cattle, formerly one of the re-
fidences of the Magennifes, lords Iveach. Rathfriland is
57^ miles N. from Dublin, and 7^ miles N. E. from
Newi-y.

RATHKEALE, a poft-town of Ireland, in the county
of Limerick. It is fituated on the river Deel, and was for-
merly a corporation town, and of much more confequence
than at prefent. It has feveral fairs, one of which for
horles is much frequented, as are alfo its races. In the
reign of queen Elizabeth, it fuftained an attack of the Eng-
lifh army. The ruins of a priory, founded by a perfou of

RAT

the name of Harvey, are flill remaining. Rathkeale ij
108 mik's S.W. from Dubhn, and 14 miles W.S.W. from
Limerick.

RATHLACKEN, a poft-town of the county of Mayo,
Ireland, on the fea-coalt, nor far from Rathlacken or Re-
lakin head, and weft of the entrance to Killala bay. It is
132 miles W.N.W. from Dublin, and c miles N. from
Killala.

RATHLIN, Raghlin, or Raghery, an idand fituated
between the north coart of Antrim, in Ireland, and Scot-
land, and confidcred as belonging to the former. It is
about five miles in length, and three quarters of a mile in
breadth, being bent in an angle towards the middle. This
angle lies oppofite to BallycatUe, and forms a tolerable bay,
called Church bay ; but in a wcftirly wind, though the an-
chorage is good, few veffels can ride it out, from the fwell
along the coatt. The number of plantation acres is about
2000, which fupport a population of about 130 or 140 fa-
milies, amounting to about iioo perfons. The cultivated
land is kindly enough, and products excellent barley. But
kelp is the great iource of wealth to this ifland, 100 tons
of which have been exported from it in one year. The
horfes, as well as the fheip, are fmall, but ferviceable ; and
the black cattle are not large, though they do well when
brought to the main land, and better foil. The inhabitants
are a fimple, laborious, and honeft race of people, much at-
tached to their own idand, and regarding Ireland as a fo-
reign country. The monuments of antiquity are fmall tu-
muli, in one of which, when opened, a ftone coffin was
found, befide which an earthen vcffel ftood. Within the
tumuli lay a confiderable number of human bones, wliich
might have been the remains of more ignoble men than the
perfon whofe remains the coffin covered. Brazen fwords
and fpear-heads have alfo been found. The remains of a
fortrefs are vifible, where Robert Bruce is faid to have de-
fended himfelf for fome time, when obliged to fly from his
country. N. lat. 55^ 20'. W. long. 6° 6'.

RATHMANSDORF, a town of Silefia, in the princi-
pality of Neifs ; 4 miles N.N.W. of Weidenau.

RATHOWEN, a poft-town of the county of Weft,
meath, Ireland, near the borders of Longford ; 48 miles
W.N.W. from Dublin.

RATHSCHACH, or Radesche, a town of the duchy
of Carniola, on the Save ; 9 miles W.N.W. of Gurck-
feld.

RATHSPR^SENTGERS, in Commerce, filver coins
of Aix-la-Chapelle, being double, fingle, or half pieces of
22, 16, and 8 marks. 13y the affay, the rathfprxfentger
is worfe than the Englilh ftandard of 1 1 oz. 2 dwts., by
4 oz. 2 dwts. Its weight is 4 dwts. I^ gr. ; its content in
pure filver 56.9 grs. ; and its value in fterling %d. The
double of the fame is worfe by 2 oz. i j dwts. ; its weight
6 dwts. 23^: grs. ; its content in pure filver 1 16.3 grs. ; and
its value in fterling is. \\d. This coin bears on one fide
an eagle within a circle, marked 16 on his breaft, (32 on
the double piece,) and within anotlier circle the legend,
REGUM cuiUA PRINCIPALIS PRIMA ; and next the edge,

URBS AQUENSIS. URBS REGALIS. REGNI SEDES : OU the Other

fide, or reverfe, an altar, with two fwords and a crown
over it, on the double piece ; but on the fingle, a crown
and the date within a circle : the legend on both is LOCUS
CjEsakea coiiONATiONis ; Casfar being a general title for
the emperor. Kelly's Un. Canibitt.

RATI, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Grecian
Arciiipflago, near the S. coal! of Nicaria.

RATIBOR, a town of SiL'fia, in a principality of its
name, on the Oder, which here becomes navigable ; 70

mile*

R A T

miles S.E. of Breflau. N. lat. 50'. E. long. iS'-- 5'. The
principality is bounded N. by the principality of Oppeln,
on the E. by Poland, on the S. by Tefcheii, and on the
W. by the principality of Jagendorf. Its foil is better than
that of Oppeln, as it produces a fufiicient fupply of wheat,
rye, and barley, with fruits ; and befides, it has alfo good
pafture grounds. Its only river is the Oder, which paiies
through its wefteru part ; but it is abuirdantly watered in
all its parts with llreams, ponds, and lakes. It contains
only three cities, and the inhabitants are univerfally Poli(h.
It became a principality in 1288, and about zoo years
afterward it was united to Oppeln, from which it has never

been feparated.

RATIFICATION, Ratificatio, an aft, approving
of, and confirming, fomething done by another, in our

name. ,- ' i, > • .

A treaty of peace is never fecure till the princes have

ratified it. -r r -r ■ j

All procuration imports a promife ot ratifying and ap-
proving what is done by the proxy, or procurator : after
treating with a procurator, agent, faftor, &c. a ratifica-
tion is frequently neccffary on the part of his principal.

Ratification is particularly ufed, in our Laws, for the
confirmation of a clerk in a benefice, prebend, &c. formerly
given him by the biihop, &c. where the right of patronage
is doubted to be in the king.

Ratification is alfo ui^d for an aft confirming fome-
thing we ourfelves have done in our own name.

An execution, by a major, of an aft paffed in his mino-
rity, is equivalent to a ratification.

RATING. See Raiting.

RATINGEN, or Rattingen, in Geography, a town
of the duchy of Berg ; 4 miles N.E. of Duffeldorp. N.
lat. 51' 15'. E. long. 6^47'.

RATING, a town of Naples, in the county of Mohfe ;
6 miles S.E. of Molife.

RATIO, in Arithmetic and Geometry, that relation of ho-
mogeneous things, wliich determines the quantity of one
from the quantity of another, without the intervention of
any third.

The homogeneous things, thus compared, we call the
terms of the ratio ; particularly that referred to the other,
we call the antecedent ; and that to which the other is referred,
the confequent.

Thus, when we confider one quantity by comparing it
with another, to fee what magnitude it has in comparifon of
that other ; the magnitude this quantity is found to have in
comparifon with it, is called the ratio of this quantity to
that : which fome think would be better expreffed by the
word comparifon.

Euclid defines ratio by a mutual relation of two magnitudes
of the fame kind in refped of quantity. But this definition is
found defeftive ; there being other relations of magnitudes
which are conftant, yet are not included in the number of
ratios : fuch as that of the right fine, to the fine of the
complement in trigonometry.

Hobbes endeavoured to improve Euclid's definition of
ratio, but without fuccefs : for in defining it, as he does, by
the relation of magnitude to magnitude, his definition has not
only the fame defeft with Euclid's, in not determining the par-
ticular kind of relation ; but it has this farther, that it does
not exprefs the kind of magnitudes which may have a ratio
to one another.

Ratio is frequently confounded, though very improperly,
with proportion. Proportion, in effeft, is an identity or fimi-
litude of two ratios.

Thus, if the quantity A be triple the quantity B ; the re-

RAT

lation ©f A to B, i.e. of 3 to i, is called the ratio of A to
B. If two other quantities, C, D, have the fame ratio to
one another that A and B have, i. e. be triple one another,
this equality of ratio conltitutes proportion ; and the four
quantities A : B :: C : D, are in proportion, or propor-
tional to one another.

So that ratio exills between two terms ; proportion re-
quires more.

There is a twofold comparifon of numbers : by the firft, we '
find how much they differ, i. e. by how many units the ante-
cedent exceeds, or comes fliort of, the confequent.

Tliis difference is called the arithmetical ratio, or exponent
of the arithmetical relation or habitude of the two num-
bers. Thus, if 5 and 7 be compared, their arithmetical ra-
tio is 2.

By the fecond comparifon, we find how oft the antecedent
contains, or is contained in, the confequent ; /'. e. as before,
what part of the greater is equal to the Icfs.

This ratio, being common to all quantity, may be called
ratio in the general, or by way of eminence : but is ufually
aWei geometrical ratio ; becaufe expreffed, in geometry, by a
line, though it cannot be expreffed by any number.

Modern authors dift;ingui/h ratio, witli regard to quantity
in the general, into rational and irrational.

Ratio, Rational, is that which is as one rational number
to another ; e. gr. as 3 to 4.

Ratio, Irrational, is that which cannot be expreffed by
rational numbers.

Suppofe, for an illuftration, two quantities, A and B ;
and let A be lefs than B. If A be fubtrafted as often as it
can be from B, e. gr. five times, there will either be left no-
thing, or fomething. In the former cafe, A will be to B,
as 1 to 5 ; that is, A is contained in B five times ; or
A ^ ^ B. The ratio here, therefore, is rational.

In the latter cafe, either there is fome part, which, being
fubtrafted certain times from A, e. gr. 3 times, and like-
wife from B, e. gr. 7 times, leaves nothing ; or there is no
fuch part : if the former, A will be to B as 3 to 7, or
A = 4- B ; and therefore the ratio, rational. If the latter,
the ratio of A to B, i. e. what part A is of B, cannot be
expreffed by rational numbers ; nor any other way than
either by lines, or by infinite approaching feries.

The exponent of a geometrical ratio is the quotient arifing
from the divifion of the antecedent by the confequent. Thus,
the exponent of the ratio of 3 to 2, is li ; that of the ra-
tio of 2 to 3, is 4 : for when the lefs terra is the antecedent,
the ratio, or rather the exponent, is a proper fraftion.
Hence the fraftion f = 3 -^ 4. If the confequent be
unity, the antecedent itfelf is the exponent of the ratio :
thus, the exponent of 4 to I, is 4. See Exponent.

If two quantities be compared, without the intervention
of a third ; either the one is equal to the other, or unequal :
hence, the ratio is either of equality or inequality. If the
terms of the ratio be unequal, either the lefs is referred to
the greater, or the greater to the lefs : that is, either the lefs
to the greater, as a part to the whole, or the greater to the
lefs, as the whole to a part. The ratio, therefore, deter-
mines how often the lefs is contained in the greater, or how
often the greater contains the lefs ; i. e. to what part of the
greater the lefs is equal.

The following dillinftions of ratios are fometijnes found in
early authors.

The ratio which the greater term has to the lefs, e. gr. 6 to
3, is called the ratio of the grecUer inequality : the ratio which
the lefs term has to the greater, e.gr. 3 to 6, is caHed the
ratio of the lejfer inequality.

This ratio correfponds to quantity in the general, or is

admitted

RATIO.

admitted of by all kinds of qnantities, difcrete or continued,
commenfurable or incommeiifurable : but difcrete quantity,
or number, does likevvife admit of another ratio.

If the Icfs term of a ratio be an aliquot part of the greater,
the ratio of the greater inequality is faid to be mulliplex, mul-
tiple ; and the ratio of the L-fs inequality, fubmultiple.

Particularly, in the firft cafe, if the exponent be 2, the
ratio is called rt'a;>/f ; if 3, tripU, Sec. In the fecond cafe, if
the exponent be 4, the ratio is called fuiilupie ; \f 'jjfubtriplc,
&c.

E.gr. 6 to 2 is in a triple ratio ; becaufe 6 contains two
thrice. On the contrary, z to 6 is a fubtriple ratio ; becaufe

2 is the third part of 6.

If the greater term contains the lefs once, and over and
above an aliquot part of the fame ; the ratio of the greater
inequality is called fuperparticularis, and the ratio of the lefs
fub-fuperpariicularu.

Particularly, in the firft cafe, if the exponent be i-j, it is
C3\l<::d fefquialtcrate ; if 7i\, fefquitertial, &c. In the other,
if the exponent be -?» the ratio is aWeA fubfefqulalterate ; if
^, fubfejquitert'ial, &c.

E. gr. 3 to 2 is in a fefquialterate ratio ; 2 to 3 in a fub-
fefquiaiterate.

If the greater term contains the lefs once, and over and
above feveral aliquot parts ; the ratio of the greater inequa-
lity is called fuperfiartiens ; that of the lefs inequality isjitb-
fuperparliens.

Particularly, in the former cafe, if the exponent be 1 1,
the ratio is called fuperb'ipartiens terlias ; if the exponent be
14, fiipertripartitns quarlas ; \i l\-, fuperquadrtpartiens fepti-
mas, &c. In the latter cafe, if the exponent be I, the
ratio is c^Udf^d fubjuperb'tpartiens tertias ; if *., fubfupertripar-
tiens qtiartas ; if x"r> fubfupcrqiiadnparl'iens feptimas.

E. gr. the ratio of 5 to 3 \% fuperh'ipartiens tertias ; that of

3 to 5, fubfuperb'ipartiens tertias.

If the greater term contains the leis feveral times, and,
befides, fome quota part of the fame ; the ratio of the
greater inequality is called multiplex fuperparticularis ; and the
ratio of the lefs inequality, fubmultiplex fubfuperparticu-
laris .

Particularly, in the former cafe, if the exponent be 24,
the ratio is called dupla fefquialtera ; if 34, tripla fefqui-
quc.rta. Sec. In the latter cafe, if the exponent be -J, the ratio
is called fubdupla fubfefquialtera ; if -rV> fubtripla fubfefqiti-
quarta, Sic.

E.gr. the ratio of 16 to 5 is tripla fefquiquinta ; that of

4 to 9, fuldupla fulfefquiquarta.

LalUy, if the greater term contains the lefs feveral timei:,
and feveral aliquot parts of it befides ; the ratio of the
greater inequality is called multiplex fuperpartiens ; that of the
lefs inequality, fubmultipkx fubfuperpartiens.

Particularly, in the former ca(e, if the exponent be ^, the
ratio is called diipla fiiperbiparliens terlias ; if 3^, triplnfu-
perbiquadraparliens feptimas, &c. In the latter cafe, if
the exponent be J, the ratio is called fubdupla fubfuperbi-
partiens tertias ; if 4st fubtripla fubfuperquadripartient feptimas ,
Sec.

E. gr. the ratio of 25 to 7 is tripla fuperquadrtpartiens fep-
timas ; that <if 3 to 8, fubdupla fuhfupcrlipartleru tertias.

Thofe are the various kinds of rational ratios ; the names
of which, though they occur but rarely among the modern
writers (for in lieu of them they ufe the fmalleil terms of the
ratios, e. gr. (oi- duple 2:1, fox fefquialterate ■}, : 2) ; yet are
they abfolutely neceffary to fucli as convcrfe with the ancient
authors.

Clavius obferves, that the exponents denominate the ra-
tios of the greater inequality, both in deed and name ; but

Vol. XXIX.

the ratios of the lefs inequality, only in deed, not in name :
but it is eafy finding the name in thcfe, if you divide the de-
nominator of the exponent by the numerator.

E. gr. if the exponent be ^, then 5:8^1?; whence it
appears, the ratio is called fubfupertripartiens quinlas. As
to the names of irrational ratios, nobody ever attempted
them.

Same, or identic ratios, are thofe whofe antecedents have
an equal refpeft to their confequents, ;. e. whofe antece-
dents divided by their confequents, give equal exponents.
And hence may the identity of irrational ratios be con-
ceived.

Hence, firft, as oft as the antecedent of one ratio con-
tains its confequent, or whatever part it contains of its con-
fequent, fo oft, or luch part of the other confequent does
the antecedent of the other ratio contain : or, as oft as
the antecedent of the one is contained in its confequent,
fo oft is the antecedent of the other contained in its con-
fequent.

Secondly, if A be to B as C to D ; then will A : B :;
C : D ; or A : B = C : D. The former of which is the
ufual manner of reprefenting the identity of ratios, the latter
is that of the excellent Wolfius ; which has the advantage of
the former, in that the middle charafter, =, which denotes
the laraenefs, is fcientifical ; i. e. it exprefles the relation of
the thing reprefented, which the other, ::, does not. See
Character.

Two equal ratios, c . ^r. B : C = D : E, we have already
obferved, conftitute a proportion : of two unequal ratios,
e. gr. A : B and C : D, we call A : B the greater, if A : B
> C : D ; on the contrary, we call C : D the leffer, if C
: D > A :B.

Hence, we exprefs a greater and lefs ratio thus : e. gr. 6 to

3 has a greater ratio than 5 to 4 ; for, 6:3(=2)>5:4
(= ij). But 3 to 6 has a lefs ratio than 4 to 5 ; for ^ ;=

4 > ni. Compound ratio is that made up of two or more
other ratios, which the faftum of the antecedents of two
or more ratios has to the faftum of their confequents. Thus,
6 to 72 is in a ratio compounded of 2 to 6, and 3
to 12.

Particularly if it be compounded of two, it is called a
duplicate ratio ; if of three, a triplicate; if of four, quadru-
plicate ; and, in the general, multipUcate, if it be compofed of
feveral fimilar ratios. Thus 48 : 3 is a duplicate ratio of
4 : I and 12:3.

Ratio, Additive. See Additive.

Ratio, Alternate. See Alternate.

Ratio, Ordinate. See Ordinate.

Ratio Modularis and Modulus, were terms introduced
into ufe by Cotes, but more modern authors do not ufe them
always in the fame fenfe : according to Cotes, the modulus
in logarithms is that number which connefts any fyftem of
logarithms with the hyperbolic fyftem, or that number by
which the hyperbolic number of a logarithm mult be multi-
plied, or by the reciprocal of which it muft be divided, in
order to transform it to another fyftem ; and this modulus
is, therefore, always the reciprocal of the hyperbolic loga-
rithm of the radix of that fyftem to which the modulus
belongs.

This IS what Cotes calls the modulus, to whom we owe
the introduftion of the term ; and the reciprocal of it he
calls the ratio modularis : but fome modern authors, as La-
grange, &c. ufe the term modulus to denote the ratio modu-
laris of Cotes.

The modulus of the hyperbohc fyftem is I, this being

the reciprocal of the hyperbolis logarithm of 2.71828182,

the radix of this fyftem ; and the modulus of the common

3 M logarithmic

RATIO.

logarithmic fyftcm is .43429448, which is the reciprocal of
2.3025809,1110 hypcrboHclogarithm of 10, the radix of this
fyltem.

It is fliewn under the article Logarithms, that

log. a =

(«- I) -I ja-iy + i(a-i)', &c.
(r- I) -i(/-- 1)^+ J(r- l)',&c.

where r is the radix, and may be affumed at pleafure, and
the reciprocal of this whole denominator is called the mo-
dulus. In the hyperbolic fyllem the whole denominator
is alTumed l, which makes r = 2.71828182 ; and in the
common fyllem r is affumed 10, and the whole feries becomes
— 2. 3c 25 809, which is tlie reciprocal of the modulus ; and
fince, in the former cafe, we have

hyp. log. a = {a - 1) - i (a - ly + Ha - i)\ &c.

it follows alfo that in any other

hyp. log. r = (r — i)

X(r- ir + ; (/■- 1)^&C.

whatever be the value of r ; therefore, in every fyllem, the
modulus is the reciprocal of hyp. log. of the radix. See

LOGAUITHMS.

Ratio, Denominator of a. See Denominator.

Ratio, Properties of.— l. Ratios fimilar to the fame
third are alfo fimilar to one another ; and thofe fimilar to
fimilar, are alfo fimilar to one another.

2. If A : B :: C : D ; then, inverfely, B : A :: U : C.

3. Similar parts P and p have the fame ratio to the
wholes T and t ; and if the wholes have the fame ratio, the
parts are fimilar.

4. If A : B :: C : D ; then, alternately, A : C :: B :
D. And hence, if B - D, A ^ C ; hence, alfo, if A
: B :: C : D ; and A : F :: C : G ; we (hall have B : F ::
D : G. Hence, again, if A : B :: C : D ; and F : A ::
G : C ; we (hall have F : B :: G : D.

5. Thofe things which have the fame ratio to the fame,
or equal things, are equal ; and vice "verfd.

6. If you multiply any quantities, as A and B, by the
fame, or equal quantities ; their produfts D and E will be
to each other as A and B.

7. If you divide any quantities, as A and B, by the fame
or equal quantities, the quotients F and G will be to each
other as A and B.

8. The exponent of a compound ratio is equal to the
faftum of the exponents of the fimple ratios.

9. If you divide either the antecedents or the confequents
of fimilar ratios, A : B, and C : D, by the fame E ; in
the former cafe, the quotients F and G will have the fame
ratio to the confequents B and D ; in the latter, the ante-
cedents A and B will have the fame ratio to the quotients
H and K.

10. If there be feveral quantities in the fame continued
ratio A, B, C, D, E, &c. the hrft A is to the third C, in
a duplicate ratio ; to the fourth D, in a triplicate ; to the
fifth E, in a quadruplicate, &c. ratio of the ratio of the firft
A, to the fecond B.

11. If there be any feries of quantities in the fame ratio,
A, B, C, D, E, F, &c. the ratio of the firft A to the lalt F
is compounded of the intermediate ratios A : B, B : C,
C : D, D : E, E : F, &c.

12. Ratios compounded of ratios, of which each is equal
to each other, are equal among themfelves. Thus the ratios
90 : 3 :: 960 : 32, compounded of 6 : 3 :: 4 : 2, and
3 : I.;: 12 : 4; and 5 : i :: 20 : 4.

For other properties of fimilar or equal ratios, fee Pko-
iORTION. 5

Ratios, ReduBiun hf. — It is obvious that there is a
variety of cafes in which the real ratio of two quantities may
be exprefled in terms too great to be applied to any ufeful
purpofe ; of which we have an example in the conilructioii
of planetariums, and fimilar ailronomical inllrumcnts. The
ratios of the times in which the feveral planets perform their
fidereal revolutions, are exprelled in very large numbers, far
exceeding the number of teeth that can be introduced into the
machinery ef a planetarium ; and it, therefore, becomes
necefliiry to find fmaller numbers, which, though they do
not cxprefs the true ratio, may approximate as near to the
truth as the ftate of the cafe will admit. Another inftance,
in which a reduction of the ratio of large numbers to
others exprefled in lower terms becomes neceflary, occurs
in the calendar ; for, according to the common reckoning,
the year is fuppofed to be 365 days, whereas it is known
to be nearly 365 days 6 hours ; it, therefore, becomes necef-
lary to have fome means of expreffing the ratio between the
true and the aifumed length of the years, in order that, by
a proper intercalation, we may preferve an uniformity in the
feafons, with reference to the months, as we fliould other-
wife find the (horteil day transferred to the middle of June,
and the longeft to the month of December.

This reduction of ratios is bed performed by means of
continued Fractions, of which a flcetch is given under that
article, as alfo under the article Indeteuminate Analyfis,
but which we (hall probably treat at greater length in a
fupplement to the prefeiit work, on which account it is not
our intention to enter much into the rationale of the theory
in this place, but merely to (late the rules by which the
required reduftion is to be performed.

To reduce a ratio exprejjed in large numbers, to others nearly
equivalent-, but reprejcnted injimpler terms.

Rule I. — Divide the greater of the two numbers by the
lefs ; then the divifor by the remainder, and fo on, as in
finding the greatell common meafure of two numbers, and
referve the feveral quotients, which may be denoted by
a, b, c, d, &c.

2. Write down the feveral quotients, thus ; a, b, c, d, e, &c.
from which the feries of converging fradlions or ratios will be
derived as follows ; vix. the firll fraction will have unity for
its numerator, and the firil quotient, a, for its denominator;
the fecond will have the fecond term, b, for its numerator,
and for its denominator ^i -|- i; and the numerators of all
the fucceeding fraftions will be found, by multiplying the
numerator lalt obtained, by the fucceeding quotient in the
above feries, and adding to the produA the preceding nume-
rator. And the denominators are obtained by precifely
the fame rule, merely changing the word numerator into
denominator.

In this rule we have fuppofed the ratio to be lefs than i,
or the numerator lefs than the denominator ; if the deno-
minator be lefs than the numerator, it mull be reverfed,
making the numerator what we have called the denomi-
nator, and the denominator the numerator.

The laft fraftion of this feries will be the fame as
the original fraftion propofed, and the others will be fo
many approximate or converging fraftions, each of which
will approach nearer to the original fraiflion than the pre-
ceding one, and nearer than any other fraftion whofe terms
are not expreffed by greater numbers. This rule may be
exhibited analytically as follows :
a
Let be the propofed fraftion, and a, b, c, &c. the

quotients obtained by the divifions as above, then the con-
verging

RATIO.

verginff fraftions will be — , — , 7—7 ^, ,

^*' a a6 + 1 (ab + l) c + a

(6c -r l) d -r i . , . , .„ , ^

; — ^^ — ; ; , &c. which will be found

l{ab + i)c + a^.a + ab + 1

to agree with the preceding rule ; and thefe fraftions will
be altL-rnately greater and lefs than that propofed, which will
be the lall of the feries.

Let u3 illuftrate this rule by an example. Required a

feries of converging fraftions towards - ■, which is

° 1 00000

the fradlion commonly employed for exprelfing the ratio of
the diameter to the circumference of a circle.

Operation by Divi/ion.

100000)314159(3 = a

300000

I4I59)

I 00000 (

99H3

7=b

887)

Hi59(
i33°5

15 = c

854)

8«7(i = rf
8j4

33)854(25 = '
825

29)33(1 =/
29

4)29(7 =g
28

\

1)4(4 =
4

to denote the ratio of the diameter to the circumference
of a circle, and amongft our approximations we find fome
of tliofe commonly employed by former writers ; as 7 to
22, being that given by Archimedes ; 106 to 3^^, which
is another ratio formerly ufcd ; alfo 115 10355, being that
invented by Peter Melius. Each of t'liefc ratios is alter-
nately too fmall and too great, to exprefs the ratio of the
diameter to the circumference of the circle. Thus, i to i
is too fmall a ratio, 7 to 22 too great, 106 to ^j^ too fmall,
and 1 13 to 355 too great; and fo on.

We may therefore divide the above feries into two didinft
clafles, one of which fliall exhibit the ratios all in exccfs,
and the other all in defed, which will ftand as follows -.
viz.

Ratios in defeS.
3^ 333 9208 76149
I 106' 2931' 24239'
Ratios in excefs.

2J 355 95^ 3'4'59
7' 113' 3044* looooo"
And between every two confecutive fraftions we may now
interpolate as many fraftions of the fame kind, as is one
lefs than the number of units in the quotients from which
it was formed. If we write the firft of the above feries,
with the correfponding quotients above their terms, we
(hall have

15

333^
106'

25
9208

2931'

7

79H9

Having thus obtained our quotients, the ieveral fraftions
will be eafily formed by the preceding rule ; thus,

3 7 15 I 25 I 7 4

1 ^ M3 355 9^ 95^ 76149 JH'jQ.
i' 7' 106' 113' 2931' 3044' 2423' looooo'

the laft of which is the fame as the original fraftion. Tliefe
fraftions are formed according to the preceding rule, which
will be underftood from one example ; thus, the fifth frac-
tion is formed from the two preceding fraftions as follows- :

355 X 25 -I- 333 = 9208 numerator,

113 X 25 4- 106 = 29^1 denominator,

and all the others are obtained in the fame manner.

Each of thefe frattions reprefents an approximate ratio
towards the original one, and each of them nearer than
any preceding fraftioii in the ieries, and nearer than any
fraftion expreffed in lefs numbers, 01 than any fraftion
having a lets denominator than the lucceeding fraftions.

Thus, - is a nearer approximation than any fraftion whofe

denominator is lefs than 3, and - - nearer than anv frac-

113

tion whofe denominator is lefs than 293 1 ; &c.

Our original fraftion exhibited the ratio ufually employed

24239

We may therefore interpolate, between the two firft
fraftions, fourteen others, which will poflefs the fame pro-
perty as the principal fraftions above, -vi-z,. of approxi-
mating nearer to the true ratio than any other fraftions
expreffed in lefs terms, but all in defeft. Between the
fecond and third we may interpolate twenty-four fraftions :
and between the third and fourth, fix : all of them lefs
than the propofed ratio. But if we take the fecond fe-
ries and their correiponding quotients, they will itand
thus ;

III 4

22 355 95^ 3'4i59
7' 113' 3044' looooo'
which (hews, that no fraftion can here be interpolated
either between the firft and fecond, or between the fecond
and third ; but there may be three interpolated between
the third and fourth, which will, of courfe, be all in ex-
cefs. This interpolation is performed as follows : to the
numerator and denominator of the lefs fraftion add, once,
twice, three times, &c. the numerator and denominator of
the principal fraftion which interpofes between the two,
which vsfill form the interpolated fraftions required. Thus,
becaufe^^'^9

24239

is the principal fraftion interpofed between

^-^ and , the intermediate or interpolated frac-

3044 I 00000

tious will be

9563 4-76149

3044
9563

-!- 24239
+ 2.76149

_ 85712

27283

_ 161861

3044 4- 2.24239 "" 51522

9563 + 3-76149 _ 238010
3044 + 3.24239 75761
3 M 2

And

RATIO.

fraftions between - and

And in the fame manner we may interpolate fourteen
^^l; twenty-four between ^^

100 ' 100

9208 9208 16149

and - — ; and iix between and - .

2931 2931 24339

Having thus explained the nature of the operation, we
ftiall enter Icfs into detail in the following example.

Example 2. — Accordiug to M de la Caille, the folar
year is 365'' 5'' 48™ 49', and confequently longer by
5'' 48™ 49' than tlie common year of 365 days. If this
difference were exaftly 6 hours, it would make one day at
the end of four common years : but if we wi(h to know
exaftly at the end of how many years this difference will
produce a certain number of days, we muft feek the ratio

between 24'' and 5'' 48"' 49 , which we find to be — - — ,

20929

fo that at the end of 86400 common years, we muff in-
tercalate 20929 days, in order to reduce them to tropical
years.

Now as the ratio of 86400 to 20929 is expreffed in very
high terms, let it be required to find ratios in lower terms,
as near this as poffible.

For this purpofe, we muft perform upon thefe numbers
the fame operations as in the preceding cafe ; thus :

4 29 33

&c.

20929)86400(4 = a
83716

2684)20929(7 = b

18788

2i4i)2684(
2141

1 = c

543)

si4i(3 = J
1629

512)543(1 =«
512

31)512(16=/
496

J6)3i(i=.r

16

15)16(1 = A
15

015(15
15

From which quotients we derive the following converging
fractions, ■u'tz,

16 I 1 15

2704 2865 5569 86400

4

7

I

3

I

4

29

33

128

161

T'

7'

8"'

31'

39

It appears farther, that as the fradions — , — , ,, ,

17^

are alternately lefs and greater than the fraftion , or

' ° 20929

— — , the intercalation of i day in 4 years would be

5" 48'" 49'

too much, of 7 days in 29 yearK too little, of 8 days m
33 years too much again, and fo on ; but each of thefe in-
tercalations will be the moft exaft, that it is poffible to make
in the fame fpace of time.

Now if we arrange in two feparate feries, the fraftiont
that are lefs, and thofe that are greater, than the given
fraftions, we may infert or interpolate between certam of
thofe fraftions, as in the preceding examples.

Taking firll thofe fraftions that are lefs than the given
one, and their correfponding (juotients, we (hall have,

I I 15

4 33 2865 86400

I ' 8 ' 694 ' 20929*

Hence it appears, that the only interpolation that can be

c n- 2865 , 86400

performed is between the two fractions ^ - and • ;

*^ 694 20929

which will admit of 14 intermediate fraftions ; which being
fupplied, as in the former example, gives the following
feries of converging fraftions, each lefs than the fraftion
originally propofed, viz.

33 161 2865 8434 14003

8' 39' 694' 2043' 3392'
19572 25141 30710 36279
6090' 7439'
52986 58555

4
J
I

474'
41848
10137'
69633

16882'

8788'
6A124
12835' 14184' 15533'
75262 80831 86400
19580'

18231 19580' 20929

And as the laft fraftion is the fame as the given fraftion, it
is evident that this feries cannot be carried farther : hence,
if we choofe to admit thefe intercalations only in which the
error is too much, the fimpleft and moft exaft will be thofe
of I day in 4 years, or of 8 days in 33 years, or of 39 in
161 years, and fo on.

Let us now confider the decreafing fraftions :

16 I

7
29

>

7

3
128

2704

5569^
1349"

31 (-ss

Here it appears, that we may place 6 fraftions before the
firft, 2 between the firft and fecond, 15 between the fecosd
and third ; but between the third and fourth no fuch frac-
tion can be inferted.

Thefe interpolations being made, vre ftiall have the fol-
lowiBg feries of decreafing fraftions, •viz.

655' 694' 1349' 20929'

Now we fee from the above fraftions, that the fimpleft
intercalation is that of one day in four common years, which
is the fonndation of the Julian calendar ; but that we Ihould
approximate with more exaftnefs, by intercalating only
7 days in the fpace of 29 common years, or 8 in the fpace
of 33 years, and fo en.

5
T'

9

13
3

17

T'

21

7'

25

"6 '

29

62

95

128

289

450

7'

15'

23

3«'

70

109

611

772

933

1094

1255

148' 187' 226' 265' 304'

I4I6

RATIO.

1416 1577 1738 1899 2060

"343^' 382' 42> ' 460' 499'

2221 2382 2543 2704 5569
7P"' 577' 616' 65s' 1349'

which are all lefs than the propofed fradion, and exprcfTed
ui Icfs terms ; and each of which is nearer than any other
tradion tliat can be exprclfed in Icfs terms.

Hence we conclude, that if we only attend to the inter-
calations in which the error is too fmall, the fimplell and
mod fxad are thofe of i day in 5 years, of 2 days in

9 years, of 3 days in 13 years, of 4 days in 17 years, and

10 on.

In the Gregorian calendar, only 97 days are intercalated
in 400 years ; but it is evident, from the preceding table,
that it would be much more exaft to intercalate 109 days
in 450 years.

But it mud beobferved, that, in the Gregorian reforma-
tion, the determination of the year given by Copernicus was
made ufe of, which is 365'' 5'' 49' 20" ; and fubllituting

this inftead of the fraftion

86400
20929'

we (hall have

86400
29060'

feries,

rather -- - ; whence we may find, by the preceding me-

131
thod, the quotients 4, 8, 5, 3 ; and from them the prin-
cipal fraftions

4853

4 33 il9 545

i' 8' 41' 131'

which, except the two firft, are quite different from thofe
before determined. However, we do not find amongft

thefe fraftions - -, which is that adopted in the Gregorian

97
calendar ; and this fraftion cannot even be found among the
interpolated fraftionc, which might be inferted in the two

— , — , and ^, ^ : for it is evident that it
I 41 8 131

could only be between the laft two fraftions, between
which, becaufe of the number 3, (the correfponding quo-
tient,) there can be but two fraftions interpolated, which

are , and — -- : whence it appears, that it would have

49 90

been more exaft, if, in the Gregorian reformation, they
had only intercalated 90 days in the fpace of 371 years.

If we reduce the fraAion , fo as to have for its

37

numerator the number 86400, it will become — ^- , which

20952

ellimates the tropical year at 365'' 5'' 49' 12".

In this cafe, the Gregorian intercalation would be quite
exact ; but as obfervations fhew that the year is fliorter
than this by more than 20", it is evident that, at the end of
a certain period of time, we muft introduce a new inter-
calation.

If we adopt the determination of de la Caille, it follows, as

the denominator 97 of the above fraftion, viz. — , lies be-

97
tween the denominators of the fifth and fixth principal

fraftions already found, that, from what has been dated

above, the fraflion will be nearer the truth than

39

. But as aflronomers are ftill divided with rctrard to
97 ^

the exaft length of the year, we (liall refrain from giving a
decifive opinion on this fubjeft. For more on the rcdudtion
of ratios, fee Lagrange's Additions to Euler's Elements
of Algebra.

Ratios, Prime anil Ultimate, is a fpccics of computation,
which we owe to the fertile genius of Newton. The an-
cients, in order to extend the geometry of riglit lines to
curvilinear figures, had recourfe to the method of cxhauf-
tions, in which they made ufe of what is called the reduSiu
ad abfurdum method, which, though logical, is extremely tedi-
ous, and to avoid which, Cavalcrius propofed his method of
indivifibles, piibliflied in 1635 under the title of " Geome-
tria Indivifibilibus," in which he was followed by Dr,
Wallis and others of the 17th and i8th centuries. In this
method every line was fuppofed to coniilt of a number of
other lines indefinitely fmall ; every curve was confidered as
a polygon of an indefinite number of fides, each fide be-
ing indefinitely fmall ; a fohd was fuppofed to confift of
an infinite number of plane feftions, or of indefinitely thin
laminre, and fo on ; fuppofitions which in many inilances
led thofe, who adopted them, into errors and inconfiftencies,
which indeed it was very difficult to avoid.

To obviate both the tedioufnefs of the ancients, and the in-
accuracy of the moderns, Newton introduced his method of
prime and ultimate ratios, the foundation of which is con-
tained in the firft lemma of the firft book of his " Prin-
cipia." Many difficulties have been ftarted, and much con-
troverfy concerning the proof of it ; all of which would
have been avoided, had either the author or his readers ob-
ferved, that he is in reality laying down the definition of a
term, viz. being ultimately equal, and not proving a propo-
fition. Taking, therefore, this firft lemma for a definition,
it may be illuftrated as follows.

Let there be two quantities, one fixed and the other vary-
ing, fo related to each other, that, I ft, the varying quantity
continually approaches to the fixed quantity ; and, 2dly, that
the varying quantity never reaches or paftes beyond that which
is fixed : 3dly, that the varying quantity approaches nearer
to the fixed quantity than by any affigned difference. Then
is fuch a fixed quantity called the limit of the varying quan-
tity ; or, in other words, the varying quantity may be faid
to be ultimately equal to the fixed quantity, Thefe three
conditions may be expreffed more diftintlly thus. i. The
difference between the varying quantity and the fixed quan-
tity muft continually decreafe. 2. This difference muit
never become either nothing or negative. 3. This differ-
ence muft become lefs, in refpeft of the fixed quantity,
than by any afligned ratio ; or the difference between the
two quantities muft become a lefs part of the fixed quantity
than any fratlional part that is affigned, however fmall the
fraftion exprefling fuch part may be. Wherever thefe pro-
perties are found, the fixed quantity is called the limit of the
varying quantity, or the varying quantity is laid to be ulti-
mately equal to the fixed quantity. The laft cxpreffioii,
however, muft not be underftood in its ftrift hteral fenfe,
there being no ultimate Jlate, no particular magnitude, that
is the ultimate magnitude of fuch a varying quantity. Under
the word quantity in this definition, muft be included not
only numbers, lines, &c., but more efpecially ratios con-
fidered as a peculiar fpecies of quantity ; but as the con-
10 fideration

RATIO.

fideralion of ratios whicli have limits is difficult, we (hall
begin with examples of other quantities.

I ft. Let there be formed a feries, whofe firft term is i ;
fecond, i ; third, ^ ; fourth, a, and fo on ; every term
being half the preceding one, -viz.

1 I I I I

1, — . — . -jT' -7. — . Sec.

2 4 8 i6 32

and let the fum of an indefinit number of terms in this
feries be confidered as continuali, increafed by the accellion
of a new term ; thus, the fum of t. le two firfl is i^, of three
terms is if, of four terms is I J, :kc. I fay then, that the
varying fum of the terras of this ii ties continually approxi-
mates to the fixed number 2, as its limit. For the difference
between i, 2, 3, &c. terms and the number 2, will be the

numbers l, — , — » -a , —,, &c. fucceflively, in in-
2 4 8 16 '

finilum. Here it is- evident, that the terms in this laft feriesj
which exprefs the fuccelfive diilereiices between the increaf-
ing fum of the former feries and the number 2, ^r//, con-
tinually decreafe ; and fee ond/y, no term in this feries of dif-
ferences can become either notiiing or negative ; and thirdly,
we may continue this leries of fuccefTive differences, till we
arrive at a term which fhall be a lefs part of the fixed num-
ber 2, than any fractional part of it that can be afligned ;
or fo that this difference (hall be lefs, when compared with
the number 2, than any ratio affigned. The number 2,
therefore, having the conditions laid down in the definition,
is to be called the limit of the fum of the terms of the

Tor the terms of this feries; will be /,

a~

infinite feries i,

— , &c.
16

1 I

2 4

And the fame is to be underftood of any other infinite
feries ; "uiz. if a number can be found having the above con-
ditions, that feries is faid to have a limit ; and the finding
of this limit, is what is to be underflood when mathema-
ticians fpeak of finding the fum of fuch an infinite feries.

No number lefs than 2, for inftance i|, can be taken
for the limit ; for, in this cafe, it will not anfwer the
fecond condition of the definition. In the above example,
the fum of four terms of the feries is equal to i^, and
the fum of five terms exceeds it ; therefore, the difference
between this fum and the number 1 J propofed as a limit is,
in the former cafe zero, and in the latter negative. Nei-
ther can any number greater than 2, as for example 3, be
taken for the limit, becaufe here the laft condition will be
wanting ; for if the fum of any afligned number of terms
be lefs than 2, that fum mull always want more than
unity of the number 3, and confequently cannot approach
nearer to 3, than any afligned quantity, as i.

In like manner .the fum of the feries 1, — , — ~,

3 9 27
&c. continued in ttifimtmn, will be i^ ; the feries of fuccef.

five differences being ~, -^-, -g, —, Sec. in injnitum.

Now, in order to make the preceding example general,
kt a:i exprefs the common ratio of any feries of numbers
in continual proportion, whofe firft term is unity, I fay
then, if a be greater than i, fuch a feries will have for its

limit the quantity —— ^ ; or, in other words, the fum of aU

the terms of fuch an infinite feries will be "

T, &c.
Whence the fum of i term is
of 2 terms

of 3 terms
of 4 terms

a -)- A

a

a'-\-ai + b'

a'

a^ a^ b -^ ab'- -^ b'
a'
Let each of thefe fums be fubtraded from the limit

, and we have the fucceflive differences ( \

"-'' \a-bJ'

/ '' ±\ {J_ l'^\ / b b^\

\a-l • a J' \a-b ' >/' V^ITa " IT/' ^^- °'
if H be any afTigned number of terms, the differeHce be-
tween the fum of that number of terras and the limit

abb"''
__, will be —J . -;p-^. Whence we may obferve, ift,

that as the number of terms whofe fum is required increafes,

this difference continually decreafes, becaufe -- , being a

fraftioB lefs than unity, its powers continually decreafe.
2dly. This diff"erence can never become notiiing or negative '■
the powers of a fradion, though they decreafe, being aK
ways real and affirmative. 3dly. This difference may be.

come lefs in refpeft of -^, than by any alHgned ratio.

For

as a" : i" ; or as ^ to I ; or as

b a — b a

\b) " to I : and fince -^ is greater than i, and n inde-
terminate, the former term of the ratio may become greater
than any affigned quantity, and therefore the ratio itklf lefs
than any ratio affigned.

The quantity y^, having, therefore, the required condi-
tions, is the limit of the above feries, or is equal to the fum
of all the terms continued in infinitum.

What has been proved above may be fhewn more concifely
by dividing a by a - b, in the manner of divifion irt algebra,
for the quotients will be the very feries propofed in the ex-
ample : tor inftance,

a-b) a (i + --f-— -i-—-j-&c.
a — b '^ <i a

b^
a

a'

And

RATIO.

And it may be further confuincd by multiplying the pro-
pofed feries by a — h, for the produft will be a, all the
terms except the fird dellroyiiig each other.

We may alfo obfervc, that if every term ot the foregoing
feries be multiplied by any number c, it will become c -f-

bc b'-c Pc „ r • , •

1 -I + &c. ; a leries liavnig the lame ratio,

rt a' a'

but whofe firft term is c ; and it is therefore evident, that, in
this cale, to lind the fum of all the terms, wcmuft multiply

the former limit by c, whence it will become .

Before we begin to confider ratios, it may not be amifs to
caution the reader againil confounding the terms of a ratio
with the ratio itlelf: the terms of a ratio may vary in fomc
cafes through all degrees of magnitude, and yet the ratio re-
main conftant or invariable. In other inftances, varying the
terms in infinitum, likewife varies the ratio in injinitum ;
while in others, though varying the terms may alfo vary the
ratio, yet the laft ratio can never exceed certain limits.

Let X be any varying quantity ; make 4*" f 3 .v = A,
and 2 .r' + jc =: B, then will A and B alfo be varying
quantities, as depending upon .v ; when .v vanifhes, A and
B will both vanifh ; when x is infinite, they will be both in-
finite. I fay then the ratio of A to B, while x decreafes
/',■; injinitum, approximates to the ratio of 3 to i.

For, firll, A is to B, as 4 x' + 3 x is to 2 x' + x, or as
4.i;-f-3to2K+i; where it is obvious, that as .v decreafes,
the quantities 4 .v and 2 .v alfo decreafe, and confequently
the ratio of 4 .v -|- 3 to 2 .t- + I, or of A to B, approaches
to that of 3 to I. Secondly, the ratio of A to B can
r.ever exceed 3 to i . For 6 x +3 x is to 2 .v' -|- x, as 3 to I ;
but 4 X- + 3 .V is a lefs quantity than 6 x + 3 x, therefore
4 x"' -f- 3 .V is to 2 .V + X, or A is to B in a lefs ratio than
6 x'' -f 3 .■« to 2 .v' + X ; that is, lefs than the i-atio of 3 to i .
Laftly, the ratio of A to B will approach nearer to the
ratio of 3 to I, than any affigned difference. For in the
terms of this ratio, 4.r + 3 to 2 .v + I, the varying parts
4.\- and 2 x, by diminithing x, may become lefs than any
affigned quantity, while the other parts, 3 and i, remain the
i'ame ; therefore the ratio of A to B will approach nearer
to the ratio of 3 to i, than by any affigned difference.

In like manner the ratio of A to B, while x increafes in
infinitum, approximates to the ratio of 2 to i, as its limit.

3
4 .V + 3 to 2 X + I, or as 4 x -f- —

For fuice A is to B

to the ratio of 4 to 2, or 2 to i, than the affigned difference.
Hence then we fee that though diminifhing x, and confe-
quently diminifhing the terms A and B, we increafe their
ratio, and on the contrary incrcafing thefe terms, by increaf-
ing the quantity x, we decreafe their ratio, yet there is a
limit both to the increafe and decreafe of this ratio, al-
though there be none to the terms themfelvcs which com-
pofe it.

The ratio of 3 to i, which limits the ratio of A to B, when
thefe terms decreafe in injinitum, is called the ultimate ra'iooi
the evanefcent quantities A and B. The ratio of 2 to i
which is their otiier limit, is called the ultimate ratio of the "
quantities A and B increafing in injinitum.

Another example of a fimilar kind we have as follows.
Let X be a varying quantity, and d a conftant one, then
will X -|- d and x be two varying quantities capable of all
degrees of magnitude, I fay that the ratio of x + d \.o x,
while X increafes, will continually decreafe, but not beyond
a certain limit, which is the limit of equality. On the
contrary, if x decreafe, the ratio of x + </ to x will con-
tinually decreafe more and more ad infinitum, and never

come to a limit. For x 4- d is to .v, as i + — to i ; now

X

as X increafes, the fraftion — decreafes, and may become

X

lefs than any affigned fraftion ; but the number 1, which is
the other part of the antecedent of this ratio, remains
the fame, as does likewife the confequent, therefore the

d ■ u ■

ratio 01 1 -f — to I, continually approximates to a

ratio of equ.ility. Secondly, it can never reach that ratio,

becaufe — has always fome magnitude, and confequently

d

I H always greater than i. It therefore can never reach

the ratio of equality, and much lefs can it pafs it, fo as to be-
come a ratio mlnorls Imequa/ltatis, or a ratio in which the an-
tecedent is lefs than the confequent. Laftly, the varying

fraftion — , as x increafes, will become lefs than any affigned

fraftion, while the other part of the antecedent, and like-
wife the confequent of this ratio, remain the fame. There-

i

it is obvious, that as .v increafes, the quantities ^°''^^^ "^'° of i + - to ., will approach nearer to the

•-^- and — decreafe, and confequently the ratio of 4 + —

X K X

to 2 -1 , or of A to B, approaches to the ratio of 4 to 2,

X

or of 2 to I . For 4 .<- + 2 x is to 2 x- + x, as 2 is to i ;
but 4 x' + 3 X, is a greater quantity than 4 x' -t- 2 x, there-
fore 4 X- -(- 3 X is to 2 x' + X, or A is to B always in a
greater ratio than 2 to i. Laftly, the ratio of A to B
will approach nearer to that of 2 to i , than by any affigned

3 I

difference. For in the terms of this ratio, 4 -f - and 2 -) ,

X X

3 I

the variable parts -^ and — , by increafing x, may-become

X iC

lefs tlian any affigned fraftion, while the parts 4 and 2 remain
the fame ; therefore the ratio of A to B will approach nearer

ratio of equality, than by any ratio that can be affigned,
however fmall fuch ratio may be ; therefore the ratio of

equality is the limit of the ratio of i -f — to i, and

X

confequently the limit of the ratio of x + </ to x, which
continually d'-creafes, while the terms which compofe this
ratio continually iacreafe in Infinitum.

Ifx decreafe then — will increafe, and may become greater

X

than any affigned number, while the other part of the ante-
cedent, and likewife the confequent, remain invariable ;

therefore the ratio of 1 -j to i, and confequently the

ratio of x + d \o x, as x decreafes, will become greater than
any affigned ratio whatever, having i>o limit to its increafe.

We

IIATIO.

\V<i may farther obferve, that though the terms of this ratio,
■viz. X + dt.o X, never approximate nearer to each oilier,
their conllaiit difference being </, yet the ratio of the terms
approximates to the ratio of equably ; that is, though the
terms get no nearer in their difference, yet, if we may be
allowed the expreflion, they get nearer in tlieir ratio. The
difference of the terms, and the ratio of tin- terms, are ideas
very dillinft from each other, and in no wife to be fo con-
netted, but that one may vary whilft the other is conftant.
Although the ratio of equality may ftriftly be called the
limh of the varying ratio of the quantities x -r d and x,
yet the terms of' this ratio can never be ftriftly faid to be
equal, nor ultimately equal, as that fuppofes an ultimate Itate
in which they are equal ; nor equal when they vani/h into
infinity, or, when they pafs out of finity into infinity.
There is no finite quantity next to infinity, no number, for
inftance, which is the next number to infinity. Nor is there
any flep from a ftate of nothingnefs into finite exiftence ;
there is no fraftion fo fmall as to be the very next fraftion
to nothing; no fraftion can be affigned fo fmall, but another
fraftion may be affigned that is fmaller. Neither can we
fay, in (Iridlnefs, that two infinitely great numbers with a
finite difference are equal, it being a propofition obvioufly
abfurd and contradiftory. There is no fucli thing in
nature as an infinitely great number ; and it is contradiftory
to fay of any two numbers, both that they have a difference,
and that they are equal. Whoever confiders that the idea of
infinity is a general or abftraft idea, that the idea of
number is always particular, that infinity is a property of
numbers, a property of extenfion, &c. itfelf, will readily
perceive that thefe and fuch like expreffions have no literal
meaning. (See Locke, b. ii. ch. i6. and ch. 17.) As to
the metaphorical ufe of them, to avoid circumlocution, or
the inlroduftion of new terms, it may be allowed, when
once the literal meaning has been explained, in this, as
well as on various other occafions both in fcience and in
common life.

When the difference between any two quantities decreafes,
fo as to become a lefs fraftional part of the one of them than
any afiigned fractional part whatever ; or when the difference
between the terms of a ratio becomes lefs in refpeft of one
of them (the greater for example) than any affig;ned ratio,
this may be expreffed by faying, that fuch difference ^)a/2^/2lfJ
in reipeft of that greater quantity.

But if the difference between two terms vanifh in refpeft
to one of them, it will alfo vanifii in refpeft of the other.
It is true that at any affigned lime, when the terms have a
particular magnitude, the difference between the terms will
always be a lefs fraftional part of the greater term than
it is of the lefs term ; but as this difference continually
decreafes, it will become the fame fraftional part of the
lefs term that it was before of the greater, however fmall
that fraftional part of the greater term may be ; therefore, if
the difference vanifh with regard to one of them, it will vanifli
alfo with regard to the other. We may, therefore, inftead of
the third condition of our definition, fay, that " the difference
muff vanifh in refpeft either of the fixed or of the varying
quantity, fince one of thefe imphes the other."

The above is true as well for the cafe of two variables, as
for one fixed and one variable, though both of fuch variables
mcreafe or decreafe without limit. Thus, in the example
above given, in whicli the terms were x ^- d and x, and
where x is continually increafing, the terms themfelves both
continually increafe ; for in this initance it is obvious, that if
the difference vanifh with refpeft to one of the terms, it will
alfo vanifh with rofpeft to the other. Let .-cbe to d, at any
affigned point of time, as n is to I, and i/ at that inftant of

time will be the th part of the greater term, and the

n H- 1

- th part of the lefa term : now, thotigh the contemporary

value of thefe fraftions can never be equal, yet in fucceffion
the value of the latter Iraftion will become whatever the for-

mer has been ; therefore, if -

n + I

become lefs than any af-

figned fraftion, fo will - hkewife ; and thus, if the difference

Tl

vanifhes with refpeft to one of the terms, x + d, to will it
alfo vanifli with refpeft of the other, x. And the fame would
be true if the terms were *; and x — d, all things elfe being
as before.

Again, if x by decreafing vanifh with refpeft to fome fixed
quantity n, then will *, multiplied by a given number n, or
n X, vunifh in refpeft of a ; or, which is the fame, if* vanilh
in rcfpift of a, fo likewife will the quantity n « ; bearing to
X the affigned ratio of n to i . For though at any particular
point of time x is a fmalh-r fraftional part of a than n x,
yet X can be no affigned fraftional part of a whatever ; but
by farther diminifiiing x, the quantity n * may become the
fame fraftional part of a that x was before. If, then, x
may become equal to, or k-fs than, any affigned fraftional
part of a, fo likewife may n x ; that is, if * vanilh in refpeft
of a, fo likewife will n x.

For alike reafon, if x vanifli in refpeft of any quantity,
it will likewife vanifli in refpeft to that quantity multiplied
or divided by any number ; or it will vanifli in reipeft of a
quantity, bearing to a any affigned ratio, as that of ;n to l.
Thus, if X vanifli in refpeft of a, it will alfo vanifli in re-
fpeft of 3 a, 2 a, 5 a. Sec. Or, if any fraftion vanifli in
refpeft to the diameter of a circle, it will likewife vanifli in
refpeft of the radius. For whatever part of the diameter
the line x may be at any affigned point of time, let .-c farther
decreafe, till it be half what it was at that affigned time, and
it will now be the fame part of the radius that it was before
of the diameter ; and the fame with various other lines and
quantities. We have fhewn, in the preceding part of this
article, that the ratio which two quantities bear to each
other may have a limit, although the terms themfelves may
increafe or decreafe perpetually without limit. I. If the
terir.3 approximate tcwaids each other ; 2, if the lefs never
pafs the greater; and, laftly, if their difference vanifli in re-
fpeft of either term, then the limit of their varying ratio is
that of equality : and this, whether the terms themfelves are
fuch, as by increafing they both become greater than any
affigned quantity, or, which is more common, fuch as by
decreafing become lefs than any affigned quantity, or as it is
called, infinitely fmall. Becaufe the idea of the terms of a
ratio is lefs abttraft than that of the ratio itfelf, it is more
ufual to fay that the terms themfelves in this cafe are ulti-
mately equal, though, ftriftly, it is the ratio only of the
terms that comes to a limit, for the terms themfelves are fup-
pofed to increafe or decreafe without limit, or as we com-
monly fay, ad infinitum.

Prep. — In a circle whofe centre is C, {Plate XIII.
Analyfis, fig. 9.I radius C A, diameter A a, let A B be the
chord, F B the fine, and A D the tangent of the arc A B.
I fay, that while the arc A B continually decreafes without
limit ; ift, the fine continually approximates to the tan-
gent ; zdly, the fine never exceeds the tangent ; 3dly, their
difference will vanifli in refpeft of either fine or tangent.

Firft ; B F : D A :: C F : C A, but while the arc de-
creafes, C F approximates to C A ; B F approximates to

DA.

RAT

RAT

D A. 2dly. C F can never exceed C A ; therefore B F
can never exceed D A. ^dly. The arc coiitiiRially de-
creafing without limit, vanifhi'S in rcfpeft of the diameter,
wiiich is fixed ; therefore the chord A B, which is lefs than
the arc, likewife vanifhes in rcfpedt of the diameter A a.
But Afl:AB::AB:AF; therefore, if A B vanifhes
in refpe<5l of A a, A F will vanifli in rcfpeft of A B ; and
much more will A F vanifti in refpedt of A a ; but if A F
vanifh in refpeft of A a, it will alfo vanifh in rcfpedl of
i An, orC A.

Now C A : C F :: A D : FB, and by divifion of pro-
portion CA:AF::AD:AD-FB. Therefore,
as A F vaniflies in refpeft of C A, fo does AD — F B
(the difference of the fine and tangent) vanifh in rcfpeft to
A D the tangent, aivd confequently in refpcft of F B the
fine. Whence we fee, that while the arc continually de-
creafes without limit, the fine approximates to the tangent ;
2dly, the fine never exceeds the tangent ; 3dly, although
the fine and tangent both vanifh in refpect of the radius, yet
their difference vanifh in refpetl of thefe quantities themfelves.
The/efore the ratio of equality is the limit of the varying
ratio which the fine and tangent have to each other, while
they both decreafe perpetually without limit, or it is their
ultimate ratio, or, as we may fay, they are ultimately equal.
The fine is lefs than the chord ; for in the right-angled tri-
angle A F B, the fide B F is lefs than the hypothenufe
A B ; the chord is lefs than the arc ; this is felf-evident,
the chord being a ftraight line, and tlie arc a curve,
both terminated by the fame points A and B. The arc is
lefs than the tangent ; for from the point D draw another
tangent to the circle in H ; and the lines A B H, A D H,
will be terminated by the fame points A and H ; and will
have the concavities turned the fame way ; therefore
the included arc A B H will be lefs than the fum of the
two equal tangents D A and D H ; confequently half that
arc, or A B, will be lefs than half the fum of the tangents
AD.

Cor. I. — Hence the fine, chord, arc, and tangent, are all
ultimately in a ratio of equahty. This may appear becaufe
the chord and arc are included between the fine and tangent,
but perhaps more plainly thus. Of thefe four quantities,
•viz. the fine, chord, arc, and tangent, the fine is the lead,
and the tangent the greateft ; therefore, the difference be-
tween the fine and the tangent is greater than the difference
between any other two of thefe four quantities. If, there-
fore, the greatell of all thofe differences vanifh in refpett of
the leaft of all thofe quantities, much more wiD the differ.
ence between any other two of thefe four quantities vanifh
in refpeft of the quantities themfelves.

Cor. 2. — Join B a, and in tlie right-angled triangle B F n,
the hypothenufe B a is greater than the fide F a ; therefore
A a — B rt is lefs than A a — Y a, or than A F ; but while
the arc A B decreafes continually without limit, A F va-
nifhes in refpett of A « ; much more then does A a — 'S>a,
the difference A a and B a, vanifh in refpeft oi A. a ; there-
fore the ultimate ratio of A a to B a is that of equality ;
and the ultimate ratio of i A «, or B C to B A, is that of
2 to I. See other applications of thefe principles in Lud-
lam's " Rudiments of Mathematics," from which the pre-
ceding article has been abflracted ; Newton's " Principia,"
lib. i. ; Smith's " Fluxions ;" and Saunderfon's " Alge-
bra."

Ratio, in our Law JVriters, is ufed for a judgment given
in a caufe.

Hence, ponere ad rationem is to cite one to appear in judg-
ment. Walfingh. 88.

Katio Status, Ragione di Jlato. See. R-E.\soti of State.
Vol. XXIX.

Ratio ViBus. See Victus.

RATIOCINATION, the aft of reafoniog.

RATION, or Ratian, imthc jlrmy, a pittance or pro-
portion of ammunition, bread, drink, or forage, diflnbuted
to each foldier for his daily fubliftence.

Some write the word radon, and borrow it from the
Spai'ih racion ; but they both come from the Latin ratio.
In fome parts they call it a remfon.

The horfe have rations of hay and oats, when they cannot
go out to forrage. See Forrage.

The rations of bread are regulated by weight. The or-
dinary ration of a foot foldier is a pound and a half of bread
per day. The officers have feveral rations, according td
their quality, and the number of attendants that they are
obliged to keep.

When the ration is augmented on occafions of rejoicing,
it is called a double ration.

The fhips' crews have alfo their rations or allowances of
bifcuit, water, &c. proportioned according to their flock.
The ufual ration at fea, particularly among the Portuguefc,
&c. is a pound and half of bifcuit, a pint of wine, and a
quart of frefh water per day ; and each month an arrobe, or
thirty-one pounds of fait meat, with fome dried fifh and
onions.

RATIONABILES Expens.U, Reafonabk Expmces.
The commons in parliament, as well as the proftors of the
clergy in convocation, were anciently allowed rationabiles
expenfas ; that is, fuch allowance as the king, confidering
the prices of all things, fhaU judge meet to impofe on the
people to pay for the fubfiflcnce of their reprefentatives.

This in the 17th of Edward II. was fettled at ten groats
per day for knights, and five for burgeiles : afterwards,
four fhillings a day for knights, and two fiiiUings for bur-
geffes ; which was then deemed an ample retribution, both
for expences, for labour, attendance, negleft of their own
affairs, &c. See BuiiGESs, a.n6. KtiiGHTS of the Shire.

RATIONABILI Parte Bonorum, a writ which lies for
the wife, againfl the executors of her hufband, denying iier
the third part of her hufband's goods, after debts and fune-
ral expences paid.

Fitzherbert quotes Magna Charta, and Glanville, to
prove, that, by the common law of England, the goods of
the deceafed, his debts firfl paid, fhould be divided into
three parts ; of which his wife is to have one, his children a
fecond, and the executors a third ; adding, that this writ
lies as well for the children, &c. as the wife. Such is the ge-
neral law of Scotland at this day. And whatever may hare
been the cullom of late years, in many parts of the king-
dom, or however it was introduced in derogation of the old
common law, the ancient method continued in ufe in the
province of York, the principality uf Walts, and the city
of London, till very modern times ; when in order to favour
the power of bequeathing, and to reduce the whole king-
dom to the fame flandard, three ftatutes have been provided;
the one 4 & 5 W. & M. c. 2. explained by 2 & 3 Ann.
c. 5, for the province of York ; another, 7 & 8 W. III.
c. 38. for Wales ; and a third, i I Geo. I. c. 18. for Lon-
don (fee Custom of London) ; whereby it is enafted, that
perfons within thofe diftrifts, and liable to thofe cufloms,
may, if they think proper, difpofe of all their perfonal
eftates by will ; and the claims of the widow, children, and
other relations, to the contrary', are totally barred. Thus
is the old common law now utterly abolifhed throughout all
the kingdom of England, and a man may devife the whole
of his chattels as freely as he formerly could his third part
or moiety. Blackft. Com. b. ii.

ReBo de Rationabili Parte. See Recto.

3 N RATIO-

R A T

RAT

RATIONABILIBUS Divims, is a writ that lies where
two lords have figiiorics joining together, for him that finds
his wafto encroached upon, within the memory of man,
againft the encroacher, thereby to reftify the bounds of the
fignories : in which refpcft, Fitzherbert fays, it is of the
nature of a writ of right.

RATIONABILIS Dos, a third part of fuch lands
and tenements as the hufband was feifed of at the time of
the efpoufals, with which his wife was formerly endowed by
the common law, if no fpccific dotation was made at the
church porch. See Dowkr and Jointlke.

RATIONAL, Reasonable. See Reason.

Rational Fable. See Fable.

Rational Frailions, in Arithmetic and Anal^u, are thofe
fraftions into which no furd or radical quantity enters ; as
+ 1 x' + -v- + ax

whence r and s may be determined, and we (liall thus obtain

7 19

&c.

8' 27' k' + i' x' + *x' + ex"

The dccompofition of rational fraftions into fimple frac-
tions, that is, the dccompofition of them into other frac-
tions whofe fum is equal to that propofed, is an important
problem, as connected with the integral calculus, or inverfe
method of fluxions, which was tirft inveftigated by Leibnitz,
but has fince been much extended and fimphfied by the re-
fearches of Euler, La Grange, La Croix, and other eminent
analyfts.

The dccompofition of numeral fraftions into their par-
tial fradlioiis, is, perhaps, rather a fubjeft of curiofity than
utihty, yet as conneAed with, and leading to, the dccom-
pofition of rational algebraic fraftions, it may not be amifs
to give here a fketch of the procefs by which it is accom-
plifhed, previous to entering upon the latter fubjeft.

On the decompofttion of rational numeral fradions, into others
having prime denominators. ,

It is to be obferved, that this can only be effefted in the
cafe of a compofite denominator, or rather, there will be no
difficulty in any other cafe, as it will require only a fepara-
tion of the numerator into any parts at pleafure, the fum ot
which is obvioufly equal to the fraftion propofed ; we fliall
therefore only confider thofe frattions having compofite de-
nominators, which are to be refolved into others having prime
denominators ; and even in this cafe there may be fraftions that
will not admit of decompofition, as will appear from what
follows. This decompofition is effefled, when poffible, by

means of the indeterminate analyfis ; viz. let - be the given

n

fraftion, and fuppofe, in the firft inflance, tliat its denomi-
nator confifts of two prime factors, or ti — ab, it will then

be to find

ab

= ^ + -1-, or a q + bp
a t>

I ; p and q

being the required numerators of the two partial fractions,
and which values of jJ and q are eafily found from the above
equation a q -\- b p = m, on the principL-s explained under
the article Indeterminate Analyfts, fubjeft however to
the fame limitation there mentioned ; i-ix. the above equa-
tion is always poflible, provided m > a b — a — b, but in
other cafes it may or may not admit of folution.

If the given fraftion be - - — , then we may firfl
° a b c

refolve it into two fractions, and one of thefe into

two others ; thus, let -'"- — ^.- + ^ , then we have
a b c ab c

ahq + cp— m, from which equation/) and q may be found.

Again, let ^ = 1- -r-, which gives a s ■{■ r b =■ p,

° aba 0

a b c a

s n

-r- + --, as required. In all thefe cafe

it is obvious, that the frat'tion may be deconipofcd into par
tial fractions, in as many different ways as the indett-rminat^
equation on which it depends admits of different anfwers.

Example — Find two fraftions, having prime denomi-
nators, whofe fum (liall be equal to , or to — .

35 7-5

Let the required fradlions be — -)--- , then — --

7 5 35

I, and

— ; therefore 5/1 4- 7 y = 19, whence p

q ~ 2 (fee Indeterminate Analyfis) ; and confequently

I 2

the required partial fraftions are — and — .

7 5

Example 2. — Find three fraftions, whofe fum is equal to
401

315'

The three faftors of 315 are 5, 7, 9, which are of necef-
fity the denominators of the required fraftions. Suppofe

then firft, that = -i~ -\- J-, whence we have q S 4-

315 IS 9 -^

35 y = 401, which gives p — 29, and y = 4; therefore

401 29 4 A ■ , 29 r
-- — =--4--r. Agam, let -^ = —
3'5 35 9 35 7

+

Sr +

"J s = 29 ; this gives r = 3 and s

401

2 3

= — + -- +
5 7

= 2, fothat-^= ^- -I ,

35 7 5

-, as required. And

and confequently

315 5 7 9
in the fame manner the decompofition may be obtained in
any other cafe, which falls within the limits above ftated.

On the decompofition of rational algebraic fradicns, and its
application to the integral calculus.

N « 4 ix -i- fx" -f </x' 4- &c. ../x"-'

D "~ a' 4- b'x 4- c' x' 4- d' x^ 4- . . . .p'x"^' + q'lp"
be any rational fraftion, whole decompofition into fimple
fraftions is required, and whofe numerator is at leatt one
degree lower than its denominator, to which form it may
always be reduced by divifion, if it (hould prefent itfelf
under a different form.

The denominator ot this fra6tion, from the kno-.vn theory
of equations, may be fuppofed to be made up of as many fim-
ple faCiors as is equal to the highefl power of j: contained
in it, and which fatlors may be found by determining the
roots of the equation formed by putting the whole deno-
minator equal to zero. Let therefore a' -j- b' x -f c' x^
-i- d' X -\- , . . . x"" = o, and fuppofe the roots of this
equation to be r, r', r", r"', r'" , &c., and we fhall have a' +
L' X + c'x' + d<x' + x"" = (x - r) { X - r') (x - r")

{■

_ r'"

), &c.

'N

And therefore our propofed fraftion y: ""-ay now be put

under the form

N a + bx -\-cs'^ + dx'' +

&c.

D " (x - r) (x _ r*) (x - r") (x - r"')'

and thefe faftors are now to form the denominators of

the

the fimplc fraaions foiiglit.' Let A, A', A", A'", &c. re
prclcnt their numerators, fo that

N_ ^ A' A" . . A'"-"

RATIONAL FRACTIONS.

whence A = i, and A' — A = i, or A' = 2, therefore

+ &c.

fluent '-^ + flu. _ 4. flu.

Reduce now tlicfe feveral fimple fraftions to a common
denominator by the ufual rule, and add their fovcral nu-
merators together ; then comparing the co-efficients of the
like powers of x in the numerator of this new fraction, with
thofe in the numerator propofed, we ihall obtain fufficient
equations for determining the proper values of A, A', A",
A'", &c. and the decompofition will be cffedted as pro-
pofed. This will be better undcrRood from a partial
example.

Let us therefore afFume the fraftion '--: — ; ,

X' — Ox' + n X — 6

which it is required to refolve into its fimple fraftions.

Here the roots of the denominator, by making it equal

to zero, are i, 2, and — 3, whence the propofed equation

x' — 4.-C — 6

('

0^ ,:|(«-I)X

which are known.

Required the fluent of , _. „.

I — 4.x; H- 2*' i— 2x-fx'

Here, by making x'^ — 2 x + 'j — o, we have x = l +
5 \/2 ; make, therefore.

-, or ol f

(i«-^)x

A.

+

A';

^ — 2x + x'' X — I ~ ^^2 ' X — I + i^^i

- ^ {"-l + h^2)i + A' {x-l-\^z)i
i — 2X + x'

Here we have A-fA'= — i(i — iy2)A + (I.f-
5 v'2) A' = — i, whence we have A = — J, and A' =

( »^ I ) JC

— ^, therefore fluent of ^-^ ~~ = flu.

-ix

may be put under the form

Make now this fraftion
A' A"

- — - -4-

X — 2 X + 3

(.V- 1) (x - 2) {x + S)

— 4x — 6 A

+

+ +

I X — 2 K -f- 3

4X-6).

3^

ingr the fluents of -f -|- , ,

* K— I X — 2 X + ^

known, being hyp. log. (.v — i) + 2 hyp. log. (* — 2) -f-

3hyp.log.(x -h 3) = hyp.log. [(j:- 1) (* - 2)'(x+ 3)']

The fame method may be employed for all rational

fradions, whofe denominators arc refolvable into unequal

fimple faftors, but as this cannot be generally efFefted when

the higheft power of the variable quantity exceeds the

fourth degree, we are neceffarily limited in our application

of the rule, in confequence of the imperfedlion which ftill

attends the general folution of equations. In the cafe,

however, of equal faftors in the denominator, a different

procefs is required, which we will explain, after illuftrating

the above rule by two or three examples.

Required jhe fluent of -— by refolving it into

its fimple fraftions.

Here the factors of the denominator being x and I — *,
we make

{i + x)i Ai A'^ _(A-t- (A'-A)x)i

• r-= + ■ — T J

X — x' X 1 — X X — ir

* — I + !•«

+

~ki

-, which are known.

[x- i) {x- 2)[x + 3) x-l
which being reduced to 3 common
«' — 4 jr — 6

denominator, and added together, give , , „ ,

_ A(a:- 2) {x + 3) 4 A'(.v- 1) (« + 3) -t- A"(x- 1) {x-2)

~ ■ .x' — 6 «* -t- 1 1 K — 6

= (A -1- A' + A") .v' + (A + 2 A' - 3 A") .V- (6 A 4-
3 A' — 2 A" ) whence

A4- A'4- A"r:= 6

A + 2 A' - 3 A" = - 4
6A -1- 3A'-2A''= 6
from which we readily draw A = I, A' ^ 2, A" = 3 } fo

I 2 3

that the required fraaions are ' '

(6x- ■

If therefore the fluent of -^^ — ?^H '—7^ were re-

s:'— Ox-f Ilx — O

quired, we might immediately reduce the problem to find-

which are

•■« — I — ^ v/2

We have hitherto confidered the faftors of the denomi-
nators of the propofed fraftions to be all unequal; when any
number of them are equal, a little difference in the oper.
ation is then required ; for it is obvious that if two of our

A A'

fraftions were of the fame form, for example -\ ,

X — r X — r

A -1- A'

thefe two would form, in faft, but one fraftion ,

X — r

which leads us to no ufeful refult.

In cafe of equal faftors, therefore, we muft proceed i»

follows : let the propofed fraftion be

a-i-ix+cx'- + dx'' + yx"-'

(7^)»(.v-r)(x-r')(x-r") *^-
A Hume it equal to
B B' B" Bf"-'»

orr7)„ + (^^)" - . .+ (x-py-' + ■

A A' A"

-P

+

j +

-„ + &c.

X — r X = r X

Where the upper line reprefents the fraftions due to the

« equal faftors, and the lower thofe due to the — unequal
^ n

faftors.

Let now thefe fraftions be reduced to a common deno-

minator, and the co-efficients equated as before, which will

give us the required values of the feveral numerator*

fought.

1 — Ca:
Example. — It is required to convert —

into its equivalent fimple fraftions.
AfTume ^

(I -x) (I -!-«)'
B' A

\l+xY{l-x) ~{I + xf + (l+~x) ■•" (I-X)

- E + (' + *) B' A _

~ (i +x)^ "^ I-X ~

B(i- x)-h B'(r-x^)4- A(i4- 2x + x') _

[i+xy{x-x)
B -I- B' -H A -f (2 A - B}x -KA - BQ x"

(n-x)Mi-*)

3 N 2 whence

RATIONAL FRACTIONS.

whence

B + BM A = 1
2A-B = -5
A - B' = o
B = 3, B' = - I, and A = - I,

therefore
confequeiitly

1 -5« _3 I L_

(l+x)'(l-.v) 1 + x' 1+* i-»
We have in both the preceding cafes extended the cal-
culation to a greater length than it is neceifary to obferve
in pradical cafes, in order that the reader might fee diU
tinaiy the principles on which the decompofition depends.
We fliall now furnifli him with an eafier pradical method,
which we haveextraaed from Bonnycaftle's Algebra, vol. i.
I. When the faaors of the denommator of the given frac-
tion are all unequal, or of the form

N A A' A" . A'"

^__ il_ _11_ +-^ t-_ll-

D X — r' X — r' x — r" x —

1+ &c.

2.

B'

x-p
= -^, taking x in Q, and S = p.

Let Q' =

Q-FS
x-p

, then

B" = H-j taking * in Q', and S = /.

Let Q" =

Q' - B" S

then

^=-S = ^rTl?= I i being. = ^

N I + x' , .

A" = -„- = , = - I ; being i = - x.

The required fraaions are therefore

— +

I + *^

1 — X 1 + X X — x'
Example 2. — It is required to convert the rational frac-
tion — = r into its equivalent fimple

D x'(i-x)'(i +x) ^ ^

fraaions. Here

D

ABB' B"

+ - + —+-— +

rx +

I + X ' x^ ' x' ' X ' (l — xY ' 1 — x'
whence for i + x, the firft. faftor, we have

A = — = , = — > * bemg = — i

S x'-2x* + x' ±' ^

take that which conftitutes the denominator of the fimple
fraaion which is to be found, and let S denote the pro-
dua of all the remaining fraaions ; then if the root or
value of X, in that faaor, be fubftituted for .v in the

formula— , it will give the numerator of the fraaion re-

O

2. If fome of the faaors are equal and others unequal,
or of the form ^

let S denote the produa of all the faaors m the deno-
minator, except one, as before ; then find the fimple fi-ac-
tions due to the unequal fraaions as above, and for thofe
of the equal faaors proceed as follows :

N
I, B = -g-j taking x in N, and S =/.
o

N-BS ^
Let Q = -> then

g ^ N ^ ^_

S I— X — x' + x

Let now Q =
B'=§ =

- = I, jc being = o
N-BS x + x^-x'

x+f

I + X - x"

1 + X — n'

S I — X — x^ + X

Q - B' S 2x - x'

Let Q' = ^ =

^ X —p X

O' 2- x'

B" = ^ =

S 1 —x~ x' + x'

= I , X being = o.

= 2, X being = o.

Again, for (i — x)^

^^ S x' + x

' - =— , x= being = i.

Let now R =
+ «' + * «'

N-CS

_ I ^'

x'-^x

i^»

X — I

= J + X

C> = ^= , . 7 = h ■■* bemg = I.

Therefore

x' -f X*

I _ I ' ^ ]

x' (I - x)' (l + x) ~ "? ■*" ^ "^ X "*"

-, as required.

O"

4. B'" = ^'. taking x in Q", and S = /.

O

&c. &c.

Which operation being performed, the fum of the frac-
tions thus obtained, together with the former, will give all
the fimple fraaions into which the given fraaion 13 re-
folvable. ■ , r

Example I.— It is required to convert the rational frac-

I + x^
3J

tjon '■ into its equivalent fimple fraaions

X — x'

I + XI

Here

X — x'

A A' A"
L ^ — } whence, by the

o + X I — X I 4- X

preceding rule

^ ~ S" ""i-x"

I ; being o = x

2(1 -x)' "^ 4(i-x) 3(o+x)

It is obvious, as we have before ftated, that this de-
compofition of rational fraaions mud neceffarily be afFeaed
as to its general application, by the imperfeaion of the
theory of equations, which will not admit of a praaical
refolution of the denominator into its fimple faaors in all
cafes. It will alfo further appear, that, in cafe of any of
the roots being imaginary, the fame will necefl'arily enter
into the numerators of the fimple fraaions. But this dif-
ficulty may be avoided : for fince the imaginary roots of
equations always enter in pairs, and the produa of fuch
pairs of roots being always real, being of the form

x'- -+ 2 a .V + a'' 4- /3',
we may, inftead of refolving the fraaions into the fimple

A A' A"

fraaions -— -, -,, ;;. &c. refolve it into as many

x — r x—r' X — r"
of thefe fraaions as it has rational fimple faaors, and into

B .f + C . .

as many fraaions of the form — — — — j-j-^, as it has

pairs of iraagmary fadors, and then proceed as before.

RAT

We cannot extend onr remarks to a greater leiiffth in
this article ; we miift, therefore, refer the reader who wiflies
to fee thefe principles more completely developed, to Euler's
Analyfis Infinitorum, vol. i. ch. 2 and 1 1 ; to La Croix's
Algebra, and his Calcul Difl'erentiel et Calcul Integral.
See alfo Bonnycallle's Algebra, and Simpfoii's Fluxions.

Rational or true bnr'rzon, is that wliofe plane is con-
ceived to pafs through the centre of the earth; and which
therefore divides the globe into two equal portions, or he-
mifpheres. See HoiuzoN.

It is called the rational horizon, becaufe only conceived
by the underftanding ; in oppofition to the feti/i/i/e or appa-
rent horizon, which is vifible to the eye.

Rational integer, or whole number, is that of which
unity is an aliquot part. See Number, and Aliquot />«;■/.
Rational tnixt number is that confiding of an integer,
and a fraftion ; or of unity, and a broken number.

Commenfurable quantities are defined by being one to
another as one rational number to another.

For unity is an aliquot part of a rational nvimber ; and
a fraftion has fome aliquot part common with unity ; in
things, therefore, that are as a rational to a rational number,
either the one is an aliquot part of the other, or there is
fome common aliquot part of both ; therefore they are com-
menfurable.

Hence, if a rational number be divided by a rational, the
quotient is always a rational.

Rational Phyfuians, in ancient medical hiftory, the phy-
ficians of the dogmatic fedt, who flood in oppofition to the
empiric feft ; the former appeahng to certain theoretical prin-
ciples in the application of remedies, while the latter refted
entirely upon experience, and difclaimed all knowledge of
firft principles. The tenets of both thefe fefts have been
handed down to us by a claflic author, Celfus, and have
been given at length under a former article. See Empiric.
Rational Quantity, or number, a quantity or number
commenfurable to unity.

Suppofing any quantity to be i, there are infinite other
quantities, fome of which are commenfurable to it, either
fimply, or in power : thefe EucUd calls rational quantities.
Tiie reft, that are incommcnfurable to i, he calls irrational
quantities, or fur ds.

Rational Ratio. See Ratio.
Rational Soul. See Soul.

RATIONALE, a folution or account of the principles
of fome opinion, aftion, hypothefis, phenomenon, or the
like. Hence,

Rationale is alfo the title of feveral books. The moft
confiderable is the " Rationale of Divine Offices," by Guil.
Durandus, a celebrated fchool-divine, bilhop of Mcnde,
finifhed in 1286, as he himfelf tells us. See Printing.

Rationale alfo denotes an ancient facerdotal veftment,
worn by the high-prieit under the old law ; and called by the
Hebrews, 'jyrt' hhojchen ; by the Greeks, Xoyiov ; by the
Latins, rationale 3x\A peciorale ; and by the Englifh tranflators,
breajl-plate.

The rationale was a piece of embroidered ftuff worn on
the breaft, about a fpan fquare. Du-Cange defcribes it as
a double fquare of four colours, interwoven with gold,
and fet with twelve precious ftones in four rows, on which
were engraven the names of the twelve tribes, and faltened
to the (houlder by two chains and two hooks of gold. The
form of the rationale was prefcribed by God himfelf, Exod.
xxviii. 15 — 29.

A rationale appears alfo to have been anciently worn by
the bilhops under the new law. But authors are in doubt

RAT

about its form ; fome will have it referable that of the Jews ;
otiiers take it to be only the pallium.

RATIONALIS, an officer mentioned in feveral ancient

infcriptions.

Lampridius, in the life of Alex. Severus, ufes rationalis
as fynoiiimous with procurator.

The rationales were intendants or furveyors under the
emperors ; and though Lampridius pretends they were firft
cftablifhed by Severus, it is evident there were fome under
Auguftus.

RATIONARIUM, among the Romans, a book which
contained the accounts of the empire. It was othervnfe
called hreviarium. Sec BllEVlARV.
RATIONIS Ens. See Ens.
Rationis DiJiinBio. See Distinctio.
Rationis Os, in Anatomy, the bone of the forehead,
othcrwife called os frontis.

RATISBON, or Regenspeug, in Geography, an im-
perial city of Germany, in the circle of Bavaria, and capital
of a bifhopric of the fame name, fituated at the conflux of
tlie Regen and of the Danube. The town is large, populous,
and fortified ; and was anciently the capital of Bavaria, and
the refidence of its dukes. The emperor Frederic I. an-
nexed it to the empire. This town is a ftaple, but neither
its manufactures nor trade are very confiderable ; corn,
wood, and provifions, are fent by the Danube to Vienna.
The number of inhabitants is about 24,000 ; 62 miles N.E.
of Augfljurg. N. lat. 48^ 55'. E. long. 12° 50'.

The bifhopric of Ratilbon comprehends about 1383 pa-
rifhes ; and was founded, as it has been fuppofed, by St.
Boniface, in the year 736. The feat of the bifliop is at
Ratifbon, where, however, he has no jurifdiftion.

RATISKA, a town of Immeritia ; 35 miles N.E. of
Cotatis.

RATKAI, George, in Biography, born in 1613, of a
noble family, in Hungary, entered into holy orders, and
was made canon of the church of Zagrab. He obtained
the efteera of the viceroy of Croatia, John Dralkovitz,
who engaged him to compofe the liiftory of that province,
and gave him free accefs to its archives. He accordingly
publilhed, in 1652, a very learned work, entitled " Me-
moria Regum et Banorum regnorum Dalmatiae, Crotiae,
Slavonias, inchoata ab origine fua ufque ad annum." Gen.
Biog.

RATLINES, or, as the feamen call them, Rutlins, or
RattUngs, are certain fmall lines which traverfe the ilirouds
of a fliip horizontally, at regular diftances above the dead-
eyes upwards, and forming a variety of ladders, whereby
to climb to any of the mail -heads, or defcend from them.
Hence the term feems to be derived from rath, an ob-
folete word, fignifying a hill. In order to prevent the
rattling from flipping down by the weight of the failors,
they are firmly attached by a knot, called a clove-hitch, to
all the fhrouds, except the foremoft or aftmolt ; where one
of the ends, being fitted with an eye-fplice, is previoufly
fattened with twine -thread or pack-thread. Falconer.

RATNO, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the
palatinate of Brzefc ; 50 miles S.E. of Brzefc.

RATOATH, a poor village of the county of Meath,
Ireland, which, before the union, had its reprefentatives in
pai-liament. It gave name to a barony, and is 12^ miles
N.W. by N. from Dublin.

RATOLY, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Gohi'.d ; 25 miles S.E. of Raat.

RATONES, a fmall ifland in the river La Plata, near
Monte Video.

RATSCHA,

11 A T

RATSCHA, or Retzka, a fortrefs of Sclavoiiia, on
the N. iule of tlie Save, oppofiti.- to the moutli of the Urin ;
35 miles S.W. of Pctcrwardc-iii.

RATSCHITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
BruiiJi ; 10 miles N.E. of Bninn.

RATSUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Aurunp;abad ; 65 miles E. of Aurungabad.

RATTAK, a town of Bengal; 14 miles S.S.E. of
Curruckpoiir.

RATTAN. See Ruatan.

Rattan Canes. See Canes.

RATTELSDORF, in Geography, a town of Bavaria,
in the bilhopric of Bamberg ; 9 miles N. of Bamberg.

RATTEN. See Rateen.

Ratten, in Rural Economy, a provincial word, ufed to
fignify a rat.

RATTENBERG, in Geography, a town of the county
of Tyrol, with a citadel on tiie Inn ; 16 miles E.N.E. of
Infpruck.

RAl^KOW, a town of the duchy of Holllein ; 6
miles N.N.E. of Lubcck.

RATTLE, among the Ancients, a mufical inllrument
called by the Romans crepitaculum.

Mr. Malcolm takes the tintinnabulum, crotalum, and
fiftrum, to have been only fo many different kinds of rattles.

The invention of the rattle is afcribed to the famous
mathematician Archytas ; whence Arillotle calls it Apxi^la
•aXocly.yr, Archytas's rattle. Diogenianus adds the occafion
of the invention ; -viz. that Archytas, having cliildren, he
contrived this inftrument to prevent their tumbling over
things about the huufe. So that how much focver fome
inftruments have changed their ufes, the rattle, we are fure,
has preferved its original application.

Rattle, or Rattel, in Commerce, a weight in Arabia ; a
rattleof coffee contains, at Betelfagni, i4ivakias, andafarcel,
or frazil, of lo maunds, or 20 rattles, contains 290 vakias ;
a farcel weighs zolb. 6oz. 4 dr. avoirdupois, and a bahar
of 40 farcels = 8 ij^lb. avoirdupois ; 10 farcels in Betel-
fagui are equal to 7 in Mocha ; 16 vakias of dates, candles,
and iron, are reckoned to a rattle ; but of all other forts of
goods 15 vakias make a rattle. The rattle is ufed in the
bazar, or market, only. At Jiddah, another fea-port of
Arabia, in the Red fea, the bahar contains 10 frazils, 100
maunds, or 500 rattles, and the rattle 15 vakias. The
bahar weighs 222|lb. Englifli troy, or 1831b. avoirdupois ;
and the maund 29 oz. 4-^ dr. avoirdupois. Kelly's Un.
Cambift.

Rattle- Gray}. See Rhinanthus.

RATTLE-A^f/. See Wolf Net.

Rattle, Red. See Pedicularis.

Rattle, Telloiu. See Rhinaxthus.

RATTLE-SNAKE. See Snake.

Rattle-snake Root, Senega-w. See MiLK-wor/.

Rattle-snake Root, Dr. Witt's, a fpeciesof Prenanthes ;
which fee.

Rattle-snake JVeed, a fpecies of £r_)>n^;;/m ; which fee.

Rattle-snake IJlands, in Geography, a duller of fmall
idands at the weilern extremity of lake Erie.

Rattle-snake Mountains, mountains of New Hamp-
(hire ; 38 miles N. of Concord.

RATTLING in horfes, a term applied to a difagree-
able noife produced in them by the entrance of the air
between the internal parts of the rtieath and the prepuce
or covering, principally taking place in trotting or going
fail.

RATTONNEAU, in Geography, a fmall idand at the
6

R A V

entrance of the harbour of Marfeilles, which has a fortrefj
erefted in the 17th century by the duke of Guife.

RATTRAY Head, a cape of Scotland, 011 the N.E.
-road of the county of Aberdeen ; 7 miles N. of Peterhead.
N. lat. 57"- 12'. W. long. I' 44'.

RATUL AH, a town of Hindooflan, in Oude ; 1 5 miles
N.E. of Eyzabad.

RATWAH, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Gohud ; 27 miles E. of Gwalior.

RATZE, in Commerce, the name of a fmall coin, ftruck
at Friburgh, &c. nearly of the fame value with the blare,
which, in France, is worth two lols and a denier.

RATZEBUR, in Geography, a town of Hinder Pome-
rania ; 14 miles S. of New Stettin. N. lat. 53' 30'. E.
long. 16'-' 14'.

RATZEBURG, a town of Germany, which gives
name to a principality, fituated on an idand in a large lake ;
the lake is 30 miles long, and 9 broad, and boats pafs by
It to Lubeck with goods and pafl'engers. It was burnt by
the Danes in 1693, and fmce that difafter the ftreets have
been regularly laid out, and the houfes are built after the
Dutch manner. In the market-place is the regency -office,
and here is held the chief court of juitice and the confiftory ;
the garnfon is quartered in barracks ; 20 miles S. of Lu-
beck. N. lat. 53° 43'. E. long, to' 46'. The principality
of the fame name is fituated between Mecklenburg and
Saxe-Lauenburg, and extends about 10 miles each way.
The foil is fertile, and produces a confiderable quantity of
wheat, befides feeding a number of cattle. It was con-
verted from a bilhopric into a principality by the peace of
Weilphalia. It belongs to Mecklenburg-Strehtz.

RATZENSTEIN, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 5
miles S. of Windifch Gratz.

RATZKNITSCHA, a town of Hungary; lo miles
N.N.W. of Cfakathurn.

RAVA. See Rawa.

RAVALEMENT, Fr. equivalent, among organ -builders
and harpfichord-makers, to compaj's in Enghfh. The com-
plete fet of keys, or whole fyftem of mufical founds, (faid
Rouffeau in 1 768, ) inftead of confining itfelf to four oftaves,
like common keyed-inftruments formerly, extends now to
five oftaves, adding a fifth below double C, and a fourth
above C in alt., including five oftaves between the loweft
F and the higheft. (This was the common compafs of our
harpfichords made by Tabel, Kircknian, and Shudi, lonff
before 1768.) The word ravalement is confined to keyed-
inftruments ; there are no others of fo extenfive a compafs
as five oftaves. But in the year 1777, when Dr. Burney
firft compofed and publiflied duets " a quartre mains," or
for two performers on one inftrument, the ladies, at that
time wearing hoops, which kept them at too great a
diilance from each other, liad a harpfichord made by Merlin,
exprefsly for duets, with fix oclaves ; extending from the
odbave below double C in the bafe, to the oftave above C
in alt. in the treble. And as duets a quatre mains have
been compofed by all the great mafters in Europe fince
that time, inftruments with additional keys are now become
general. At firft it was only in the treble that the compafs
was extended, except in the inilrument above-mentioned
by Merhn ; but at prefent notes are added in the bafe to
complete the fix ottaves : and, indeed, the additional notes
in the bafe are better worth having for particular effefts,
than thofe in the treble ; which often, from the ftiortnefs
of the firings and feeble vibration, more refemble the tone
of wood than wire ; whereas the tone of thofe in the bafe of
large piano fortes, by the beft makers, is fo rich and full,

that

i

11 A V

that each Joiind below doulilc F refemblL-s that of an or-
gan-pipe ill flow note;., more than the tranfient tone of a
llriiig.

Roufl'eau very julUy obferves, that almoft all iirflrumcnts
aiv limited in their compafs below, except harps and in-
itriiments with keys. Tlie violoncello can go no lower than
double C, its 4th llring, nor the violin below G. The flute
and haulbois defcend only to U and C. But the notes in
alt. have been extended in the acute to founds that are
feldom in tune, and never pleafing. Like rapid notes of
difficult execution, they y(«-/»7'iif, and the performer's dex-
terity is applauded ; but neither the harmony nor the me-
lody of very high or rapid founds can excite rapture like
thofe of moderate quicknefs, when produced with feeling
and expreffion, in the middle of the fcale.

RAVALSHE, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Weil
Gothland ; 24 miles N.W. of Uddevalla.

RAVANA, in Hindoo Mythology. See Ravena.

RAVANAK, in Geography, a town of European Tur-
key, in Macedonia ; 16 miles E.S.E. of Saloniki.

RAUAND, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ker-
man ; 105 miles E. of Sirgian.

RAVA-POU, in Botany, Rheede Hort. Malab. v. 4.
99. t. 48, a plant erroneoufly cited by Linnxus for his
very different NyBanthes hirfuta. See Guettarda Spedofa.

RAUCA Avis, in Ornithology, the name of a bird de-
fcribed by Nieremberg, as common about the lakes and
rivers of America, and of the kingfilher kind, but nearly
as large as a duck, and black on the crown, and white on
the bread and belly. Its neck is naturally very long in pro-
portion to its body, yet it can occafionally contraft and
Shorten it in a very wonderful manner. It is a native of
Mexico, and is elleemed very good for the table. Mr.
Ray has placed this among the birds, the accounts of which
he is diftrultful of.

RAUCH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
lordOiip of Schwarzenberg ; i o miles S. W. of Scheinfeld.

RAUCHENEGG, a town of Auftria ; 2 miles W.
of Baden.

RAUCHT, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Viborg, near lake Ladoga ; 44 miles S.E. of Viborg.

RAUDANAGUR, a tovvn of Bengal ; 30 miles E. of
Ranigur.

RAUDEN, a town ©f PrufTia, in the palatinate of Culm ;
10 miles N.E. of Culm. — Alfo, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of Ratibor ; 12 miles N.E. of Ratibor.

RAUDNIZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Schlan ; iz miles N.N.E. of Schlan. — Alfo, a town of
Bohemia, in the circle of Cin-udim ; 16 miles N.N.W. of
Chrudim.

RAUDRI, a name of the Hindoo goddefs Parvati,
confort of Siva, the dellroying power. In this charafter
(he may be confidered us his Sakti, or energy in his form of
Rudra, or Fate. Rudri, and Rudrani, are other modes of
writing this name of the goddefs in her averging charafter,
in which llie does not apparently differ much from her at-
tributes, as Sakti of Mahaiala ; under which name, and
the others occuring in this article, dillinguiflied by italics,
farther and fufficient information may be fought. See alfo
Trisakti-devi, and Tamas[.

RAUD TEN, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of Wohlau ; 18 miles N.W. of Wohlau. N.
lat. 51'^ 30'. E. long. 16^ 15'.

RAVEL Bread, a fort of bread, called alfo blackivhytlof,
as being of a middle finenefs betwixt white and brown.

RAVELIN, in Fortification, was anciently a flat baftion,
placed in the middle of a curtain.

II A V

Ravelin is now a detached work, compofed only of two
facei, which make a faliant angle, without and fometimes
with flanks ; and raifcd before the curt; in on the counter-
fcarp of the place; ferving to cover it and the joining flanks
from the dirett fire of an enemy.

A ravelin is a triangular work, refembling the point of
a baftion, with the flanks cut off. (See Plate V. Fortification,
jig. 4. lit. i i i. &c. ) Its ufe before a curtain is, to cover the
oppofite flanks of the two next liaflions. It is ufcd alfo to
cover a bridge or a gate, and is always placed without the
moat.

What the engineers call a ravelin, the foldiers generally
call a demi-lune, or half-moon. Sec Demi-lune.

There are alfo double ravelins, which ferve to defend each
other. They are faid to be double when they are joined by
a curtain.

Ravehns, or half-moons, are conftrucled by fetting oft'
50 toifes from the re-entering angle O of the counterlcarp
{Plate VII. Fortification, Jig. 4.) on the capital O I- of the
ravelin, or on the perpendicular produced, and from the
point L drawing lines to the fhoulders A, B ; vvhofe parts
L M, L N, terminated by the countcrfearp, will be the
faces M O, O N, the femi-gprges of the ravelin recjuired.
Others will have the faces of the ravelin to terminate on
thofe of the baflions within three toifes of the llioulders, in
which cafe the ravehns cover the flanks better than the
othe/s. The ditch before the ravelin is 12 toifes, and its
counterfcarp parallel to the faces of the ravelins, and made
in a circular arc before the faliant angle. When the ravelins
are made with flasks, the faces fhould terminate thofe of the
baftions, at leaft 5 toifes from the flioulders. Thcfe flanks
are made by fetting off 10 tpites from the extremities of the
faces, and from the points thus determined, the flanks are
drawn parallel to the capital of the ravelin. When redoubts,
or keeps, are formed in the ravelin, this is done by fettinu-
off 16 toifes from the extremities of the faces, on the femi-
gorges from N to b, and from M to a ; and from the points
b, a, the faces are drawn parallel to thofe of the ravelin : the
ditch before this redoubt is 6 toifes, and its counterfcarp
parallel to the faces. This work fhould be covered in the
faces by a wall, a foot or two thick, furnifhed with loop-
holes for the mufketry to tire through ; and it will ferve to
fecure a retreat for the troops who defend the ravehn ; they
may thus prevent the enemy from making a lodgment in
the outward part of the ravelin, or at leaft greatly obllruft
their attempts for this purpofe. Nor can they be drove
from this place, until the enemy has erefted a battery, and
brought cannon on the ravelin to batter the redoubt. When
the ccunterguard ^which fee) is placed before the ravelin, 40
toifes are fet off on the capital of the ravelin from its faliant
angle to the faliant angle of the counterguard, and 10 on
the counterfcarp of the ditch. For the conilrudtion of
crown-works before the ravelin, fee HoRX-TOor/f. Within
the ravelin are conftrudled a rampart of about 16 or 20
yards, and a parapet of about 6 yards : ramps are alfo an-
nexed in the flope of a rampart, and a barbet, when it is pro-
per, is conflrufted in a faliant angle. In wet ditches, where
the troops pafs from the town to the ravelin in boats, it is
proper to make, in the gorge of the ravelin, a kind of har-
bour, where the boats may be covered from the fire of the
enemy. In dry foffes, there fhould be ramps or flairs in
the gorge of the ravelin, to preforve a free communication,
if the bridges fhould be broken down by the enemy's fhot.
The celebrated general Coehorn, in the ravelins which he
built at Bergen-op-zoom, contrived a very good defence
for the covered way before the faces of the baftions, by
making retired flanks in the brcilts of the ravelin, where

one

R A V

R A V

one or two cannon might be placed as fecure from the
enemy's fire as thoCe behind the orillon of a baftion. See
Military CONSTRUCTION.

RAVELLO, in Geography, a fea-port town of Naples,
in Principato Citra, the fee of a bi(hop, united to Scala ;
II miles W.S.W. of Salerno, N. lat. 40^ 39'. E. long.
12° 10'.

RAVELWATER, a river of the county of Antrim,
Ireland, rifing in the mountains in the northern part, and
flowing tiirough Ravel glen to the river Main.

RAVEN, CORVUS, in /tjlrommy. See CoRVUs.

Ravkn, Corvus corax of Linna:us, in Orn'ithology, a large
bird of the crow kind, well known throughout the world,
as being found in all climates, and all regions. The colour
of the whole bird is black, finely gloffed with a rich blue,
the belly excepted, which is dullcy. The ravens build in
high trees, or upon the ruins of lofty buildings in the neigh-
bourhood of great towns, being held in the fame veneration
as the vultures are in Egypt, and for the fame reafon ; for
devouring the carcafes and filth that would otherwife prove
a nuifance. They lay five or fix eggs, of a pale greenifh
colour, marked with fmall brownifli fpots. There are
many fabulous ftories of the longevity of the raven ; but
birds are in general long lived, and the' crow kind not lefs
fo than the reft. The raven is a very docile bird, and may
be taught to fpeak, as well as to fetch and carry. In clear
weather, ravens are remarked to fly in pairs at a great
height, making a deep loud noife, different from the com-
mon croaking; and their fcent is remarkably good. See
CoRvus Corax.

The quills of a raven are ufed in tuning the lower notes of
a harpfichord, when the wires are fet at a confiderable dif-
tance from the fticks.

It is rare to find this creature white, yet it happens fomc-
times. Boyle mentions one. There was alfo one (hewn
to the Royal Society fome years ago. Boyle's Works abr.
vol. ii. p. 46.

Raven, Night, an Englifh name for a heron, which
flies in the night, and makes a very odd and hoarfe noife. It
has been applied by fome to the' bittern, or ardca Jlellaris,
but improperly, belonging of right to the fmaller grey
heron, called nydicorax. See Herox.

Raven, Sea, or Corvorant. See Corvls Aqualicm.

RAVENA, in Hindoo Mythology, is the name of a cele-
brated king of Lanka, or Ceylon. Such was his prowefs,
and the oppreflTion which he exercifed over his fubjefts, that
it became necefl'ary for Vifhnu, the preferving power of the
deity, to defcend on earth for his deftruftion, and the relief
of the fuffering world. He accordingly became incarnate
in the perfon of Rama ; and the wars that enfued between
the forces of the tyrant and the divine general, for the re-
covery of Sita, his ravifhed fpoufe, are the fubjeft of the
fine epic poem, thg Ramayana ; under which article of tliis
work, and under Rama, and others tlience referred to, the
poem, and the hiftorical traditions connefted with thefe
points, are fufficiently defcribed and difcuffed.

Although obfcured by mythological fables, thefe perfons
and wars are admitted to have had hiftorical exiftence ; and
fome important points of chronology hinge upon them.
We have, therefore, in this and other articles, noticed at
fome length the legends connefted with thefe fubjefts.

In the Hindoo theogony, the origin of Ravena is thus
related. Two etherial warders of Vifhnu's palace carried
the pride of office fo far as to infult the feven Maharl>iis,
(fee Maharshi, or Rism,) who had come to off"er their
adorations. The offended faints pronounced an impreca-
tion on the infolent warders, condemning them to be adho-

yont, or born below, thrice in mortal forms, before tliey
could be re-admitted into ihe divine prefence. Tlie impre-
cation of a Ridii, even if provoked by a god, is fcarcely to
be averted ; and the oftenders, in confequence, appeared in
their firft birth as Hiranyakflia, or golden-eyed, and Hiran-
yakafipu, or clad in gold ; lecondly, as Ravena and Kum-
bhakarna ; and laftly, as Kanfa and Sifupala.

The hiftory, if fuch it may be called, of Ravena, Rama,
&c. is perpetually alluded to in Hindoo writings ; the Ra-
mayana, containing an infinity of fuch legends, being one
of the mofl popular works of the Eaft. Ravena, or Ra-
vana, has become a generic name for a tyrant. He is alfo
called Dafagriva, or the ten-necked ; he being ufually ro-
prefented witli that number of heads, and twenty hands,
fymbolical of fapicnce and prowefs. A couplet in the
Ramayana may be thus tranflated. " Where Ravana is,
the fun lofes his force, the winds ceafe to blow, the fire
ceafes to burn : the rattling ocean, feeing iiim, dills its
waves." Such are the hypcibvlical relations of his potency,
obtained by the ulual procefs of felf-inflifted auflerities.
So ardent was he in this irrefiltible fpecies of merit, that he
offered to Siva nine of his ten heads fucceflively ; and thus
extorting the favour of the condefccnding deity, plealed
with fuch an important facrifice, he obtained a promifc, with
fome equivocal ftipulations, of whatever he fhould defire.
This fort of aufterity is called Tapas, under which word
fome account is offered of various modes of praftifing it.
The gods and demi-gods, alarmi d at Siva's promife,
befought him to recall it. But fuch conduft is deemed un-
becoming in deities, who, however, do not fcruple to evade
the performance of their promifes by deceit or prevarication :
and, on this occafion, Nareda was deputed to found Ra-
vena as to what he would demand, which, as iifual, was
univerfal dominion, &c. Nareda artfuUy perfuaded Ra-
vena that Mahadeva (or Siva) was drunk, and had pro-
mifed him what he could not perform : whereupon the
vindiftive giant tears up Kailafa, the paradife of Siva,
which, being contrary to the ftipulations, releafes Siva from
his promife, and he confents to the deftruftion of Ras'ena,
which is brought about by the avatara, or defcent, of
Vifhnu in the perfon of Rama. From this ftory we are
told to learn that all worldly affairs are the predeftined
ordainments of providence ; whofe will, that any event
fhould take place on earth, includes prefciently all the
routine and detail of its accomplifhment ; although we
only fee the links of a chain of caufes leading naturally to its
eflea.

We will here add an extrafi from the Hindu Pantheon,
whence a confiderable part of this article is taken, fhewing
how unceafingly the mythological machinery of that poetical
people is introduced into their popular works. The names
diftinguifhed by capitals imply that articles are given under
thofe words, in this work ; and a reference may be made
to them for any defired information.

" Refpefting Ravena," fays the author of the publica-
tion adverted to, " I will notice but one more tale, as re-
lated to me by a Brahman ; who, unable fully to make me
feci the poetical beauties, or comprehend the morality of
the Ramayana, blnfhed while he developed its follies ;
which, in conformity with popular taite, or if taken fepa-
rately, are apparently very numerous ; although it muft be
confeffed, they are fo contrived as to be intimately con-
nefted with the main aftion of the poem. The following
idle tale is of this defcription : but I fhall not here explain
the caufes that led to the predicament, or the confequences
that enfued.

" Ravena, by his power and infernal arts, had fubjugated

all

R A V

all the gods and dcmi-gods, and forced tiicni to pcitoim
menial offices about liis ptrfoji and hoidhold. Indha made
garlands of flowers to adorn liim withal. Agni, or Pa-
VAKA, was his cook. Suhya, regent of the fun, lupplied
light by day ; and Soma, regent of the moon, by night.
Varuna, the Hindoo Neptune, purveyed water for tlie
palace. Kuvera, their Plutus, furnilhed ciflii Tlie
whole NavA-graha (the nine planetary fpheres, including
Raiiu and Ketu) fonietiraes arranged themfelves into a
ladder, by which, they ferving as fteps, the tyrant afcended
his throne. Brama (for the great gods were there alfo,
and I give this anecdote as I find it in my memoranda,
without any improved arrangement) was a herald, pro-
claiming the giant's titles, the day of the week, month,
&c. daily in the palace ; a fort of fpeaking almanac. Ma-
HADEV'A, in his charafter or incarnation of Kandeh-Rao,
performed the office of barber, and trimmed the giant's
beards. Vishnu had the honourable occupation of in-
ttrufting and drilling the dancing and finging girls, and Ic-
lefting the faireft for the royal bed. Ganefa, or Poi.lear,
had the care of the cows, goats, and herds. Vayi; fwept
the houfe. Yama wafhed the linen. And in this manner
were all the gods employed in the menial offices of Ravena,
who rebuked and flogged them in default of induftry and
attention. Nor were the female divinities exempted : for
Parvati, in her form of Satwi, was head Aya, or nurfc,
to Ravena's children. Lakshmi and Saraswati were
alfo among them, but it does not appear in what capacity.
. Earthly kings and queens were alfo forced into this de-
grading fervitude, to the number of ninety-fix royal families ;
as is faid to be detailed in the Ramayana. But I have
fome doubt if fuch a relation be actually in this fhape, in
that poem ; this we (hall fee, when its other books are tranf-
lated and publifhed. In my abftraft of it, however, fuch
a godly predicament feems effential to the main aftion ;
Rama being thereby impelled by every confideration of
piety and duty to immediate and energetic meafures, for the
rehef and liberation of the degraded divinities." /

Ravena, as we have noticed, is furnamed Dafagriva, or
the ten-headed. He is alfo called Viiravana, or fon of Vif-
rava, the father likewife of Kuvera. . The brothers are
fometimes named Pula/lya, or Paulaftya. (See thefe ar-
ticles.) Another of his names is equivalent to lord of
Rakdiafhas, a race of malignant beings, common agents in
the hands of fuperhuman tyrants for the annoyance of the
virtuous portion of mankind, or thwarting the beniticent
views of the gods. Many fpecific varieties of thefe demons
are enumerated in the firft book of the Ramayana, as aiding
Ravena in defence of himfelf and his kingdom of Lanka.
In pi(Stures illuftrative of the Ramayana, which are very
common throughout India, they are depifted efpecially ill-
favoured, painted green, red, blue, &c. and engaged in
fierce ccntefls with Rama's fimian foldiery. Several legions
of thefe Rakfhas, each of 14,000, were deftroyed by Rama.
See Raksha.

RAVENALA, in Botany, Adanf. Fam. des Plantes,
V. 2. 67. Juff. 62. See Urania.

RAUENBACH, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the principality of Anfpach ; four miles S.S.W. of Anf-
pach.

RAVENGLASS, a market-town and fea-port in the
parifh of Muncailer, Allerdale ward, above Darwent,
county of Cumberland, England, is fituated on the Solvvay
Frith, near the confluence of the rivers Efk, Mite, and Irt.
Though pofleffing many advantages for trade, it is but a
poor place, and chiefly fupported by its oyller filhery, for
which it is much celebrated. This town ftands at the dif-

VoL. XXIX.

« A V

tanci of 57 miles S.S.W. from Carlifle, and 287 N.W.
by N. from London. The manor originally conllituted
part of the barony of Egremoat, but was granted by
Richard Lucy to the Penningtons, from whom the prefent
owner, lord Muncafter, is lineally defcended. The market
day i.s Saturday, weekly ; and there are two annual fairs, one
of which is held on the eve, day, and morrow, of St. James,
and is remarkable for the ceremonies attending its proclama-
tion and continuance. On the firft day, the carl of Egre-
mont, or his proxy, attends, accompanied by the fcrjeant of
the borough of Egremont, with the infignia, called the Bow
of Egremont ; by the foreftcrs, with their bows and arrows ;
and by all the tenants of the foreft of Copcland, who hold
their eilates by the fpecial fervice of attending the earl, or
his reprefentative, during the fair. On the third day, at
noon, the carls, officers, and tenants of the forelt, depart,
after proclamation ; and lord Muncafter, and his tenants,
take formal re-pofleffion of the place, and the day is con-
cluded by horfe-racing, and various ruftic diverfions.

Near Ravenglafs, on the northern bank of the river Eflc,
ftands Miincafter-houfe, the feat of lord Muncafter ; and
eait from it, on the oppofite fide of the river, are feen ruins
of confiderable magnitude, refpcfting which no hiftorical
documents are known to exift. They are now called the
r'tly of Barn/car ; and its foundation is sfcribed, by tradition,
to the Danes, who are faid " to have gathered for its inha-
bitants the men of Drig, and the women of Beckermont,"
whence the popular faying, " let us go together like lads
of Drig and lafles of Beckermont." Thefe ruins extend
about three hundred yards in length from eaft to weft, and
100 in breadth, from north to fouth ; and are enclofed, ex-
cept at the eaft end, by a wall, nearly three feet in height.
" There appears," fays Hutchinfon, "to have been a long
itreet, with feveral erofs ones ; the remains of the houfe-
fteads within the walls are not very numerous ; but on the
outfidethey are innumerable, efpecially at the fouth fide and
weft end. The circumference of tlie city, and iuburbs, is
nearly three computed miles ; the figure is as oblong fquare.
There is an ancient road through the city, leading from
Ulpha to Ravenglafs. About the year 1730, aconfiderable
quantity of filver coin was difcovered in the ruins of one of
the houfes, concealed in a cavity formed in a beam." A
Hiftory of the County of Cumberland, &c. by Wi'lliam s
Hutchinfon, F.S.A., two vols. 4to. Beauties of England
and Wales, vol. iii., 1802, by John Britton and Edward
Wedlake Brayley.

RAVENNA, a very ancient city of Italy, in the de»-
partment of the Amone, feated on the river Mentone, near
the Adriatic. This city, as Strabo informs us, was built
by the ThefTalians, on feveral iflands, long before the war' of
Troy, and they were driven out by the Tufcans. In the
time of this Greek writer, it was fituated in the midft of a
marfli, and attached to the continent, and in procefs of time
the Po accumulated mud and fand, fo that the land was
raifed and the fea removed to a greater diftaHce. The fame
writer informs us, that it was made a Roman colony by Au-
guftus ; and Dion fays, that a fleet of 250 veffels was fta-
tioned in this port by that prince, from which circumftancc
it was called " portus claffis," or the port of the fleet. He
Rationed, fays Suetonius, one fleet at Mifenum, and another
at Ravenna, for guarding the upper and lower fea. Tibe-
rius repaired its walls, and erefted fome new gates, which
ftill bear an infcription to this purpofe. Trajan alfo contri-
buted towards embeUifliing this city. Honorius made it the
place of his refidence, both before and after Alaric had cap-
tured and burned Rome. When Odoacer made a conqued
of Italy, he refided at Ravenna, and fuftained here a fiege
3O cf

K A V

U A V

of three years, ;a the termination of which he was taken
and flain by Theodoric. ThLodoric fixed the feat of his
empire in this place, and adorned it with magnificent churclies
and palaces, and re-conjlructed the aqueduft of Trajan.
His daughttr Amalafontha, and his grandfon Athalaric, con-
tributed towards the improvement of this city. When the
Goths were driven from Italy by Narfes, general of the em-
peror Juftmian, he was made governor of Ravenna ; and
having continued in this llation for 1 6 years, he was recalled
by Juftin II., fuceeffor to JilUnian ; and in the year 567 lie
was fucceeded by Longinus, who took, up iiis refidence at
Ravenna, under the title of exarch. (See ExARCii.) The
famous battle of Ravenna was fought near this town between
Gafton de Foix, duke of Nemmes, and nephew of Louis XII.
and the army of pope Julius II., Ferdinand, king of Spain,
and the Venetians, in which the former young general, being
only 24 years of age, having killed between 16 and 18,000
of the enemy, proved viftorious, though he liimfelf was
killed by too ardently following the purfuit. This happened
on Eafter-day 15 iz. The French, enraged by the lofs of
their brave general, took Ravenna by ilorm, and pillaged
the city with fuch feverity that it has never recovered. On
the road to Forli, by the banks of the little river Ronco,
three miles from the city, a crofs Ihews the fpot where Gaf-
ton dc Foix was killed. Frefh water has always been fo
fcarce at Ravenna, that it has occafioned a pleafant epigram
by Martial. This city was of late the capital of Romagna,
with the title of an archbifhopric. It has produced feveral
perfons of eminence, as Fauftinus, often mentioned by Mar-
tial ; the fophifl Afpafuis, who lived under the reign of Alex-
ander Sevenis ; Caffiodorus, chancellor to Ti-.eodoric, king
of the Goths in Italy ; pope John XVII. ; Peter Damien,
cardinal of Offa, and feveral others. Ravenna was aifo
the feat of many councils at fucceflive periods. The three
laft councils, in 131 1, 1314, and 1317, were fummoned for
ifce purpofe of reforming the corrupted manners of the ec-
clefiaftics, which were, in tliofe days, very debauched. It
is now a mean and mconfiderable town ; tiic houles are old
and in a ruined Itatc, and the number of inhabitants fcarccly
amounts to 14 or 15,000. In the time of the Romans, it
was feated on a kind of bay formed by the Adriatic, and
its harbour was celebrated ; but it is now three miles from
the fea. The mud thrown up by the tide having formed a
traft of land, which is cultivated, and en which the city it-
felf has been enlarged towards the fea. Tlie air is infalu-
brious ; but has been fomewhat amended by conveying along
the fides of the city the rivers Mentone and Ronco, whicli
carry off the foetid water from the rnarfliy gi-ounds. It
contains feveral churches, and 24 convents ; 42 miles E. oi'
Bologna. N. lat.44° 27'. E. long. 1 1° 5'.

RAVENPOINT, a headland of the county of Wex-
ford, Ireland, at the N. fide of the entrance into Wexford
haven. N. lat. 52° 23'. W. long. 6" iS'.

RAVENSARA, in Botany, a barbarous appeDs.tion,
altered by Sonncrat from the Aladagalcar name of the plant,
Raven-tfara, or Voaravendjarn, meaning, it feems, a good
leaf, and applying to the aromatic qualities, and economical
ufes, of the leaves. Hence Juffieu was induced to contrive
the apt generic name Agcdhophyllum, from a'/aoo,-, good or
profitable, and ^uXKw, a Uaf ; under whicti this genus ought
to have been defcribcd in its proper place, in our iiril volume.
But one of our predeceliors has, by miifake, referred the
reader to Raveitfara, as a genuine Linnaean name, attri-
buting AgathopHYLLUM to profeffor Martyn ; fee that
article. To correft this error, and fupply the confequent
deficiency, we fubjoin an account of the tree in^queftion, un-
der its proper and received denomination.

AiiATnOPllVLI.UM. Juli. 431. Schreb. 806. Wifld,
Sp. PI. V. 2. 842. Mart. Mil). Ui<S. v. i. Lamarck 11-
lullr. t. 825. (Ravenfara; Sonnerat Ind. Occ. v.- 2. 22C.
Euodia; Grertn. t. 103. Lamarck lUultr. t. 404.; —
Clals and order, DodecanJria Mono^yma. Nat. Ord. un-
certain, perhaps akin to the Lauri, Ju!l'.

Gen. Ch. Gal. Perianth inferior, very fmall, abrupt, en-
tire, permanent. Cor. Petals fix, ovate, inferted into the
calyx, fomewhat villous on the infide. Stam. Filaments
twelve, broadifli, very fliort, alternately inferted into the
bafe of the petals and the infide of the calyx ; anthers
roundifh. P'ljl. Germen fupcrior, very fmall ; ilyle very
fliorl ; ftigtna downy. Peric. Drupa nearly globofe, umbi-
licated. Seed. Nut the fhape of the drupa, tipped with a
fmall abrupt point, divided internally half way, into fix
coriaceous cells ; kernel convex above, fix-lobed below, one
lobe being received into each cell.

EfT. Cli. Calyx abrupt, entire. Petals fix, inferted into
the calyx. Drupa fuperior, nearly globofe. Nut with fix
incomplete cells. Kernel fohtary, with fix lobes.

Obf. Schreber, by a cafual overfight, dcfcribes the fruit
as crowned with tlie calyx, though he judly terms the ger-
men fuperior.

I. A., aromnt'iciim. Willd. n, I. ( Ravenfara aromatica ;
Sonnerat Ind. Or. v. 2. 226. t. 127. Euodia Ravenfara ;
Gasrtn. v. 2. loi.) — Native of Madagafcar. A large and
tufted, fomewhat pvramidal tree, with a reddifh aromatic
bark, and heavy, hard, inodorous, white luood, intermixed
with red fibres. Leaves alternate, ftalked, fimple, obovate,
entire, generally obtufe ; fmooth on both fides ; pale and
rather glaucous beneath ; fingle-ribbed, of a firm or coria-
ceous texture. Flowers very minute, numerous, in axillary
panicles about the ends of the branches, fhorter than the
leaves. Fruit an inch in diameter, folitary at the end of
each branch, fo that, as Sonnerat remarks, one would think
the Jlo'wers had grown on a different tree ; the panicles beino;
obhterated, probably, in confequence of one flower alone,
in each, bearing fruit. Tlie tree produces fruit at the age
of five or fix years, which is ten months in coming to per-
fcftion. The inhabitants of Madagafcar gather it at the
age of fix or feven months, as being, in that Hate of growth,
more fit for ufe as a fpice. The kernel, when frefh, has a
fine aromatic odour, but its tafte is bitter, and fo highly
acrid as to burn the 'throat very difagreeably. The leaves
are alio very aromatic, and being made into a fort of gar-
lands, are left for a month iu the open air to dry ; after
which they are plunged, for four or five minutes, into boil-
ing water, and then dried, either in the lun, or by a fire.
The fruits are treated in the fame manne*-. The^o'zuers ap-
pear in January or February. The di-ied leaves, as well as
the fruit, of this tree, are faid to partake of the flavours of
the four moft etteemcd fpices. They have not, however,
come into ufe as an article of commerce, though fome of the
French, refident in Madagafcar, have endeavoured to call
the attention of their countrymen to this object. Gxrtner
found the odour of the fruit, though agreeable, too weak
to promife much utility.

RAVENSBERG, in Geography, a county of Germany,
lying between the bifhoprics of Muniler, Ofnaburgh, and
Paderborn, the principality of Minden, and the counties of
Schauenberg and Lippe.' The loil is in fome parts fandy,
but in others, efpecially towards the principality of Minden,
it produces corn, flax, and hemp ; coal is found in fome of
the mountains, and good ilone for building. Its name is
derived from that of an ancient caftle, and it had formerly
its ov/n counts. It lately belonged to the king of PrufTia ;
but by the peace of Tilfit was transferred to the kingdom of

Weltphalia.

R A V

WcHplialia. Tlie approachiiij; congrefs (1814) may pcjffi-
bly fix its future (Icllination.

RAVENSBURG, a town of Bavaria, which anciently
belonged to the Gudphs, counts of Altorf ; but it wa"; an
imperial town before the time of king Rodolphus, and con-
tinued fiicli till the year 1H02, when it was given, among
other indemnities, to the cledlor of Bavaria. The Roman
Catholics and Lutherans are united with regard to the tem-
poral and fpiritual concerns of the place, and the magiitracy
is fharcd betwixt them. They have one church in common ;
but the Lutherans are exclufively poUeiled of another, and
the Roman Catholics have alfo two parilh-churches ; 2 1 miles
N.E. of Conftance. N. lat. 47= 41'. E. long. 9"^ 38'.

Ravensburg, a town of the Rhenilh palatinate, on the
Elfafs ; 16 miles W. of Heilbronn.

RAVENSBURN, afmall llreamof England, which runs
into the Thames between Greenwich and Deptford.

RAVENSCROFT, Thomas, in Biography, an aftive
Englifh mufician and pubhfher, who flourifhed from the be-
ginning of the 17th century to 1635. He was the editor
and compofer of the befl collcftion of pfalm tunes in four
parts, which had till then appeared in England. He was
a bachelor of mufic, and a profeffor not only well acquainted
with the pradtice of the art, but feems to have bedewed
much time in the perufal of the beft authors, and in medi-
tation on the theory.

This book, publifhed in fmall oftavo, 162 1 and 1633,
contains a melody for every one uf the hundred and fifty
pfalms, many of them by the editor himfelf, of which a
confiderable number is Hill in ufe ; as Windfor, St. David's,
Southwell, and Canterbury. There are others, likewife,
which are fung by the German, Nttherlandifli, and French
Proteftants. To thefe the bale, tenor, and counter-tenor
parts have been compofed by twenty-one Englifh muficians :
among whom we find the names of Tallis, Dowland, Mor-
ley, Bennet, Stubbs, Farnaby, and John Milton, the fa-
ther of our great poet. The tunes which are peculiar to
tfe meafure of the loodth pfalm, the 113th, and 119th,
were originally Lutheran, or perhaps of flill higher anti-
quity. And though Ravenfcroft has affixed the name of
Dr. John Dowland to the parts which have been let to the
loodth pfalm, yet, in the index, he has ranked the melody
itfelf with the French tunes ; perhaps from having leen it
among the melodies that were fet to the French verfion of
Clement Marot and Theodore Beza's Pfalms, by Goudimel
and Claude le Jcune. P.avenfcroft, in imitation of theie
harmonifls, always gives the principal melody, or, as he
calls it, the p/ayn-fong, to the tenor. This part, indeed, he
fometimes erroneoufly terms Faburden. This is a corrup-
tion of faux-bniirdon, and falfo bordone, which originally
iinplied fuch fimple harmony as arifes from a feries of thirds
and fixths to the bafe. His publication is, in iome mea-
fure, hiftorical : for he tells us net only who compofed the
parts to old melodies, but who increafed the common Hock,
by the addition of new tunes ; as well as which of them
were orignally Englifh, Welch, Scots, German, Dutch,
Italian, French, and imitations of thefe.

No tunes of triple time occur in Claude le Jeune, and
but five in Ravenfcroft : the principal of which are Cam-
bridge, Martyrs, Mancheller, and the 8 1 ft. This laft is
ftill much ufed, and often played by chimes : it is called an
imitation of a foreign tune, and has the name of Richard
Allifon prefixed to it. MuUer's German edition of the pfalm
tunes at Frankfort is exaftly that of Claude le Jeune, in two
parts only ; except that he has tranfpofed fome of the me-
lodies, and inferted cafy leading and connective notes, to
allift, not only the finger, but fometimes the tunes them-.

K A V

felvei ; which, without them, would now be very bald and
uncouth. Many of thefe old melodies arc ftill fung to Ger-
man hymns as well as pfalms.

In 1614 Ravenfcroft pnWifhed " A briefe Difcourfe of
the true, hut neglefted, Ufe of charafterizing the Degrees
by their I'erfeftion, Imperfcftion, and Diminution in mea-
furable Muficke, againft the common PraiStice and Cuftomc
of the Times," 4to.

Ravenfcroft had been educated in St. Paul's choir, under
Mr. Edward Pierce, and was particularly converfant with
old authors ; he, therefore, wifhed to revive the ufe of thofe
proportions in time, which, on account of their intricacy,
had been long difcontinued.

Ravenfcroft praclifed thefe exploded doflrines inef-
feftually, though to his Difcourfc he added examples to il-
luftrate his precepts, exprefied in the harmony of four
voices, concerning the pleafurc of the five ufual recreations
of hunting, hawking, dancing, drinking, and enamouring.
He was not always very fuccefsful in his attempts at imi-
tative harmo'.iy ; and melody was then fo crude and uncouth
throughout Europe, as to afford little afliftance in imitative
ftrains.

Ravenfcroft was alfo the author of a coUeAion of fongs,
entitled " Melcimata, Mufical Phancies, fitting the Court,
City, and Country Humours, in three, four, and five
Voyces," publiihed in the year 161 1.

Ravenscroft, John, one of the waits of the Tower
Hamlets, and in the band of the Goodman's-fields play-
houfe, was a ripieno violin ; yet, notwithftanding fo humble
a ftation, he was a performer of fufficicnt abihties to lead
in any Inch band as that juft mentioned ; and could perform
with great lirmnefs a concerto of Corelli, or an overture of
Handel. He .was in great requeft at balls and dancing
parties ; but excelled moft others, not only in playing horn-
pipes with the true failor's Jiang, but in compofing them :
and there are two ct his compofitions, that a tar, if he had
any leg to ftand on, would irrefiftibly be impelled to darfce,
the moment he heard them.

RAVENSPUR, or Ravenser, in Geography, was for-
merly a noted fea-port at the mouth of the Humber. It
is celebrated by our hiftorians for the defcents of Henry IV.
A.D. 1399, and of Edward IV. A.D. 147 '> '^^'"•f" thefe
princes came to contend for the crown of England. It
was fhortly after, however, fwallowed up by the ocean,
together with many villages in its vicinity. The precife fpot
on which it ftood is now unknown ; but it is ufually fup-
pofed to have been placed very near to Spurn Head, the
Oeellum Promontorium of Ptolemv. For fome additional
account of the coaft here, fee Patrington.

RAVENSTAIN, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgeburg ; 8 miles N.N.W. of Wolkenftein. — Alfo, a
town of Hinder Pomerania ; 7 miles E.S.E. of Zachan.

RAVESTEIN, a town of Brabant, on the S. fide of
the Meufe, the capita! of a figniory, including 14 towns and
villages ; 15 miles N.E. of Bois le Due.

RAVI, a name, in Sanfcrit, of Surya, the Hindoo re-
gent of the fun. It means the Rifer, and has perhaps otlier
meanings. See SuRYA.

RAVIERES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Yonne ; 27 miles E. of Auxerre.

RAUJESHI, a circar of Bengal, bounded N. by Ra-
jemal, E. by Bettooriah, S. by Mahmudihi, Shahjole, and
Kifhenagur, and W. by Birboom and Hindooa ; about
55 miles long, and 18 broad. The capital is MsorOiedabad ;
wliich fee.

RAVILLE, a town of France, in the department of
the Mofelle ; 5 miles S. of Bouley.

3 O 2 RAVILLY,

R A V

RAVILLY, afmalltown of the county of C'arlow, Ire-
land, in the barony of the fame name. It isfituateJ on the
river Slaney, 3 miles S. from Baltinglafs, and 32 S. by W.
from Dublin.

RAVINA, a town of European Turkey, in Albania;
52 miles E. of Valona.

RAVINE, in Field Fort'ification, a deep liollow, ufiially
formed by a great flood, or long continued running of wa-
ter ; frequently turned to good purpofes in the field.

RAVIS, the fame with raucedo. tSec Hoaksenkss.

RAVISHMENT, m Laiu, denotes an unlawful fe-
ducing either a woman, or an heir in ward ; for which there
is a remedy by a writ of raviflimeut, or aftion of trefpafs
1'/ tf armis, de filio -vcl flia rapto -vel abdutlo, in the fame
manner as the hufcand may have it de uxore rapta et abduRa,
on account of the abduclion of his wife. This action lay at
the common law ; and thereby the hufband fhall recover,
not the pofTefriou of his wife, but damages for taking her
away: and by ftatute Weltm. i. 3 Edw. I. c. 13. the of-
fender fhall alfo be imprifoned two years, and fined at the
pleafure of the king. Both the king and the hulband may,
therefore, have this aClion ; and the hufband is alfo entitled
to recover damages in an adlion on the cafe againft fuch as
perfuade and entice the wife to live feparate from him, with-
out a fufficient caufe.

Sometimes it is alfo ufed in the fame fenfe as rape ; which
fee.

RavishmeN'T de Card, is a writ which anciently lay, and
ftill lies, for the guardian in focage againft him who took
from him the body of his ward, or pupil : but then he mufl
account to his pupil for the damages he io recovers. It is
exprefsly provided by ilatute 12 Car. II. c. 24. that tefta-
mentary guardians may maintain an acT;ion of ravifhment,
or trefpafs, for recovery of any of their wards, and alfo for
damages, to be applied to the ufe and benefit of the in-
fants.

RAVITZ, or Rawisch, in Geography, a town of the
duchy of Warfaw, mofl of the inhabitants of which are
Lutherans : it has a confiderable manufafture of cloth ; 24
miles S. of Pofen.

RAVIUS, or Rave, Christian, in Biography, a
learned German Orientalift, was born at Berlin in the year
1613. From a very early period he was attached to the
fludy of the eaftern languages, and after fpending eight
years in different univerfities on the continent, he came over
to England in the year 1658, and took up his refidence at
the univerfity of Oxford. He brought with him recom-
mendations from Voffius, and other learned men ; and was
invited to Dublin by archbifhop Ufher, primate of Ireland,
who fettled upon him a handfome ftipend, and engaged him
to take a voyage into the Eail, for the purpofe of collecting
ancient manufcripts. About the fame time he was invited
by cardinal Richelieu to enter into his employment for a
fimilar purpofe, which he declined, having already accepted
the propofals of Ultier. In 1639 he became acquainted
with our countryman, the learned Edward Pococke, at
Conltantinople, where he improved himfelf in many lan-
guages, to which he had already applied his talents ; and
made himfelf mailer of the Turkifh, Arabic, and Perfian
languages. In the mean time he did not negleft the main
objeft of his million, but collected more than 300 choice
manufcripts. For this fervice he was, on his return, amply
rewarded. In 1642 he taught the Oriental languages at
Grefham college, in London. During the following year
he went to Holland, and was appointed profeflbr of the
Oriental languages at Utrecht. We find him again in Eng-
land in 1648, when he took the covenant, and was made

R A U

fellow of Magdalen college, Oxford, by the parliamentary
vifitora. In the courfe of a few months he left England,
and went to Sweden, where he obtained the appointment of
proteiior of the Oriental languages at the univerfity of Up-
fal. This place he was obliged to leave about the year
1657 ; the revenues, that ought to have been devoted to the
Upfal profeffors, having been applied towards defraying
the expences of the war between Sweden and Denmark.
After this he for fome time filled the chair of Oriental lite-
rature at the univerfity of Kiel, and from thence he removed
to occupy the fame profefforlhip at Frankfort on the Maine.
He died in 1677, about the age of 64. His works are
very numerous, of which the following are titles of the
principal : " Obteflalio ad univerfam Europam pro dicendis
Rebus et Linguis Orientalibus, ac conjuganda Africae at-
que Afiae Eruditione," 1644; " Orthographiae et Ana-
logias vulgo Etymologia; Ebraiae Delineatio, juxta vocis
partes abflraftas ;" " A Difcourfe of the Oriental Tongues,
T/'z. Hebrew, Samaritan, Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, and
Ethiopic," 1649; " Concordantiarum Hebraicatum et
Chaldaicarum Epitome ;" " Clironologia Biblica nova ;"
" Epiftolae variac ad dodt. Viros." He gave alfo to the
world a tranflation, from the Arabic language, of Apol-
lonius's Conic Seftions. He had a brother, named John
Ravius, who was profefTor of philofophy at Roflock, about
the year 1638. In 1664-j he was appointed counfellor and
librarian to the eleftor of Brandenburg. He was author of
" Commentarius in Cornelium Nepotem," 1635 ; " Summa
Stndiorum pro Nobilitate Danica ;" " Aphorifmi Mili-
tares," and other learned works.

RAULIN, John, a French writer in the 15th century,
was born at Toul in the year 1443. He purfucd his ftudies
at the univerfity of Paris, where he obtained the degree of
D.D. in 1480, and afterwards filled the profefTor's chair in
theology with great diftin£lion. He was elefted grand
mailer of the college of Navarre, and founded a good li-
brary in that feminary. Becoming diflatisfied with the
world, he embraced the monallic hfe at the abbey of Cluny,
in Burgundy, in 1497. He died in 1514, at he age of 71.
He attrafted much attention as a preacher, and feveral of
his fermons have been publifhed, which exhibit (Iriking
ipecimens of the bad tafle which prevailed in France in the
15th century. The works of this author were collefted,
and publifhed at Antwerp, in 6 vols. 410., 1612. Thev
are accompanied with a curious and valuable coUeftion of
" Letters," that illuftrate the hiflory, manners, and fenti-
ments of the age in which he lived. They were firft pub-
lifhed after his death, in quarto, in 1521, under the title
of " Joannis Raulin Epiflolx lUuftrium Virorum." Mo-
reri.

RAULT, Felix, the favourite performer on the Ger-
man flute at Paris, in 1770; where we heard him ourfelves
with as much pleafure as a flute can give, by neat execu-
tion, perfeft intonation, and a mellifluous embouchure.
M. Laborde has rendered his biographical article interefl-
ing by a detail of his profeffional merits and private cha-
racter.

" M. Felix Rault was born at Bourdeaux, in 1736. He
was the fon of Charles Rault, of the king's band, and firfl
baflbon at the opera. Felix was received there in 1753,
and in the king's band in 1768. His talents are fo well
known at Paris, as to be above praife. Since Blavet's I
time, no one has brought the art of playing upon the Ger- I
man flute to luch perfeftion, efpecially in accompanying the
voice ; a much more difficult art than playing concertos of
great execution, generally well ftudied at home previous to
performance. But fuch Itudy is ufelefs to Rault ; for no

7 one

R A U

one rea^s mufic more readily and with more facility, or
gives it more meaning, than this performer. The beauty
of his tone, the precifion of his exccutioa, the richncfs of
his embouchure, however extraordinary, merit ftill Icfs
praife than his perfonal qualities, which endear liim to all his
acquaintance." Laborde.

RAUMO, in Geography, a fca-port town of Sweden,
in the province of Fuiland, on the E. coait of the gulf of
Bothnia ; 50 miles N. of Abo.

RAUNPIKED, in Rural Economy, a provincial word
ufed to fignify ihig-headed, among trees, as an old over-
grown oak, having the Humps of the boughs (landing
out.

RAURAH, in Geography, a town of Thibet ; 26 miles
N.ofJemlah. N.lat. 3i°2'. E. long. 81'^ 40'.

RAURAVA, a Sanfcrit word tweamng dreadful, and a
name of one of the Hindoo hells; they reckoning twenty-
one of thefe receptacles for finners. Naraka is called Maha-
raurava, or moft dreadful.

RAURIS, in Geography, a town of the archbifhopric of
Salzburg ; 32 miles 8. of Salzburg.

RAUSCHENBERG, a town of Heflej 4 miles N. of
Marburg. N. lat. 50° 53'. E. long. 8° 53'.

RAUSHENBERG, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Culmbach ; 7 miles N.N.E. of Neulladt.

RAUSNITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
Brunn ; 10 miles E. of Brunn,

RAUTA Lambi, a town of Sweden, in the government
of Kuopio ; 27 miles S.W. of Kuopio.

RAUTENBURG, a town of Pruffian Lithuania; 27
miles W. of Tilfit. — Alfo, a town of Pruflia, in the pro-
vince of Samland ; 36 miles N.E. of Koniglberg.

RAUTERN, a town of Auftria ; 6 miles W.N.W. of
Drofendorf.

RAUTIO, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Ulea ; ^6 miles S. of Brahcftad.

RAUTPOUR, a town of Hindooltan, in Allahabad;
18 miles N.N.W. of Corah.

RAUTY Dungaree, a town of Hindooilan, in Gu-
zerat, on the coaft ; 50 miles S.W. of Noanagur.

^AVTV-Aluinmy, or Rauty-muddum, Jlone-mummy, a name
given by the people of the Eall Indies to a kind of foilile
fubftance, much valued for its medicinal virtues. It is of
the nature of the feienites, and is found upon the high rocks,
and fuppofed to be generated of the dew which tails from
the heavens ; but this is an idle opinion, and the formation
of it is evidently the fame with that of the European rhom-
boidal feienites. They beat it to powder, and after boil-
ing it in milk, they give it in cafes of the venereal kind.
In a common clap, they give half a fcruple, night and
morning.

RAUVEE, in Geography, a river of Afia, which rifes on
the borders of Thibet, and joins the Chunaub in the country
of Lahore, 28 miles N.E. of Moultan. The Rauvee is the
" Hydraotes" of Alexander, and though it is reprefented as
a noble river, it is fomewhat inferior in bulk to the Chunaub.
Its fources are in the mountains near Nagorkote, a famous
place of Hindoo worlhip ; and it enters the plains ne^ar Shah-
pour (called alfo Rajapour), from whence the famous canal
of Shah Nahr was drawn to Lahore, 48I common cofles in
length. The fpace between the Rauvee and Chunaub, at
their entry on the plains, is about 54 geographical miles ; and
they gradually approach each other during a courfe of 170
miles. The junftion ot the Rauvee with the Chunaub
(or rather the Chunaub and Behut colleftively) is effefted
nearly midway between Toulumba and Moultan. The Ayin
Acbaree allows 27 cofles between the junction of the Behut

R A U

and Chunaub, and that of the Rauvee with the Chunaub ;
but thisdiltancc mult be applied to the courfe of the river^
not to the road by land. When thefe three rivers are united'
they form a llream equal to the Indus itfelf, at the place of
confluence ; which is from 20 to 30 miles below Moultan.
Rennell.

RAUWOLFIA, in Botany, was fo named by Plumier,
in memory of Leonard Rauwolf, a native of Augfburg,
and a pupil of Rondelet. He failed from Marfcilles, in
'573' f""" 'I"-' Levant, and performed a laborious and dan-
gerous journey through Syria, Mefopotamia, Paleitine and
Egypt ; of which he has left an account m German, full of
ciirious information relative to medical and other rare plants,
with feveral wooden cuts. He died phyfician to the Aullrian
army, at Hatvany, in Hungary, in i6o6, according to
Dryander,^ Bibl. Banks, v. 395, though Hallcr fays
1^96. The latter writer mentions his being obliged
to quit his country on account of his religion, which
was Proteftant. His fplendid herbarium, once the pro-
perty of queen Chriilina, and of Ifaac VofTius, is preferved
in the univerfity of Leyden. From it Groiiovius compofed
his F/ora Orienla/is.— Linn. Gen. 115. Schreb. 160. Willd.
Sp. PI. V. I. 12 1 7. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Ait. Hort.
Kew. V. 2. 64. Juff. 148. Plum. Gen. ig. t. 40. La-
marck lUuilr. t. 172. Gaertn. t. 52 — Clafs and order,
Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Contortic, Linn. Apo-
cinea, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, minute, with five feg-
ments, permanent. Cor. of one petal, falver-lhaped ; tube cy-
hndrical, globular at the bafe ; limb in five deep.roundilh, emar-
ginate, oblique fegments. Stam. Filaments five, ftiorter than
the tube ; anthers ereft, fimple, acute. Pijl. Germen roundiih ;
ftyle very (hort ; ftigma capitate. Peric. Berry nearly glo-
bofe, marked with a furrow along one fide, of one celL
Seeds two, convex at the bafe, tapering at the fummit, com.
prefTed, divided, more or lefs completely, into two cells.

Efl. Ch. Corolla oblique, falver-fhaped. Stamens included.
Berry globofe, with two feeds, each of two cells.

I. R. nitida. Shining Rauwolfia. Linn. Sp. PI. 303.
Hort. ChfF. 75. t. 9. Willd. n. i. Ait. n. i. (R. tetra-
phylla anguftifolia ; Plum. Ic. 232. t. 236. f. I.) — Leaves
in fours, lanceolate, pointed, very fmooth and fhining.
Flowers axillary or terminal, cymofe. — Native of moun-
tainous woods in the Well Indies. KJhrub about twelve
feet high, ereft, very faiooth and Ihining, abounding with
vifcid milk. Leaves four together at each joint of the
branches, fpreading, on Ibort ftalks, lanceolate, with a blunt
point, entire, unequal in fize, from two to five inches, or
more, with one rib, and many fine tranfverfe parallel veins.
Flowers Imall, white, inodorous, in axillary, rarely termi-
nal, ftalkcd cymes, (horter than the leaves. Fruit, according
to Jacquin, at firfl yellow, then purpli(h-bbck, thrice the
fize of a pea, milky. Linnaeus tells us his figure in the
Hortus Cliffortianus was drawn by Ehret, from a plant in
the Chelfea garden ; fo that this Rauwolfia mud have
flowered under Miller's care, in the year 1736. In Ait. H.
Kew. a later date is given. The corolla in the figure juH
mentioned is more concave in the limb, as well as more
notched, than Plumier reprefents it,

2. R. glabra. Smooth Rauwolfia. Cavan. Ic. v. 3,
50. t. 297. Willd. n. 2. — Leaves alternate, ovato-lanceo-
Jate, fmooth. Cymes oppofite to the leaves, of few flowers.
Native of New Spain. The whole plant is fmooth.
Stem flinibliy, a yard high, with phant, round, leafy branches.
Leaves fcattercd, rounded at the bafe, rather pointed, fingle-
ribbed, two or three inches long, on fliortifh footjlaihs.
Ekwers fmall, white, about four together, in fmall cymes or

clufters,

R A IJ

)l A W

clufters, oppofite to the leaves. Berry oliovato, witli only
ane feed i al lead in garden fpecimens, which vi-ry probably
differ in thofc icfpcfts from wild ones. 'I'liis fpecics
flowered at Madrid from Augud to Oilober.

^. R. canrfceni. Hoary Rauwolli:i. Linn. Sp. PI. 303.
Willd. n. 3. Ait. n. 2. (R. hirfutu ; .lacq. Amer. 47.
R. tetraphylla latifolia ; Plum. Ic. 232. I. 236. f. 2.) —
Leaves m fours, elliptic-obovate, acute, downy. Flowers
axillary or terminal. Segments of the corolla obtufe. —
Native of dry, funny, bulhy places in the Weil India
iflands, as well as on the neighbourmg continent. It was
cultivated by Miller at the fame time with the lirll fpecics.
We received a fpecimen in flower, from the ilove at Kcw, in
June 1807. Jacquin fays this fpecics varies greatly in the
fize of all its parts, according to foil and fituation, and in
the height of its Jlem from one to eight feet. The young
branches,Jloiuer-Jialis,footJ}all:si3.nAho\.\\ fides of the leaves, are
clothed with fliort denfe pubefcence, which almoft entirely dif-
appears by culture, though the upper ride|of \\iit footjldhs con-
tinues rough with briftly glands. The lea-ves arc from one and a
half to two inches long, obovate, more or k-fs inclining to
elliptical, acute, unequal. Floivers in fmall, axillary, downy,
ilalked tufts, or umbels. Corolla green with a tinge of red,
its fegments obtufe. Fruit cloven at the top, firfl; red, then
black, containing two feeds, as Jacquin well defcribes it.
One cell of each feed is ufually, according to him, abortive.

4. R. tomentofa. Downy Rauwollia. Jacq. Amer. 48.
Obf. fafc. 2. 9. t. 35. — ^Leaves in fours, obovato-lanceolate,
downy, tapering at each end. Flowers axillary or terminal.
Segments of the corolla acute. — Native of rocky places
about Carthagena ; fometimes on the (tone walls of the town.
Jacquin alone feems to have known this fpecies, wliich prin-
cipally differs from the laft, as far as we can judge, in having
white^ow^;-j, the fegments of whole corolla are ovate and
acute. The leaves moreover are rather tapering at each
end ; but that circumftance varies. Fruit the fize of a
pea, firft red, then black. We have feen no fpecimen.

5. R. Pulapariei. Eart Indian Rauwolfia. Roxb. MSS.
—Leaves in threes, elliptical, bluntly^ pointed, fmooth and
ftiining. Flowers terminal, in forked paniqles. Corolla
many times longer than the caly.x. Sent by Dr. Roxburgh,
from Calcutta, with the above name. We rely on him for
the genus, having feen no fruit. This _yX)-ui is fmocth in
nearly every part, with round branches. Leaves about three
inches long, and above one broad, coriaceous and fliining ;
their tranfverfe veins very fine and numerous. Floiver-Jialts
very minutely downy, as well as the imbricated IraBeas, and
keeled pointed fegments of the calyx. Corolla apparently-
white, with a red tube, which is near three quarters of an
inch long, cylindrical, fwelling at the top : fegments of tlie
limb rounded.

Rauwolfia, in Gardening, contains plants of the tender,
exotic, flirubby kind for the ftove, of which the fpecies cul-
tivated are : the fliining rauwolfia (R. iiitida) ; and the
hoary I'auwolfia ( R. canefcens^.

Method of Culture. — Thefe may be increafed by the feeds
or berries, which fliould be fown in pots filled with light
mould, in the autumn or fpring, plunging tl>em in a mild hot-
bed. When the plants have attained fome growth, they
(hould be removed into feparate pots, and have the manage-
ment of other exotic ffove plants. They may likewife be
raifed by layers and cuttings, laid down or planted out in
pots, plunged in the hot-bed in the fpring and fummer
months, till they have llricken root, being afterwards
managed as thofe from feed.

They afford much ornament and variety in hpt-houfe col-
leftions, both in their foliage and flowers.

KAUZAN, in Geography, a town of France, in the df- •
partmcnt of the Gironde ; 9 milep S.S.E. of Libourne.

RAUZZINI, Vknankio, in Biography, a native of ii
Italy, who, when he Arrived here in 1774, to fucceed Mil- I
lifo at the opera, was a beautiful and animated young man, '
with a ioprano voice. He v;as an excellent mufician, having
lludied counterpoint with as much application as the art of
finging : fo that he may truly be faid not only to know his
own bufinefs, but that of a maeilro di cappella ; having
been as able to compofe an opera as to perform a principal
part in it. " Piramo e Tifbe," and '< La Veftale," may be
inftanced in proof of this adertion.

His voice was not very powerful when he came hither from
Munich, where we firft knew him ; and where he had en-
joyed the higheft; favour fe-.eral years. His tafl;e, governed
by fcience, was correft and exquifite. His voice, though
not of great volume, was fweet, clear, flexible, and exten-
five ; being in compafs more than two oftaves. But he is
fuppofed to have injured his cheft in early youth by a rage
for counterpoint. He played the harpfichord neatly, ac-
companied well, ard had real genius for compofition, which
inclined him to devote that time to the pen and the improve-
ment of his hand, which, perhaps, in his ftation, would
have been more ufefully bellowed in nurfiiig and exercifing
his voice.

It was fome time before the extent of his merit and fcience
were known in this country, and favoured by the pubhc.
Nothing can fo fpeedily convey the merits of a finger to an
audience, as a great and powerful voice. However, his tafte,
fancy, knowledge, and delicacy, together with his beautiful
perfon, and fpirited and intelligent manner of afting, before
the firit feafon was over, gained him general approbation and
favour. And fince he has quitted the ftage, and made Bath
his rcfidcnce. Tliough he has been long obliged to difcon-
tinue finging in public, it is not too much to fay that he has
diffeminated good tafte throughout the kingdom, by the
numerous fcholars he has taught among the nobility and
gentry, as well as by thofe whom he has prepared for public
patronage, profeffionally.

RAW, in jigrieullure, any fort of plant, fubftance, or
material, which is in a green, unripe, or undigefted condi-
tion, or which is employed in its more frefti and crude ftate ;
as, for initance, dung before it has been much reduced, and
loft many of its nutrient principles or properties by the pro-
cefs of fermentation. See Dung.

Raw Cream, in Rural Economy, fuch as is raifed in the
natural way, not fcalded or clouted.

Raw Hide. See Hide.

Raw Lands, in ylgricvlfure, a term applied to wet, cold,
heavy lands, which are unfit to receive the feed.

Raw Silk. See Silk.

RAWA, or Rava, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Warfaw, late capital of a palatinate of the fame name.
The caftle is appropriated for the confinement of ftate pri-
foners ; 45 miles S.W. of Warfaw. N. lat. 51° 55'. E.
long. 20" 17.

Rawa, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Belz ;
18 miles S.W. of Belz.

Rawa. See Rava.

RAWAK, a fmall ifland in the Pacific ocean, near the
N. coaft of the ifland of Waygoo, with which it forms a
! arbour. E. long. 131^15'.

RAWAPSKITCHWOCK, a fmall wefterly branch of
Machias river. See Machias.

RAWAY, or Bridge-tonvn, a truly commercial village
of Middlefex county, New Jerfey, on Raway river, four or
five miles S.W. of Elizabeth-town, and 75 from Philadel-
phia.

RAY

11 A \

ph;a. It co-'itaiti': a poft-office, a prclbyterian churclj, :.nii
■ibout 3'o or 60 houfes.

- .P>.AV/DON, a town of Nova Scotia, 40 miles from Ha-
lifax, toiUainiiig about 50 or 60 liouft'S.

Rav/con, a townfhip of the county of Haflings, in
Upper Canada, N. of Sidney.

RAWLINSON, CnuiSTOPniirt, in Biography, of
Cork-Hall, in Lancaifiire, was born in 1677, educated in
Queen's college, Oxford, and died in 1733 : he was much
attached to Saxon and Northern literature, and publifhed an
edition of " King Alfred's Tranflation of Boethius de Con-
folationc," 8vo. 1698.

Rawlinson, Richard, a diflant relation of the pre-
cedin"", a learned antiquarian, was the fon of fir Thomas
Rawlinfon, knight, and once lord mayor of I,ondon. He
was educated at St. John's college, Oxford, and was admitted
to the degree of doctor of the civil law in 17 1 9. He de-
voted himfelf to antiquarian purfuits, and made large col-
le&ions for a continuation of Wood's Athenve Oxonienfes,
and Hiftory of Oxford, and puhlithed the life of tliat in-
dultrious antiquary. The principal work of Mr. Rawlinfon
was " The Englifli Topographer," or. An hiltorical account
of all the pieces that have been written relating to the an-
cient natural hiftory or topographical defcription of any part
of Enghmd, 1720. He pubUfhed the "Latin Letters of
Abclard and Heloifa," and " A Tranflation of Du Frefnoy's
New Method of Studying Hiftory," 2 vols. 8vo. He died
at Iflington in 1755, and by his will ordered that his heart
Ihould be depoiited in the chapel of St. John's college,
Oxford. That univerfity was indebted to him for various
benefaftions of books, manufcripts, medals, &c. as well as
landed property, and an endowment for an Anglo-Saxon
lefture.

RAWLLOW, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Palnaud ; 27 miles W.S.W. of Timerycotta.

RAY, John, in Biography, whom Haller terms the
greateil botanill in the memory of man, and to whofe
tranfcendent merits we have already briefly adverted, in
treating of the genus- dedicated by Plumier to his name, fee
Raiania ; was born at Black Notley, near Braintree, in
Efl'ex, Nov. 29, 1628. His father, Roger Ray, though
in the humble ftation of a blackfmith, gave him a learned
education ; firll at the grammar-fcliool of his native town,
at that time not very well condufted ; and fubfequcntly at
Cambridge, where he entered at Catharine Hall, in his 1 6th
year, June 28th, 1644, being defigned for holy orders. In
iibouta year and three quai-ters afterwards, he removed to
Trinity College, where he found the young men occupied
in a more liberal train of itudies, with lefs of fcholaftic dif-
putations and quibbles. Ray was fortunate in having for
his tutor at Trinity, Dr. Duport, an eminent Greek
fcholar, under whofe fottering and partial care, he foon
made up for all the deiiciencies of his early education, in the
learned languages, including Hebrew. By this gentleman
he was always mentioned with peculiar regard. He was no
lefs happy in a youthful literary friend and fellow-lludent,
afterwards the celebrated Dr. Ifaac. Barrow. Even at this
early period, Riy began to cultivate natural hiftory ; and
diftinguidied iiimlelf by many fchool exercifes as an orator,
no lefs than by his general talle for (ludy, his love of virtue,
andhis gentlcnefsof manners, qualities which fhone brighter
and brighter to the lateft period of his life. His merit oc-
cafioned,him to be chofen a Minor Fellow of Trinity, along
with his friend Barrow, September 8th, 1649. On taking
his degree of Mafter of Arts, he became a Major or Senior
Fellow; and aiterwards, OAober ift, 165 1, Greek Lec-
turer of the college. At the end of two years he was ap-

pointed Mathematical Leftiirer, and in two yrars more,
Oftober 2d, 1655, Humanity Reader. He fubfequcntly
filled feveral refpcftable olHces in his college, as Junior Dean,
College Steward, &c., and during his rcfidence in the uni-
verfity, became tutor to many gentlemen of rank and for-
tune, who were fenfible of their obligations to him ; amongfl
whom the moft eminently diftinguilhed by perfonal worth,
and congeniality of talents with himfelf, was Mr. Francis
Wilhighby, of Middleton-hall in Warwicklhire, fo well
known by his pofthumous works on Birds and Filhes,
edited by the affeftionatc care of Ray.

At this period it was ufual for young men of ability and
learning, though not in orders, to deliver fermons, and com-
mon-place readings, as they were called ; not only in the
chapels or halls of their own colleges, but even before the
univerfity body, at St. Mary's church. In thefc Ray emi-
nently diftinguiftied himfelf. He was among tlie ilrft who
ventured to lead the attention of his hearers, from the un-
profitable fubtleties of fcholaftic divinity, and the trammels
of Ariftotelian philofophy, to an obfervation ;f nature, and
a practical inveftigation of trutii. The rudiments of many
ot his fubfequent writings originated in thefe juvenile edays,
particularly his celebrated book on the " Wifdom of God
manifeiled in the Works of the Creation," known all over
the world by its nvimerous editions and tranflations, and uni-
verfally admired for its rational piety, found philofophy,
and folid inftruftion. This book is the bafis of all the la-
bours of following divines, who have made the book of na-
ture a commentary on the book of revelation ; a confirmation
of truths, which Nature has not authority, of herfelf, to
eftablilh. In it the author inculcates the doftrine of a con-
ilantly fuperintending Providence ; as well as the advantage,
and even the duty, of contemplating the works of God.
This, he fays, is part of the bufinefs of a fabbath day, as
it will be, probably, of our employment through that
eternal reft, of which the fabbath is a type. Archbidiop
Tennifon is recorded to have told Dr. Derham, that " Mr.
Ray was much celebrated, in his time, at Cambridge, for
preaching fohd and ufeful divinity, inftead of that enthu-
fiaftic Ituff, which the fermons of that time were generally
filled with." Two of his funeral difcourfes are mentioned
with particular approbation ; one on the death of Dr. Ar-
rowfmith, mafter of his college ; the other on that of
one of his moft intimate and beloved colleagues, Mr. John
Nid, likewife a Senior Fellow of Trinity, who had a great
(hare in Ray's firft botanical publication, the Catalogus
Plantarum circa Cantabrigiam nnJcenUum, printed in 1660;
which may be confidered as the prototype of his Syncpfu,
hereafter mentioned. Indeed before this little volume ap-
peared, its author had vifited various parts of England and
Wales, for the purpofe of inveftigating their native plants,
as he did feveral times afterwards ; nor were his obfervations
confined to natural hiftory, but extended to local and general
hiftory, antiquities, tlie arts, and all kinds of ufeful know-
ledge. His amufing Itineraries were publiftied, along with
his life, by Dr. Derham, and a few letters to that gentle-
man, by the care of Dr. George Scott, F.R.S., in 1760,
under the title of " Seleft Remains of the learned John
Ray, M.A., &c." Ray's firft botanical tour occupied
nearly fix weeks, from Auguft 9th to September 18th,
1658. On the 23d of December 1660, he was ordained,
both deacon and prieft at the fame time, by Dr. Sanderfoii,
then bilTiop of Lincoln. In 166 1 he travelled with Mr.
Willughby into Scotland, returning by Cumberland and
Weftmoreland ; and the following yecr, with the fame
companion, he accompliftied a more particular inveftigation
of Wales. How critically he ftudied the botany of the

countrieti

RAY.

countries he vifited, is evident from the different editions of
his Catalogus Plantarum Anglia, and Synopjis Mdhod'ica Stir-
plum Brttannicdrum.

All this while Mr. Ray continued to enjoy his fellow-
(liip, and to cultivate his Cambridge connexions ; but in
September l66z, his tranquillity was difturbed by the too
famous Bartholomew ad, by which 2000 confcientious
divines were turned out of their livmgs, and many fellows
of colleges deprived of their m lintenance, and means of lite-
rary improvement. Among the latter was the fubjeft of
our memoir, with thirteen honed men at Cambridge befides,
of whole names he has left us a lift. One of them, Dr.
Dillingham, was mailer of Emanuel college ; but Ray
was the only perfon of his own college who fuffered this
deprivation. The reader muft not fuppofe that he, or
perhaps any other perfon in this illuitrious catalogue,
was, in the leaft degree, deficient in attachment to the
doctrine or difciphne of the church of England, or that
they had taken the oath called the Solemn League and
Covenant ; which Ray certainly had neither taken nor ever
approved. They were required to fwear to the infamous
propofition, that the faid oath was not binding to thofe
who had taken it, and on this ground they confcientioufly
gave up their preferment. It is curious to read the apology
made for Ray to Dr. Dcrham, on this fubjeft, by a Mr.
Brokelby — " that he was at that time abfent from his college,
where he might have met with fatisfadlion to his fcruples ;
and was among fome zealous non-conformills, who too much
influenced him, by the addition of new fcruples. And we
may alfo afcribe fomewhat to the prejudice of education in
unhappy times." By this it appears, that the " fcruples"
of non-conformifts were mod favourable to the fanftity of
an oath ; and that the " unhappy times" alluded to, were
more advantageous to principle, than the golden days of
Charles II. ; whofe miniilers doubtlefs valued the obedience,
far more than the honefty, of any man ; nor is this tafte, by
any means, peculiar to them or their profligate maft.er.

Mr. Ray, or, as he wrote his name, for a while, about
this period, Wray, having thus the world before him, made
an arrangement with Mr. Willughby for a tour on the
continent ; and in this plan two of his pupils were included,
Mr. Nathaniel Bacon, and Mr., afterwards fir Philip, Skip-
pon. They failed for Calais in April 1663, but being pre-
vented, by the ft.ate of political aff'airs, from profeeuting
their journey through France, they traverfed the Low
Countries, Germany, &c. proceeding by Venice into Italy ;
mofl: of whofe cities tliey vifited, either by fea or land ;
as well as Malta and Sicily ; and returned, by Switzerland,
through France, into England, in the fpring of 1666. Mr.
Willughby indeed feparated from the reft; of the party at
Montpellier, and vifited Spain. An ample account of their
obfervations was publiflied by Ray, in 1673, making a
thick 0(Savo volume. The travellers appear to have been
diligent and acute in every thing relative to pohtics, litera-
ture, natural biftory, mechanics, and philofophy, as well as
antiquities and other curiofities ; but in the fine arts they
aiTume no authority, nor difplay any confiderable tafl:e or
knowledge. Mr. Willughby's account of Spain makes a
part by itfelf ; and a rich critical catalogue of fuch plants,
not, for the mod part, natives of England, as were obferved
in this tour, concludes the volume. Haller gives to Ray
the credit of having difcovered feveral fpecies in Switzer-
land, previoufly not known as natives of that country.

Ray palfed the fummer of 1666 partly at Black Notley,
and partly in Suflex, (ludying chiefly the works of Hook,
Boyle, Sydenham on Fevers, and the Philofophical Tranf-
adlions, " making few difcoveries," fays he, " fave of mine

own errors." The following winter he was employed at
Mr. Willughby's, in arranging that gentleman's mufeum of
natural hiitory and coins, and in forming tables of plants
and animals for tlie ufe of Dr. Wilkins, in his famous work
on an Univerfal Charafter. He now alfo began to arrange
a catalogue of the Englilh native plants, which he himfelf
had gathered ; rather for his own ufe, than with any imme-
diate view of publication ; " at prefent," as he wrote to Dr.
Lifter, " the world is glutted with Dr. Merret's bungling
Pinax. I refolve never to put out any thing which is not
as perfeft as is poflible for me to make it. I wifh you
would take a little pains this fummer about grades, that fo
we might compare notes." The above refolution of our
author is, no doubt, highly commendable, but the world
has rather to lament that fo many able men have formed the
fame determination, at lead in natural Icience. If it were
univerfally adhered to, fcarcely any work would fee the
liglit ; for few can be fo fenfible of the defefts of any other
perfon's attempt to illullrate the works of nature, as a man
of tolerable judgment mud be of his own. This is efpe-
cially the cafe with thofe who, like Ray, direft their afpir-
ing views towards fydem, and philofophical theory. Hap-
pily he did net try this arduous path, till he had trained
himfelf by wholefome praftical difcipline, in obfervation
and experience. His firft botanical works aflumed the hum-
ble form of alphabetical catalogues. His and Mr. Wil-
lughby's labours in the fcrvice of bi(hop Wilkins, were in-
deed of a fyftematical defcription ; and accordingly the au-
thors themfelves were, more than any other perfon probably,
diflatisfied with their performance. They relaxed from
thefe labours in a tour of praftical obfervation through the
wed of England, as far as the Land's-End, in the fummer
of 1667, and returning by London, Mr. Ray was folicited
to become a Fellow of the Royal Society, into which
learned body he was admitted November yth. Being now
requeded by his friend Wilkins to tranflate the " Real Cha-
rafter" into Latin, he undertook, and by degrees accom-
pliflied, that arduoHS performance, depofiting his manu-
fcript in the library of the Royal Society, where it has ever
fince repofed. The following fummer was agreeably fpent,
in viilts to various literary friends, and in a folitary journey
to the north ; for his former companion Willughby, being
jud married, ilayed at home ; there Ray joined him in Sep-
tember 1668, and remained for mod part of the enfuing
winter and fpring.

The feclufion and leifure of the country, with the con-
verfe and affidance of fuch a friend, were favourable to the
profecution of a new fubjefl of enquiry, which now drongly
attrafted the attention of our great naturalift, the theory of
vegetation. The firft dep of the two philofophers, in this
little-explored path, was an examination of the motion of
the fap in trees ; and the refult of their enquiries, communi-
cated to the Royal Society, appeared foon after in the Phi-
lofophical Tranfaftions. Their experiments clearly prove
the afcent of the fap through the woody part of the tree;
which is eafily detefted by boring the trunk, at different
depths, before the leaves are unfolded ; and they obferved
alio the mucilaginous nature of the flowing fap, " precipi-
tating a kind of white coagulum or jelly, which," fays Ray,
in a note preferved by Derham, " may be well conceived to
be the part which, every year, between bark and tree, turns
to wood, and of which the leaves and fruit are made. It
feems to precipitate more when the tree is jud ready to put
out leaves, and begins to ceafe dropping, than at its firft
bleeding." The accuracy of the leading fafts recorded by
thefe ingenious men, is confirmed by fubfequent obfervers,
who have further purfued the fame fubjeft, which is now

fufficiently

RAY.

fufficiontly well underftood. They indeed, like the relt of
the world till lately, feem not to have fufpcdlcd, that the
fap was quiefcent till their perforations in the tree were
made ; nor did they advert, as they ought, to phenomena
dependent on tiie princi])le of life, in tlie ve^table body.
See ClKCULATlON of the Sap.

At this time Ray began to prepare for the prefs his
" CoUcilion of Proverbs," a curious booli in its way, by
which he is perhaps better known to the generality of Iiis
countrymen, than by any other of his literary labours.
The firll edition was publifhed in 1672 ; but the work was
fubfequently much enlarged, and the author may almoll be
faid to have exhauilcd his fubjedl. From its very nature,
delicacy and refinement muft often be difpenfed with ; but
this is evidently not tiie fault, or the aim, of the writer.
His learning and critical acutenefs dift'ufe light over the
whole, and make us overlook the coarfe vcliiele of our in-
ftruftion.

Tlie firfl; edition of the Catalogue of Englifli Plants, al-
ready mentioned, came out in 1670, and the fccond in 1677.
Their great author gave his work to the world with that
diffidence, for which he alone porliaps could perceive any
jufl foundation. We poftponc o\ir remarks till we fpeak
of the fame work in its fyllematic form hereafter.

About this period the health of Mr. Ray feems to have
been confiderably impaired. He refufed a tempting offer to
travel again on the continent, as tutor to three young noble-
men ; nor could the powerful attraftions of alpine botany,
which made a part of his profpeft, overcome the reluclance
to leaving home, which arofe from a feeble lla'e of body.
Indeed this very reluctance, or liftlefsnefs, is accounted for,
by the turn v^hich his diforder took, as it terminated in the
jaundice. After this deprefling complaint had left him, he
refumed, with freih alacrity, his botanical travels at home,
vifiting the rich ftores of the north of England, with a com-
panion named Thomas Willifel, whofe name and difcoveries
he afterwards, on many occafions, has gratefully commemo-
rated. Nothing forms a more itriking feature in Ray's
character, than the unreferved and abundant commendation,
which he always gave to his friends and fellow-labourers.
We are about to narrate an event, which called forth all his
afFedlionate feelings of this kind, as well as his moft im-
portant and beneficial exertions ; when, even to his own
prejudice, he fulfilled the facred duties of friendfhip, and de-
lighted in adorning the bull of his friend with wreaths, that
he himfelf might juflly have afiumed. On the 3d of July
1672, Mr. Willughby was unexpectedly carried off by an
acute diforder, in the 37th year of his age. The care of his
two infant fons was confided by himfelf to Mr. Ray, vrho
was alio appointed one of his five executors, and to whom
he left an annuity of 60/. for life. The eldeft of thefe
youths was created a baronet at the age of 10 years, but
died before he was 20. Their filler CafTandra after-
wards married the duke of Chandos. Thomas, the
younger fon, was one of the ten peers created, all on the
fame day, by queen Anne, and received the title of lord
Middleton. His early youth was much indebted to the
care of his faithful guardian, who compofed, for his and his
brother's ufe, and publilhed in 1672, a Nomenclator Clafflcus,
far more exact, efpecially in the names of natural objedts,
than any that had previoufly appeared. The care of his
pupils, and of the literary concerns of their deceafed parent,
now interrupted Mr. Ray's botanizing excurfions, and
cauied him alfo to decline the offer of Dr. Lifter, then a
phyfician at York, to fettle under his roof. Bifhop Wil-
kins did not long furvive Mr. Willughby, and his death
made another chalm in the fcientific and fecial circle of our
Vol. XXIX.

great natural philofopher, wlio felt thefe lo^fea as deeply and
tenderly as any man. He fought confolation in a domeflio
attachment, fixing his clioice on a young woman, of good
parentage, whofe name was Margaret Oakeley, and who
refided in tlie family at Middk-ton-hall. He was married at
the parifli church, June 5tli, 1673, being then in tlie 45'!!
year of his age, and his bride about 20. This lady took a
fhare in the early education of his pupils, as far as con-
cerned their reading Englifh. She is faid to have been re-
commended by her charadter, as well as her pcrfon, to the
regard of her hufband. She bore him three daughters,
who, with their mother, furvived him.

Ray's communications to the Royal Society became now
very frequent, and extended to various I'ubjedts relative to
the natural hillory of animals, as well as to the pliyfiology,
and even the botanical charafters, of vegetables. He was, at
the fame time, in the courfe of the years 1674 and 1675,
much occupied in digefting Mr. AVillughby's zoological
papers. Thefe were compofed in I,atin, in which language
the Ornithology firfl appeared in 1676, making a folio vo-
lume, accompanied by 77 plates, engraved, at the expence
of the author's widow, from his own drawings. An Eng-
lifli tranfl.ition by Ray, witli ftill more additions thai; he had
fupplied tu tlie former publication, and one more plate, if-
fued from the prefs in 1678. The account which Dr. Der-
ham received from the lips of Mr. Ray, about eight months
previous to his deceafe, relpecting the primary intentions of
himfelf and his late friend, and wliicli is recorded in liis life,
p. 48, is too curious to be omitted here, as their project and
its execution form an epoclia in tiie hiflory of natural
fcience. " Thefe two gentlemen," fays Dcrham, " finding
the hiflory of Nature very imperfect, had agreed between
themfelves, before their travels beyond fea, to reduce the
feveral tribes of things to a method ; and to give accurate
defcriptions of the feveral fptcies, from a drift view of
them. And forafmuch as Mr. Willughby's genius lay
chiefly to Animals, therefore lie undertook' the Birds,
Beafls, Fifhes, and Infefts, as Mr. Ray did the Vege-
tables." Derham adds, that Mr. Willughby, during his
fhort hfe, " profecuted his defign with as great application,
as if he had been to get his bread thereby." The writer
of the piefent article has elfewhere obferved, (Jntroduftory
Difcourfe, Tr. of Linn. Soe. v. i,) that " /rom the affec-
tionate care with which Ray has clierilhed the fame of his
departed friend, we are in danger of attributing too much
to Mr. Willughby, and too little to himfelf." His
own flatement, no doubt, was correft, as to their ori-
ginal aims ; but it is impollible not to perceive that the fur-
vivor executed or perfefted what his friend, in many in-
fiances, could only have projefted, or fcarcely begun. Had
Willughby lived, there can be little doubt of his career
being as glorious in the fequel as that of his friend ; and
pofTibly, from the advantages of fortune which he enjoyed,
even more widely beneficial to fcience. Yet who can tell
that he might not have flackened liis courfe ? Though he
glorioufly avoided the fnares of luxury and folly in his
youth, who fhall fay that politics or ambition might not
have dazzled his riper age ? or that he would always have •
efcaped that ruinous vanity, which grafps at univerfal
knowledge, or rather at univerfal fame ; and knowing no-
thing deeply, is mofl flattered with any praife which is leaft
deferved. So often has this lafl been the cafe with literary
men, that one cannot but miitrufl u character of the fairefl
promife. What Ray has done, we know and can appreciate.
Equal to his friend in learning, talents, and zeal, the ad-
vantages of ample fortune were compenfated by the leifure
and tranquillity of a fequeflered country life. His duties

3 P went

RAY.

went liand in lund witli his ftudics and recreations,^ and he
enjoyed, as Halk-r obfL-rvcs, the rare felicity of givi4ig 50
years uninterniptcdly to his favourite fciencc. His long-
protraftcd lludies, and ripened experience, enabled hirn to
achieve what at firft he could but regard at a diftanee, as
the great objcft of his wiflies, a fyftcmatic arrangement of
the animal as well as vegetable kingdoms. Every body
had, hitherto, been content with Ariilotle's clafTiHcation of
animals, of whofe imperfeftions Ray, daring to think for
himfelf, could not but be aware. He invented a new one,
founded on the Itrufture of the heart. " The Harveian ex-
periments, and dodriiie of the circulation, had called the
peculiar attention of philofophers to every organ which has
a fhare in that pheaomenon ; and to this caufe, probably, we
owe the method of Ray." The mode. of breathing in ani-
mals, whether by lungs or by gills, and the fiiiglc or double
ttrufture of the heart, in the former cafe, conRitute the bafis
of his fyllem ; which, in thefe particulars at leait, fuececd-
ing n.ituralills have adopted. His fubordinate charafters of
the principal clafles evince great Ikill and fagacity, and the
Linn;-Ean fyftem of Quadrupeds is highly indebted to that of
our illuftrious countryman.

His zoological publications indeed did iiot follow each
other in rapid fuccefllon ; for after the Ornithology had
come forth in Enghlh, eight years elapfed before the
Hiftona Pijc'mm of Willughby was given, by his care, to
the world. This was printed in folio, with 188 plates of
filhes, in, 1686, at Oxford, owing to the intereft of bifhop
Fell, and the pecuniary affiftance of the Royal Society.
It does not appear why the relift of Mr. Willughby with-
held, in this inrtance, the contributions which had fo much
benefited her hufband's former work, and which fhejuftly
owed to his fame. It feeins that the intimate connexion
of Ray with this family, was much impaired by the death
of lady Caffandra Willughby, the mother of his friend,
about the year 1675 or 1676; when the children were
taken from 'his tuition, and he left Middleton-hall, fixing
for a fhort time at Sutton Cofeld, four miles diftant.
At Micliaelmas 1677 he removed from thence to Falborne-
hall, in Eflex, not far from his native village. On the
15th of March following, his mother, at the age of 78,
died at Black Notley, " in her houfe on Dcwlands ;" of
whom he fpeaks with that reverence and regret, which has
peculiarly marked the charafters of fome of the greateft
and belt men on the fame occafion. At Midfummer 1679,
he finally fettled at Black Notley, for the remainder of his
days, or " for the fhort pittance of time he had yet to
live in this world," as he himfelf expreffed it ; which
pittance, however, extended to more than twenty-five
years.

The firft fruit of our author's leifure and retirement
was his Methodus Plantarum Nova, pubhlhed in 1682,
making an oftavo volume. His principles of arrangement
are chiefly derived from the fruit. The regularity and
irregularity of flowers, which take, the lead in the fyftem
of Rivinus, make no part of tliat of Ray. It is remark-
able that he adopts the ancient primary divifion of plants,
into trees, fhrubs, and herbs, and that he blamed Rivinus
for abohlliing it, though his own prefatory remarks tend
to overfet that principle, as a vulgar and cafual one, un-
worthy of a philofopher. That his fyftem was not merely
a commodious artificial aid to practical botany, but a phi-
lofophical clue to the labyrinth of Nature, he probably,
like his fellow-labourers, for many years, in this depart-
ment, believed ; yet he was too modell, and too learned,
to think he had brought this new and arduous defign to
perfection ; for whatever he has incidentally or deliberately

thrown out, rol'peAijig the value of his labours, is often
marked with more diffidence on the fiibjcft of claflifica-
lion, than any other. He firft applied his fyftem to
praftical ufe in a general Hjjlona Flantiiruiii, of which
the firft volume, a thick folio, was publifhed in 1686, and
the fecond in 1687. Tlie third volume of tiie fame work,
which is iupplementary, came out in 1 704. This vaft and
critical compilation is llill in ufe as a book of reference,
being particularly valuable as an epitome of tlie contents
of various rare and expenfive works, which ordinary libra-
ries cannot pofTeis, fuch as the Hortus Malahar'icui. The
defcription of fpecies is faithful and inftruftive ; the re-
marks original, bounded only by the whole circuit of the
botanical learning of thjt day ; nor are generic characters
neglected, however vaguely they are afTumed. Specific
differences do not enter regularly into the author's plan,
nor has he followed any uniform rules of nomenclature.
So ample a tranfcript of the praftical knowledge of fuch
a biitanift, cannot but be a treafure ; yet it is now much
neglefted, few perfons being learned enough to ufe it with
facility, for want of figures, and a popular nomenclature;
and thofe v.ho are, feldom requiring its affiftance. A
mere catalogue or index, like the works of Tournefort
and Cafpar Bauhin, which teach nothing of themfelves,
are of readier ufe. The Species Plantarum of Linnaeus
unites tlie advantages of the cleareft moft concife fpe-
citic definition, and, by the help of Bauhin, of an uni-
verfal index.

But if the fame or the utility of Ray's great botani-
cal work has, neither of them, been commenfurate with
the expectations that might have been formed, a little o6tavo
volume, which he gave to the world in 1690, amply fup-
plied all fuch defetts, and proved the great corner ftone
of his reputation in this department of fcience. We fpeak
of the Synopfis Melhod'ica Shrp'ium Br'itanmcarum. The
two editions of his alphabetical catalogue of Englifh plants
being fold off, and fome pettifogging reafons ot his hook-
feller's ftanding in the way of a third, with any improve-
ments, he re-modelled the work, throwing it into a fyftc-
matic form, revifing the whole, fupplying generic charac-
ters,, with numerous additions of fpecies, and various emen-
dations and remarks. The ufes and medicinal qualities of
the plants are removed to the alphabetical index at the
end. A fecond edition of this Synopfis was publiftied in
1696, nor did its author ever prepare another. The third,
now m.oil in ufe, was edited twenty-eight years afterwards
by DlLLENiis. (See that biographical article.) Of all
the fyftematical and practical Floras of any country, the
fecond edition of Ray's Synopfis is the moft perfeft that
ever came under our obfervation. " He examined every
plant recorded in his v ork, and even gathered moft of them
himfelf. He inveftigated their fynonyms with confummate
accuracy ; and if the clearnefs and precifion of other au-
thors had equalled his, he would fcarcely have committed
an error. It is difficult to find him in a miftake or mif-
conception refpecting Nature herfelf, though he foinetimes
mifapprehends the bad figures, or lame defcriptions, he waa
obliged to confult." TV. of Linn. Soc. v. 4. 277. Above
a hundred fpecies are added, in this fecond edition, and the
cryptogamic plants, in particular, are more amply eluci-
dated. A controverfial letter from Rivinus to Ray, and its
anfwer, with remarks upon Tournefort, arc fubjoined to
this fecond edition. Much of the dilpute turns upon the
now obfolete dillindtion of plants, in a methodical fyftem,
into trees, ftirubs, herbs, &c. The letters are well written,
in Latin : and liberal, though perhaps hypercritical, in
their ftyle. Ray took no delight in controverfy. Its in-
evitable

RAY.

evitable afpcrities were foreign to liis nnture. We mufl not
omit to notice tliat, in the preface to both editions of his
Synods, the learned author, venerable for his charafter,
his talents, and his profcffion, as well as by his noble ad-
herence to principle in the moll corrupt times, has taken
occafion to congratulate his country, and to pour out his
grateful effufions to Divine Providence, in a Ityle worthy
of Milton, for the cftablifhmcnt of religion, law, and li-
berty, by the revolution which placed king William on the
throne. An honell Englilhman, however retired in his
habits and his purfuits, could not have withheld this tribute
at fuch a time ; nor was any loyalty ever more pcrfonally
difmterelted than that of Ray.

The year 1690 was the date of the iirft publication of
his noble work on " The Wildom of God in the Creation,"
of wliich we have already fpoken, and whole fale, through
many editions, was very extenfive. In 1700 he printed a
book, more exclufively within the fjjhere of his facred pro-
feffion, called " A Perfuaiive to an Holy Life;" a rare
performance of the kind, at that day, as it would be at the
prefent ; being devoid of enthufiafm, myflicifni, or cant, as
well as of religious bigotry or party fpirit, " and employ-
ing the plain and fohd arguments of reafon, for the bell of
purpofes." His three " Phyfico-Theological Difcourfes,
concerning the Chaos, Deluge, and Diifolution of the
World," of which the original materials had been colledled
and prepared formerly at Cambridge, came out in 1692,
and were reprinted the following yeai\ A third edition,
fuperintended by Derham, was publiflicd in 17 13. This
able editor took up the fame fubjcft himfelf in a fimilar per-
formance, the materials of which, like Ray's, were firft
delivered in fermons, at Bow church, he having been ap-
pointed reader of Mr. Boyle's leftures.

While Ray was from time to time intent on thefe moral and
religious performances, in which he laboured equally to im-
prefc and elucidate the truths of natural and revealed religion,
as well as to enforce its precepts and duties, he was no lels at-
tentive than formerly to his fyltematical lludies. Dr. Tancred
Robinfon is recorded by Derham, as having firft pi-ompted
our great naturalift, to undertake a Synopfis Methodica, or
claffic.Hl arrangement, of the whole animal, as he had done
of the vegetable, kingdom. He even wilhed him to extend
his attention to foffils, anticipating, in fhort, what Linnaeus
afterwards performed. Nor did he lliriuk from the talk.
Though now for fome time oppreffed with bodily infirmity,
and particularly with very troublefome ulcers in his legs,
his mind was tranquil and unimpaired. He foon finilhed
his Synopfis Methodica An'tmal'ntm Qiiadrupedum et Serpentini
Generis, which came out in 1693, making a thin, but clofely
printed, oftavo volume. We have already fpoken of the
originality of his method. The volume in qaeilion, how-
ever, is not confined to dry fyltematical arrangement. It
enters deeply into the general and particular hillory of ani-
mals, their external forms, and internal Itrufture, with
abundance of entertaining and curious fads and obferva-
tions. Linnxus was polTeffed of this book from the year
1734, and appears to have ftudied it well. A fimilar
volume on birds, and another on filhes, were prepared by
the author ; but the maiuifcripts of thefe lay negleCted in
the hands of fome carelefs or ignorant bookieller, till
they were difcovered by Dr. Derham, and publilhed in
1713. They contain more of particular defcriptions and
hiftories, than of general remarks ; but otherwile accord
with the plan of the Synopfis of Quadrupeds. Many
things are fupplied from materials obtamed fince the publi-
cation of Willughby's Ornithology and Ichthyology, and
ffvcral figures of fifhes wrre added by Derham, at the

perfuafion of Petiver, whofe works they fomc-what re.
fcmble.

Having accompliflicd fo many great and laborious publi-
cations, our venerable naturalill began, as Dr. Derham in-
forms us, to enjoy the thoughts of repofing from his
labours. He was neverthclefs ready, at the call of hii
friends, to revife a tranilation of Rauwolf's Travels, the
original having even then become very fcarce, befides be-
ing unintelligible to mere Englifii readers. This tranflation,
vvilli fome other rare trafts annexed, and a catalogue of
Grecian, Syrian, Egyjjtian, and Cretan plants, drawn up
by Mr. Ray, iffucd from the prefs in 1693. See Rau-
W01.11A.

Poffibly the Slirpium Europaanim extra Brittwnias nafcen-
lium Sylloge, vvhicli appeared in 1694, originated in the
author's attention being recalled, by the laft-menlioned pub-
lication, to tlie contemplation of exotic plants. In this
volume he coUefts from Clufius, Bauhin, Columna, and
others, various additions to his own difcoveries, and the
whole are dilpoled in alphabetical order. A geographical
view of the plants, which he had himfelf gathered in his
foreign travels, is fubjoined ; and the volume concludes
with alphabetical catalogues, felefted from Boccone's Sici-
lian plants, and other recent authors. It is in the preface
to this book, that he firft adverts to the fyftem of Rivinus,
not without juft applaufe of that author's work, a copy of
wliich had been prefcntcd to Ray. He commends the apt
diihibution of the genera, the clearnefs and concifenefs of
the ftyle, the purity of the Latin, and the beauty as well
as exaftnefs of the plates. He, however, contends for
the ancient diftinftion of plants into trees and herbs, which,
as we have feen, he had himfelf mentioned as unphilofo-
phical. In the reft of his criticifms, though " much may
be faid on both fides," and though thefe controverfialilts,
hke others, profit of the intricacies and anomalies of Nature,
to make good their arguments, concealing themfelves, like
the cuttle-fifti, in their ink ; ilill we cannot but give our
tellimony to the greater folidity of Ray's principles, as de-
rived from the fruits and feeds of plants, than to the feem-
ingly more elegant ones of Rivinus, deduced from the
flower ; which lail undoubtedly lead, in their praftical ap-
plication, to fome paradoxical combinations. But on this
fubjeft we may fay more in its proper place. (See Rivi-
nus.) In this preface Ray points out the importance and
>ife of the ftamens and piilils, fuccinftly explaining the
fexual dodlrine, as now univerfally admitted.

One advantage arofe from the epiftolary altercation of Ri-
vinus and Ray, that it led the latter to revife his own fyftem,
and to republifh it, in an improved Hate. Happy if fuch
were more generally the fruit of contention, that each party-
fliould correA himfelf, inftead of aggravating the defeils of
his adverfary. Some notice is taken, in the preface to this
edition, both of the fyftem of Tournefort and that of Her-
mann, which laft was moft congenial to the principles of
Ray. The work was finifticd m 1698, but not given to the
public till 1703, recourfe having been had to a Dutch book-
feller, who thought It for his intereft to place an Englifh
pubhfher's name in the title-page ; a proceeding which,
however harmlefs, (hocked the honeft feelings of the au-
thor ; and this perhaps excited the thrifty Hollander's fur-
prize. By his exertions, however, the book, and the fame
of its author, became more widely diffufed, and continental
botanifts were much further initiated into Ray's fyftem than
they had previoufly been.

But now the mortal career of this eminent man was draw-

ing towards a clofe. He complained in his letters, that, fo

far from being able to vifit the London gardens, as he wilhed,

3 P 2 in

HAY.

in order to make obfervations upon plants, for the greater
perfeftion of thi6 laft edition of liis MflhoJiis, he was not
able to walk into his neighbouring fields. He flill, iievcr-
thelefs, kei)t up to the laft his correfpondence with his
friends, in the vivacity and clearnefs of ftyle which was na

WiUiam Coyte, M.A., father of the late Dr. Coyte of
Ipfwich, aod the original manufcript is now before us, con-
taining the information tiiat Ray was interred in the church-
yard. Ill 1737, the monument in queflion, which feems to
have been a fort of altar tomb, being nearly ruined, was

tural to him. Latin and Englifh, it is faid, were equally reftored at the charge of Dr Legge, and removed for fliel-
readv to his pen. So indefatigable was he in the cultivation ter into the church ; where therefore it became a cenotaph,
------ • °-.- -- c 1..0 as an inlcription added on this occafion terms it. Forty-

five years afterwards the tomb again underwent a repair, by
the care of the prefent fir Thomas Gery Cullum and others,
who fubjoined a third inicriptioH, as follows :

of the ftudy of Nature, that within a year or two of his
death, he began to colleft his fcattcnd notes for a work on
Infedts, and aftually drew up a Methodus Infitlorum, which
was printed, foon after his deceafe, in a little odlavo of
fixteen pages, and republiflied in the front of his Hiflorm
Infetlorum. This laft book, comprifing all his own and
Mr. Willughby's deTcnptions of infeas, came from the
preftin 17 10, at the expence of the Royal Society, and
under the fupermtendance of Dr. Derham. It confills of
375 quarto pages, befides an appendix of twenty-three
more, on Biitilh Beetles, by Litter. Ray attributes to
Willughby that part of his fyftem which concerns infefts
fuppofcd to undergo no mctamorphufis. Thefe are moftly
the aptera of Linnius, excluding the trujlacea, but admitting
intcftinal •vermes, earth-worms, and even leeches. All the
defcnptions and remarks of his departed friend are marked
with the initials F.W. This work is a mafs of accurate
and authentic obfervation ; but, for want of plates, has
never come into popular ufe. Linnreus ftudied it much, and
has often cited the defcriptions, the appropriation of whicli
is, however, too difficult and uncertain to vender them of
general or extenfive fervice. Thofe wliich regard the Le-
puloplera, and their caterpillars, are moft copious.

The ftudy of infefts was probably the laft that engaged
the attention of this great and wife man ; who, though on
the verge of eternity, in the full poflcflion of himielt, and
in the anticipation of the moft glorious manifeftations of his
Creator, did not difdain or negleft to contemplate him in
Lis leaft and loweft woi-ks. Such an example might fcrve
for an occafional anfvvcr to thofe who afteft to think the
ftudy of any of the works of God below the dignity of confiderable. His pecuniary circumftances were very hmited.

Tumulum hunc,

a nonnuUis humanitati, et fcientix

naturali, favcntibus,

olim conditum,

et aliortim bona diligentia

poftca reftauratum, 1737,

nunc e vetuftatis fitu et fordibus

pauci de novo revocarunt, r792.

A more lafting monument was dedicated to the memory of
our great Enghfh naturalift, in the genus of plants which
bears hisname. (See Raiania. ) The opinion we have there,
111 few words expreded, of his liigli rank in botanical fcience,
it is hoped the prefent more difluie account will juftify.
It muft be lamented that he made, as far as we can learn,
no colledfion of dried plants, which might ferve to afcertain,
in every cale, what he dcfcribed. The great Herbariums
of Buddie, Uvedale, &c. ftill kept in the Britifti Mufeum,
are indeed fuppofed to fupply, in a great meafure, this de-
feft ; they having been collected by perfons who had fre-
quent communication with Ray, and were well acquainted
with his plants. Whatever he had preferved relative to any
branch of natural hillory, he gave, a week before his death,
to his neighbour Mr. Samuel Dale, author of the Pharma-
cologia. Nothing is faid of his library, which was probably in-

their philofophy ; for the moft inordinate vanity muft look
with refpeft oii what formed the abftrufe ftudie; of fo dif-
tinguilbed a perfon as Ray. His laft letter to Dr. Derham,
who had juft been to vifit him, is dated Augutt 16, 1704.
He fpeaks of having lately obtained Mr. Willughby's ento-
mological papers, and defciibes himfelf as then entering on
his Hiftory of Infefts. How well he employed his time
during the autumn, is evident from what we have related
concerning this work, for he never faw another fpring. He
died at Black Notley, in a houfe of his own building,
Jan. 17, 1705, in the 77th year of his age. His charafter
is thus concifely given by Derham. " In his dealings, no
man more ftriftly juit ; in his converfation, no man more
humble, courteous, and aff^able ; towards God, no man
more devout ; and towards the poor and diftrefled, no man
more companionate and charitable, according to his abilities."
The friend who wrote this eulogium, in his " Life of Mr.
Ray," afi'erts, that he was buried, according to his- own

for he merely conformed as a layman to the church of Eng-
land, and was unwilhng to fubfcribe what was requifite for
receiving preferment. He is recorded neverthelefs to have
difapproved of feparatifts from the national chureh ; juftly
difgufted, probably, by the contentions and fanaticifm he had
feen throughout the greater part of his life. His principles
and feelings foared far above the faftidious diitinftions,
which marked the orthodox or the heterodox of thofe times,
and his mind was uncontamiuated with their paffions. His
good fenfe might well lead him to regret, that thofe who
had fo lately efcaped a moft tremendous common enemy,
fttould be fo prone to quarrel amongft themfelves. It is
an honour to both thefe parties that they have been emulous
to claim him as their ally.

In the preceding review of the literary produftions of
Ray, more numerous, as Hallerfays, than thofe of any other
botanilt, Linnaeus excepted, we have been obliged to pafs
over feveral things of lefs note ; fuch as his lifts of native

defiie, m the church of Black Notley; but the authcns of Brit ifh plants, for Gibfon's edition of Camden's 5r/Vann(a ;

the Biographia Britannica are probably more correft, in
faying, that he declined the offer made him by the reftor, of
a place of interment in the chancel, choofing rather to re-
pofe with his anceftors, in the church-yard. He perhaps
thought, with bifliop Hall, that " the houfe of God ought
not to be made a repofitory for dead carcafes." However
this might be, the latter account is confirmed by the original
fituatioR of his monviment, erefted at the expence, in part at
leaft, of bifliop Compton. The long and elegant Latin
epitaph has often been publifhed. Its author was the Rev.

and even a variety of communications to the Royal Society.
Neither have we touched on the principles of his botanical
fyftem, that fubjedl being explained at length by our prede-
ceffbr, the late Rev. Mr. Wood, under the article Classifi-
cation. Thofe who are anxious to perufe a more full and
critical inveftigation of his works and ftudies, than it has been
pofTible to give in this place, will do well to confult Dr.
Pulteney's " Sketches of the Progrefs of Botany in Eng-
land." The " Philofophical Letters," collected and publiftied
in 1718, by Dr. Derham, containing 68 written by Ray, and
7 raanv

RAY

many more by his correfpordents, throw much light on his
charafter and purfuits. We cannot help remarking that his
hand-writing was peculiarly fair and elegant. A fpccimen
of it exifts among fir Henry Spehnan's vatt and curious col-
Icftion of mannfcripts, now in the poileflion of John Patter-
fon, efq. late M. P. tor Norwich.

The portraits of Ray arc not numerous. One in oil, taken
at an advanced period of his life, remains in the Britifh
Mufeum, and Dr. John Sims is iiolleflid of a miniature, of
an earlier date, of whicli its owner has given an engraving,
by way of frontifpiece to the firft volume of the " Annals of
Botany," publifhed in 1805. The latter is rather deficient
in that ftrength of charafter wl.xh appears in the more com-
mon prints, after a pifture by laithorne, often prefixed to'
the third edition of the Synofjii, and fometimes to the hi/-
tor'ta Plantarum. One of theie prints was engravtd by
Elder; the other by Vcrtue. Neither of them is llnftly
appropriated to any particular book. That in the German
edition of his " Wifdom of God in the Creation," publifhed
at Leipfic in 1732, appears to be copied from one of thefe,
and yet is fo uniike them in expreffir r, that if it were
poflible, one w ould fuppofe it taken from lome other portrait
of the fam.e perfon. Ray's Works. His Life lay Dr.
Derham. Haller's Bibl. Bot. Pulteney's Sketches. Ai-
kin's General Biography. S.

Ray, in Geography, a town of France, in the department
of the Upper Saone ; 12 miles. E. of Champlitte.

Ray, in Geometry. See Radils.

Ray, Radius, hi Optics, a beam, or line of light, propa-
gated from a radiant point, through any n.i ditm.

Sir Ifaac Newton definet rays to be tlif Icalt parts of light,
whether fucceflive in the fame line, or contemporary in ie-
veral lines.

For, that light confilts of parts of both kinds, appears
hence, that one may Hop what comes this n oment m any
point, and let pafs that which comes the next ; and again, one
may flop what comes in this point, and let pafs that in the
next. Now, the leaft light, or part of light, which may
be thus flopped alone, he calls a ray of light.

A ray of light is, therefore, confidertd as an infinitely
narrow portion, or an evanefcent element ot a ftream of
light ; and a pencil, as a fmall detached itreani, compofed of
a coUedlion of fuch rays accompanying each other. As we
cannot exhibit to the lenfes a fingle mathematical line, ex-
cept as the boundary of two furtaces ; in the fame manner,
we cannot exhibit a fingle ray of liglit, except as the confine
between light and darknefs, or as the lateral limit of a
pencil of light.

If the parts of a ray of light do all lie ftraight between the
radiant and the eye, which is the cafe when it moves
through the fame uniform fubllance or a vacuum, called a
medium, the ray is faid to be dlreS : the laws and properties
of which make the fubjeft of optics. If any of them be
turned out of that direftion, or bent in their paflage, the ray
is faid to be refraileti : and that branch of optics which
treats of thefe refratted rays, is called dioptrics ; which fee.
See alfo Refraction.

If it ftrikeon the furface, or medium attached to the fur-
face, of any body, and be driven back, it is faid to be
refleSed •• and that branch of optics which treats of thefe
refrafted rays, is called catoptrics ; which fee. See alfo
Reflection.

In each cafe, the ray, as it falls either direftly on the eye,
or on the point of refleftioii, or of refraflion, is faid to be
incident : and the angle which the incident ray makes with
the perpendicular to the reflefting furface at the point i'{
incidence, is called the angle of incidence ; and the angle

RAY

which the rcfi( fled ray makes with the fame ptrprndi-
tular, i.s called ihe angle of refl(ftion ; and alfo, the angle
which the refraiited ray makes with a perpendicular to the
refradting furface produced, is calhd the angle of re-
fraftion.

Again, if feveral rays be propagated from the radiant
cquidiftantly fnm one another, they are called /i/raZ/c/ rays.
It they come inclining towards each other, they are called
converging rays. And if thi y go tontiniiiJly receding from
each other, they are called diverging rays.

It is evident that the rays ot light, which come from a
luminous point, muft fall divergingly upon any given fur-
face ; yet when the objtft is very diftant, c(>mpared with
the interval that feparates thefe rays, the divergency of the
rays becomes infenfible ; hence the rays of the fun, of the
moon, of the ftars, &c. arc deem.ed parallel rays. When
the luminous point is near, then the rays are fcnfibly di-
verging.

It is from the various circumftances of rays, that the fe-
veral kinds ot bodies are diftinguiflied in optics. A body,
e.gr. that difiiiles its own light, or emits rays of its own, is
called a /ucid, or luminous body. If it only refleft rays
which it receives from another, it is called an illuminated
body.

This diftin£l;ion, however, is not always obferved ; for a
lun-.inous body, in common language, means any vifibleob-
je<ft, whether it be vifible by thecminion of original light,
like the I'un, a candle, &c. or by reflefted light, like the
moon, or any other celeltial or terreftrial objeft that has no
native light, or that docs not emit its own light-.

If an objeft only tranfmit rays, it is called a tranfparenl
body. So that tranfparent bodies, fuch as water, glafs,
&c. are thole through which light will pafs, or through
which our eyes can perceive objefts fituated on the other fide,
and all fuch bodies, as alio a vacuum, are denominated me-
diums in optics.

If it intercept the rays, or refufe them paffage, fo that
nothing can be feen through it, it is called an opaquehoAj .

Hence no body radiates, /'. e. emits rays, unlefs it be either
luminous, or illumined.

It is by means of rays reflefted from the feveral points of
illumined objefts to the eye, that they become vifible,
and that vifion is performed ; whence fuch rays are called
vifual, rays.

When an eye views any objeft direftly, fome of the
rays, which proceed from every perceivable point of the
objtft, enter the eye, and the whole number of rays, or
quantity of light, which thus enters the eye, is circum-
fcribed by the rays which proceed from the extreme points
of the objed : and the angle which thefe extreme rays
form at the eye is called the vifual angle, from the mag-
nitude of which we principaUy judge of the diftance of a
known objeft. Thus, if the fame objeft is reprefented at
different diftances, it is evident that the farther the objeft is
from the eye, the fmaller will the vifual angle be. Suppof-
iiig alfo the diftance between the eye and the objeft to re-
main the fame, if by any means the rays of light are bent fo
as to enlarge the vifual angle, then the objeft will appear
larger, or it is faid to be magnified ; and on the contrary, if
the vifual angle be diminifhed, then the objedl will appear
fmaller, in which cafe it is faid to be diminifhed.

In effetl, we find that any point of an objeft is feen in
all placet to which a right line may be drawn from that point :
but it is allowed, nothing can be feen without light ; there-
fore every point of an objeft diffufes innumerable rays evcrv
way. Again, from other experiments it appears, that the
images of all objefts, whence right lines may be drawn to

the

RAYS.

I

the eye, are painted in the eye, behind the cryllaUine, very
Imall, but very dilUndL

And lalUy, from other experiments, that each ray
produces an image of the radiating point : and that the
feveral rays emitted from the fame point are again united in
one point, by the cryllaOine, and other humours of the eye,
and thus thrown on the retina.

It is the fpifTitude or clofenefs of the rays emitted from a
luminous body, that conllitutos the intenfenefs of the hght.
Yet the direction in whicli the rays ilrike the eye, has acon-
fidcrable influence. In cifea, a perpendicular ray, ilriking
with more force than an obhque one, in the ratio of the
whole fine to the fine of the angle of obliquity (as follows
from the laws of pcrcujfion, which fee,) a perpendicular
ray will affeft the eve more vividly than an oblique one, in
that ratio.

If then the fpiffitude of the rays be equal, the intenfity
will be as the direftion : if the dircftion be the fame, the
intenfenefs will be as the fpifiitude : if both differ, the in-
tenfenefs will be in a ratio compounded of the direction and
the fpiffitude.

Hence, firft, if light be propagated in parallel rays
through an uiirefilling medium, its intenfity will not be varied
by diftance.

Secondly, if light be propagated in diverging rays through
an unrefifling medium, its intenfity will decreafc in a du-
plicate ratio of the dillances from the radiant point, re-
ciprocally.

Thirdly, if light be propagated in converging rays through
an unrefiiling medium ; its intenfity will increafe in a dupli-
cate ratio of the dillances from the point of concourfe, re-
ciprocally.

Fourthly, if the breadth of an illumined plane be to the
diftance of the radiant point as i to 2,000,000, it is the fame
thing as if the ray ftruck upon it parallel : and hence, fince
the diameter of the pupil of the eye, when largeft, fcarcely
exceeds -^th or ^ th of an inch ; the rays will fall upon it pa-
rallel as tofenfe, at the diftance of 3860 Englifhfeet, which
is nearly fix furlongs. See Light.

The effeft of concave lenfes, and convex mirrors, is to
make parallel rays diverge j converging rays become parallel ;
and diverging rays to become more divergent.

The enedt of convex lenfes, and concave mirrors, is to
make diverging rays become parallel; parallel rays become
convergent ; and converging rays to converge the more.
See Lens.

The rays of light are not homogeneous, or fimilar, but
differ in all the properties with which we are acquainted ;
liiz. refrangibility, reflexibility, and colour.

It is probable that from the different refrangibility the
other differences have their rife ; at leaft it appears, that thofe
rays which agree or differ in this, do fo in all the reft.
Thus, from the different fenfations the differently dif-
pofed rays excite in us, we call them red rays, yellow
rays, &c.

The effeft of the prifm is to feparate and fort the differ-
ent kinds of rays, which come blended promifcuoufly from
the fun ; and to throw each kind by itfelf, according to
its degree of refrangibility and colour, red to red, blue to
blue, &c.

Befides refrangibility, and the other properties of the
rays of light already afcertained by obfervation and expe-
riment, fir Ifaac Newton fufpefts they may have many
more ; particularly, a power of being infledled, or bent,
by the aftion of diftant bodies ; and thofe rays which differ
in refrangibility, he conceives likewife to differ in this
flexibility.

In paffmg by the edges and fides of bodies, he conceives
that the rays may be bent feveral times backwards and for-
wards, with a motion like tliat of an eel ; and that thofi
rays which appear to fall on bodies are reflcfted or refrafttd
before they arrive at tlie bodies : and adds, that they
may be refrafted, reflefted, and inflcfted, all by the fame
pnnciple afting in different circumftances. See Inblec -
'iiON and Light. See alfo Reflection and Rkfrac-

TION.

Again, do not the rays, falling on the bottom of the
eye, excite vibrations in the retina ; which, being propa-
gated along the fibres of the optic nerve into the brain,
caufe vifion ? and do not feveral forts of rays make vibrations
of feveral bigneffes, which excite fenfations of feveral co-
lours, much after the manner as the vibrations of the air,
according to their feveral bigneffes, excite fenfations of fe-
veral founds ? V

Particularly, do not the moft refrangible rays excite the
fhorteft vibrations, to make a fenfation of a deep violet ;
and the leaft refrangible the largeft, to make a fenfation of
a deep red ? and the feveral intermediate kinds of rays, vi-
brations of intermediate bigneffes, to make fenfations of the
intermediate colours ?

And may not the harmony and difcord ef colours arife
from the proportion of thefc vibrations ; as thofe of found
depend on the vibrations of the air ; for fome colours, if
viewed together, are agreeable, as gold and indigo ; others
difagreeable. See Colol'k.

Again, iiave not the rays of light feveral fides endued
with feveral original properties ? It is certain we find, that
every ray of hght has two oppofite fides, originally endued
with a property, on which the unufual refrattion of ifland
cryftal depends, and other two oppofite fides endued with
that property.

Laftly, are not the rays of light very fmall bodies emitted
from fhining fubftances ?

Such bodies may have all the conditions of light : and
there is th*t aC\ion and re-aftion between tranfparent bodies
and light, which very much refembles the attraftive force
between other bodies. Nothing more is required for the
produftion of all the various colours, and all the degrees of
refrangibility, but that the rays of light be bodies of dif-
ferent fizes ; the leaft of which may make violet the weakeft
and darkeft of the colours, and be the moft eafily diverted
by refracting furfaces from its reftilinear courfe ; and the
reft as they are bigger and bigger, may make the ftronger
and more h cid colours, blue, green, yellow, and red. (See
Colour and Light.) Nor is any tlung more requifite
for the putting of the rays into fits of eafy refleftion, and
eafy tranfmiffion, than that they may be fmall bodies,
which, by attrsftion, or fome other force, excite vibrations
in the bodies they act upon ; which vibrations, being fwifter
than the rays, overtake them fucceffively, and agitate them
fo as by degrees to increafe and diminifti their velocity, and
thereby put them into thofe fits. Laftly, the unufual re-
fraction of ifland cryftal appears very much as if it were
performed by fome attractive virtue lodged in certain fides
both of the rays, and of the cryftal.

Rays of Heat denote feparate portions of that emana-
tion, which proceeds fr«m an heated body, when placed
in a colder temperature, and which expands itfelf in every
direftion, provided it be not prevented by the interpofition
of particular fubftances. This appellation is adopted and
thus applied, not becaufe that emanation is certainly known to
confilt of feparate ftreams, but merely for the convenience of
explanation. The rays of heat are not the fame with the
ray& of light. If this were the cafe, a certain quantity

oV

RAYS.

of heat ought to bo accompanied with the fame quantity of
Jighc ; whereas it is found, that ftveral lubftanccs emit a
confiderable quantity of hght without any fenfible heat,
and others give out a confidcrable portion of heat witliout
any hght. But that thefc are two diftinit powers of nature
is a propofition, that has been amply illuttrated, and moil
fatisfadtorily eltabUihed by the difcovtries and experiments
of Dr. Herfchel. This cek^brated aftronomer cautions
thofe, wlio perufe the account of his experiments and obfer-
vations upon them, from conchiding, that in ufing the word
rays, he means to oppole, much lefs to couritiuance, the
opinion of thofe pliilofophers, who ilill beheve, that hght
jtlelf comes to us from the lun, not by rays, but by tlie
fuppofed vibration of an elailic ether, every wliere difiufed
through fpace : lie merely claims the fanii' privilege for
the rays that occur in heat, which they do not fcruple to
allow to thofe that illuminate objetts. For in what man-
ner foever this radiance may be cffedled, he undertakes to
prove, that the evidence, either for rays, or for vibrations,
which occafion heat, ftands on the fame foundation on
which the radiance of the illuminating principle, light, is
built.

Propofing to give a comparative view of the operations
that may be performed on the rays that occafion heat,
and of thofe which arc known to have been effected
on the rays that occafion light, he felefts fuch fafts
as are well known with regard to the latter. Light,
he fays, both folar and terreftrial, is a fenfation oc-
cafioned by rays emanating from luminous bodies, which
have a power of ilhimiuiiting objetts ; and, according
to circumfl-ances, of making them to appear of various
colours. The rays of light are fubjeft to the laws both of
reflection and of refrattion ; but they are of different re-
frangibihty. They are liable to be itopped in certain pro-
portions, when tranfmitted through diaphanous bodies ;
and alfo to be fcattered on rough furfaces. They are alfo
fuppofed to have a power of iieating bodies ; but this is a
fubjedt " fub judice." The fimilar propofitions, which it
is his defign to prove, and which by a variety of curious
and well- condufted experiments he has confirmed, are fuch
as follow. Heat, both folar and terreftrial, is a fenfatiem
occafioned by rays emanating from candent fubftances,
which have a power of heating bodies. Thefe rays are
fubjeft to the laws of reileftion and of refraction ; and they
are of different refrangibihty. They are liable to be
'.topped, in certain proportions, when tranfmitted through
diaphanous bodies ; and to be fcattered on rough furfaces :
and in a certain ftate of energy, they may be fuppofed to
have a power of illuminating objefts, which latter pro-
perty remains to be examined.

In the examination of the illuminating and heating power
of the prifmatic colours, our author obferves, that the red-
making rays are very far from hivmg the former in an eminent
degree : the orange pofleffes more of it than the red ; and
the yellow rays illuminate objetts ftill more perfedlly. The
maximum of illumination lies in the brightell yellow, or
paled irreen. The green itfelf is nearly equally bright with
the yellow ; but from the full deep green, the illuminating
power decreafes very fenfjbly ; that of the blue is nearly
upon a par with that of the red ; the indigo has much lefs
than the blue ; and the violet is very deficient. Our au-
thor infers from other experiments, that the heating power
of the prifmatic colours is very far from being equally dif-
tributcd ; and that the red rays are chiefly eminent in this
refpect. Allowing that the power of heating is chiefly
lodged in the red-making rays, it accounts for the com-
fortable warmth that is thrown out from a fire, when it is

in the Hate of a red glow, and for the heat which is given
by charcoal, coke, and balls of fmall coal mixed up with
clay, uled in hot-houfes ; all which throw out red light.
It alfo explains the reafon, why the yellow, green, blue,
and purple flames of burning fpirits mixed with fait, occa-
fion fo little heat that a hand is not materially injured,
when paficd through their corulcations.

Having afcertaincd, that radiant heat is fubjeit not only
to the laws of refradlion, but to thofe alfo of the different
refrangibihty of light. Dr. Herfchel is led to furmife, that
this heat confills of particles of light of a certain range of
momenta, which range may extend a little farther, on each
fide of refrangibihty, than that of light. In a gradual cx-
pofure of the thermometer to the rays of the prifmatic
fpeftrum, beginning from the violet, he found that he arrived
at the maximum of light h)ng before he came to that of
heat, which lies at the other extreme. By fcveral experi-
ments it appears, that the maximum of illumination has
little more than half the heat of the full red rays ; and
from other experiments our author concludes, that the full
red falls flill ihort of the maximum of heat, which perhaps
lies even a little beyond vifible refraction. In this cafe,
radiant heat will at leaft partly, if not chiefly, confift, if
the expreffion may be allowed, of invifible light, that is, of
rays coming from the fun, that have fuch a momentum as
to be unfit for vifion. Admitting it as highly probable,
that the organs of fight are only adapted to receive im-
preflions from particles of a certain momentum, this will
explain why the maximum of illumination fliould be in the
middle of the reirangible rays, as thole whicli have greater
or lefs momenta, are likely to become equally unfit for
irapreffions of fight. Whereas, in radiant heat, there may
be no fuch limitation to the momentum of its particles.
From the powerful effefts of a burning lens, however, wc
derive information, that the momentum of terreftrial radiant
heat is not likely to exceed that of the fun ; and that, con-
fequently, the refrangibihty of calorijic rays cannot extend
much beyond that of colomific light. Hence we may alfo
infer, that the invifible heat ot red-hot iron, gradually
cooled till it ceafes to (hine, has the momentum of the in-
vifible rays, which, in the folar fpedtrum viewed by day-
light, go to the confines of red, and this will afford an
eafy folutioii of the rcflecition of invifible heat by concave
mirrors.

Our author deduces from various experiments with the
thermometer abundant evidence, that there are rays coming
from the fuu, which are lefs refrangible than any of thofe
that affeft the fight. They are invefted with a high power
of heating bodies, but with none of illuminating objefts ;
and on this account they have hitherto efL-aped notice. At
the diftance of fifty-two inches from the prifm, there was
fl:ill a confiderable heating power exerted by the invifible
rays, an inch and a half beyond the red ones, meafured
upon their projeftion on a horizontal plane. Moreover, the
power of heating is extended to the utmoft limits of the
vifible viwlet rays, but not beyond them ; and it is gradually
impaired, as the rays become more refrangible. The maxi-
mum of the heating power is found to be vefted among
the invifible rays, and it is probably not lefs than half an
inch beyond the laft vitible ones. It is alfo {hewn, that
the fun's invifible rays, in their lefs refrangible ilate, and
confiderably beyond the maximum, ftill exert a heating
power fully equal to that of red-coloured light ; and con-
fequentl^ , if we may infer the quantity of tlic efficient from
the effeft produced, the invifible rays of the fun probably
far exceed the vitible ones in number. The general conclu-
fion with which Dr. Herfchel clofcs his account of one feries

of

RAYS.

of experiments and his reafoning upon th;m, is in the follow-
ing manner : " if," fays he, " we call light thole rays
which illuminate objefts, and radiant heal, thofe which
heat bodies, it may be inquired whether liglit be eflentially
different from radiant heat ? In anfwer to which I would
fuggeft, that we are not allowed by the rules of philofo-
phizing to admit two different caufes to explain certain
effefts, if they may be accounted for by one. A beam of
radiant heat emanating from the fun, confiifs of rays that
are differently refrangible. The range of their extent,
when difperfed by a prifm, begins at violet-coloured light,
where they are moft refrafted, and have the leafl efficacy.
We have traced thefe calorific rays throughout the whole ex-
tent of the prifmatic fpeftrum, and found their power in-
creafing, while their refrangibility was lefTi-ned, as far as
to the confines of red-coloured light. But their dimi-
nifhing refrangibility, and increaflng power, did not Hop
here : for we have purfued them a confiderable way b.fyond
ihs prifmatic fpeSrum into an' invifible Hate, Hill exerting
their increafii)g energy, with a decreafe of refrangibility
up to the maximum of their power ; and liave alfo traced
them to that ftate, where, though ftill lefs refrafted, their
energy, on account, we may fuppofe, of their now failing
denfity, decreafed pretty fall ; after which the invifible ther-
mometrical fpearum, if I may fo call it, foon vanilhed." — " It
this," continues our author, " be a true account of fokir
heat, for the fupport of which I appeal to ray experiments,
it remains only for us to admit, that fuch of the rays of
the fun as have the refrangibility of thofe which are con-
tained in the prifmatic fpeclrum, by the conllruftion of the
organs of fight, are admitttd, under the appearance of
light and colour ; and that the reft, being llopped in the
coats and humours of the eye, aft upon them, as they are
known to do upon all other parts of our body, by occafion-
ing a fenfation of heat."

Although, as we have above ftated, the rays of light
and thofe of heat poifefs many fimilar properties, yet
Dr. Herfchcl has fhewn, that there are fome ftriking and
lubftantial differences between them. The rays of heat are
of a much more extenfive refrangibility than thofe of light,
as our author has clearly and incontcllibly demonllrated
both by reafoning and experiment : nor do thofe rays agree
either in their mean refrangibility, nor in the fituation of
their maxima. Where we have mofl light, there is but little
heat, and where we have moil heat, we find no light at all.
(See Refrangibility.) It is found, that the fines of refrac-
tion of the heat-making rays are in a conftant ratio to the fines
of incidaiice; but that the focus of the rays of heat in burning
glalles is different from the focus of tlie rays of light : that of
heat being farther removed from the lens than the focus of
light, probably not lefs than a quarter of an inch : the heat at
lialf an inch beyond the focus of light being ftill equal to
that in the focus. Although fight and heat are both re-
frangible, the ratio of the lines of incidence and refraftion
of ttie mean rays is not the fame in both. Kent is evidently
lefs refrangible than light. From experiments relating to
the tranfmillion of light and heat through diaphanous bodies
it appears, that no kind of regularity takes place in the pro-
portion of rays of one fort and of another, which are ftopped
ill their paflage. Heat and light feem to be entirely uncon-
necled, and the rays that occalion them are different. We
have feveral tables, formed from the author's experiments,
and (hewing the quantities of light and heat intercepted by
different fubllanccs. The blueilli-white and flint-glades,
c. gr. ftop nearly three times as much heat as light, whereas
ttie greenifh crown glafs flops only about one-fourth more
of tlit' former than of the latter.

From a table exhibiting the effefts of coloured glafles, it
appears, that a yellow glafs flops only 333 rays of heat, but
(lops 819 of ligtit ; on the contrary, a pale blue (lops
bi2 rays of heat, and but 684 of light. Again, a dark
blue glafs flops only 362 rays of heat, but intercepts 801
of liglit ; and a dark red glafs ftops no more than 606 rays
of heat, and yet intercepts nearly all the light, Icarcely one
ray out of 5000 being able to make its way through it. For
the conclulions deduced from tfiefe tables, as they evince
the non-identity of the rays of heat and thofe of light, and
for the tables themfelves, we mull refer to the author's own
paper, ubi infra. We are reflrained by oar limits from pur-
fuing this curious fubjeft, and from entering on a detail of
Dr. Herfchel's experiments, illuflrating and confirming prin-
ciples, tlie difcovery of which mull be allowed to be one of
the greatell that has been made fince the days of Newton,
although ttie theories of fome fpeculative philofophers might
have led to it a few years earlier. Dr. Herfchel was occu-
pied in determining the properties of various kinds of co-
loured glafs, which rendered th«m more or lefs fit for
enabling tlie eye to view the fun through a telefcope ; and
for this purpoie it was neceflary to inquire which of the
rays would furnifh the greatell quantity of light, without-
fubjeftlng the eye to the inconvenience of unnecefi'ary heat.
He firll obferved that the heat became more and more con-
fiderable as the thermometer approached the extreme red
rays in the prifmatic fpeftrum ; and purfuing the experi-
ment, he found not only that the heat continued beyond
the vifible fpeftrum, but that it was even more intenfe
where the thermometer was at a little diftance without the
limits of the fpeftrum, than in any point within it ; as we
have already ftated. For Dr. Herfchel's communications to
the Royal Society on this fubjecl, we refer to the tjoth vo-
lume of the Philofophical Tranfaftions for the year 1800,
part ii. p. 255, &c. p. 284, &c. p. 293, &c. part iii.
p. 437, &c.

Sir Henry Englefield has repeated Dr. Herfchel's ex-
periments with many precautions, and Mr. (fir H.) Davy
was a witnefs of their perfeft accuracy. The excefs of heat
beyond the fpeClrum was even confiderable enough to be
afcertained by the (enfe of warmth occafioned by fhewing it
on the hand.

It was firll obferved in Germany by Ritter, and foon af-
terwards in England by Dr. Wollafton, that the muriate of
filver is blackened by invifible rays, which extend beyond
the prifmatic fpeclrum, on the violet fide. It is therefore
probable, that tiiefe black or invifible rays, the violet, blue,
green, perhaps the vellow, «nd the red rays of light, and
the rays of invifible heat, confti-tute feven different degrees
of the fame fcale, diftinguifhed from each other into this
limited number, not by natural divifions, but by their effefts
on our fenfes ; and we may alfo conclude that there is fome
fimilar relation between heated and luminous bodies of dif-
ferent kinds. See Young's Phil. Left. vol. i. p. 639. See
Heat and Refrac tion.

M. Delaroche has found, that the rays of invifible heat
traverfe glafs with difficulty at a temperature below that of
boiling water ; but that they traverfe it with a facility, al-
ways increafing with the temperature, as it approaches the
point when bodies become luminous, and from thefe experi-
ments it would appear, that the modification, whatever it
be, which muft be imprefled upon the invifible rays to
render them more and more capable of paffing through glafs,
makes them approach more and more to the (late in which
they muft be when they penetrate our eyes, and occafion the
fenfation of vifion. Tlie fame ingenious philofopher has
likewife found, that the rays of heat which have palled

throuofh

RAYS.

-'irough a plate of glafs are proportionably more adapted
to pafs through a fccond plate ; and from this circumftance
'.ve deduce a new proof &i the peculiar ftate of thele rays,
and of the modification which they acquire. Mellrs. Gay-
Lufl'ac and Thcnard have proved that all the changes of
colour produced by light may he imitated and produced by
heat, and by an elevation of temperature not exceeding 2 1 2''.
Other phenomena previoudy obferved indicated, that in the
comparifon of the aftions of heat and light in heating
bodies, or producing chemical changes in them, there is :i
great difference in the rays of different colours. M. Rochon
announced the faft amply confirmed by Dr. Herfchel, tliat
the heat produced by the different rays of the prilmatic
Ipeftnmi was unequal. As Dr. Herfchel fixed the maximum
effedt beyond ihe red rays, and (hevi-ed, as we have already
ftated, that the moft heating rays of the fpeftrnm were en-
tirely, or nearly, invifible ; Dr. Wollalton, and Meifrs. Rit-
ter and Beckmann, having examined the oppofite, or violet
end of the fpeftrum, found that this likewile poflefled pe-
culiar properties, and that, beyond the violet, there are in-
vifible rays, which poiiefs, in greateft perfeflion, the power
yf determining chem.ical combinations. It has been a fub-
jeft of interelting refearch, whether the invifible, or almoll
mvifible rays, fituated beyond the extremities of the fpec-
trum, poflefs any other properties of light. li. gr. If the
refleftion of them from polilhed glafs can give them that
modification which Malus has dillinguifhed by the name of
" polarization." (See Light.) M. BerthoUet engaged
Meflrs. Malus and Berard to undertake this double objetl.
M. Malus's death prevented his profecution of the fubjeft ;
but what he began M. Berard accomplilhed with the utmofl.
pofTible exaftnefs. By means of the helioftate, which Malus
caufed to be conltrufted for the philofophical cabinet of M.
BerthoUet, he obtained a ray of light, perfeftly fixed, on
which he could make experiments at pleafure. By decom-
pofing this ray with a prifm, he obtained an immoveable
coloured fpeftrum ; and by placing very fenfible thermome-
ters in the fpaces occupied by the different colours, he was
enabled to compare their calorific effefts with the utmoft
certainty. He alfo afcertained their chemical properties by
fubftituting, in place of the thermometers, chemical com-
pounds eafily altered. He firft of all obferved the calorific
power of the different rays, which, it is known, are in this
refpeA unequal. M. Rochon, who is faid to have firft ob-
ferved this inequality, placed the maximum of heat in the
yellow ray, where the illuminating power is the greateft.
Dr. Herfchel, as we have before fhewn, placed it out of the
fpeftrum, and beyond the red ray. The experiments of
Herfchel have been confirmed by thofe of Berard, as far as
they refpeft the progreflive heating power of the rays from
the violet to the red ; but he found the greateft heating
power at the extremity of the fpedirum itfelf, and not be-
yond it. He fixed it at the point, where the bulb of the
thermometer was ftill entirely covered with the red ray ; and
he found that the thermometer funk progreffively, in pro-
portion as the diftance of its bulb from the red ray increafed.
When he placed the thermometer quite beyond the vifible
fpeftrum, on the Ipot where Herfchel fixed the maximum
of heat, its elevation above that of the ambient air was
only one-fifth of what it had been in the red ray itfelf. The
abfolute intenfity of the heat produced was likewife lefs in
the experiments of Berard than in thofe of Herfchel.

M. Berard wifhad to know if thefe properties would exifl
in each of the pencils into which the ray divides Itfelf in
paffing through a rhomboid of Iceland fpar. In this cafe
each of the two fpeftra exhibited the fame properties. In
both, the calorific power diminifhed from the violet to the

Vol. XXIX,

red end ; and it exifted beyond the laft vifible red rays. In
this operation the luminous molecules arc polarized by the
cryftal. In order to determine whether the invifible rays of
heat experience the fame eft'eft, M. Berard received the folar
ray upon a poliftied and tranfp;irent glafs, which polarized a
portion of it by refleftion. This reflefted rav was then re-
ceived upoH a fecond glafs, fixed in an apparatus, which
permitted it to be turned i-ound the raj' under a conftant in-
cidence, and this incidence itfelf was determined in fuch a
manner, that in a certain pofition of the glafs the rcfleftion
ceafed to take place. We know, from the experiments of
Malus, that a glafs may be always difpoled in fuch a man-
ner that this condition is fulfilled. Things being thus dif-
pofed, by collcfting with a mirror the calorific and luminous
rays reflected from the fecond glafs, and directing them
upon a thermometer, M. Berard found, that as long as light
was reflefted the thermometer was elevated, and of courie
the heat was reflefted likewife ; but when, from the pofition
of the fecond glafs, the light was totally tranfmitted, the
heat was tranfmitted at the fame time, and the thermometer
was not elevated. In this experiment, then, as well as the
preceding, the calorific principle, whatever it may be, never
icparates from the luminous molecules.

To the ray of folar light employed in this experiment,
M. Berard fnbftituted a pencil of radiant heat proceeding
from a body hot, but not red, and even not lum.inous. The
effeft was the fame as before. The thermometer rofe when
the fecond glafs was fo fituated as to refleft light, and it
did not rife when the fecond could not refledl light. There-
fore the particles of invifible radiant heat are modified by
refleftioii, precifely like light.

After having ftudied the calorific properties of the dif-
ferent rays of the fpeftrum, M. Berard examined their che-
mical properties. Wlien muriate of filver, or other white
falts of filver, are expofed to light, tliey became dark co-
loured very fpeedily. Guaiac thus expofed to light paffes
from yellow to green, as Dr. Wollafton obferved. Gay-
LufTac and Thenard difcovered another aftion of this light
ftill more prompt and energetic. When a mixture of oxy-
muriatic acid gas and hydrogen gas are expofed to the aftion
of folar light, a detonation takes place, and water and mu-
riatic acid are formed. Thefe different phenomena enabiled
M. Berard to examine the chemical powers of the different
rays of the fpeftrum. By expofing to the different coloured
rays, pieces of card impregnated with muriate of filver, or
fmall phials filled with the detonating mixture, he was
enabled to judge of the energy of each by the intenfity or ra-
pidity of the chemical change which it produced. He found
that the chemical intenfity was greateft at the violet end of
the fpeftrum, and that it extended, as Ritter and Wollafton
had obferved, a little beyond that extremity. When he left
fubftances expofed for a certain time to the aftion of each
ray, he obferved fenfible eft'cfts, though with an intenfity
continually decreafing in the indigo and blue rays. Hence
we rauft confider it as extremely probable, that if he had
been able to employ re-a6tives ftill more fenfible, he would
have obferved analogous effefts, but ftill more feeble, even
in the other rays. ' To fhew clearly the great difproportion
which exifts in this refpeft between the energies of the dif-
ferent rays, M. Berard concentrated, by means of a lens,
all tliat part of the fpeftrum which extends from the greea
to the extreme violet ; and he concentrated, by means of
another lens, all that portion which extends frem the green
to the extremity of the red. This laft pencil formed a white
point fo brilliant that the eyes were fcarcely able to endure
it ; yet the muriate of filver remained more than two hours
expofed to this brilliant light without undergoing any fenfi-
SQ ble

RAY

RAY

ble alteration. On the other hand, when expofed to the
other pencil, wiiich was much lefs briglit, and lefs hot, it
was blackened in lefs than fix minutes. M. Berard con-
cluded, from this experiment, that the chemical effedls pro-
duced by light arc not folely owing to the heat developed in
the body by its combining with the fubftance of the body^
becaufe, on fuch a fuppofition, the faculty of producing
chemical combinations ought to be greatelt in thofe rays
which poffefs the faculty of heating in the greateft perfec-
tion : but perhaps we fhould lind Icfe oppofition between
thefe two opinions, if we attended to the different refults
which may be produced by the fame agent placed in dif-
ferent circumftances, and if we confidered that agents of a
nature quite diffimilar may determine the fame combinations
when they are employed.

Various hypothefcs have been fuggefted in order to ac-
count for the properties above ftated. If wc wifli to con-
fider folar light as compofed of three dillinct fubttances, one
of which occafions light, another heat, and the third chemi-
cal combinations ; it will follow that each of thefe fub-
ftances is fcparable by the priim into an iiifinity of different
modifications, like light itfelf; fince we find, by experi-
ment, that each of the three properties, chemical, colorific,
and calorific, is fpread, though unequally, over a certain
extent of the fpeftrum. Hence we muft fuppofe, on that
hypothefis, that there exitt three fpeftrums one above an-
other ; namely, a calorific, a colorific, and a chemical fpsc-
trum. We mult, hkewife, admit that each of the fub-
ftances which compofe the three fpeftrums, and even each
molecule of unequal refrangibility which conititutes thefe
fubltances, is endowed, like the molecules of vifible light,
with the property of being polarized by reflection, and of
efcaping from rcfleftion in the fame pofitions as the luminous
molecules, &c.

Inftead of this complication of ideas, let us conceive
fimply, according to the phenomena, that light is compofed
of a colleftion of rays unequally refrangible, and of courfe
unequally attrafted by bodies. This fuppofes original dif-
ferences in their fize and velocity, or in their affinities.
Why fnould thofe rays, which differ already in fo many
things, produce upon thermometers, or upon our organs,
the fame fenfations of heat or light ? Why (hould they have
the fame energy to form or feparate combinations ? Would
it not be quite natural that vifiou {hould not operate on our
eyes, except within certain limits of refrangibility ; and that
too little or too much refrangibility fhould render it equally
incapable of producing that effeft. Perhaps thefe rays may
be vifible to other eyes than ours, perhaps they are io to
certain ani-mals, which would account for certain aftions
that appear to us marvellous. In a word, we may conceive
the calorific and chemical faculty to vary through the whole
length of the fpcftrum, at the fame time with the refrangi-
bility, but according to different funftions ; fo that the ca-
lorific faculty is at its minimum at the violet end of the fpec-
trum, and at its maximum at the red end ; while, on the
other hand, the chemical faculty expreffed by another func-
tion is at its minim.um at the red end, and at its maximum at
the violet end, or a little beyond it. This fimple fuppofition,
which is only the fimple ftatement of the phenomena, equally
agrees with all the fafts hitherto obferved, and accounts for
thofe eftablifhcd by M. Berard, and even enables us to pre-
dift them. In fad, if all the rays, which produce thefe
three orders of phenomena, are rays of light, they mult of
courfe be polarized in pafiing through Iceland cryilal, or in
being refleftcd from a polifhed glals with a determined inci-
dence : and when they have received thefe modifications,
they muft be refloiSted by another glafs, if it is properly

placed, to exert its reflefting energy on the luminous mole-
cules. On the other iiand, if that force is null on the vifible
luminous molecules, the invifible light will not be any longer
)-eflc£ted : for the caufe which occafions or prevents reflec-
tion appears to adt equally upon all the molecules, whatever
their refrangibility may be. It ought, therefore, to ad\ upon
the molecules of iuvifible light, the condition of vifibility
or in vifibility relating merely to our eyes, and not to the
nature of the molecules which produce thefe fenfations in us.

This mode of viewing the facts appeared to Mefl'rs. Ber-
thoUet, Chaptal, and Biot, who made a report to the Inili-
tute on the Memoire of Berard, the molt natural and fimple ;
though the modeit referve of Berard reltrairied him from
deciding in a cafe, not fufBciently examined by the teft of
experiment. Annal. de Chimie, vol. Ixxxv. p. 309. or Thorn-
foil's Annals of Philofophy, N° 9.

Ray, Common, in Optics, is lometimes ufed for a right
line drawn from the point of concourfe of the two optical
axes, through the middle of the right line which paflcs
through the middle of the centres of the pupils of the two
eyes.

Rays, Cone of. See Cone.

Rays, DefleSion of. See Deflectiom.

Rays, Incimalion of incident. See Inclination.

Rays, Optic. Set Optic.

Rays, Rejlexibility of. See Reflexibility.

Ray, Principal, in PerfpeSive, is the perpendicular dif-
tance between the eye and the vertical plane or table, as
fome call it. See Pekspective.

Rays, Pencil of. See Pencil of Rays.

Rays, Pyramid of. Sec Optic Pyramid.

Ray of Curvature, in Geometry, is ufed to fignify the
femi-diamcter of the circle of curvature. See Radius and
Cukvature.

Ray, Raia, in Ichthyology. See Raia.

Ray, Cla-vated. See Raia Clavata, and Thornback.

Ray, Eagle. See Raia Aquila.

Ray, EleBric or Smooth, a fpccies of the raia. See Raia,
Torpedo, and Anatomy of Fish.

Ray', Fuller, Raia fullonica, a fpecies of ray, deriving
its name from the inftrument which fullers ufe in fmoothing
cloth, the back being rough and fpiny. See Raia Fullo-
nica.

Ray, Oblong. See Raia and Rhi.vobatos.

Ray, Oculatek. See Raia and Miraletus.

Ray, Rough. See Raia Rubus. At Scarborougli,
where it is common, it is called the white bans <■.- gullet.

Ray', Shagreen, called at Scarborough the French ray, is
about the fize of the fl<ate, but narrower in Us form than
the common kinds. The upper part of the body is covered
clofely with fmall fhagreen-like tubercles, refembling the
Ikin of the dog-fifh ; and from the nole to the beginning of
the pedloral fins is a tuberculated fpace. Pennant.

Ray, Sharp-nofed. See Raia Oxyrinchus. This fifh
makes a fnorting noife, and is fuppofed to be the bos cSf the
ancients, which Oppian defcribes as the broadefl among
fifhes, and fond of human flefh ; adding, that the method it
takes of deilroying men is by overlaying and keeping them
down by its vaft weight till they are drowned. Pennant.

Ray, Sting. See Raia Pajlinaca, and Pastinaga Ma-
rina.

RaY', in our Old Writers, a word appropriated to cloth
never coloured, or dyed, 1 1 Hen. IV. c. 6. Blount,
Cowel.

Rays, in Botany, the fpreading marginal florets of a

compound flower ; fee Radius. The fame term is applied

to the fiib-diviiions of an umbel, more properly denominated

I its

RAY

RAY

its general and partial ftalks ; unlefs we, like Linnaus, con-
fider the whole umbel as one aggregate flower. See Um-
BELLA, and Inflokescknce.

Ray-G/yi/t, in /Igrlciihurt; an ufeful fort of early g-rafs
that has lonjrbcen, and Hill is, mucii cultivated by the farmer
in fome dillricts. There are (aid to be different varieties of
this grafs, but that grown by Mr. Peacey, of Devonfliirc,
has been found, on experience, much iuperior to the common
fort. This grafs has fometimes the title of rye-grafs. See
LoLlUM I'eienne.

It has been remarked by the Rev. Mr. Duncan, of Kil-
marnock, in the fourth volume of Communications to the
Board of Agriculture, that it has been found of late that
there is an annual and perennial kind ; that the hitter lliould
only be fown ; but tliat the annual feed, he thinks, affords
the greatell and moil palatable crop of hay, and may be
fown on thofe light foils vrhich more readily tend to grafs,
at leaft a confiderable proportion of it (liould be blended
with the perennial feed. He adds, that the two kinds of
feeds a:e readily dillinguiflied by a careful obferver, as the
perennial is fmaller, and fairer in colour, than the annual,
and likev/ife much lighter. Good annual feed weighs from
21 to 24lbs. avoirdupois weight ^frbufhel, but the perennial
only from i6 to iSlbs. As no diltinftion of thcfe foi-ts
was formerly made by farmers, he fuggefts it as probable
that they have come to be known and dilHnguifh-d, from
the circnmftance of no ray-grafs difappearing wholly the
firft year, by which fome perfons have been tempted, from
the high price of the feed, to allow what remained in the
fecond year to advance to maturity, though to the great
injury of the pafture. It is therefore from the feed of the
fecond year's crop that he luppofes the perennial grafs has
gradually originated ; and its inferiority in point of fub-
ftance feems, he thinks, to prove the luppoiition. By this
means the farmer may, by allotting a fmall portion of good
land for the purpofe, fupply himfelf with what is faid to be
the perennial feed, without fubmitting to the impofition of
an extravagant price, and may probably enfure or, improve
upon the durability of it, by colletting feed from the third
or fourth year's growth.

It is found to be an excellent grafs for pafture as well as
hay. It has an early, but not very abundant, foliage. It
is highly relifhed by cattle and fheep. From its being apt
to run up into flowering ftems, it (hould be kept well fed
down. From its fecreting and depofiting much faccharine
matter in the joints of the ftems, it affords a large propor-
tion of nutritious matter for the fupport of animals, both in
its green ftate and when made into hay. And it is faid not
10 affeil; the wind of liorfes, which renders it particularly
valuable for hunting and racing horfes.

It has, however, been objefted to by fome, from the
quanrity of flower ftems which it fends up ; but this is
afferted by others to be only tlie cafe when it grows in dry
upland fituations. It is found, of courfe, to vary much
under different circumftances and fituations.

The foils that are moft fuitable for it are thofe of the
loamy and fandy kinds, but it is capable of being grown on
thofe of the clayey forts when not too ftiff. Ou the two
firff forts,' in mixture with other grafles, it frequently becomes
permanent, and affords an ufeful fpring food, elpecially for
ftieep ftock.

As it is found to produce a thick well-conneftcd fward in
foils of the rich fertile kinds, it has been fiippofed only
fuited to them, though occafionally met with in thofe of the
poorer defcriptions.

In Elfex it is found very bad for the ftrong wet heavy lands.

But in other diftrifts it is moft fown in ftiff clayey foils,
where clover i« liable to fail in coming up well. .Some, how-
ever, find that a light foil is quite as fuitable for it 33 one of
a clayey nature ; and that though it may be moft fown in ftiff
heavy lands, it is not from the notion that lighter foils are
lefs fuited to it, but that fuch lands may be covered with
this grafs, fhould the clover crop not turn out well in confc-
quence of the great ftiftncls of thefe clayey foils.

On the ftiff clayey foils the proportion of feed is ufually
from one buftiel to one bufliel and a half of ray-grafs, with
eight or ten pounds of red clover feed, to the acre. On other
foils from fix to ten gallons of ray-grafs, with from five to
eigiil pounds of red clover feed, and from two to four pounds
of trefoil feed, are ufed to the acre ; fome adding to thefe,
two, three, or more, pounds of white clover feed.

In Suffex, for a layer for one or two years, they em-
ploy of ray-grafs feed three gallons, and of red clover
and trefoil feed each one gallon, to the acre.

But for permanent pafture the proportion is this. Of ray-
grafs feed four gallons, Dutch clover and trefoil feed, of
each two gallons to the acre. Otlier different proportions
are made ufe of in different cafes.

It has been well remarked by Dr. Campbell, in the third
volume of Communications to the Board of Agriculture,
that when land is in a proper ilate of manure, ray-grafs
united with white clover, will form a perfedf fward the latter
end of the fecond year after it is fown. A particular
field, of about five acres, that was fown with thefe two
graffes only, was, he fays, more perfeftly grafted over, than
others, which had the addition of trefoil and rib-grafs, and
which were fown at the fame time. A neighbour of his,
the only man in the county that had tried ray-grafs, told
him it would not anfwer, and referred him to a particular
field where fome had been fown. The faft was, the doftor
fays, that he had cropped his field with oats until it wsm no
longer worth ploughing, and then, with his laft feed, he
fowed ray-grafs, which certainly did not flourifh. But his
argument would, he thinks, have been equally conclufive
againft any grafs or grain whatever. The ray-grafs lan-
guifhed, and finally died away, giving place to the tegeta*
tion fuited to the Ilate of the land. If it be expefted that
ray-grafs, or any other good grafs, fhould thrive and pro-
duce abundant crops on exhauited or poor land, it muft not,
he fays, be in the foil which occurs here. And he adds the
following ufeful remarks, on converting ray-grafs into hay ; it
is neceftary to cut it at a period previous to its being fo ripe
as to have perfefted its feed, and changed to a yellow co-
lour ; for in this cafe a great part of the juices of the plant,
which conttitute a principal part of the nutriment it is to
afford, will be converted into a fpecies of ftraw, and its nu-
tritive properties be proportionably diminifhed. When it is
made into hay, perfons not acquainted with its qualities are
apt to objeft to its apparent coarfei>efs, which proceeds from
its confifting almolt entirely of flowering-ilems, the ray-
grafs linving a comparatively fmaller proportion of leaves
than any other grafs. Whether this be a defeft or a merit
will, he thinks, depend upon a folution of this queftion :
Do the ftems and flowering parts of grafs, or the leaves
taken weight for weight, contain the greater proportion ©f
nutriment ? It does not appear, he fays, that this has been
determined by experiments inflituted for the purpofe ; but
it feems probable, from the ftems being fo much fweeter
than the leaves, (which is particularly perceptible upon
chewing them when about half dry,) and from thofe vege-
tables which contain much faccharine matter being particu-
larly nutritious, that the greater proportionate quantity of
3 Q 2 nutrimeni

RAY

nutriment will be found to rcfide in the llalks ; and if fo, tlie
advantages of ray-grafs will be decifive. But, however this
may be, it is certain that, fuppofing wet weather comes on
during the procefs of hay-making, the firll part of the grafs
that decays is tlie leaf, which fou[i becomes yellow, and then
black, lofing all pretenlions to nutritive properties ; in which
cafe it is evident that almoll the whole nutriment contained
in the hay mull refide, exclufively, in the flowering-ltalks.
Ray-grafs then has, in unfavourable hay-feafons, an advan-
tage, he thinks, over all otliers, inafmuch as from having
fewer leaves it is not fo apt to be injured by a continuance
of rain ; and it is, befides, when in the cocks, more acccl-
fible to the air and wind from lying more open and light ;
and confequently not fo apt to heat and mould as other
graffes in funilar fituations and feafons. And he concludes
that it certanily polleffcs the following valuable properties.
I . That there are few graffes fo early in the fpring. 2. That
there are none better reliihed by cattle, or more nutritive.
7. That it has the power of refifting the effefts of bad wea-
ther, in ticklilh feafons, in a greater degree than other
grailes. 4. That there is a greater facility in collecting iti
feed than of any other grafs.

It is fuppofed that the prejudices againft it have proceeded,
I. From its having been fown in land not capable of pro-
ducing a full crop of any good vegetable. 2. From allow-
ing it to (hoot up fo far, as to h.ive formed the feed in t lie
flowering-llalk, before cattle have been turned into palhire,
or that it has been cut for hay. Ray-grafs appears, he thinks,
to partake more of the nature of grain than any other grafs.
Hence, when it hasperfeftedits feeds, it (hoots out no mere
ftalks, and but few leaves that feafon, as lord Kaimes has
juftly obferved. Hence it is necefTary to turn cattle into a
field of this grafs early in the fpring, and to keep it well
under by a fufficient quantity of ftock ; in which cafe it will
continue to put out frefli flowering-llalks and leaves during
the whole feafon. 3. The hay, for the reafon juft afiigned,
(hould be cut before it becomes a mere ftraw. Common
hay-grafs, being compofcd of graffes in various ftages of
growth and ripencfs, admits of greater latitude than a field
of ray-grafs, becaufe many of them will generally be in a
proper ilate for cutting, although others may have palled
their prime.

He adds the following fafts in fupport of its nutritious
properties. No hay, fays he, could be better reliihed by
my horfesthan this was ; not a particle of ii was wafted by
them, or left in the rack ; no animals could thrive, coat, or
do their work better, than they did, whilft they had this ray-
grafs hay to take to. Never was there a greater contrail
than when they were put to the natural hay-grafs of the
country, after they had finifhed the other. They were lite-
rally ftarved into the eating of it ; and in fpite of an addi-
tional quantity of corn, they fell away (agreeable to his
farming man's mode of expreffion) a limb a-piece. This
year nothing can look better than his horfes do upon this
hay, (with which fome red clover is mixed,) and this, with
the addition of very little corn, and that moftly light, the
tailings of oats and barley.

Thefe fads place the utility of this grafs in a very ftriking
point of view. And the following, given by Mr. Duncan,
are of the fame tendency, as he found in a comparative ex-
periment of pieces of ground laid to pafture with it, and
meadow foft-grafs alone and in mixture, that the ray-grafs
portion was not only more early ready for the fcythe by
nearly three weeks, but the hay of it always more greedily
eaten by the hories and cattle, as well as the pafture in fuc-
ceedjng years, en the ray-grafs divifion, oonftantly eaten

6

RAY

bare before the cattle flock would touch that of the foit
grafs.

in the county of Effex tlic farmers in many places have,
however, a very indifferent opinion of ray-grafs, believing it
to do great injury to the land, efpccially when of the better
kind. When fown witli red clover, it does not do fo well or is
fo good as a preparation for wheat, but it anfwers well for
pcafc. In trying it mixed and unmixed with clover, fome
have found that when without it, it is all the better for the
wheat ; and that the wire-worm after ray is fure to deftroy
the wheat.

In weaning calves it is fotind extremely ufeful and ?d-
vantagecms, as it agrees very well with them, far better
than tares, which are hable to run through them, or fcour.

In Sutfex this fort of grafs is employed in mixture writh
otliers, as a fheep-feed, with great benefit and fuccefs.

The farmers in the tillage parts of Oxfordfhire alfo con»
fider ray-grafs as preparing badly for wheat ; they conceive
that the wheat which follows will never be found fo good
where it is fown as where there is none. It is thought far
from having any ameliorating effects on the land, as it draivj
too much. It is never fown alone by fome. It makes the
very worlt hay, unlefs cut at an early period, or very young,
in the opinion of many.

In Berkfliire this grafs is fown in the chalk diftri£l, and
found to a certainty lefs nutritious than many other forts, as
well as more exhaufling in its nature. When intended for
permanent pafture, it is found, in general, to fail in a very
few years ; and, unlefs the feed is changed, it will degene-
rate under any mode of management. It, however, pof-
feifes the advantage of being cheap, and of producing early
feed, which are objefts of no inconfiderable importance on
a farm. Some find that the Peacey variety furnifhes feed a
fortnight or three weeks fooner than the common fort. It
is feldom fown fmgly, but in mixture with many other arti-
ficial graffes, in proportions to fuit the difference of foil.
In fome places it is fown with different other artificial graffes
in variety, every four years, on different parts of the land,
fo as to prevent it getting fick of the fame kind of feeds.

In the intention of hay, it Ihould be cut early, or its juices
will be much exhaufted. Horfes fed on this fort of hay
are found to preferve their wind better than on hay of other
grafles.

In Chefhire the dairy farmers do not confider it a good
grafs for producing milk, on which account it is not fo
much cultivated ; its earlinefi, however, has made it efteemed
by many ; as on almoil any foil, fome fuppofe it will be a
pafture a week or ten days fooner than any other kind.
And its having the property of correcting the tendency of
clover to produce flatulency, renders it alfo highly worthy of
the farmer's attention.

When for hay, if not cut early, the produce is fcarcely fo
nutritious as ftraw.

This grafs-feed is fometimes fown alone, and the quantity
of feeds which the plants afford, and the facihty of collect-
ing it, are probably the reafons of its being very common ;
while the advantages of its earlinefs have led to its more fre-
quent cultivation. It is fuggeftcd, however, that feveral
graffes, as the vernal, the fox-tail, the meadow poa, and
fome others, are equally as early as this grafs, and that the
meadow fefcuc, the oat-grafs, and fome others, feem to be
as well deferving of the attention of the farmer.

According to the ingenious experiments on this grafs,
made under the direftion of the duke of Bedford, as flated in
the appendix to fir Humphry Davy's Agricultural Che-
miftrv, the refults were as follow.

Th-

RAY

RAY

'}'

Ills, per Arre.

827 3 C

The quantity of produce from a rich
brown loam, taken at tlie time of the
plant's flowering, was
Weight when dry - - - 3322413

Weight of produce loft by drying - 4494 '4 3

Quantity of nutritive matter - - 305 II 15

The quantity of produce taken at the time 7

when the feed was ripe - j 4>/3

Weight when dry ... 4492 2 o

Weight of produce lofl in drying . 10481 10 o

Quantity of nutritive matter - - 643 6 7

Lofs of weight in nutritive matter byl

taking the crop at the time of flower- > 337 8 8
ing, nearly half its value - J

Proportional value of the flowering grafs to that taken at
the time the feed is ripe, as 10 to 1 1 ,

The quantity of latter math produce - 3403 2 o
Quantity of nutritious matter - . 53 2 12

Proportional value of the latter math grafs to that of the
time of flowering, as 410 10, and to that of the time the
feed is ripe, as 4 to 11. Se^ Grass.

RAYA, in Geography, a river on the W. coafl of Java,
which runs into the fea, S.lat. 7° 27'. E. long. 107° 30'.
RAYEN, a town of the Rhenifh palatinate ; 1 1 miles
N.W. of Heilbvonn.

RAYGEN, or Rayhrad, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Brunn ; 8 miles S. of Brunn.
RAYLEIGH. See Raleigh.

RAYMANGUR, afortrefs of Hindooftan, in Myfore,
taken in 1791 by the Britifh troops ; 15 miles E. of Nun-
dydroog.

RAYMATLA, a river of Bengal, which runs into the
bay of Bengal, N. lat. 21° 35'. E. long. 88° 49'.

RAYMON, a town of France, in the department of the
Cher ; 14 miles S.E. of Bourges.

RAYiVIOND DE Pegnafort, in Biography, a faint in
the Roman calendar, was a Spaniard by nation, and born at
the caftle of Pegnafort, in Catalonia, in the year 1175.
He received the early part of his education at Barcelona,
from whence he removed to the.univerfity of Bologna, where
he fludied the law, took his degrees, and afterwards taught
the canon law for fome time with great reputation. He was
afterwards called to Barcelona, by Berenger, biihop of that
city, who made him a canon, and provoit of his cathedral
church. He held thefe potts in the year 1218, when he
ellablifhed an inftitution which led the way to the foundation
of the Order of Mercy, (fee that article.) In 1222 he re-
figned his dignities, and became a member of the Domini-
can order of preaching friars at Barcelona. In 1230, pope
Gregory IX. fent for him to Rome, appointed him his
chaplain and confefFor, and devolved on him the care of car-
rying on the compilation of the " Decretals." The pontiff
would willingly have recompenfed him for his labours by pre-
fenting hira with very confiderable church preferment, but
he chofe rather the quiet of a monaftery to the honours and
emoluments of the richett fees in Spain and Portugal, which
were offered to him. In 1238 he was called to aflume the
poft of general of his order ; but upon the plea of his infirmi-
ties, he was fuffered, in about two years, to return to his
monaftery, where he fpent the remainder of his long hfe.
He died in 1275, havmg entered on the loodth year of his
age. To 'his everlailing diigrace, he is faid to have been
principally inftrumental in introducing the Inquifition in the
kingdom of Arragoii, and into Languedoc, a circumttance
which probably was the means of his canonization in the
year 1601. He was author of " Surama de CalTibus pceni-

tentialibus, feu de Poenitentia ct Matrimonio," which was
long popular in the Catholic world, and went through lui-
merous imprefiions. Tiie beft editien of it is that publifhed
by father Ivaget, at Lyons, in 1708. Raymond's chief
work is " Lib. V. Decretalium," commencing withtiie pa-
pacy of Alexander III., wliere t'ne decretals of Gratian
terminate, which was approved by pope Gregory IX.,
and conftitutes the fe'cond volume of the papal canon law.
Morcri.

Raymond Lully, a phiiofopher of much celebrity in
the dark ages, was born at Majorca in 1234. He was
brouglit up a foldier, and led the life of a man of pleafurc.
Falling in love with a young woman, who was deaf to his
addreffes, on account of a cancer with which (he was afflicted,
and which file exhibited to his view, in order to make him
defill from his importunities, he was fo much affedtcd with
the fight, that he retired from the world, devoting himfelf
to pious purfuits, and in the learch of a remedy for the dif-
eafe with which the objedl of his affeftion was afflidled ; this
was the chief motive for the chemical ftudies for which he
became fo famous. He undertook a courfe of travels into
the Eaft, for the purpofe of converting the Mahometans to
the Chriftian faith, and incurred very great hardfhips, and
the moft ferious dangers. So great was his zeal for this ob-
jeft, that being unable to perfuade certain Chriftian princes
to engage in it, he entered into the Francifcan order, and
returned to Africa, with the hope of obtaining the honour
of dying a martyr. He was accordingly thrown into pri-
fon, and after fuffering much torture, and long imprifon-
ment, he was freed through the interell of fome Genoefe
traders, who took him on board their (hip to convey him
home. He died juft when he had arrived witliin fight of
his native land, in the year 1315. As a chemift, his chief
objcft was the purfuit of the philofopher's ftone, and the
univerfal remedy for all diforders. Boerhaave, who had pe-
rufed the works of Lully, fpeaks highly of their merit ; he
finds them, he fays, " beyond all expeftation, excellent, fo
that he doubted whether they could be the work of that
age. So full are they of the experiments and obfervations
which occur in later writers, that either they muft be fuppo-
fititious, or the ancient chemifts muft have been acquainted
with many things which pafs for modern difcovcries." Lully
is fuppofed to have derived his chemical knowledge from his
travels in the Eaft, particularly from the writings of Geber.
A complete edition of all the writings attributed to him,
was printed at Mentz. Raymond Lully is chiefly celebrated
for an invention by which he pretended to enable any one,
mechanically, to invent arguments and illuftrations upon
any fubjeft, and thus to reach the fummit of fcience at a
fmall expence of time and labour. This " Great Art"
profeffes to furnifli a general inftrument for afliif ing invention
in the ftudy of every kind of fcience. For this purpofe,
certain general terms, which are common to all fciences, are
collected and arranged, not according to any natural divifion,
but merely according to the caprice of the inventor. An
alphabetical table of fuch terms was provided, and fubjefts
and predicates taken from thefe were infcribed in angular
fpaces, upon circular papers. The effences, qualities, affec
tions, and relations of things, being thus mechanically
brought together, the circular papers of fubje<Els were fixed
in a frame, and thofe of predicates were fo placed upon
them as to move freely, and in their revolutions to produce
various combinations of fubjeiSts and predicates ; whence
would arife definitions, axioms, propofitions, varying infi-
nitely, according to the different application of general
terms to particular fubjefts. Such is the general idea of the
Lulljan art, which, however applauded by certain writers of

that

miles W. of

R A Y

markable was whether the difcovery of America had been
more ufeful or prejudicial to Europe.

America has now, owing to tlie quarrel and war fubfift-
ing between Great Brilam and its colonics, become an
objcft of peculiar interelt ; and the abbe Raynal, in 1781,
publiflied " Tableau et Revolutions des Colonies Angloife
dans I'Amcriquc Septentrionale," which was commented
upon and expofed by Thomas Paine, who was a zealous
RwMOND or Raymond-town, a poft-towm in Cumberland and able defender of the American caufc, againft the mother
county, and diftrjft of Maine, containing 825 inhabitants ; country, ^

" •• " " "T^' ■ 1""'' ■" ~-»."..-^ii-r l„,nl 'phe abbe came to Paris in the important year 1788,

when the revolution was jull ready to burfl forth. He had
not been long in the city, before the National Afl'embly
was convoked, and one ol its early afts annulled the decree
palled againft him ; for this favoiu", he addrelicd a letter of
thanks to the prefident, containing a rctraftion of certain

RAY

that period, may be pronounced as unv/orthy of notice, ex-
cept as a fpecimen of the artifice with which men frequently
impofe upon vulgar credulity. Enfield's Hiftory of Philo-

Ra'ymond, in Geography, a townOiip of America,
in Rockingham county, New Hampfliire, incorporated in
1764, containing 898 inhabitants; iz or 14
Exeter.

The land is generally level,

cure

was

aU'
142 n^iles N.N.E. of Bolton. The lan^
excepting one large hill, called Rattlefnake-hill, from its
abounding with thole reptiles. The greater pan of the
growth is pine and wliite oak, and the loil is difficult ol

culture. ■ „• 7 T- I,

RAYNAL, William-Francis, m biography, 3. trench
writer of celebrity, was born at St. Genics, in the Rovergue,
in 171 3. He entered at a very early age among the Jefuits,
and by his abilities excited high expeftations of his future
celebrity. His diflikc of rcitraint induced him to quit the
fociety in the year 1 748, although he had made his profefiion,
and had been ordained pricft. He now entered his career
of authorfhip, and diftinguifhed himfelf as a political, hif-
torical, and mifcellaneous writer. His firft piece, publiihcd
the fame year in which he quitted the fociety, was entitled
« Hiftoire du Stadhouderat ;" he next publilhed " Hiftoire
du Parlement d'Angleterre," which gained him much repu-
tation, though it had little claim to the dignified title of
hiftory, and was, moreover, tinged with many prejudices,
religious and political. He alfo compofed " Anecdotes
Literaires," in three vols. i2mo. ; and " Memoires de
Ninon de I'Enclos," and was much employed in the " Mer-
de France." The great work of the abbe Raynal
entitled " Hiftoire Philofophique et Politique des
Eftablifiemens et du Commerce des Europecns dans les
deux Indes," to the compofition of which he was led by his
engaging in fome commercial fpeculations, thinking them
likely to turn out more profitably than literary purfuits.
His hiftory was publiflied in 1770, and as it contained
hiftory, defeription, and calculation, intermixed with poli-
tical and philoi'ophical reflections, and was, through the
whole, animated by an ardent fpirit of philanthropy, and
hatred of tyranny, civil and religious, it became popular,
and the author was looked up to as one of the reformers of
the age. Critics, however, foon found that, as a literary
and philofophical work, it would not bear the teft of
examination. The ftyle, though rich, vvas exceedingly de-
clamatory ; the images were frequently inflaming ; and his
principles vitiated by the licentioufnefsof his country ; and
the fafts upon which the whole was founded were derived
from incorreft or dubious documents. The author, it
fhould feem, was foon made fenfible of the imperfeftions of
his work, and determined to improve it by travel : with
this view he vifited the principal commercial towns in
France, and paffed into England and Holland, at every
place making inquiries among travellers and merchants with
the moft unremitting affiduity. On his return, he publiilicd
at Geneva an improved edition of his work, in 10 vols. 8vo.
containing many additions and corredlions. Its tone was
unaltered, and its attacks upon exifting authorities were fo
bold, that the parhament of Paris ordered it to be burnt, and
ifl'ued a decree for apprehending the author. He retired to
Spa, whence he travelled through Germany, and after
having vifited all the principal places, he returned to France,
and lived fome time quietly in the fouthern provinces. At
the academies of Marfeillcs and Lyons he founded feveral
prizes for ell'ays on given fubjefts, of which the moft re-

principles contained in his- work. Obferving, afterwards,
that the conftituent affembly were occupied in decrees which
he thought were violent infringements on the rights of pro-
perty, and in others calculated to augment the popular
effervefcencc, he wrote, in May 1791, along letter of advice
and remonftrance. It was foon feen that the fentiments in
this letter were very different from thofc which were gene-
rally expefted from the author of the " Hiftoire Philofo-
phique," their tendency being to reprefs popular licence^
and to ftrengthen the hands of civil authority. Raynal,
like many other philofophers ©f that day, had aided all in
his power to produce tlie change, at which, when put into
praftice, he and they were greatly alarmed. But it was
now too late to return : they had fhewn the people their
power, had taught them their rights, which it was in vain
to expeft they would be induced to abandon for any
arguments he could produce. In the letter referred to,
he fays, " I have long dared to fpeak to kings, of their
duty, fuffer me now to fpeak to the people of their
errors, and to their reprefentatives of the dangers which
threaten us. I am, I own to you, deeply afflifted at the
crimes which plunge this empire into mourning. It is true
that I am to look back with horror at myfelf for being
one of thofe who, by feehng a noble indignation againft arbi-
trary power, may perhaps have furnifhed arms to licen-
tioufnefs. Do then religion, the laws, the royal authority,
and public order, demand back from philofophy and reafon
the ties which united them to the grand fociety of the
French nation, as if, by expofing abufes, and teaching the
rights of the people and the duties of princes, our criminal
efforts had broken thefe ties ? But no ! — never have the
bold conceptions of philofophy been reprefented by us as
the ftrift rule for afts of legiflation." He next proves,
that it was not the bufinefs of the affembly to abohfh every
ancient inftitution ; that the genius of the French people is
fuch, that they can never be happy or profperons but under
a well regulated monarchical government ; and that if they
wifhed not the nation to fall under the worft kind of def-
potifm, they muft increafe the power of the king. Raynal
was confidered to be in his dotage, and himfclf and his
writings were now difregarded. He retired in the midft of
ftormf to Pafly, where, being reduced to a ftate of indi-
gence, he died in March 1794, at the age of 85. Befides
the works already mentioned, the abbe Raynal pubhftied
" The Hiftory of the Divorce of Catharine of Arragon,
by Henry VIII. ;" and " A Hiftory of the Revocation of
the Edift of Nantes," in four volumes ; but he committed
many of his papers to the flames during the bloody reign
of the monfter Robefpierre.

RAYNERIUS, a learned Italian monk, who flourifhed
moft probably in the 13th century, was a native of Pifa.

He

RAY

R A Z

He acquired the charadler of a confummate divine and civi-
lian, and was appointed profcllor of divinity, as well as raifed
to the molt confiderablc offices of trull and honour belong-
ing to his order. It is uncertain at what period he died.
He left behind him many works, of which the chief is en-
titled " Pantheologia, feu, Summa univerfve Theologiae."
This is a didionary of theology, with tlie fubjetts difpofed
of in alphabetical order ; it has been held in high eilimation
among the members of the Catholic communion. It has
gone through fcvcral editions in folio and quarto. The
lail edition was printed at Paris in 1655, in 3 vols. foHo,
with additions of father Nicolai.

RAYNHAM, in Geography, a townihii) of Madachufetts,
in Briftol county, taken from Taunton, and incorporated
in 173 I. It contains i 154 inhabitants. Befides the great
river Taunton, this townlhip is watered by feveral ftreams,
upon which are fix faw-mills, three griit-mills, a furnace, a
forge, and fulling-mill. Here are alfo numerous ponds, of
which Nippanniquit, or Nippahonfit, is two miles long and
one broad. In this pond millions of alewives annually
refort and leave their fpavvn in it. An excellent kind of
ore, and various kinds of tifh, are found in this townfhip.
Belides the ufual occupations of hulbandry and mechanics,
many of the inhabitants are employed in the raanufaftories
of bar-iron, hollow ware, nails, iron for velfels, iron-(hovels,
potafli, fhingles, &c. The firll forge fet up in America
was introduced into this town by James and Henry Leonard,
natives of England, in 1652. The fame family, in the 6th
generation, now poff^fs it. King Philip's hunting houfe
Hood on the northern fide of Fowling pond, about one
mile and a quarter from the pond. When the war broke
out in 1675, which terminated in the death of the kmg
and the ruin of his tribe, he left llricf orders to all his
Indians not to hurt the Leonards. Before Philip's time.
Fowling pond was two miles long, and three miles and a
quarter wide. But the water is now almoft gone, and the
large traft it once covered is grown up to a thick-fet fwamp
of cedar and pine. The vicinity has abounded with excel-
lent ore, which has fupplied the forge for 80 years ; it is,
however, incapable of being wrought into iron of tlie belt
quality.

RAYNOLDS, or Rainolds, Johx, in Biography, a
learned Enghlli divine, was born at Pinhoe, near Exeter, in
the year 1549. In 1562 he was admitted a ftudent at
Merton college, Oxford, whence he was removed, in 1 563,
to a fcholarfhip of Corpus Chriiti college. In 1572,
having taken his degrees in the arts, he was appointed
Greek ledlurer in his college, in wliicli department he ac-
quitted himfelf with great applaufe. Fuller fpeaks of him
in the highelt terms as a commentator of Ariftotle's Rhetoric.
He had hitherto been zealoufly attached to the Popilh
religion, while his brother William was equally zealous for
the Reformation. The difference in their fentiments lead-
ing them to frequent conferences anddifputations, they made
converts of each other, William becoming a determined
Papift, and John a fleady Proteftant. He frequently ap-
peared in the pulpit, and was greatly admired as a preacher.
In the year 1588 he was admitted to the degree of doftor
of divinity, and foon afterwards the fame of his great
learning induced queen Elizabeth to appoint him profefTor
extraordinary in that faculty at Oxford ; after which fhe
gave him the deanery of Lincoln, which he held only a
fliort time, wiicn he exchanged it for the prefidentfhip of
Corpus Chrilli college, of which he was a fellow. He
made this exchange from his attachment to an academical
life, and his love of retirement and itiidy. Similar motives
led him afterwards to refufe a bifhopric which queen Eliza-

beth offered him. He retrieved the finances of his colleges,
which had been fuffered to fail into dilapidation, and lie
rcftored its decayed difcipline, itridtly obeying the ftatutes
himfelf, and compelling all the other members to obferve
them. After the acceflion of James, he was appointed, with
Dr. Sparks, Mr. Chadderton, and Mr. Knewllubs, to ap-
pear on behalf of the Puritans in the pretended conferences
at Hampton Court ; of which we have a full account in
the fecond volume of Neal's " Hiftory of the Puritans,"
by Dr. Toulmin, p. 10 — 20. Dr. Raynolds did not on
this occafion aft according to his ufual fpirit, and, fuffer-
ing himfelf to be browbeaten by the royal tyrant, loll much
of the refpeft which his character ufually laid claim to. It
was at the conclufion of this conference, that the king faid
to Dr. Raynolds and his friends, in anfwer to their argu-
ments ; " If this be all your party hath to fay, I will
make them conform themfclves, or elfe I will harrie
them out of the land, or elfe do worfe, only hang
them, that's all." When James gave direftions for under-
taking a new and more correft tranflation of the bible.
Dr. Raynolds was one of the Oxford divines who were
commiflioned to give a new verfion of the four greater pro-
phets, the book of Lamentations, and the twelve miHor
prophets. While employed in this great work he was
feized with the gout, under which he had been a fufferer
many years, and which at length proved fatal to him. In
the midft of the fevereft pains, he perfevered in the ta(l<
affigned to him, and once a-week his fellow-labourers at
Oxford regularly afl'embled in his apartments, where they
compared the fruits of their refpedfive iludies, determining
what appeared to them to be the mofl faithful tranflation,
till they had accomplifhed their taflv. Dr. Raynolds died
in the year 1607, highly refpefted for his erudition, his
piety, his modefty, and humility. Several of his biographers
fpeak of him in the highefl terms. Wood fays he was
moft prodigioully feen in all kind of learning, and had
turned over all writers, profane, ecclefiaflical, and divine, all
the councils, fathers, and hiltories of the church. He was
author of many theological works, of which we may mention
" De Romanae Ecclefias Idolotria, in Cultu Sanftorum,
Reliquiarum, Imaginum," &c. 1596 ; and " Cenfura Li-
brorum Apocryphorum Veteris Teftamenti, adverfus Pon-
titicios," which was a poithumous work, and printed at
Oppenheim, in Germany, i6n, in 2 vols. 4to.

RAYNPOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooflan, in
Bahar ; 40 miles N.W. of Chuprah.

RAYNULLAH, a town of Hindooflan, in Bahar ; 32
miles E. of Bahar.

RAYPOUR, a town of Bengal ; S5 miles W.S.W. of
Burdwan. N. lat. 22° 48'. E. long. 87'^ 5'.— Alfo, a
large and commercial town of Hindooflan, in the country
of Ruttunpour ; 55 miles S. of Ruttunpour. N. lat. 21°
24'. E. long. 82° 28'.

Raypour, or Ray-Gaul, a remarkable pafs on the Beyah
river, about 17 or 18 cofTes from Noorpour ; fituated a
conliderable way within the level country of the Panjab.

RAYTE, or Ryche, in Ichthyology, a name given by
Joannes Cuba, Albertus, and others, to the common fl<ate,
or flaire. See Raia Batis.

RAZANT. See'-RASANT.

Razant Flank. See Flank.

Razant Line of Defence. See Defence.

RAZBOINIKOVA, in Geography, a town of Ruflia,
in the government of Irkutfl^, on the Angara ; 56 miles
N.W. of Balaganfliai.

RAZBOINOI, a fort of Ruffia, on the Ural ; 92 miles
E.'of Orenburg.

RAZE,

R E

R E A

RAZE. See Tumb.

Raze, in the Mun^ge. A horfe is faid to have razeJ,
whofe corner teeth ceal'e to be hollow ; fo that the cavity,
where the black, mark was, is filled up ; that is, wholly
difappears, and the age of the animal cannot be known
with any degree of certainty. See Mark.

RAZI, in Biography, one of the furnames of the famous
MuH'ulman Mohammed Ben Omar Ben Khatid Rei, Al
Temini Al Bekri, a native of the city of ReY, in the Perfian
Irak, of which the word Razi is the appellative. He
was born in the year of the Hegira 543, correfponding
with 1 148 of the ChfilUan era, and became one of the moll
celebrated dodors. His knowledge was not confined to
the learning ufiially tauglil in the Mohammedan fchools,
but it comprehended likewife the fciences imported into
the Eall with the writings of the Grecian fages. He was,
moreover, a very eloquent preacher both in the Arabic and
Perfian languages. By thefe qualifications he acquired the
favour of feveral princes, particularly of a fultan of the
Gaurid dynally, who erefted a college for him in the city
of Herat in Chorafan. He was driven from this fituatioii
by the intrigues of Cadi Abdalmegid, of the feft of Kera-
mians, who contended that the deity was corporeal, and of
human (hape. Having challenged Razi one day to a
public difputation on the attributes of God, he was fo con-
founded by the fuperior reafoning of the latter in defence of
the divine fpirituality, that he became his bitter enemy, and
feized every opportunity of calumniating him to the fultan,
as a man who, under the cloak of philofophy, concealed
irreligious and impious notions. By his perfuafions, the
prince baniflied Razi from the city, but he foon repented
of his rath decree, and recalled him. This happened m the
year 606 of the Hegira. He was author of an " Introduc-
tion to the moll fnbtile Mylleries for the Ufe of Men ol
Genius," in which he explains the principles of the Mo-
hammedan philofophy ; and feveral other pieces. " Seledl
Aftronomical P.efearchcs" have been attributed to him,
but perhaps on infufiicient authority.

Razi is alfo the furname of a celebrated philofopher,
chemill, and aftronomer, called Mohamed Ben Zakaria, a
native of the fame city as the preceding, who flouriflied
under the caliphate of Moftader of the dynafty of the
Abafiides. He died about the year 922 of the Chriftian era.
RAZIMIERZ, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Warfaw, fituated between Slepezka and Pofen, where the
unfortunate count Patkul was broken alive on the wheel,
and impaled by order of Charles XH. of Sweden in 1708.

RAZNIPNAIA, a fort of Ruffia, in the government of
Upha, on the Ural ; 56 miles S.W. of Orenburg.

RAZOIS, Port, a port at the S.W. extremity of the
- coaft of Nova Scotia, and N.E. of cape Negro.

RAZOR, a well-known edged inltrument ufedin fhavmg.
Heat appears to give a partial increafe of tenacity to a
razor's edge, probably becaufe the edge cools fafteft, con-
trails, and is ftretched.

Kazor-BH/, in Ornithology, the common Englifh name of
the alca, a web-footed bird with no hinder toes, common on
our fea-fhores. See Alca Tarda.

KAZoa.-Fi/h, in Ichthyology, the Coryphana novacula of
Linnarus, having the head and fins barred with blueifli lines.
See NovACULA.

Razor IJland, in Geography, a fmall ifland on the coafl
of Brafil ; 12 miles S. of Rio Janeiro.

RAZUDA, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 40
miles E.S.E. of Chitpour.

RE', an ifland in the Atlantic, near the weft coaft of
France, about 16 miles long, and 3 broad; feparated from

the coaft of Vendee by th» ftraits of Breton, which are
about 7 miles wide. Tlie principal town is St. Martin de
Re. N. lat. 46^ 13'. W. long, i' 20'.
Re, in Comment, See Ree.

Rk, in Grammar, Sec. an infeparable particle, or prepofi-
tion, prefixed to the beginning of words, to vary, double,
or otherwife modify their meaning.

The modifieative re was firft introduced by the Latins,
from whom it is borrowed into moft of the modern tongues.
Prifcian derives it from retro, backwards ; others rather de-
rive retro from re ; others derive re from the Greek f sa, eafy ;
or from f'.a, I Jlow.

The effedl of the re is various : ufually it fignifics again,
rurfum, a-jx ; as in r«-join, re-fign, rf-fume, rif-courfe, re-
bound, r^-cite, «-hear, r^-cognize, rr-compare, rc-double,
r«-linqui(h, &c.

Sometimes it ftands for conlrA, a/li, agairifl ; as in re-
ludlance, r^-cumbent, rf-cline, &c.

Sometimes for i;7rif, _^//><;r, ot),fr, t as in rf-dundant ; fome-
times for ■:rof'fii, longe, far, as in /-c-moving, &c.

Re, in Mufic, the name of the fecond of the keys in the
three hexachords of Guido, G, C, and F. See SoLMISA-
TiON, Gammut, Hexachords, and Mltations.

Re Alia Caccia, II, the Italian title of a comic opera,
taken from our " Miller of Mansfield." It was fet to mufic
for our opera-houfe in 1768, by Alefiandri, a young com-
poftr of promifing abilities. He was hulband of La Gua-
dagni, the original " Buona Fighuola" in Italy, and fifter
to Gaetano Guadagni, the celebrated finger. But the
Miller of Mansfield was firft formed into a comic opera for
Paris, by Sedaine, and fet by Monfigni, under the title of
" Le Roi et le Fermier," in 1762.

Re Teodoro, II, a comic opera, founded on the adven-
tures and viciflitudes of the unfortunate Theodore, king of
Corfica. The mufic of this drama is one of the innumerable
inftances of the fertility of Paefiello's pen. It had been per-
formed all over Italy and Germany with the greateft ap-
plaufe, previous to its being brought on our ftage. The
mufic, that was not changed, is extremely original and
pleafing, particularly the jinales. There was a mixture of
airs by Corri, Mazzinghi, and Storace ; but befides deftroy-
ing the unity of ftyle, the certainty of there being merit of
fome kind or other in every compofition of Pacfiello, in-
clines lovers of mufic to lament that any of his airs fhould
be changed or omitted.

REA, in Geography, a river of England, which runs
into the Tame, 3 miles N.E. of Birmingham.

Rea, Lough, a lake of Ireland, in the county of Gal-
way, on the border of which is the town of Loughrea. See
Loughrea.

REACH, in Sea Language, the diftance between any
two points on the banks of a river, in which the current
flows in a ftraight uninterrupted courfe.

RE-ACTION, in Phyfics, the aftion by which a body
afted upon, returns the adtion by a reciprocal one upon the
agent. -

The Peripatetics define re-aSion to be that which a paf- •
five body returns upon the agent, by means of fome quality
contrary to that received from it, in the fame part with
which the agent aftcd, and at the fame time ; as if water,
while it is heated by the fire, does at the fame time cool the
fire.

It was known, even in the fchools, tliat there is no aftion
in nature without re-aftion ; and it was a maxim among
them, omne agens, agendo repatitur.

But the equality of the attions was not known. Sir Ifaac
Newton eftablifhed it as one of the laws of nature, that

»8ion

R E A

R E A

e^ton and rt-n^'wn nre equal and contrary ; or thai tlic mu-
tual adlioiis of two bodies, Itrikinj^ one aj>'aiiill aiiollRT, are
exattly equal, but in contrary ilircdtions ; or, in other
words, that by the aftion and rc-attiou of bodies one on
another, there are produced equal chancres in each : and
thofe changes are imprefled towards direftly contrary parts
or ways. See Laws of Natuhk.

Some of the Ichool-philofophers deny any fuch thing as
re-aftion, properly fo called, at all ; urgiue;, that aftion
arifes only from the ratio of the greater ineciuality ; that is,
we are only to account for aftion the excels of adlion, or
what the agent docs more than is returned by the patient.
But the equality between a£lion and re-a£lion fcts afide this
exception.

READ, in Geography, a river of England, in the county
of Northumberland, whicli runs into the Tyiie, lo miles N.
ot Hexham.

Read Head, a cape on tlie E. coall of Scotland. N. lat.
56° 35'. W. long. 2°2S'.

READFIELD, a poll-town of America, in Kennebec
county, and dillrift of Maine, bounded on the E. by Hal-
lowell, and feparated from Sterling on the W. by the eadern
branch of the Androfeoggiii river ; S miles W. of Hal-
lowell, and 190 N.E. of Boiloii. It contains 1396 in-
habitants.

READING, .Toiix, in Biography, organift, firft at
Lincoln, then at Hackney, and finally of St. Dunltan's
church in Fleet-ftreet, I^ondon. He was a feholar of Dr.
Blow, and Stanley's firil mailer. He publilhed Hymns
early in life, for pfalmodiils in parochial congregations ;
and, laftly, « work engraved on copper, which he called
" A Book of my Anthems, with a Thorough-bafe, for
the Organ or Harplichord." He died in 1766, far ad-
vanced in years.

Reading, in Geography, a borough and market -town in
the hundred of Reading, and county of Berks, England, is
38 miles W. by S. from the metropolis. It is a town of
confiderable extent and importance, and contains, according
to the parliamentary veturns of 181 1, 2032 houfes, and
10,788 inhabitants.

H'ljlorkal Events. — Reading is unqueftionably of very
great antiquity ; but whether it is indebted for its origin to
the Britons, the Romans, or the Saxons, is unknown.
Conjeftures, however, have been hazarded on the fubjeft by
various writers. Camden thinks its foundation ought to be
referred to the Britons ; Leland calls it the Pontes of An-
toninus ; and Dr. Beeke, the learned profcllor of modern
hillory at Oxford, confiders it the Calleva of Richard of Ci-
renceller. But the circumftances which are alleged in favour
of thefe opinions, by their refpeftive authors, are far from
being fatisfaftory. This place is firft mentioned in hillory,
under its prefent appellation, in the year 871 ; at which time
it is defcribed by AfTer as being a fortified town, belonging
to the Saxon kings, but then occupied by the Danifli in-
vaders, who had retreated hither after their defeat at Engle-
field. The vidlorious Saxons immediately inverted the
town ; but their enemies, having received reinforcements,
attacked the befiegers with fuch impetuofity, that, after an
obilinate contell, they deemed it prudent to retire to Afh-
down. Hither they were followed by the Danilb forces,
which were again overthrown, and driven back to Reading.
Here the latter remained unmolefted till the following year.

hollility and depredation, however, this town feems to have
cfcaped any vcr) ferious dilallcr ; but in 1006 it was re-
duced to alhcs by Swcyn, king of Denmark, along witli
its famous nunnery, laid to have been founded by Elfrida,
widow of king Edgar, as an atonement for the murder of
Edward the Martyr. Reading foon recovered from this
difarter, and in the courfe of a century afterwards became
a ])lace of confiderable importance. In i 121 king Henry I.
laid the foundation of its magnificent abbey, in which his
remains were fubfequently interred, according to his own
defire. Stephen, who ufurped the throne after Henry's
death, built a caftle here, which was furrendered to his an-
tagonill Henry Fit/-Emprefs, who no fooner obtained the
crown, than he ordered it to be demolifhed ; fo that even
the fcite of it is now uncertain. That monarch, however,
Qtherwile evinced much jjartiality for Reading. Here he
pafled much of his time, and convened a parliament, as alfo
an eccleliallical convocation, in whicli Baldwin was elefted
archbilhop of Canterbury. The abbey churcii was finilhcd
in this reign, and dedicated in prefciice of the king. In
1185 he came hith-.r from Ixindon, to receive Heraclius,
patriarch of Jerufalem, who prefented liim with the keys
of the holy fepulchre, and the royal banners of Jerufalem,
which Henry returned. In the reign of his fucceffor,
Rich.ard I., a convention for the trial of Longchamp, chan-
cellor and bilhop of Ely, who had been appointed regent
of the kingdom during the king's abfence, was held here.
King John alfo held a convention in this town, in 1206;
and in 1212 a council was convened here by the pope's le-
gate, for the purpofe of effedling a reconciliation between
that infatuated prince and the exiled bilhops. In 12 13 the
king met the legate and barons at the abbey, and held a
parliament. King Henry III. fpent his Chriftmas at
Reading in 1226; and twice during his reign fummoned
the eftates of the realm hither, for the tranfaftion of na-
tional bufinefs. He was the firft monarch who granted a
charter of incorporation to the town. In 1346, Ed-
ward III. held a great tournament here; and in 1359, the
marriage of his fon, John of Gaunt, with Blanche, daughter
oi Henry, duke of Jjancaller, was folemnized in the abbey-
church. In 1384, Richard II. and his court, together
with the mayor and aldermen of London, being aflembled
at Reading, John Northampton, the preceding mayor of
that city, was convicled before them of feditious pradtices,
and fentenced to perpetual imprifonment. In 1389 a great
council was held at Reading, at which the king and his
barons were reconciled by John of Gaunt. Parliaments
were held here alfo in 1440 and 1451 j in the former of
which the order of nobles called vifcounts was firil efta-
bliflied ; and in the year following, the parliament adjourned
hither from Weftminfter, on account of the plague. King'
Edward IV. 's marriage with Elizabeth, lady Grey, was
firil acknowledged at Reading, in 1464; on which oc-
cafion (he made her public appearance at the abbey, con-
dufted by the duke of Gloucelter and the earl of Warwick.
In 1466 parliament was a fecond time adjourned to Read-
ing, to avoid the plague. King Henry VIII. frequently
refided here, having converted the dillolved abbey into a
palace. His fon, king Edward VI., vifitcd this town in
1552, when he was met by the mayor and aldermen at
Colcy-Crofs, and prefented with two yokes of oxen ; the
mayor riding before him, uncovered, to the palace. The

when they marched to I^ondon. In the reign of Alfred, fame ceremony was repeated, when Reading was vifited by

who mounted the throne of Wefl'ex foon after this event, the bigotted Mary, and her hufband, king Philip of Spain,

the Danes once more feized upon Reading, and they doubt- Queen Elizabeth was a frequent vifitant here, and had a

lefs poll'efl'ed it occalionally during their ineurfions in the feat in the church of St. Lawrence.

tenth century. Throughout that long period of iuceflcint Early in the reign of Charles I., when the plague raged

Voj,. XXIX. 3 R with

READING.

with great violence at London, the c6u)-ts of chancery,
king's bench, and common pleas, were held here, as were
likewife the court of exchequer, the court of wards and
liveries, and the court of requclls. In 164Z, Reading
was a parliamentary poll, but the garnfon, being defedtive
as to ordnance and ammunition, quitted the town, without
refiftancc, on the approach of a party of the king's horfc.
In confequence of this event it became a royal garrilbn, and
continued to be fo till taken by the earl of E(!ex in April
1643, after a fiege of eight days. The king, however,
again recovered it in September the fame year, and held it
till May following, when he ordered the works to be de-
molifhed, and evacuated the town. After this event
Reading was frequently occupied as the head-quarters (<f the
parliamentary army, and was confequently much inipo-
veniheii by the contributions levied upon its nihabitants for
the fupport of the military. In 1688 the army of king
James II. was quartered in this town, but quitted it on the
approach of the prince of Orange. On this occafion a (kir-
mi(h took place in the market-place between two detach-
ments of horfe, which terminated in favour of the Pro-
teftant interell, and is ftill commemorated, by bell-ringing,
on the anniverfary of its occurrence. Queen Anne vifited
Reading in 1 700, when (he was received by the corporation
m ftate, and prefented with forty broad pieces of gold in an
elegant purfe made for the occafion.

Municipal Government. — Reading claims the honour of
having been originally conftituted a guild, by charter from
Edward the Confefior. This claim, however, is extremely
queftionable ; and at all events we feel convinced that the
ancient guild was nothing more than an aflociation of me-
chanics and tradefmen for their individual benefit. Theiirft
monarch who conferred upon Reading the privilege of fe-
parate jurifdidlion was Henry tll., in the 37th year of his
reign. His charter was fubfequently confirmed by all his
fucceflors, but without any material alterations, till the
reign oPHenry VI., when the corporation is firft mentioned
by the title of the mayor and burgefles. Thus it con-
tinued to be defignated till queen Elizabeth divided the
burgeffes into capital and fecondary, and declared the
mayor and them to be a common council for the borough.
That princefo further conferred upon the corporation con-
fiderable eftates. Charles I. authorized aldermen to be
elefted, and inverted the mayor and them with ample powers
for the government of the town. This charter was con-
firmed, after the reiloration, by his fon Charles II., and is
the one under which the corporation now acls. By it the
ofRcers are declared to be a mayor, twelve aldermen, and the
fame number of capital burgefles ; the mayor, and his de-
puty, (the preceding mayor,) the fenior alderman, the
bifhop of Salifbury, and his chancellor, being juftices of the
peace for the borough, and empowered to hold feflions, and
a court of record. The recorder is an officer added by
Charles II., who likewife firft acknowledged the town-
clerk. Reading fent members te parliament from the time
of the earlieft records. Before 1716 the right of eleftion
was veiled in the freemen not receiving ahns, and in the in-
habitaiits paying fcot and lot ; but in that year it was limited,
by a decifion of the houfe of commons, td- the inhabitants
paying fcot and lot only. The number of voters is eftimated
at 560, and the mayor is the returning officer. The fpring
affiz ^s for the county are held at this town, as are likewife
the Epiphany feflions, but the fummer aflizes are held at
Abingdon, and the Mlchaebnas, either there or at Reading,
as the magiftrates may judge moll convenient.

Reading is a town of confiderable extent, fituated on
both banks of the river Kennet, which feparates itfelf into

10

feveral branches in pafling through the town. It contain*
three parifiies, St. Giles, St. Mary, and St. Lawrence, and
is divided into five wards, called the Higii-ward, New-ward,
lyiinfter-ward. Old-ward, and London-ward, for each of
which a conflable is appointed. Formerly it was a place of
great trade in woollens, but that manufaclure fell to decay
during the feventeenth century, and has never fincc revived.
At prefent the chief manufafturcd produ£ls are, coarfe
linens, (fuch as flieeting, fail-cloth, floor-cloth, and facking
goods,) gauze, crapes, rnuilinets, ribbons, hat-bands, fhoe-
itrings, and other fimilar articles. Thefc afford employment
to a great portion of tlic inhabitants among the lower
orders ; but the principal fupport of the town arifcs from
its water communications with London, Bath, and Briftol.
The articles exported are, flour, of which 20,000 facks are
fent annually to the metropolis, timber, bark, ftraight
hoops, linen, wool, checfe, beer, and a variety of minor
articles : in exchange are received groceries of every kind,
iron, fpirits, fir timber, deals. Haves, Portland Hone, bricks,
hemp, flax, hides, leather, coals, Bath free-Hone, Bir-
mingham goods, &c. For the convenience of trade, feveral
wharfs are formed at Reading, and many improvements have
been lately made in the internal navigation of the diftriA at
large.

This town, from time immemerial, has been noted for
its markets, which are held weekly, on Wednefday and Sa-
turday. The Wedncfday's market is chiefly for fruit ; but
that of Saturday embraces corn and every article of pro-
vifion. The fpot on which the corn market is held, is a fpa-
cious piece of ground, of a triangular form, environed by
commodious fliops for the accommodation of people attend-
ing the market, who may be fupplicd here with colonial or
manufaftured goods clieaper than in any other town in the
county. This market-place is kept in repair by the corpo-
ration, for which they are entitled to take one pint out of
each fack of corn fold in the market, amounting to about
54,600 quarters annually. The provifion market buildings
adjoin to the corn market-place, and form a long fquare,
confifting, one-half of two ranges of butchers' fliops, and
the other half of apartments for the market-women, who
bring butter, eggs, poultry, &c. for fale. At the fouthern
end of this building is a fquare open area for fifhmongers'
and huckfters' Halls, and next to this, and fronting a Itreet
called Fiflier-ftreet, is a large fquare gate-way, over which
is the houfe occupied by the clerk of the market. Befides
thefe market-places, there is another for the fale of llore pigs,
conveniently fituated between Friai--ilreet and Broad-ftreet.
This is private property, but the corporation receive the
toll. At Reading are four annual fairs, one on the 2d of
February, another on the ift of May, a third on the 25th
of July, and a fourth on the 21ft of September. The three
firft are chiefly for the fale of liorfes and cows ; but the laft
is alfo a ftatute fair for the hiring of fervants, and is further ■
remarkable for the quantity of cheefe brought hither from
the counties of Gloucefter and Wilts. Hops are alfo plen-
tiful at this fair.

The houfes of Reading are moftly conftrudled of brick,
and are generally difpofed in regular ftreets, fome of them
very narrow, which have been paved under the authority of
an aft of parliament, pafled in the year 1785.

The principal public buildings and inftitutions in the
town are the three churches of St. Lawrence, St. Marj',
and St. Giles, and feveral diflenting meeting-houfes, the
town-hall and free-fchool, the blue-coat fchool, the green
fchool, the foundation fchool, the fchool of induftry, the
Lancaftrian fchool, liie fchool for national education, the
theatre, and the county gaol.

The

READING.

The church of St. Lawrence was cliicfly erected towards
the clofe of the l6th century, and is partly coiillnitted of
materials taken from tlie liuildiiigs of the abbey. Among the
parts of it, fo pilfered from the monaltery, is a large door-
way, wliich is compoled of a circular arch, ornamented
with rich mouldings, from which were fufpcnded on each
fide the arms of the abbey ; but thefe are now nearly obli-
terated. This door-way is likewife ornamented with nichcf,
in which llatues formerly itood. The advowlon of the
church belongs to St. John's college, Oxford. St. Mary's
church is fomevvhat more ancient tluin th.it of St. Lawrence,
haying been conllrufted about the year 1547, in the (lead
of a previous one, which had gone to decay. Some portions
of this building have evidently belonged to an older edifice,
particularly a window over the well door, which is in the
early pointed ftyle of architedture. St. Giles's church was
probably conllrufted .at the commencement of the 12th cen-
tury. The tower only is modern, the ancient one having
been demolifhed during the civil war. The livings of both
the churches laft mentioned arc in the gift of the lord chan-
cellor. The principal mceting-houfes for diffenters are the
CalviniRic or Independent meeting-houfe in Broad-ltreet,
a Baptifl meeting-houfe and a Quaker's meeting-houfe in
Cljurch-ftreet, a Methodill chapel in Caftle-llreet, and ano-
ther in Minfter-ftreet, a Cudworthian and an Unitarian
meeting-houfe in London-ilreet, and a Catholic chapel in
Vaftern-lane. Another meeting-houfe for Baptilts has alfo
been lately erefted in Sievier-llreet.

The town-hall and free-lchool form one building ; the
free-fchool occupying the ground Itory, and the hall, court-
room, and offices, the floor above. The free-fchool was
eftablilhed in the reign of Henry VIL, by John Thorne,
abbot of Reading, with the funds of a luppreffcd alms-
houfe. This Ichool has two fcholarfhips in St. John's col-
lege, Oxford, the gift of fir Thomas White, in 1557.
Julius Palmer, one of the mailers of this fchool, fell a martyr
to his Protellant tenets in 1556. The blue-coat Ichool,
which is fo named from the drefs of the fcholars, was
founded in 1656, by Mr. Richard Aldworth, who be-
queathed 4000/. for the fupport of a mailer, lefturer, and
twenty boys. The prefent fchool-houfe is of late ereftion,
and confifts of a centre and two wings. Several donations
and bequells having been made to this ellablilhment by va-
rious perfons, it now ufually fnpports about 48 boys. The
green fchool is fituated in Bro.id-llreet, and is appropriated
for the education of the daughters of decayed tradefmen, re-
fidents in the town, and of orphans, who have been left un-
provided for by their parents. The inhabitants of Reading
are indebted for the inllitution of this fchool to the Rev.
Charles Sturges, the Rev. Dr. Niciiolls,andtheHon. and Rev.
W. B. Cadogan, former vicars of the three parilli churches
belonging to the town. It is fupported by annual fubfcrip-
tion, and the proceeds of different donations and bequeits.
In the foundation ichool, founded in 1766, eight male and
eiffhteen female children are taujjiit to read. It was inftituted
with a legacy left for that purpofe by Mr. Jofeph Neale.
The fchool of induftry originated under the patronage of
Mrs. Cadogan, for female children, and is fupported by the
voluntary contributions of ladies in the town. The Lan-
caftrian fchool, eftablilhed in 18 10, is fituated in Southamp-
ton-ilreet, and is attended by about 320 boys, who are no-
minated by the fubfcribers individually. The fchool for
national education was opened in September, 1813. It is
founded on the plan of inftruftion recommended by Dr.
Bell, and is chiefly fupported by the clergy of the town and
county. Both thefe inllitutions are calculated to be highly
beneficial to the nfing generation. Befides thefe feminarics of

education, there are in Reading fevcral Sunday fchuols, all
the children attending which receive a fuit of clothes annually,
from a fund provided by the bequed of Mr. Edward Simeon,
who clothed them in the fame mannerduring his life-time. The
theatre of Reading is a neat and convenient building, lately
ercfted, under the aft for regulating provincial theatres.
The gaol was built in 1793, "" 'he fcite of fome of the
abbey ruins. It is a large edifice, and contains commodious
apartments for the keeper, a neat chapel, an infirmary, and
a room for the reception of the magiftratce, in the centre ;
and two wings, one for male, and the other for female pn.
foners, with yards, cells for refraftory individuals, &c.

Befides the above public buildings and eilablifhments,
there is a public library lately ellabliflied at Reading, under
the name of the " Reading Inftitution ;" alfo a difpenfaiy,
which is attended by fome of the medical gentlemen of the
town. The houfe is the property of the corporation, and
the general expcnces are defrayed by fubfcription. The
Oracle may likewife be reckoned among the public buildings
ot Reading. This flrudlure was erected by the mayor and
burgeifes, in conformity to the will of John Kendrick, who
left 7500/. " to build a ftroag houfe of brick, fit and com-
modious to fet the poor to work therein." The funds of
this charity having been at different periods greatly abufed
and mifapplied, the fubjeft has been feveral times before the
fupreme courts of juftice. The teftator's objeft, in be-
queatliing his large legacy, was the improvement of the
woollen trade ; but inftead of this, it was perhaps, the firfl
occafion of the decay of that manufadure, by enabling fuch
as could obtain its advantages to underfell thofe who were
not fo fortunate. The fame complaints are made againft it,
with refpeft to the manufadtures now carried on in it, and,
as we fufpeft, not without fome (liow of reafon.

Moiiaftk EJlablifimaits. — As already mentioned, the ear-
lieft religious inltitiition at Reading was a nionaftery for
nuns, founded by Elfrida, the mother-in-law of Edward
the Martyr. This nunnery was founded in 979, and was
dellroyed, in 1009, by the Danes. The precife ' fcite on
which it ftood is uncertain, but there can be no doubt of its
exiflence. It appears from the Domcfday-book, and
alfo from Tanner's Notitia, that another nunnery was efta-
bhfhed here at a later period, but nothing of its hiftory is
known. The abbey, the ruins of which are ftiU fufficient
to attefl its extent and importance, was founded by Henry I.
in 1 121. It occupied a fpot of ground, equal, if not fupe-
rior, to any in Berkfhire for fertility of foil and beauty of
lituation. This fpot comprehended about thirty acres, and
was environed on three fides by a maffive and lofty wall,
and on the fourth by the river Kennet. Exterior to this
wall was a piece of ground, about fifty yards wide, (like the
pomcerium that furrounded the Roman cities,) which it was
not allowable either tc cultivate or build upon. It had four en-
trances to it, defended by arched gateways, and having battle-
ments on their tops fimilar to thofe on the walls. Within thefe
was the outer court, whence another gate-way led into the
inner court. Part of this building remains, andis compofed of
bricks, chalk, and ftone ; and, from the difTirailarity of ftyles
which it exhibits, has evidently undergone many alterations
and repairs. Some of it is probably as late as the reign of
Henry VIL, though other portions of it are, undoubtedly,
of much higher antiquity. The inner court coiidufted to
the principal entrance to the abbey, the fituation of which,
owing to the ground having been fince built upon, and the
confufion occafioned by throwing up the ramparts in the
civil war, cannot now be accurately determined. The only
entrance on this fide at prefent is through an arched pafiage,
opening into the fouth-eall corner of the cloiilers, which is
3 R 2 lertainlv

READING.

fertainly too mean to l)e fiippofod to have been llie grand
entrance to tliia fuperb mon.iftery. On the right-hand of the
pafTageisa door-way, Icadnigto a range of apartments, and
witliin is a circular llaircafe, which condiifts to the upper
part of the building. This divifion of the abbey is con-
jedlured to have been appropriated as offices for fervants and
others, as, underneath it, is a feries of arched cellars, and at
its foutheni extremity was the kitchen. The great hall, or
confillory, was entered from the cloillers by three large en-
trance doors. It meafured 80 feet in length, 40 in width,
and the fame in height, to the centre of the ceiling, which
was conftruftcd of \lone, and fupported by arches fpringing
from fo\ir pilailers, 20 feet high, placed againll each of the
fide walls. Thefe walls, and probably alfo the outer ones
in every part of the building, meafure twelve feet thick from
the foundation to the fet-ott", and fix feet thick from thence
to the lop, and are compofed of flints and rubbifti of various
kinds, bedded in mortar, and indurated in the higheft de-
gree. The abbey-church appears to have extended 260
feet in length, and to liave been built in the form of a crofs,
with a tower and fpire in the centre. The nave was 40 feet
wide, and was divided from the fide-aifles by alternate piers
and arches. From the mallive charafter of this ilru&ure, in
general, and from the circular form of the windows in the
dormitory, it is conjectured that its windows alfo had circu-
lar arches. In the ground to the eaft of the church, many
fkeletons have been difcovered, a circumfl;ance which points
It out as the probable burial-place of the monks. The
above-mentioned buildings conllituted the body of the abbey,
hut there were likewife many others, both connetted with
and detached from them. Among thefe were the infirmary,
the (lables, and the mill. This lall is yet itanding, and ap-
propriated to its original purpofe. It is a lubftantial edi-
fice, built of flint and Itone, and is probably coeval with
the abbey-church.

Reading monallery was indubitably among the moft dif-
tinguiflied in England. The monks were of the Benediftine
order, and were endowed with many privileges and immuni-
ties, not only by the founder, but by feveral of his fuccef-
fors, and by fome of the popes. They had the right of
coining granted to them by king Edward III., alfo the
right of holding three annual fairs, and a market every Sun-
day at Thatcham. The abbot was among thofe entitled
mitred, and took precedency in the houfe of peers, next
after the abbots of Glallonbury and St. Alban's. He was
lord of the manor of Reading, and poflcfled otherwife much
influence in the government of the borough. Many of the
monks were diftinguidied for their talents and their acquire-
ments in the learning of their refpedlive ages. Robert of
Reading, one of the firft monks, was particularly famous, as
being, with Adelard of Bath, the only Englifhmen of their
time who were mailers of the Arabic language. The abbey-
church was the place of fepulture of many royal and noble
perfons, among whom were Henry I., and his fecond queen,
Adeliza, and probably alfo his firil queen, Matilda ; the cm-
prefsMaud,andWilIiam, eldeft ion of Henry XL ; Conllance,
grand-daughter to Edward III.; Ann, countefs of War-
wick ; Richard, earl of Cornwall, and kmg of the Ro-
mans ; and Richard de Curtenea, natural fon of Henry II.
At the diffolution, the revenues of this monaftery were elli-
mated at 2 1 16/. 3.?. 9^. annually, above 20,000/. according to
the prefent value of money. The lands, of courfe, were fei/.ed
upon by king Henry, who parcelled them off, either in gilts
or inleale, to different individuals ; but the monaitery itfelf
xvas converted into a royal palace, and continued to be occa-
fionally occupied by our kings till its deflruftion during the
grand rebellion, in the reigns of Charlesl. and II.

The other monaiUc inllitutions in Reading, befides thofr
already noticed, were two convents for Francifcan or Grey
friars, St. Edmond's chapel, and Colney chantry. One
of the convents was founded about the middle of the thir-
teenth century, ioon after the firll appearance of the Fran-
cifcan order in this country. Its original fituation was on a
inarlhy ground adjoinintr the Caverftiam road, and Hill
called the Friery Mead ; but in 1285 the friars removed to
their fulequent reiidcnce, at the wellern extremity of Fricr-
flreet. After the difl'olution this houfe was appropriated as a
work-heufe for the poor ; and part of tlie church now forms
the borough priion. Tliis building is in the sarly pointed
ttyle, and has at its weitern end a very beautiful lancet win-
dow. The other convent flood in Caille-ftreet, probably
on the fpot now occupied by the Methodift chapel. This
inllitution feems to have been on a very fmall fcale, though
it is mentioned by Leland as " a fayre houfe of Grey
freres." St. Edmond's chapel flood on the rifing ground,
called Chapel Hill, near the borough prifon. It was
founded, in 1284, by Lawrence Burgefs, then bailift' of the
town. In the civil war it was converted into a fort ; and
afterwards, about the year 1750, was demoliflied, and an-
otker cliapel crecled in its Head on Battle-Farm. Cohiev
chantry was inititutcd by one of that family in tlie rciirn
of Richard II., for the iouls of king Edward III., of
Thomas Colney,' John Colney, and William Catour. It had
diflinft incumbents of its own, and was under the patronage
of the corporation.

Reading has given birth to feveral perfons of eminence.
Sir Thomas White, founder of St. .lohn's college, Oxford,
is faid to have been born here ; but Fuller affirms that he
was a native of Rickmanfworth. Archbifliop I^aud ^^^i
born in this town in 1573, having been the fon of \Villiam
Laud, then a clotliier in Broad-llreet, who, as the archbifliop
himfelf told lord Say, had borne all offices in the corpora-
tion, fave the mayoralty. John Blagrave, the mathemati-
cian, is alfo commonly reputed to have been a native of Read-
ing ; as was Jofeph Blagrave, a celebrated aitrological writer,
who does not feem to have been related to the mathematician.
The other diftinguilhed natives of Reading were, fir Thomas
Holt ; fir John Barnard, a noted alderman of London ;
James Merrick, the tranflator of the Pfalms ; William Baker,
a learned printer ; fir Conflantine Phipps, lord chancellor of
Ireland ; and Dr. Phanuel Bacon, author of feveral dramas,
&c.

Tlie vicinity of. Reading prefents feveral objefts worthy
of notice. At a fliort diflance to the fouthward, clofe to
a place called Catfgrove-lane, may be feen a i-cmarkable
ftratum of oyfter-lhells, imbedded in a vein of fea-fand, at
leafl twenty fathoms beneath the furface of a hill. This
flratum is from one to two feet in thicknefs, and ex-
tends through a circumference of five or fix acres of
ground. Mixed with the fhells is a confiderable quantity of
fmall teeth, apparently of fiih. Caverfliam, formerly a
feat of the Craven family, and afterwards of the Cadogans,
is lituated nearly oppofite the town, on the north bank of
the river Thames. The houfe was built by the earl of
Cadogan, in the reign of George I., but has fince undergone
material alterations. In the old manfion, Anne of Denmark,
queen to James I., was fplendidly entertained by lord
Knowles, when on her journey to Bath, in 1613. At the
lime Charles I. was a prifoner at Windfor, the parliament,
through the mediation of general Fairfax, permitted him to
vifit Caverlham Lodge, where all his children who were in
Englaiuithen refidcd, in the cullody of the earl of North-
umberland. In the liamlet of Woodlev is a very pleafing
feat, belonging to lord Sidmouth ; and two miles to the

weftward

R E A

II E A

weftward is another, tlie property of tlie Blagrave family.
The park is very exteuiive, and is noted for line venifoii.
Soiith-L'iiit, about the fame diihmce, is White-Knights, the
feat of the marquis of Blandford. Sunning, celebrated in
hiltory as having been for fome time the feat o' the fee of
Wiltfliire, and fubiequently the fclte of one of the palaces
of the bilhops of Salilbury, is a village three miles to the
eaftu ard, on tlie road to Maidenhead. Leland mentions the
bilhop's palace as Handing in his time. It was given by
bifliop Gliealt, along with the manor, to queen Ehzabetii, in
exchange for eibitcs in Dorfetfhire. The antiquity of this
place is Itrongly marked by the fepulcliral monuments in the
church. Clofe to .Sunning is an elegant manilon, the feat of
Charles Fyih Palmer, efq. Lyfons's Magna Britannia,
4to. Berklhire. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. i.
by .lohn Britton and E. W. Brayley, 1801. The Hillory
and Antiquities of Reading, by John Mann, i).to. 1 8 14.
From the latter work, the chief and moll ellential parts of
this account have been obtained : and tlujfe who wilh to poliefs
the moll copious and authentic hillory of Reading will pro-
cure this volume.

READrNC, a townlhip of America, in Fairfield county,
Connedlicut, S. of Danbury adjoining. It contains 1717
itihabitants. — Alfo, a large townlhip of Middlefex county,
in the ft ate of Mall'achufetts, incorporated in 1644, and
containing 2228 inhabitants, many of whom are employed
in the manufaflure of fhoes, from 2 to 300,000 pair being
annually exported ; 12 miles N. of Bollon. — Alfo, a town-
fiiip of Vermont, in Windfor county, W. of Windfor, ad-
joining. It contains 1565 inhabitants. — Alfo, a beautiful
poll-town, and the capital of Berks county, Pennfylvania,
fituated on the N.E. fide of Schuylkill river; 54 miles
N.W. of Philadelphia. This town is regularly laid out,
and flourilhes : its inhabitants are chiefly German : the
borough and townlhip contain 3462. The public build-
ings are, a ftone gaol, a court-houfe, an elegant church for
German Lutherans, erefted in 1793, '' ehurch for Calvinifts,
one for Roman Catholics, a meeting-houfe for Friends, and a
large edifice for the public offices. In the neighbourhood are
10 fulling mills, and iever.al iron-works : and at the diitance
of 10 miles, on the road to Harrilburgh, is a fpring, about
15 feet deep and 30 feet wide, from which ilTues a copious
ftream, containing fome fine trout. In 1795 the fum of
12,000/. was voted by the county for building a ftone arched
bridge over the Schuylkill, at this town, on the high road to
Harrilburgh. N. lat. 40° 21'. W. long. 75° 55'. — Alfo,
a townfliip of Adams' county, in Pennfylvania, containing
732 inhabitants.

Reading. See Lectio.

Rkadinc of a Deed. See Deed.

READINGS, in Cr'Uicifm. Various readings, varie
■ieiliones, are the different manners of reading the text of
authors in ancient manufcripts ; where a diverfity has
arilen from the corruption of time, or the ignorance of
copyills.

A great part of the bufinefs of the critics lies in fettling
the readings, by confronting the various readings of the fe-
ver.al manufcripts, and conlidering the agreement of the
words and lenle. The various readings in the bible, (fee
Hebretu BiBLES,) and in the claffic authors, are almoft innu-
merable.

Readings are alfo ufed for a fort of commentary orglofs
on a law, text, paflage, or the like ; to (hew the fenfe an
author takes it in, and the application he conceives to be
made of it.

READINGTON, or Riddexto>j, in Geography, a
town of New Jerfey, in Hunterdon county; 17 miles

N.W. by W. of New Brunfwick. It contains 1797 in-
habitants.

READ'S Bav, a road for Ihips on the W. coaii of
the illand of Barbadoes, between Holetovvn and Speight's-
town ; half a mile broad. Ships may anchor here in fafety,
in fix to twelve fathoms water, the ground being foft ooze,
defended from all winds, except the well, which blows right
into tlie bay. N. lat. 13° 7'. W. long. 59^ ^f.

READSBOROUGH,or REED.snoitoLGii, apoft-town
of America, in Bennington county and (late of Vermont ;
435 miles from Wafhington. It contains 410 inhabitants.

RE-AFFORESTED, is where a foreft, having been
difafforellcd, is again made a forell. As the forell of Dean
was, by an aft of parliament in the 20th of king Charles II.
See FouEsT.

RE-AGGRAVATION, in the Romifii Ecckjiajlkal
Law, the lalt monitory, publiflied after three admonitions,
and before the lall excommunication.

Before they proceed to fulminate the laft excommunica-
tion, they publifli an aggravation, and a re-aggravation.
Fevret obferves, that in France the minifter is not allowed
to come to re-aggravation, without the permiflion of the
biftiop or official, as well .as that of the lay judge. See
Excommunication.

REAH, in Geography, a town of Syria, in the pachalic
of Aleppo, fituated in a country that abounds with olives,
of which confiderable quantities are prepared, and fent to
Perfia and other parts. This is the refidence of an Aga ;
36 miles S.S.yV. of Aleppo.

REAL, Reale, is applied to a being that aftuallyexifts;
in which fenfe it coincides with actual.

Real, in Laiu, is oppofed to perfonal.

Real ASion, that by which the plaintiff lays title to land,
&c. See Action.

Culloms are faid to be real ; that is, they determine all
inheritances within their extent ; and none may difpofe of
them, but according to the conditions allowed by the cuf-
toms where they are fituated.

Real altitude, ajfets, charaSer, chattels, covenant, dijlinc-
tion, dijirefs, ejlate, horizon, optic place, patronage, privilege^
qualities, root, Jervices, fiiit, and 'writs. See the feveral
lubllantives.

Real, in Commerce, a Spanifli money of account, of
which there are four different forts. The real vellon is
that which is moft general ; it confifts of 8^ quartos,
17 ochavos, or 34 Maravedis vellon. Madrid, and the whole
of Caftile, with moft of the adjacent provinces, and (fo
Bilboa, Malaga, and Gallicia, keep accounts in reals and
Maravedis vellon. The real of new plate (real de plata
nuevo, or provincial) is double the real vellon : it is worth
17 quartos, or 34 ochavos: and it is alfo reckoned at 34
Maravedis of new plate. This real is reprefented by an
effective coin of bafe iilver, but books are not kept in any
part of Spain in this money.

The real of old plate (real de plata antigua), moftly
called the real of plate, is chiefly ufed in foreign com-
merce and exchanges : it is worth 16 quartos, or 32 ocha-
vos : and it is alio reckoned at 34 Maravedis of old plate.
Cadiz and Seville keep accounts in reals and Maravedis of
old plate.

The real of Mexican plate (real de plata Mexicano) is
ufed in tranfacfions with Spamfli America, where accounts
are moftly kept in hard dollars, reals, and quarters, and
fometimes in fixteenths : 8 Mexican reals make i hard
dollar (pelo duro) : this coin is worth 10 reals of new
plate, 10 J reals of old plate, or 20 reals vellon. Thus,
I real of new plate = 2 reals vellon : and 4 reals Mexi-
can

R E A

cnn = 5 reals of new plate : 64 Mexican reals = 85 reals
of old ])latr : 2 Mexican reals :-z 5 n'als vclloii : 16 reals
of new plate ^ 17 reals of old plate: 17 reals of old
plate - 32 reals vellon. The piftole of exchange (dobli.oii
dc plata) is worth 32 reals of old plate, or 60 reals 8
Maravcdis vellon. The dollar of exchange ( pefo de plata )
is worth 8 reals of old plate, or 15 reals 2 Maravedis
vellon. The ducat of exchange (diicado de plata) is
worth II reals i Maravedi of old plate, or 20 reals
2C44 Maravedis vellon. But, in commercial tranfaaions
within the country, the dobloon is reckoned only at Oo,
the pefo at 15, and the ducat at 1 1 reals vellon.
The coins now current in Spain are as follow ■

K.-iils

1

Vollon.

320

160

80
40

In o-old. The dobloon of 8 efcudos,

or quadruple piltolc,

pafliug for - _

The dobloon of 4 efcudos, \

or double pillole - ^
The dobloon de Oro, orl

pillole - - J

The elcudo ...

The coronilla, or vein- |

ten de Oro - - S
1,1 iilver. — The dollar, or pefo duro -
The half dollar, or efcudo \

vellon - - 3

The peceta Mexicana -
The real of Mexican plate -
In bafe filver.— The peceta provincial -
The real of provincial plate -
The real vellon - - -

In copper. — The piece of two quartos - - 8

The quarto ... - 4

The ochavo ... - z

From 1730 to 1772, the gold vras 22 carats, and the
filver II dineros fine (the dinero = 24 grains) : but in
1772 the gold was reduced to 21A carats, and the filver to
lof dineros fine, the pccetas and reals being reduced to

R E A

()\ dineros fine. In 1786 the ftandard of the gold was
again reduced to 2 1 carats for the different dobloons and
their divifions; and to 2oi^ carats for the coronilla or veiii-
t.n de Oro. For the value of the pillole, fee Pi.stole.

The dollar (coined fince 1772) contains 374I- troy
grains of fine filver, or 405' grains of Englifh Itandard
filver : its value therefore in Englifh filver coin is t^. 4^</. ;
and the iialf dollar in proportion. The value of the pefo
of plate, or dollar of exchange, in Englifh filver coin, is
394(/. ; of the dobloon of plate, or pillole of exchange,
I3J-. 2d. : and of the ducat of plate, 4;. 6^</. The real of
old plate is worth about j</. ; and the real vellon 2 id.
nearly; or more accurately, i/. ilerling = 48 reals, 205
Maravedis of old plate, or 91 reals 17 Maravedis vellon.

By the reports of average allays lately made 011 the
quadruple and dollar at the London mint by order of the
bank of England, the quadruple weighs 17 dwt. 8 gr. ;
its finenefs 4^ gr. worfe than Englifh ilandard : hence its
value in Englifli gold coin is 3/. 4J. o^d. The dollar weighs
17 dwt. 8 gr. ; its finenefs 8 dwt. worfe tiian Englifh ftand-
ard : hence its value in Englifli filver coin is 4J. '^\d. See
Pistole.

The value of reals of Spain, and monies of account, ex-
prelled in pence and decimals of pence, according to the
mint price both of gold and filvrr in England, i.f. 3/. 17J. lo\d.
per ounce for gold, and ^s. 2d. per ounce for filver, is as
follows :

'

5
2

4

2
I

Value in Silver.

Value in Gold

Real of old plate

D.

- 4-93 -

D.

- 4-57

Real of new plate -

- 5-24 -

- 4.86

Real of Mexican plate -

- 6.55 -

- 6.07

Real vellon

- 2.62 -

- 2-43

The dollar of old plate.

or 7
. j 39-45 -

- 3'5-59

of exchange

The affay, weight, &c. of Spanifh filver coins compared
\vith the Englifh tbandard of 11 oz. 2 dwt., and according
to the mint price of filver in England, i. e. §s. 2d. per
ounce ftandard, are as follow, W. denoting worfe than

Englifh Ilandard.

A%

Welsh

t.

Contents in Pure

Value

in Ster-

Silver.

li

"g-

oz.

dwT.

oz.

dnt.

gr-

pr;iins.

s.

d.

Dollar, old Mexican fquariT (1747)

"

W.

0

4^

0

17

7

376.1

4

44

Half ditto .---•.

W.

0

4^

0

8

154

188.

2

H

Dollar, old, called Sevillan (.1731)

-

w.

0

44

0

17

7

376.1

4

44

Old Mexican peceta, of two Mexican reals (1734)

- -

w.

0

44

0

4

..I

93-6

I

I

Real of Mexican plate (1746)

-

w.

0

44

0

2

34

46.8

0

64

Dollar, Mexican, with globes and pillars (1765)

-

w.

0

44

0

17

84

377-

4

4i.

Peceta, of two reals of plate (1 721)

w.

I

7

0

3

i6i

71.9

0

10

Real of plate (1721) ...

.

w.

I

7

0

I

20i

35-9

0

5

Dollar, of late coinage, univerfally circulated under
name of the Spanifh dollar ...

the I

w.

0

8

0

17

8

370-9

4

3i

Half dollar, ditto

-

w.

0

8

0

8

16

185.2

2

li

Mexican peceta (1774) ...

-

w.

0

8

0

4

74

92-3

I

o|

Real of Mexican plate ( 1775)

-

w.

0

8

0

2

3v

46.1

0

6i

Peceta provincial, of two reals of new plate ( 1775)

- -

w.

I

94

0

3

18

72.2

0

10

Real of new plate ( 1 795 ) - - -

-

w.

I

94

0

I

21

36.1

0

5

For the affay, weight, value, &c. of gold coins, fee
Pistole.

Real, or Reali, is alfo a money of account at Leghorn.
At Zante, and alfo Cefalonia and Corfu, accounts are kept
in reali, of 10 lire, or 100 foldi, alfo called afpri.

Real is the name of a kind of boat in fome places.

Real el No-vita, in Geography. See NoviTA.

Real Nuevo, a town of Mexico, in the province of
New Bifcay ; 120 miles N.W. of Parral. N. lat. 29° 10'.
W. long. 107° 20'.

Real

11 E A

R E A

Real del Rofarlo, a town of Mexico, in the province
of ChiamctliiiJ, on the Spiritu Santo; 24 miles N. of
Chiamctlan.

RiiAL de Frayks, a town of New Mexico, in tl;e pro-
vince of Mayo ; 60 miles from Santa Cruz. N. lat. 27" 44'.
W. long. 1 10° 22'.

Real de Minns, a town of New Navarre; 180 miles
S.S.E. of Cafa Grande.

Rkal de St. Juan, a town of New Navarre ; 195 miles
S.S.E. of Cafa Grande.

Real de la Jura, El, a town of Spain, in the province
of Seville ; 25 miles N.W. of Carniona.

REALE, Knights of the, or Knights of the Lionefs,
owed their inllitiition to the following event. Ladidaus,
fon of Charles Duras, having been proclaimed and crowned
king of Naples at GaJta, tlie Neapolitans fet up Lewis II.
duke of Anjou, and laid the foundation of the bloody
wars that followed. Thcfe troubles divided the Neapo-
litan nobles into two faftions ; and of thofe who declared
for the houfe of Anjou, fome wore on their left arm a
golden reale embroidered or on a red ground, by way of
contempt to queen Margaret, widow of Charles III. who
wanted to hold the reins of government during the mi-
nority of Ladiflaus, and called themfelves " knights of
the Reale ;" whilft others wore on their br(?aft the figure
of a " lionefs, with her feet tied," pendant to a ribbon
which pafled round their necks, indicating by it, that they
looked upon queen Margaret as tied by the leg ; and then
ftyled themfelves " knights of the Lionefs."

REALEJO, in Geography, a town of Mexico, in the
province of Nicaragua, iituated on a bay of the Pacific
ocean, at the mouth of a river, both of the fame name.
The river is fo deep and capacious as to be capable of
receivmg 200 iail of (hips. The town is defended by large
intrenchmcnts, and very fine docks for building and repair-
ing fliips ; but the place fufFered confidcrably from the
Buccaneers. The town is large, has three churches, and
an hofpital ; but the place is unhealthy, on account of the
creeks and itinking fvvaraps in its vicinity. Its chief
trade confifts in pitch, tar, and cordage. At the mouth
of the harbour is an idand, which intercepts the fea, and
renders it fafe and commodious : it fornii; two channels,
but that on the N.W. fide is much the beil ; 18 miles N.W.
of Leon. N. lat. J 2° 45'. W. long. 87° 30'.

REALGAR; in Mineralogy, fometimes called red orpi-
ment, an ore of arfenic, confiding, according to Thenard, of
75 parts arlenic,
25 fulphur.
The colour of realgar is a bright deep red, pafTing into
fcarlct and orange : it occurs both maffive, and cryftallized
in prifms, which have either 4, 6, 8, 10, or 12 fides, ter-
inin'ited by four-lided fummits. The primitive form of the
cryftal is an oftaiiedron, with fcalene triangles. The lullre
of realgar is between vitreous and waxy ; it is femi-pellucid,
foft, fragile, and eafily fufible, burning in the air with a
blue flame, and giving out arfenical and fulphureous
vapours. By triSion it becomes negatively eleftrical.
Realgar is found in the vicinity of volcanos, and accom-
panying other metallic ores, both in primitive and fecondary
mountains. This fubflance is ufed as a pigment; and is
formed by the Chinefe into toys. See Sulphurated Arfenic
under Aksenic.

In the hiftory of the French Academy, we have an ac-
count of a cup brought to Paris by the ambafiadors of
Siam, and prefented there, as a remedy ufed by that people
againft all difeafcs.

Upon an examination, whicii had like to have cod M.
Homberg dear, he found it to be a kind of realgar, or red
arfenic, much more caullic than our's.

Its ufe among the Siamefe, he takes to have been the fame
with that of rcgulus of antimony ; viz. to give an emetic
quality to the wine drank out of it.

As the dofe of medicines is much (Ironger in the torrid
zone than among us (the quantity of ipecacuanha, c.gr.
ordinarily taken by the Indians, being twenty times as great
as that among us), it is very poffible a cup of realgar, thougli
enough to poifon an European, may prove a gentle medicine
to a Siamefc.

REALIJO, in Geography, z fmall ifland in the Pacific
ocean, near the coall of Popayan. N. lat. 4° 16'.

REALIZE, in Commerce, a term little known in trade
before the year 1719, when thofe immenfc fortunes began to
be made in France and England, by the bufinefs of aflions
or itock.

By reali'zitig is meant the precaution many of thofe who
had gained moil, took, to convert their paper into real
effects : as lands, houfes, rich moveables, jewels, plate ;
but, above, all, into current fptJcies. A precaution ca-
pable of ruining the Hate ; but the French regency had
the wifdom to fruftrate it, by taking proper meafures to
have the money, thus ready to be hoarded up, returned
to the public.

REALISTS, Realist.i-, a fed of fchool-philofophers
who followed the doftrine of Ariftotle with reippcl to uni-
verfal ideas, formed in oppofition to the Nominalists,
(fee that article,) who embraced the hypothcfis of Zeno and
the Stoics upon that perplexed and intricate fubject.

Ariftotle held, againll Plato, that, previous to, and in-
dependent on, matter, there were no univerfal ideas or ef-
fenccs, and that the ideas or exemplars which the latter fup-
pofcd to have exilled in the divine Mind, and to have been
the models of all created things, had been eternally imprefled
upon matter, and were coeval with, and inherent m, their
objefts. Zeno and his followers, departing both from the
Platonic and Ariftotehan fyttems, maintained, that thefe
pretended univerfals had neither form nor eflence, and were
no more than mere terms and nominal reprefentations of their
particular objefts.

Under the Realitls are included the Scotifts, Thomifts,
and all excepting the followers of Occam. ,

Their diilinguidiing tenet is, that univerfals are realities,
and have an aflual exiftence, out of an idea and an imagina-
tion ; or, as they exprefs it in the fchool-language, a parte
ret; whereas the Nominalifts contend, that they exift only
in the mind, and are only ideas, or manners of conceiving
things.

Doftor Odo, or Oudard, a native of Orleans, afterwards
abbot of St. Martin de Tournay, was the chief of the feft
of the Realifts. He wrote three books of dialeftics ; where,
on the principles of Boethius and the ancients, he maintained
that the objeft of that art is things, not words ; whence the
fefl took its rife and name.

REALITY, Realitas, in the Schools, a diminutive
of res, thing, firft ufed by the Scotifts to denote a thing
which may exilt of itfclf, or which has a full and abfolute
being of itfelf, and is not confidered as a pait of any other.

Yet a reality is conceived as fomething Icfs than res ; and
accordingly every res is fuppofed to contain a number of
realities, which they otherwife call formalities.

Thus, e. gr. in a man, according to the doftrine of the
Scotifts, are a number of realities ; -viz. a fubftance, life,
animal, and reafon.

Some

11 E A

R K A

Some dirtiiiguifli reality into fubjeftive and objcftivc.
REALM, Recni'.m, Kltigdom, a country which gives
its head or governor the denomination of king.

The word is formed of the French i-oyaumr, which de-
notes the fame.

REALMONT, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Tarn, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftridl of Alby ; 9 miles S. of Alby. Tlie place contains
2247, and the canton H949 inliabitants, on a territory of
247^ kiliometres, in 19 communeB.

REALVILLE, a town of France, in the department
of the Lot ; 8 miles N.E. of Montauban. N. lat. 44° G.
E. long. 1° 34'.

REAMLA, a town of the Arabian Irak ; 10 miles W.
of Baffora.

REAMO, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra ; 6 miles
W.N.W. of Teramo.

REAMUR, a town of France, in the department of the
Vendee ; 18 miles N. of Fontenay le Comte.

REANG, a town of Bengal ; 45 miles S. of Silhet.
REAPER, a perfon whofe bufmefs it is to reap or cut
grain.

REAPING, the operation of cutting crops by means
of the fickle. It is a very laborious fort of field-work, and
one which requires confiderable attention and care to per-
fprm it in a neat and cxaft manner. Reaping is performed
with feme other forts of crops, befides thofe of the grain
kinds ; as occafionally for peas, beans, flax, and others of
a fimilar nature. Work ot this nature is executed in many
different ways, according to the differences in the culloms
of different diftrifts ; as by fets of men hired by the month,
for this particular purpole, called harvelt-men ; by perlons
taking it by the piece, or by the acre, and by the (heaf or
ftouk of eiglit flieaves.

In fome methods, by the piece or the quantity is unquef-
tionably the belt, in molt cafes, on account of the very high
prices which are exafted at this very bufy feafon, and the
very fmall extent of labour which is performed in working
by the day, which cannot be controlled by the farmer at
fuch hurrying times. Befides, the work is, for the moil
part, the bell and molt expeditioufly performed in thefe
ways ; which are objefts of very great importance, and de-
ferving of much confideration in this fort ot bufinefs. The
eye of the farmer is, however, conltantly neceflary to lee
that all goes on in a riglit maimer.

In the northern parts of Lancafliire, this fort of labour is
moftly performed by the day, or the hattock of ten (heaves,
or the ftouk of twelve fheaves ; three-pence being often paid
for the former, and four-pence or five-pence for the latter,
in thefe places.

In fome diftrifts, the reaping of the crops commences
before they are quite ripe ; but in others, not until this has
fully taken place.

Reapinc; of Corn, the practice of cutting it with the
fickle, or otherwife, by perfons employed for the purpofe.
It may be obferved, that the bufinefs uf reaping or cutting
grain crops differs much in the manner of performing the
work, in different diftrifts of the kingdom, and kinds of
crops. In the more fouthern parts of the ifland, the crops
of this fort are moftly cut by means of fhort .ftiff fcythes,
made for the purpofe, having bows formed of bent fticks,
or what in fome places are termed cradles, fixed upon the
lower parts of the handles, for the more readily depofiting
the ears or heads of the corn in one uniform direction, as
much as poflible, in order that it may be afterwards bound
up into (heaves. But in other cafes, the naked fcythe is

made ufe of; the corn being feldom bound up, beii^g (imply
raked together into fmall heaps, in a (imilar manner to
hay.

In the more northern parts of England, and in Scotland,
the reaping of grain crops is, however, in general performed
by the (ickle, or reaping liook ; the dilTerent handfuls, as
foon as cut, being depolited upon bands, formed by tv/i(ling
together a few (talks of the corn at the ends next the ear»,
and afterwards bound up into (lieaves, m order to their
being fet up into /hocks or hallocks. This method is, in moft
inftances, adopted with the wheat and rye crops, in every
part ot the ifland ; as in cutting them with the fcythe, it is
difficult to be performed without much lofs being fudained
by the (hcdding of the grain. And, in addition, it is of
great advantage to have thefe forts of crops bound up re-
gularly into fheaves, the Itraw being much better.

Belides thefe, there is another mode (ometimes praftifed,
which is l)y means of a hook with a (harp edge, without any
teeth ; the labourer, in executing the work, hooking up
the corn towards him. It is moftly made ufe of in the
fouthern diftrifts, where it is known by the name oi bagging,
the grain in this way being cut very low.

In this way the reaper coUefts enough for one flieaf at a
time, binds it, and fets it up in tens, called a (hock in
Middlefex. This bagging (or fagging) praftice is, to all
intents and purpofes, mowing with one hand againd the
Itanding corn. The toothlefs hook, employed in doing it,
is of nearly twice the weight of the common fickle. It is
(harpened occafionally, when neceflary, in the manner of
the fcythe ; and tht- operation of cutting the crop down is
by a fuccefffon of blows made upon the ftraw of the Handing
grain, very nearly in the direftiun down towards the furface
ot the ground. Reaping in Middlefex is moftly all done
in this way, as the proper ufe of the fcythe is but little
known.

This method has the advantage of being done clofer, and
with equal or more expedition than the hand reaping mode,
befides the faving in ftraw, which is here fuppofed worth
Is. the acre.

In Effex wheat crops are generally reaped or cut with the
fickle, though in the vicinity of the metropolis it is not un-
common to have it mown with the fcythe, as clofe to the
ground as other forts of grain crops, in the view of increaf-
ing the quantity of ftraw, which is there very valuable. It
is thrown, in thefe cafes, with great fkill and dexterity into
fwaths. When perfeftly ripe, it is foon bound up into
fheaves of fix or eight inches diameter, with bands of wheat-
itraw of fingle or double lengths ; but when not in this ripe
or dry ftate, it is allowed to remain in the fwaths two er
three days, as neceliary. However, in more than three
quarters of the county, it is reaped or cut with the fickle ;
and indeed in almoft all places, when beaten down by the
whid and rain.

In regard to the time of reaping the grain, there is con-
fiderable difference in different diftrifts ; fome not reaping
it until it is quite ripe, while others cut it when fomething
fhort of this ftate. This, iiowever, ihould probably be re-
gulated by the nature of the feafon, and the kind ftate or
quality of the crop, as well as the ufes to which the grain is
to be put.

In refpeft to the manner of reaping grain crops, whether
the fickle or fcythe be employed for the purpofe, there is
much difference in the height at which the crops are cut in
different places. In fome it is the praftice to have the
bufinefs performed in as clofe a manner as poflible ; while in
others a ftubble of eight, ten, and" fifteen inches, or more,
12 is

R E A

is left. Thefa different prafticcs Imve tlieir advocates ;
one party fiippofing that the work proceeds more (lowly,
wliere it is executed in fo clofe a manner ; while the other
contend that the contrary is the cafe. But as the ilubble
which is left is not only ufelefs to the land, but in many
cafes very troublefonie in its fucceeding culture, being fre-
quently under the neccflity of being removed, it would feem
to be the bell as well as chcapeil praftice, to have the bufi-
nefs conft antly executed in a clofe manner. It has been ob-
ferved by a late praiftical writer, that by this means the
agricultor will not only have more litter at command, for
the bedding of his yards. Halls, and other places, and con-
feqiiently an increafe of manure, but have tlie bufinefs more
expeditioufly performed, witli much lefs walte of grain,
and at the fame time be freed from the trouble and expence
of removing the ilubble. It has indeed been fully fliewn,
by a careful trial, made with the view of afcertaining the
difterence between high and low reaping, that the advantage
is confiderably in favour of the clofe method.

And the refult of the trial is thus ftated by the writer of
the Agricultural Survey of the Weft Riding of Yorkfhire,
who obferves that the experiment was made upon part of a
field of wheat, two ridges of which were cut clofe by the
ground, and the other two confiderably higher, though not
fo high as the general run of the Yorkfhire ilubbles. Each
of the divifions was apparently of equal quality, and mea-
fured a trifle m.ore than a quarter of a Scotch acre, which is
about one-fifth larger than the Englifli flatute acre. The
crop was flacked feparately, and the time taken to the part
cut low was one hour and twenty-four minutes, of eight
(hearers ; while the high cutting was performed by the fame
number of hands in forty-eight minutes. The wages paid
that week were iBd. per day, and the fuppofed expence of
maintenance 6(i. or 2 s. per day altogether. When threlhed,
the grain and ftraw were carefully meafured and weighed,
and the refult of the experiment was as follows :

£ s. d.
Refult — 8 fhearers, i hour 24 minutes, at 2^.1

per day, or 22r,d. per hour - . - J 'r

The fame hands in 48 minutes - - -014

DifTe

: of ex

pence

in favour of high cutting one fliilling, or four {hilling^
I'i'r acre. ,

£ s. d-

o 1 8

t^ peck of wheat more upon tlie low cut"}
ridges than thole cut high, at i.f. 4^/. per >
peck - • - - - --J

14 ftones (22 avoirdupois pounds) of morel
ftrawj at 2d. per Hone - - - -J

Or fixteen (hillings per Scotch acre.

From which deduft the increaled expence of cutting,
there remains a benefit of twelve (hillings per acre in favour
of low cutting.

It is noticed farther, that the .above trial, according to
the beft of the reporter's judgment, was fairly made ; and
the reafon which urged him to make it, was to filence the
objections of fome neighbours, who alleged low fhearing
was not profitable. It is alfo proper to obierve, that the
field of wheat, on which the trial vi-as made, was not broke
down nor ftraggled, fo was in a favourable condition for
high cutting. We have feen wheat-fields, where three times

Vol,. XXIX.

n J-: A

the quantity might have been left, unlefs great pains wc.e
ufed.

But the methods of reaping grain crops, both with the
fickle aiul the (cythe, have each their advantages and difad-
vantages. In the firfl manner, tlie crops arc depofited with
more regularity and exaanefs, and confequently bound into
fheaves with greater facility and difpatch. Befides, in many
cafes lefs lofs is incurred by fhedding, in the time the work is
in performing ; but the labour is executed with greater dif-
ficulty and trouble. The latter poficfics the fuperiorily of
being more expeditious, and of being performed to any de-
gree of clofenefs that may be required; while it has the evi-
dent difadvantage of leaving the cut grain in a more irregular
and uneven fituation, by which it is rendered lefs fit for
being bound up into flieaves, which in many cafes is an in-
convenience of great confequence. When the grain has at-
tained a high degree of ripenefs, there may likewife be great
lofs fudained, by its being (hed during the operation, in
this way of reaping and cutting the crop. Where this me-
tliod is praftifed, it is, however, not unfrequentlv the cafe
to have it bound into (heaves ; tli.)ugh the moft' common
cuftom is to let it remain in the rows or fwaths, till fit for
being put into tfie (lack. When bound, it is generally the
praflice to cut it inwards againll the crop on which it refts :
in the other cafe, it is cut in the manner' of grafs for hay.
It is obvious, therefore, that when labourers are procured
with difficulty, this mode of reaping is the moft advifeablc ;
while, under the contrary circumftances, the former may be
had recourfe to with more advantage, as the work may be
executed in a neater and more exadl way. See Har-
vesting and Sickle.

It may be remarked, that this is a fort of work that is
often let by the acre to perfons that go about for harveft
work ; and it may, in many cafes, be the beft performed in
this manner. But great attention (hould be paid by the
farmer, to fee that the grain is cut and bsund up in a pro-
per method, and that the work be not performed in improper
weather. The prices vary according to the nature of the
crops, the feafon, and other circumftances, fometimes rifing
as high as eleven or twelve fliillings the acre, and fometimes
much higher.

Reaping Fork, a tool of the fork kind, invented for the
purpofe of raifing and collefting the mown grain into
(heaves, fo that it may be bound up. It is conftrudled
with two, rather long, prongs below, (lightly curving up-
ward, fomewhat in the manner of the common large hay
fork, to which are attached, at the upper part, near the in-
fertion into the handle, two other upright prono-s, which
bend a httle forward towards their tops or ends ; by means
of which, with the under prongs running along the ground,
the tool being pufhed forward by the labourer, the grain in
the ftraw is raifed up, brought together, held in a firm
manner, and removed from the fwathe fo as to be bound
into flieaves. In this way, the lower prongs perform the
work of picking the flrawy material from the land, while
the higher upright ones prevent it from falling backwards,
and determine the quantity which is neceffar^' for a fheaf.
In this manner, by this fim.ple contrivance, the mown graia
can be brought together and bound up with much greater
regularity, and in a much more expeditious method than is
poffible to be done by mere hand labour.

Reaping Hooi, an implement of the fickle kind, with
which the bufinefs of reaping is performed in fome diftrifts.
Thefe hooks are fometimes formed with teeth, or in a
toothed manner, and fometimes with a cutting edge. In
Devonfhire, and fome other counties, thofe with fmooth
edges are generally preferred to fickles with fawed ones :
3 S thefe

R E A

R E A

thefe forts of hooks arc ufed occafionally with cither liand,
tlie operator fhifting hands, chopping llic ftraw low down,
and gathering about lialf a flicaf at a time, which, when
put together, ir, bound with reed, combed from former
wheat-uraw, or with a double length of the wheat which is
reaping. See Skkle.

Reaping Alachine, a contrivance for the purpofe of reap-
ing grain by means of animal labour. With this view, and
to facilitate an operation of fuch importance to the farmer,
different attempts have been made to conftruft machines, fo
as to difpatch the work in a rapid manner by the aflillance
of horfe labour, but the fucccfs with which they have been
attended, has hitherto been far from complete. An imple-
ment of this fort has lately been made by Mr, Plunkiiett ;
it is upon a fomewhat new principle, the liorfe drawing the
machine inrtead of pufhing it forward, as was the old mode
of applying the power.

In this machine, the horfe tracks from the front fide of it,
which is fcen at once by the appearance of the implement,
fo as to hi: clfar of the crop, and the two large wheels, by
means of the axle, drive another wheel, which communicates
with the two other wheels, the latter of which is found in
the axis of the cutter : a man at the handles regulates the
direftion, &c. This machine may be feen fully reprefented
in the fecond volume of the Farmer's Dictionary ; and a
reaping machine for clover may be feen in the fame work
in the fame plate.

Other machines of this kind have ftill more lately been
invented by other pcrfons, but without anfwering the pur-
pofe in that full and complete manner which is neccdary in
this fort of work.

What appears to be chiefly wanting in thefe forts of ma-
chines, to render them complete and effeftive, as tools for the
purpofe of reaping, is that of their having more power or
velocity in the cutting parts, fo that the work may be per-
formed in a perfeftly clean neat manner, without the ftraw
being drove or forced down in an improper manner before
the initruments which are to cut it ; their cutting it out
fully in the whole of its breadth ; their being capable of
being regulated to cut at different heightj, and to different
breadths ; their being made capable of directing the cut
itrawy grain all in one even regular direction, fo that it may
be bound up with facility ; the horfes, or other animals,
being fo attached to them as to permit of their walking
along on the fide of the ilanding grain, where the foriner
cut was made, or where they pulli the implements before
them, the having them fo conveniently fixed in them as to
admit of no fort of interruption to the labour in any way ;
their being made hght and of ready apphcation, as well as at
a cheap rate ; and their keeping the fcythes or cutting parts
in a perfectly fharp ftate, without their being taken out, and
undergoing the operation of whetting. There are, befides
thefe, fome other points, which lliould be attended to, but
thefe are, probably, the moll material.

REAPS, fmall parcels of corn, laid along on the ftubble,
in reaping, to be afterwards gathered into (heaves by the
binder. This is molt commonly the cafe, when the weather
is moift, as in dry times the reaps of corn are ufually laid
in the bandi, and tied up, as foon as they are in fufficient
quantity, into fheaves.

REAR, a term frequently ufed in compofition, to de-
note fomething behind or backward in refpeft of another ;
ijl oppofition to -uan, or avant, before.

It is formed by corruption oi the French arriere, figni-
fying the fame.

Rear, in a Military Senfe, is ufed for the hind-part of
an army, &c. in oppofition to the front, or face of it.

Rkar, in Naval Laniruage, is a name given to the lafl.
divifion of a (quadron, or the lall fquadron of a fleet, and
which is accordingly commanded by a rear-adn»iral, or the
tnird officer of tlie faid fleet or fquadron.

REAH-artniiral. Sec Admikal.

REAR-guar/l. See GuAiin.

KnAR-half-filfs, are the three hindmoft ranks of a bat-
talion, when it is drawn up fix deep. See YiLE-leaJeri.

KKAR-line of an army encamped, is always twelve liun-
dred feet at lead from the centre line, both of which run
parallel to the front line, and alio to the referve.

REAii-rani, is the laft rank of a battalion, or fquadron,
when drawn up, and generally fixteen or eighteen feet from
the centre line, when drawn up in open order.

REAR-tif, in the Manege, called iu French cabrer, is the
action of a horfe, when he railes himfelf upon his houghs or
hinder legs, as if he would fall quite over in a backward
direction, to the great danger of his rider. This is often
caufed by his having too much of the curb.

Rkai!, in Rural Economy, to raife the roof part of any
fort of ftied or other building for containing fome kind of
live-dock.

REARED, or Wale-REAREn. See WALE-r/-ar^r/.

REARING Animals, in Agriculture and Rural Eco- ~-
uomy, the bufinefs of breeding and bringing them up to the
moll fuitable flates for the purpofes of the farmer. I'he
principles of this art depend upon a variety of different cir-
cumflances and kinds of knowledge, as has been already ex-
plained. See Breeding, and lL.i\E-Sloct.

Animals of the horfe kind fliould invariably be brought
up in the befl manner, without any fort of (tinting in their
food, according to the ufes they are defigned to ferve, in
order that they may have their full growth and power. In
the labouring cattle kinds of animals, attention fhould, in
fome degree, be paid to hardinefs, both in their food and
their expofure, by having recourfe to the more coarfe forts
of feeding in the lefs flieltercd fituations, but nothing of
Hinting fliould ever be allowed, as by thefe means they be-
come large, and capable of fultaining a greater degree of
exertion. There is, likevrife, much utility in good training,
in rearing all forts of animals in this intention ; and it requires
careful, ileady, mild perfons to be employed in it, as they,
for the moil part, acquire the habits and difpofitions of thofe
about them, in fome meafure ; and the more early they are
obtained the better. This point deferves much more at-
tention from farmers and others than it has hitherto met with,
as molt of the bad habits of working animals arife from the
negleft of it. Befides, good training and mild difpofitions
are highly favourable to fattening animals. See Horse.

In rearing poultry, pigeons, rabbits, and fifli, much care,
management, and circumfpedlion, are conltantly neceflary,
in order to their perfeft fuccels. Too little attention is for
the molt part beftowed on the nature of the birds, in fome
forts of the more wild poultry kinds, as thofe which are of
the game defcription, for inftance, the galena, the pheafant,
the fwan, and fome others. Thefe cannot be fo readily-
reared, or with fo mnch facility, under hens of the domeftic
kind, as other forts are, fuch as the turkey, peacock, &c.
This circumltance fhould therefore be always kept in mind
in rearing fuch birds. See Poultry, Pigeons, Rabbit,
&c.

A very nice attention and management is alfo requifite in
the rearing and perfefling of fifli. See Flsh, PoyiD-Fifheriet,
and Salmon Fishery.

In rearing birds of the game kind, fuch as the above, in
the way of ornament about a refidence, Mr. Loudon has
remarked, much depends upon encouraging them, when al-
lowed

R E A

loiveJ to go wild, by giving them proper and abundant
cover, ;ind ("owing among it fuch licrbs and plants as they arc
particularly fond of, as tliofe of the crefs, clu-rvil, parfley,
thyme, and fomc other kinds. They have likrwife a ten-
dency to encourage and domeilicatc hares. Abundance of
fcarlefs game about a refidence, he thinks, give a peculiar
noblenefs, and appearance of freedom, whicii few things
elfe can communicate or afford.

REASON, Ratio, a faculty or power of the foul, by
which it diftinguiflies good from evil, and truth from faKliood.
Or, reafon is that principle, by which, comparing feveral
ideas together, we draw confequenccs from the relations
they are found to have.

Some of the later fchool-philolophers define reafon to be
the comprchenfion of many principles which the mind fuc-
ceffively can conceive and from which concluiions may be
drawn.

Others conceive reafon as no other than the underltanding
itfelf, confidered as it difcourfes.

Reafon, Mr. Locke obferves, comprehends two dillinft
faculties of the mind ; vix. fagachy, by which it finds inter-
mediate ideas ; and i/lalion, by which it fo orders and dif-
pofes of them, as to difcover what conneftion there is in
each link of the chain, by whicii the extremes are held to-
gether ; and by them, as it were, draws into view the truth
fought for.

Illation, or inference, confifls in nothing but the percep-
tion of the conuedlion there is between the ideas in each ftep
of the deduftion, by which the mind comes to fee cither the
certain agreement or difagreement of any two ideas ; as in
demonftration, in which it amves at knowledge ; or their
probable, conneftion, on which it gives or withholds its
aflent ; as in opinion.

Senfe and intuition reach but a little way ; the greateft
part of our knowledge depends upon deduftions, and inter-
mediate ideas. In thofe cafes, where we mud take propcr-
fitions for true, without being certain of their being fo, we
have need to find out, examine, and compare, the grounds
of their probability ; in both cafes, the faculty which finds
out the means, and rightly applies them to difcover certainty
in the one, and probability in the other, is that which we
call reafon.

In reafon, therefore, we may confider four degrees ; firft,
the difcovering and finding out of proofs. See Inven-
rioN.

Secondly, the regular and methodical difpofition of them,
and laying them in fuch order, as that their conneftion
may be plainly perceived. See Method.

Thirdly, the perceiving of their conneftion (fee Judk-
MEXT.) And,

Fourthly, the making a right conclufion.

Reafon fails us in feveral inftances ; as, firft, where our
ideas fail.

Secondly, it is often at a lofs, becaufe of the obfcurity,
confufion, or imperfection, of the ideas it is employed
about. Thus, having no perfeft idea of the leall extenfion
of matter, nor of infinity, we are at a lofs about the divifi-
bility of matter.

Thirdly, our reafon is often at a (land, becaufe it pcr-
<:eives not thofe ideas which would ferve to fliew the cer-
tain or probable agreement or ' difagreement of any two
other ideas.

Fourthly, our reafon is often engaged in abfurdities and
difficulties, by proceeding upon falfe principles, which,
being followed, lead men into contradidlions to themfelves,
and inconfillency in their own thoughts.

II E A

Fifthly, dubious words, and uncertain figns, often puzzle
men's reafon, and bring tlicm to a nonplus.

Though the deducing one propofition from another be a
great part of the office of leafon, ajid that about wliicli it
is ufually employed ; yet the principal adt of ratiocination
is the finding the agreement or difagreement of- two ideas
one with another, by the intervention of a third. As a man,
by a yard, finds two houfes to be of the fame length, which
could not be brought together to meafure thuir equality by
juxta-pofition. Words have their coniequences as the figna
of fuch ideas and things agree or difagree with what they
really are ; but we oblerve it only by our ideas.

Hence we may be able to form an idea of that ordinary
diflinftion of things, into fuch as are according to, thofe that
are alow, and thofe contrary to reafon.

Thofe according to reafon are fuch propofilions, wliofe
truth we can difcover by examining and tracing thofe ideas
we have from fenfation and rcfleftion, and by natural de-
duftion find to be true or probable.

Thoie above reafon are fuch propofitions, whofc truth or
probability we cannot by reafon derive from thofe prin-
ciples.

Thofe contrary to reafon are fuch propofitions as are in-
confident with, or irreconcileable to, our clear and diflinft
ideas.

Thus the exi deuce of one God, is according to reafon ;
the exidence of more than one God, is contrary to reafon ;
and the refurreflion of the body after death, above reafon.

Above reafon may be alfo taken in a double fenfe ; 111%.
above probability or above certainty.

They who difpute mod againd the power and privileges
of human reafon, do it becaufe their own reafon perfuades
them to that belief; and fo, whether the viftory be on their
or our fide, they are equally defeated.

They feek to terrify us with the example of many great
wits, who, by following this ignis fatuus (fo they call the
only pole-dar God has given us to direft our courfe by),
have fallen into wild and ridiculous opinions, and increafed
tlie catalogue of herefies to fo great a number ; but thefe
men either followed not their reafon, but made it foUow
their will ; or elfe they firil hoodwinked it by intered and
prejudice, and then bade it fhew them the way ; or were
wanting in thofe neceffary diligences required for fo doubt-
ful a padage : or if, without any of thefe, the weaknefs of
their underdanding had deceived them, the error is neither
hurtful to themfelves, nor would be to others, if this doc-
trine of governing ourlelves by our ow'n reafon, and not by
authority and example, were generally edablifhed. Dif.
Concern. Hum. Reaf.

It is not the ufe of fuch liberty, but the appropriating it
to ourfelves, that is the caufe of all the diforders charged
upon it ; for thofe who lay a redraint on ether men's reafon,
have fird made ufe of their own to fettle them, and to make
ufe of it in this very redraining of others. Ibid.

ReasiOX, in Matters of Religion, is ufed in oppofition to
faith.

This ufe of the word, Mr. Locke takes to be in itfelf
very improper ; for faith is nothing but a firm affent of the
mind ; which, if it be regulated, as it is our duty, cannot
be afforded to any thing but upon good reafon, and fo can-
not be oppofite to it.

He that believes without having any reafon for believing,
may be in love with his own fancies ; but he neither feeks
truth as he ought, nor pays the proper obedience due to his
Maker, who would have him ufe thofe difcerning faculties
he has given him, to keep him out of midake and error.
3 S 2 But

R E A

R E A

But fince reafon and faitli are by fonie men oppofed to one
another, it may be necedary to confidcr them together.
' Rcal'oji, as contradiltinjruiflied to faith, is the dilcovery
of the certainty or probabihty of fuch propofitions, or
trutlis, vvhicli it has got by tlic ufe of its natural faculties ;
vJz. by fenfation, or reflcdtion.

Faith, on the other hand, is the afl'ent to any propofition
upon the credit of the ijropofer, as coming immediately
from God ; which we call revelation, which fee.

Reason, in Logic and Rhetoric, denotes a neceffary or
probable argument ; or an anfvver to the queftion, cur cjl^
•why is it ?

As if it be inquired, why do the fubjeft and predicate
agree ? and it is anfwered, becaufe they are fpoken of the
fame thing : this lall enunciation is a reafon. Hence, fay
the fchoolmen, becaufe yuia is the fign or charafter of a
reafon, as tion, tiorof '•>■ negation, and e/l, is, of an affirma-
tion.

They make three kinds of reafons, rafiones ; viz. ratio ui,
that ; nc, hjl ; and quia, hecaufc. For, anfwering to a quel"-
tion, cur, why, we begin with becaufe, quia ; as, why do
you fludy ? that I may become learned ; which is \.\\e'ratio
ut. Again, why do you ftudy ? left I Ihould be ignorant ;
which is the ratio tie. Laitly, why is a body tangible ? be-
caufe matter is impenetrable ; which is the ratio quia.

The reafon ut properly denotes the end, or linal caule ;
and reafon ne the beginning : accordingly the one is called
the beginning, the other end ; fo that the reafon quia is left
the only reafon, properly fo called.

Reason, among Metaphyficians, is ufed in the fame fenfe
with effence ; or that by which any thing is what it is.

This is fometimes alfo called formal reafon, as reprcfent-
ing the thing under that form or nature under which it is
conceived.

Reason, in Mathematics. See Ratio.

Reason of State, Ratio Status, in Matters of Policy, de-
notes a rule or maxim, whether it be good or evil, which
may be of fervice to the ttate.

The phrafe is borrowed from the Italians, who firft ufed
ragione diflato in this fenfe.

Reafon of ftate is properly underftood of fomething that
is neceffary and expedient for the intereft of the government,
but contrary to moral honefty, or juftice.

Politicians have a long time difputed about the ratio fla-
tus ; whether dates and governments are tied down to the
fame laws of morality with individual perfons ; or whether
things, otherwife immoral and unlawful, may not be prac-
tifed on urgent occafions, by way of reafon of ftate ?

The queftion is, whether any thing be unlawful, or pro-
hibited a ftate, that is necefl'ary to the prefervation of that
ftate, or whether it be allowed to preferve itfelf on any
terms ?

Reason, Challenge upon. See Challenge.

REASOTi frfficient of Leibnitz. See Leibnitzian Philo-
fophy.

REASONABLE Am, a duty which the lord of the
fee anciently claimed of his tenants, holding in knight's fer-
vice, or on focage, towards the marrying his daughter, or
the making his eldeft fon knight.

This is taken away by ftat. 2 Car. II. See Aid.

REASONING, Ratiocination, the exercife of that
faculty of the mind called reafon: or, it is reafon deduced
into flfcowfe ; which fee.

The agreement or difagreement of two ideas does not ap-
pear from the bare confidcration of the ideas themfelves,
unlefs fome third be called in, and compared> either fepa-

rately, or conjointly with it : the adl, then, by which, (torn
ideas thus difpofed and compared, we judge this or that Ui
be fo, or not fo, is called reafoning. Or, it is that opera-
tion of the mind, by which we infer one thing, i. e. one pro-
pofition from two or more propofitions premifed. Or,
again, it is the drawing of a conclufion, which before was
either unknown, or dark, or doubtful, from fome propofi-
tions which arc more known and evident. It is the narrow-
nefs of the human mind which introduces the necedity of
reafoning ; for if the mere perception and comparifon of
two ideas would always (hew us whether they agree or dif-
agree, then all rational propofitions would be matters of in-
telligence, or firft principles, and there would be no ufe of
reafoning, or drawing any conicquences. But when we are
unable to judge of the truth or falfehood of a propofition
in an immediate manner, by the mere contemplation of its
fubjeft and predicate, we are then conftrained to ufe a me-
dium, and to compare each of them with fome third idea,
tliat by feeing how far they agree or difagree with it, wc
may be able to judge how far they agree or difagree among
themfelves. Watt's Logic, part iii. chap. i.

Roiiault defines reafoning to be a judgment depending
on fome antecedent judgment : thus, having judged that no
even number can be compofed of five uneven numbers, and
that ten is an even number ; to conclude, that ten cannot
be divided into five uneven parts, is a ratiocination, or rea-
foning.

This agrees with father Malebranche's doArine, one of
the great points of which is, that reafoning, on the part of
the underllanding, is only a mere perceiving.

That ingenious author endeavours to (hew, that, as to
the underftanding, there is no difference between a limple
perception, a judgment, and a reafoning, except in this, that
the underftanding perceives a fimple thing without any re-
lation to any thing elfe, by a Umple perception ; that it per-
ceives the relations between two or more things in 3. judg-
ment; and, laitly, that it perceives the relations that are
between the relations of things, in a reafoning. So that all
the operations of the underftanding are no more than mere
perceptions.

Thus, e. gr. when we conclude, that 4 being lefs than 6,
twice 2 being equal to 4, are of confequence lefs than 6,
we do no more than perceive the relation of the inequality
between the relation of twice 2 and 4, and the relation of
4 and 6.

' The manner of proceeding juftly in reafoning ; fo as to
arrive with the greater fafety at the knowledge of truth,
makes what we call method.

For the real benefit of logic to reafoning, fee Logic and
Syllogism.

RE-ATTACHMENT, in Law, a fecond attachment
of him who was formerly attached, and difmiflcd the court
without day, by not coming of the juftices, or the like
cafualty.

Brook makes re-attachment either general or fpecial. Ge-
neral is where a man is re-attached for his appearance on all
writs of affize lying againil him : fpecial, for one or more
certain writs.

REAU, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Culmbach ; 9 miles S.E. of Hof.

REAVE, in Rural Economy, a provincial term, ufed to
fignify the unroofing of difturbing the thatch or other cover-
ing of a building by winds, &c.

REAUMUR, Rene-Antoike Ferchault, Sieur de,
in Biography, was born in 1683 at Rochelle. He was
brought up to the ftudy of the law, which he quitted for

that

11 E A

that of the mathematics, natural hidory, and natural philo-
fophy. Ill 1703 lie went to Paris, and lo dillingiiifiied liim-
felf in a few years, that in 1708 he was admitted into the
Academy of Sciences. From that time he entirely gave
himfelf up to the purfnits of natural hiltory in all its
branches, and few men have palled a life more actively and
uiefully employed. Utility was the conitant aira in all his
enquiries, even into the moft minute parts of nature ; and
experiment and oblcrvation were his perpetual guides. No
one furpafled him in the patient induitry with which he ob-
fcrved natural phenomena, or followed the procefles of art.
The Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, from 1 709 to
1756, are enriched with his communications. The improve-
ment of nianufaftures was a great objeft of his attention.
In 1722 he pubhflied a work, entitled " L'Art de convertir
le Fer forge en Acier, et I'Art d'adoucir Ic Fer fondu,"
which contained a minute and fcicntific account of the pro-
cefles employed in that branch of manufacture, with hints
for their improvement. He introduced into France the ma-
nufadurc of tinned iron, which article had before been im-
ported from abroad ; and he made a great many experiments
in the manufafture of porcelain, which contributed to its
perfedlion in France. He alfo performed numerous experi-
ments relative to the art of hatching chickens by artificial
heat, as praftifed in Egypt, an account of which he pub-
lilhed in two vols. 1752. M. Reaumur rendered his name
celebrated by his peculiar method of graduation on the
thermometer, which is lUU the only one ufed in France and
many parts of the continent. In this thermometer the
freezing point is marked zero, and the boiling point at 80".
(See Thermometer.) Some of the moll valuable of Reau-
mur's phyfiological experiments were thofe relating to the
concoftive powers ot the flomach in s;ranivorous and car-
nivorous birds, in which he clearly ellablirties the different
modes of aftion in thefe two clafles, I'iz. by trituration,
and by folution. In natural hiftory, he acquired the greatell
fame as an entomologift. Befides a number of curious
papers on this fubjeft in the Memoirs of the Academy, he
publilhed a very elaborate work, entitled " Memoires pour
fervir a Hiftoire Naturelle des Infeftes," in fix vols. 410.
1734 — 1742. This work was the labour of many years,
and the refult of innumerable obfervations made in his gar-
den, in which he kept infefts of all kinds, that he might
examine their generation, changes, and mode of life. Reau-
mur was a man of mueh private worth, of mild and amiable
manners, and correft morals. He died in 1757, at the age
of 75. He bequeathed his manufcripts, and cabinet of na-
tural philofophy, to the Academy of Sciences.

REAUMURIA, in Botany, fo called in honour of the
OTeat French naturalill, Rene Antoine Ferchault de Reau-
rnur, principally known, as abotamft, by his examination of
the fruflification of fuc't, but chiefly celebrated as a philo-
fophical inquirer into the hiltory of infefts, and their tranf-
formations, to which the fpecific name of the original
fpecies, verm'tculata, evidently alludes. Linnaeus mentions
Hafl'elquiit as the author of the name Reaumuria ; of which
we can find no traces in his book, though the ipecimen of
the plant in the Linn^an herbarium, has fomc appearance
of having been gathered by this diftinguilhed Oriental
traveller. Is it pofiibie, that the Anonyma dubia, n. 15,
of his Iter Pala:llinum, 465, which his' editor Linnaeus
could not make out, can be the Reaumuna ? The defcrip-
tion is not inapplicable, except what concerns the ftamens
and ityle. Yet this does not make him the author of the
name, though it may poffibly account for Linnxus's men-
tion of him in conjunction therewith. The latter appears,
by hio manufcripts, to have once deftined V innkularh for

R E A

the generic appellation — Linn. Gen. 276. Schrcb. 371,
WiUd. Sp. PI. V. 2. 1249. Mart. Mill. Dia. V. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. V. 3. 327. Juff. 316. Lamarck Illuftr.
t. 489. Did. V. 6. 84.-Claf8 and order, Polyandria
Penlagynia. Nat. Ord. Sucailenia:, Linn. Ficoidea, Juff.
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five prominent,
ovate, pointed, permanent leaves. Cor. Petals five, ob-
long, equal, feflile, rather longer than the calyx, oblique,
or lobed, at tiie extremity. Nedtary of five double, fringed
fcales, at the meeting of the petals, attached to their lower
part. Stain. Filaments numerous, capillary, the length of
the calyx, iuferted into the receptacle ; Desfont. ; anther*
roundifh, incumbent. P'ljl. Germen fuperior, roundifli •
llyles five, thread-fhaped, ereft, approaching each other,
on a level with the ftamens ; ftigmas fimple. Perk. Cap-
fule ovate, of five cells, with five flat, at length reflexcd,
valves ; the partitions membranous, unconiieaed, deciduous.
Seeds feveral, ereft, oblong, entirely clothed with numerous,
filky, fimple hairs, twice their own length.

Efl. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals five, with ten
fringed fcales at their bafe. Capfule of five cells, with
five valves, and five deciduous partitions. Seeds feveral,
oblong, hairy.

Obf. Specimens in feed, from profeffor Desfontaines,
have enabled us to reconcile his account, and that of Lin-
nasus, with the obfervation of Forfkall, that " the cap-
fule has only one cell," the partitions being deciduous, and
concealed among the hairy feeds. Not having examined the
nedfariferous fcales, we have, in adverting to Labillardiere's
and Hooker's plates of the fccond fpccies, made the de-
fcription fo general as to accord with both.

I. R. venmcuhiia. Saltwort-leaved Reaumuria. Linn.
Sp. PI. 754. WiUd. n. I. For/lc. ^gypt. Arab. 101.
Desfont. Atlant. v. i. 431. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 489.
f. I. (Sedum ficulum maritimum vermiculatum, flore
Saxifraga; albse, fcmine villofo ; Bocc. Sic. 6. t. 4. f. C,
G. S. minimum arborefcens vermiculatum ; Lob. Ic.
3S0. Kali vermiculatum albo et amplo fedi rofei flore ;
Barrel. Ic. t. 888. Vermicularis frutex minor ; Ger. Era.
523; at lead the figure, which is that of Lobel. The de-
fcription accords rather with Salfolafruticofu, as cited by
Hudfon. ) — Leaves linear -awlftiaped, convex beneath. Calyx
entire. — Native of barren fandy ground towards the fea,
in Sicily, Barbary, Egypt, and Syria, flowering in fum-
mer. The habit of the plant is like a Tamar'iK, or Salfola.
Stem ftirubby, bulhy, much branched, round, fmooth,
whitifli, leafy. Leaves numerous, fcattered, felTile, from
a quarter to three qu;u-ters of an inch long, fpreading,
linear-awlfliaped, acute, fielhy, fmooth, glaucous ; convex
beneath ; flat above ; dotted on both fides with minute
deprefiions. Desfontaines compares the leaves to thofe' of
Sedum rejlexum. Flowers terminal, folitary, white, not un-
like thoie of Saxifraga Cotyledon, each encompafl'ed with
a number of imbricated floral leaves, like thofe of the
item or branch, but longer. Calyx-leaves ovate, with a
narrow, entire, membranous edge, and awlftiaped leaf-hke
point. Petals terminating in three flight lobes, well repre-
iented by Barrelier. Capfule brown, very fmooth, and
fomewhat ihining ; its valves rigid, reflexcd after the feeds
are difchargcd, and permanent. Seeds clothed with long,
tawny, ftiining hairs. Forflcall fays this plant is ufed at
Alexandria as a cure for the itch, being applied bruifed ex-
ternally, and taken internaUy in the form of a decoftion.
It is an elegant little flirub, well worthy of a place in our
gardens, or green-houfes, to which it is as yet a ftranger.
2. R. hyperhoides. Elliptic-leaved Reaumuria. Willd.
n. 2. Ait. n. i. Lamarck f. 2. (R. tinifolia; Salif.

Parad.

K r: A

It K A

Farad, t. l8. Hypericum altcrnifolium ; Labillard. !»yr.
i'afc. 2. 17. t. 10.) — Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, flat. Calyx
mimit''ly crcnate. — Gathered in barren dry ground, near
the defert of Syria, by M. Labillardiere, to whom we are
obliged for a wild fpecimen. The plant is faid to have
been introduced into England, by the late Mr. Joha Bell,
about 1800, and is marked by Mr. Aiton as a hardy peren-
nial. Its true genus is well afcertained by Lamarck, Poiret,
and SaHlbury. Thejlem is herbaceous, about a foot high,
fimple, or branched, fmooth, pale or reddidi.' Leaves
alternate, glaucous, from half an inch to an inch in length,
elliptic-oblong, or fomewhat lanceolate, varying greatly in
breadth, dotted all over. Floiuers terminal, folitary, pale
rofc-coloured, with oblique petals. Calyx-leaves broader
than in the former, their membranous edges finely crenate,
their points very fmall. We know nothing of the capfule
or feeds.

REAY, . in Geography, a town of Scotland, in the
county of Caithnefs ; 6 miles W. of Thurfo.

REBACH, a river of France, which runs into the
Rhine, nearly oppofite to Maiiheim.

REBAIS, a town of France, in the department of the
Seine and Marne, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Coulommiers; fix miles E.N.E. of it. Tiie place
contains 1256, and the canton 11,284 inhabitants, on a
territory of 190 kihometres, in 18 communes.

RE-BAPTISANTS, a religious fea, who maintain,

that perfons irregularly baptifed are to be baptifed afrefh.

The Anabaptifts are re-baptifants, inafmuch as they

baptife thofe at maturity, who had been before baptifed in

childhood.

St. Cyprian and pope Stephen had mighty differences
about the re-baptization of converted heretics.

Donatus was condemned at Rome in a council, for hav-
ing re -baptized fome perfons, who had fallen into idolatry
after their firft baptifm.

REBAT, ill Geography. See Rabat.
REBATE, in ArchiteSure. See JoiXERY and Plane.
Rebate, or Rabat, Rebatement, in Commerce, a term
much ufed at Amfterdam for a difcount or abatement in
the price of certain commodities, when the buyer advances
the fum in hand, for which he might have taken time. See
Discount.

Rebate (among us ufually called ^roni/>/ payment) is efti-
mated by months, and is only allowed for certain kinds
of merchandizes, which, according to the cuftom of Am-
fterdam, are

15 months, or 10 per cent, on German, Pruflian, and
Polifti wools.

1 8 months, or 1 2 per cent, on brown Mufcovado fugar,
pot-afhes, foda, Italian Armoifines, fatin, damalk, and
filk ftuffs.

21 months, or i^ per cent, on Spanifh wool and lamb's
wool.

33 months, or 22 per cent, on Italian filk and raw filk
from the Levant, wiiich filks are fold by the Antwerp
weight, about ^ per 100 lighter than that of Amfterdam.

Dutch cloths, camlet^, &c. are fold with 4 per cent.
rabat, for ready money, or without any rabat at 9 months'
credit.

Dutch filk (luffs are fold with 2 per cent, rabat at
6 months' credit : with 4 per cent, at 3 months ; or with
6 per cent, for ready money.

In all fales of goods, except thofe lafl mentioned, a
further abatement is made of i or 2 per cent, for prompt
payment.

At Hamburgh, fome forts of mcrchandife, when fold in

large quantities, have an allowance made of 7, xj, or (9 ,
months rabat, reckoned at 8 per cent, per annum ; whicli the
buyer, when h"e pays ready money, or pays within four weeks
of. the day of fale, d'^ducls from the nominal price.

Refined fugars, Englidi and Dutch cloths, Englirti
baize, ihalloons, flannels, kerfeymeres, ratteens, and ferges,
are fold with 7 months' rabat, or i^"^ per cent. ; that is, 4;
are dedufted from 104;, or 7 from 157.

Cotton, cinnamon, cocliineal, indigo, ginger, nutmegs,
cloves, mace, rice, raw fugars, capers, currants, cumiiie,
gall-nuts, Ruilian leather, linen, crape, Italian filks, table-
linen, Sileiia cloth, Marleilles foap, almonds, fumac, mo-
loflcs, Turkifli yarn, Italian tartar, are fold with 13 months'
rabat, or 8-: per cent. % that is, 13 is dedufted from 163.
Silks from the Levant, as Ardalfette, Barutine, and Cer-
baffi, are fold with 16 months' rabat, or 10', per cent. ; tliat
is, 8 is deducted from 83. Kelly's Un. Camb. vol. i.

This intereft, called rebate, or rabat, is ufually regulated
on the footing of 8 per cent, per annum.

The reafon of this expedient is, that the merchants hav-
ing not always wherewithal to pay for their goods in
hand, by means of the rebatement, fuch as have, will find
their account in it ; and fuch as have not will be engaged
to difcharge themfelves as foon as poffible, for the fake of
the difcount.

REBATEMENT, in Heraldry, a diminution or abate- '
ment of the dignity of the figures or bearing in a coat of
arms. See Abatement.

REBEBE, in Commerce, a meafiire of corn in Egypt,
particularly at Alexandria, equal to about 4^ bufliels ; as
klfloz, another meafure, is equal to 4^ bufhels, Englifh mea-
fure : 17.94 rebebcs are equal to 10 Enghfli quarters, and
each of them contains 9587 cubic inches ; and 16.51 kiflos
are equal to 10 Englifli quarters, and each contains 10418
cubic inches.

REBEC, a mufical inftrument refembling a fiddle, with
a neck, finger-board, three ftrings tuned jths, and played
with a bow.

Etymologift;s have tortured themfelves to find a derivation
for the name of a vulgar inftrument, no longer in ufe.
Some trace it from the Arabic, fome from the Celtic, the
Welftl, the Spanifli, Itahan, and old French. Indeed, fo
numerous, difcordant, and unfatisfaftory are their opinions,
as neither to be worth writing, nor perufal, if we could
give them a place. .

Rebec and ribible feem to be the fame inftrumervt, and
are often indifcriminately ufed by Gower, Chaucer, and
the ftill more ancient bards of Normandy, and our own
country.

As the head, or fcroll-work, of old viols and violins
ufed to be curioufly carved, fo feems to have been that of
the rebec. Chaucer compares the face of an old woman,
an old trot, to the head of a rebec. Rabelais does the
fame.

" A tel mineftrier tel rebec

Tenant toujours le verre Su bee
Car elle avoit vifage de rebec."

REBECCO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Panaro ; 29 miles S.W. of Modena.

REBEL, Jean-Ferry, fen. in Biography, one of the 24
violins of the king of France's band, and chamber com-
pofer to his majelty. He beat time for many years at the
opera, and, in his day, paffed for a great compofer. His
mufic for dances is itill heard with pleaiure. His capriccios,
freaks, and dancing charatlers, have enjoyed great reputation.
In 1703 he fet the opera of Ulyfies, written by Guichard.

Rebel

11 E B

Rebel left two children: Francis, who died in 1775, ^'"^
Anne, the wife of the celebrated Lalande, mailer of the
king's baud.

Rei!EL, FRAN901S, knight of St. Michael, nuiller, like
liis father, of the king's band, and director of liie opera,
bom 1702, and died in 1775. He was the fon of Jean-
Fen-y Rebel, director of the orchcllra at the opera, and one
of the twenty-four violins of the king's band. His foil had
obtained the reverfion, in 17 17, of chamber mufician to the
king, and in 1703, that of compofer ; having given proofs
of his abilities t)y many different works, but, above all, by
his " Pyramus and Thifbe," compofed in partnerfhip with
Francceur.

He was fucceflively appointed to all the mufical polls of
honour anck profit under the royal patronage and that ot the
public. The clofe and uninterrupted friendlhip between this
mufician and Francceur, docs honour to tlic memory of
both ; having compofed jointly, for 50 years, fuccelsful
pieces, without difcovcring to which of them the greatefl
honour was due. Laborde. See Fkan'CCEUR.

REBELLION originally fignilied a fecond refiftancc
or rifirig of fuch as had been formerly overcome in battle by
the Romans, and had yielded themfelves to their fubjec-
tion.

It is now generally ufed for a traitcrous taking up of arms
againlt the king, either by his own natural fubjctfs, or by
thofe formerly fnbdued ; whether their view be to deprive
him of the fupreme authority, or whether they intend to
refill his commands in fome particular affairs, in order to im-
pofe conditions on him. Popular commotion is a concourfe
of people, tumultuoufiy alfembled, and refilling the voice
of their fuperiors, whether their defigns be againll thofe fu-
periors themfelves, or only fome private perfons. Such vio-
lent commotions are common when the people think them-
felves .iggrieved, and are occafioned by no order of men fo
frequently as the tax-gatherers, ( See the next article. ) If
the rage of the malcontents be particularly levelled at the
magiftrates, or others vefled with the public authority, and
they proceed to a formal difobcdience or violent proceedings,
it is called a " fedition." When the evil fpreads, infefting
great numbers in the city or provinces, and fubfifts in fuch
a manner, that the fovereign is no longer obeyed, fuch a dif-
order cutlom has more efpecially diitinguiflied by the name
of " infurreftion." All thefe violences diflurb the public
order, and are crimes of ftate, even when arifing from jufl
caufes of complaint. For violent' meafures are interdifted in
civil fociety ; the injured party fhould have recourle to the ma-
giilrates, to whom they may apply for redrefs ; and if juflice
be not obtained from them, their complaints may then be laid
at the foot of the throne. Every citizen fhould even patiently
fuffer fupportable evils, rather than diflurb the public peace.
Nothing lefs than a denial of juilice from the fovereign, or af-
fefted delays, can excufe the furious commotions of a provoked
people ; they in fome meafure juftify themfelves, if tlie evils
be intolerable, and the opprefiions great and manifeft. But,
it may be aflced, what conduft fliall the fovereign obferve
towards the infurgents ? The reply in general is, that which
fhall at the fame time be moft confonant to juflice, and mofl
falutary to the flate. If he is to reprefs thofe who unnecefla-
tily diflurb the public peace ; he is, by the fame reafoning,
to fhew clemency towards unfortunate perfons, to whom
juft caufe of com.plaint has been given, and who are guilty
only in having undertaken to do themfelves juflice ; fo that
they have been wanting in patience rather than fidelity. The
fovereign fltould confider that his rights are derived fr6m
thofe of civil fociety, from the truft repofed in him, from
the obligation devolved upon him of watching over the

R E B

welfare of the nation, of procuring its greatefl happinefs,
and of maintaining in it order, juflice, and peace. He will
.^lfo duly dillinguifli the nature and degree of the different
diforders which may diilurb the flate, oblige him to take
arms, or fubflitute the means of force inilead of thofe of
authority. By confiderations of this kind he will regulate
his behaviour towards revolted fubjedts. It cannot be quef-
tioned, that fubjeds rifing againfl their prince without caufe
deferve fevere punifhments ; yet in tliis cafe the number of
delinquents calls for the fovereign's clemency ; fhall he de-
populate a city, or defolate a province, in punidiing their
rebellion ? Such a challifement, however jufl in itfelf, be-
comes a cruelty when extended to fo great a number of per-
fons. Had the infurreiStioii of the Netherlands againft Spain
been totally unwarrantable, every man of virtue would Hill
execrate the memory of the duke of Alva, who made it his
boaft that he had caufed above 20,000 heads to be flruck off
by the hands of the common executioner. Let not his faii-
guinary imitators (fays the excellent Vattel) expeft to juf-
tify their enormities by neceflity. Who was ever more uii-
defcrvedly infulted by his fubjecls than Henry the Great of
France ? His conquefls were ever accompanied by an uni-
form clemency, and at length that excellent prince obtained
the fuccefs he deferved : he thereby gained over faithful fub-
jefts ; whereas the duke of Alva lofl his mafter the United
Provinces. Tyrants alone will treat, as feditious, thofe
brave and refolute citizens, who exhort the people to pre-
ferve themfelves from opprelTion in the vindication of their
riglits and privileges ; a good prince will commend fuch vir-
tuous patriots, provided their zeal be tempered with mode-
ration and prudence. If he has juflice and his duty at heart ;
if he afpires to that immortal and unfullied glory of being
the father of his people ; let him miflrufl the felfifh fuggef-
tions of a miiiifter, who reprefents to him as rebels all thofe
citizens who do not hold out their hands to chains, who re-
fufe tamely to fuffer the flrokes of arbitrary power.

The fafeft, and the moft jufl way thoroughly to aopeafe
fedition, is to give the people fatisfaition ; and if the infurrec-
tion has been without caufe, which perhaps has never been
the cafe, Hill an amnefty is to be granted where the offenders
are numerous. When this amnefly is once publifhed and ac-
cepted, whatever has paft mufl be buried in oblivion. A
prince who makes any confcience of his word, is faithfully
to keep what he has promifed to rebels themfelves ; i. e. to
thofe fubjefts who have revolted without reafon or neceflity.
If his promifes are not inviolable, what fecurity have the
rebels in treating with him i When they have once drawn
the fword, they have nothing to do but, as one of the an-
cients expr'&ffesit, to tlirow away the fcabbard. The prince
will then want the mild and falutary means of appeafing a
revolt : to exterminate the rebels will be the only expedient
remaining. Thefe will become formidable through defpair ;
companion will bellow fuccours on them ; their party will
increafe, and the flate will be in danger. Vattel's Law of
Nations, b. iii. See Civil War.

Rebel is fometimes alfo ufed, in our ancient ftatutes, for a
perfon who wilfully breaks a law ; and lometimes for a vil-
lain difobeying his lord.

Rebellion, Commijfwn of. See Commission.

REBELLIOUS Assembly, a gathering of twelve
^perfons, or more, intending, going about, or praftifing,
unlawfully, and of their own authority, to change any laws
of the realm, or to deftroy the inclofure of any park or
ground inclofed, banks of fifh-ponds, pools, conduits, &c.
to the intent the fame fhall remain void, or that they fhall
have way in any of the faid grounds ; or to deflroy the deer
in any park, fifh in ponds, coneys in any waiTen, dove-

houfes.

R E B

houfes, &c. or to burn flacks of corn, or to abate rents,
or prices of viduals. Sec Riot, Rout, and Unlawful

AJtmhly.

REBENSOE, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the North
fea, near tlu- coaft of Norway. N. lat. 70^.

REBHIANG, one of the Hebrew accents, anfwcring to
our comma, and enumerated among their kings and paufes.
It is marked by a dot over the middle of a letter. See Ath-
NACH, Syli-uk, &c. Sec alfo Accents.

REBINARE, was to give a fecond ftirring or plough-
ing to arable land that lay fallow, to prepare it for fowing
wheat, &c. or to plough the ground a tliird time for that
purpofe. " Tempus rebinandi erit pofl feftum Nativitatis
fanfti Johannis Baptifte cum terra pullulaverit pod caru-
can.." Fleta, lib. ii. cap. 73.

REBNITZ, in Geography. See Ribnitz.

REBORDAOS, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Tras los Monies ; two miles S. of Diagan9a.

REBOUND. See Recoil.

REBOUX, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of Mont Blanc ; g miles N.W. of Chambcry.

REBTORF, a town of Bavaria, in the principahty of
Aichftatt ; 3 miles W. of Aichitatt.

REBUS, a name -device, as Camden englifhes it ; or an
enigmatical reprefentation of fome name, &c. by ufing
figures or piftures, inftead of words, or parts of words.
Such is that of the gallant mentioned by Camden, who
exprelTed his love to Rofc Hill, by painting in the border of
his gown a rofe, a hill, an eye, a loaf, and a well ; which, in
the rebus ityle, is read, Rofe Hill I love luell.

The Picards have the honour of the invention of this
notable kind of wit ; whence the French, to this day, call it
rebus de Picardie. Camden adds, that the Englifh firll learnt
it of them in the reign of our Henry HI. by means of the
o-arrifons we then had in Calais, Guienne, and other places
bordering on Picardy.

Its origin is by Menage, &c. afcribed to the priefts of Pi-
cardy, who, it feems, anciently, in carnival time, ufed every
year to make certain libels, entitled de rebus quii geruntur,
being railleries on the intrigues and tranfaftions that had
paflcd about the city ; in which they made great ufe of fuch
fort of equivoques and allufions, breaking and joining words,
andfupplying them with paintings.

Camden tells us, the rebus was in wonderful efteem
among our forefathers ; and that he was nobody who could
not hammer out of his name an invention by this wit-craft,
andpiftureit accordingly.

The Sieur des Accords has made- an ample colIeAion of
the moft famous rebufes de Picardie. And Mr. Camden has
done fomething of the fame kind in his Remains.

Abel Drugger's device in Ben Johnfon's Alchemift, and
Jack of Newbury, in the Spcftator, are known to every
body. But the rebus, being once raifed to fign-poits, grew
out of fafhionat court.

Yet has rebus antiquity on its fide, as having been in vife
in the pure Auguftan age : Cicero, in a dedication to the
gods, infcribed Marcus TuUius, with a little pea, called
by the Latins cker, by us a chich pea. And Julius Caefar,
in fome of his coins, ufed an elephant, called Gafar in the
Mauritanian tongue. Add to tnefe, that the two mmt-
mafters in that age, L. Aquilius Fionas, and Voconius Vi-
tulus, ufed, the firft a flower, the fecond a calf, on tlie re-
verfe of their coins.

Rebus, in Heraldry, a coat of arms which bears an allu-
fion to the name of the perfon : as three caftles, for Caftle-
ton ; three cups, for Butler ; three conies, for Conifby ; a
kind of bearings which are of great antiquity.

R K C

Rebus is alio ufed by the chemical writers, fometimes to
fignify four milk, and fometimes for what they call the ulti-
mate matter of which all bodies arecompofed.

REBUTTER, from re, and the Vn-uch bouler, lo refel,
or bar, in Latu, the anfwer of the defendant in a caufe to
the plaintiff 's fur-rejoinder.

The plaintifl^'s anfwer to the defendant's rebutter, is called
a fur-rebutlcr.

Rebutter is alfo when a man warrants any land or here-
ditament to another, and the perfon making the wananty,
or his heir, fucs him to whom tlie warranty is made, or his
heir orafhgnee, for the fame tiling: if he, who is fo fued,'
plead the deed or fine with warranty, and pray judgment,
if the plaintiff fhall be received to demand the thing which
he ought to warrant to the party, againfl the warranty in
the deed, &c. this is called a rebutter.

Again, if I grant to the tenant to hold Jlne impetltlone
vajli, and afterwards implead him for wafle, he may debar
me of the aiflion, by (hewing my grant ; wliich is like wife a
rebutter.

REC, in Geography, a river of .France, which runs into
the Sarre, at Sarre Alb.

RECANATI, a town of the marquifate of Ancona ;
near which towards Macerata are feen the ruins of Helvia
Ricina ; a town built by the emperor Sept. Severus, and
deftroyed by the Goths ; 8 miles N.N.E. of Macerata. N.
lat. 43'^ 25'. E. long. 13° 39'. I

RECANGED, m Rural Economy, a term provincially
ufed to fignify lifted or difcoloured in ftripes.

RECANTATION. See Palinody, or Retracta-
tion'.

RECAPITULATION, in Oratory, &c. a part of
the peroration, or conclufion ; called alfo anacephalaqfis.

Recapitulation is a fummary of the preceding difcourfe ;
or a concife, tranfient enumeration of the principal things
infilled on at large in it ; by which the memory of the
hearer is refreflied, and the force of the whole collefted
into one view.

An inflance of this may be given in the peroration of Ci-
cero's Manihan : " Qaare, cum bellum ita neceffarium fit,
ut negligi non pofiit : ita magnum, iit accuratifiime fit ad-
miniflrandum ; & cum ei imperatorem praeficere poflitis, in
quo fit eximia belli fcientia, finguiaris virtus, clariffiraa
auftoritas, egregia fortuna ; dubitabitis, Quirites, quiii,
&c."

In order to conflitute a good repetition or recapitulation,
it mufl be (hort and concife : it is alfo convenient to recite
things in the fame order in \\-hich they were at firfl laid down ;
but fometimes a repetition is made, by running a comparifon
between the fpeaker's own argument, and thofe of the ad-
verfe party, and placing them in oppofition to each other ;
and this method Cicero takes in the conclufion of his third
oration upon the Agrarian law. In fome cafes, when the dif-
courfe is very long, and the arguments infiftedon have been
many, the orator only mentions fuch things which bethinks
of leaft confequence, by faying that he omits or paffes over
tham, till he comes to what is of greater moment, which he
reprefents more fully. Ward's Oral. vol. i. feft. iS. See
Preterition.

RECAPTION, Recaptio, or Reprifal, in Law, is a
remedy given to the party himfelf for an injury to his per-
fonal property. This happens, when any one hath deprived
another of his property in goods or chattels perfonal, or
wrongfully detains one's wife, child, or fervant ; in which
cafe tlie owner of the goods, and the hufband, parent, or
mafter, may lawfully claim and retake them, wherever he
happens to find them, fo it be not in a riotous manner,

or

11 E C

or attended with a breach of the peace. Thus, e. gr. if
my horfc is taken away, and I find him in a common, a fair,
or a public inn, I may lawfully fiize him to my own ufe; but
I cannot juilify breaking open a private liable, or entering
on the grounds of a third perfon to take him, except he be
felonioufly itolen, but mull have recourfe to an aftion at
law. Recaption is unlawful, if it be done with intention
to fmother or compound a larciny. Sfee Re.stituti©n of
Siokn Goods.

Rfcaptiov alfo is the taking a fecond diflrefs of one
formerly dillraincd for the fame caufc, and alfo during the
plea grounded on the former diilrefs.

Recaption is alfo the name of a writ lying for the party
thus dillrained to recover damages. See Repj.evin.

RECAPTURE, in Naval Infurance, denotes the reco-
very of a fhip, or its cargo wholly or in part, after having
been taken by an enemy. For every lofs occafioned by
capture, whether lawful, /'. e. when made by a declared
enemy, according to the laws of war, or unlawful. I.e. when
it is agamll the rules ellabliflicd by the law of nations,
whether by friends or enemies, the infurcr is liable, agree-
ably to the comprehenfive and exprefs words of the policy :
and in every cafe of capture the infurer is anfwerable, to the
extent of the fum infured, for the lofs aftually fullained.
Tliis may be either total, as where the (hip and goods infured
are not recovered ; or partial, as where the (hip is recaptured
or reltored before abandonment ; in which cafe the infurer is
bound to pay the falvage, and any other neceffary expence the
infured may have incurred by the recovery of his property.
The infurer is liable for a lofs by capture, whether the pro-
perty in the thing infured be changed by the capture or not.
As to the length of podeflion by an enemy, which is deemed
fufficient to divelt the property out of the original owner,
or the effeft of a recapture in revelting it ; thefe are matters
which can never now come direftly in queftion between the
infurer and infured, in any caie of uifurance upon real in-
tereft. In gaming infurances, or infurances without interelt,
indeed, when there was a recapture, the claim, as for a
total lofs, feems formerly to have involved the queftion,
whether the property in the thing infured had, by the capture,
or any proceedmg founded on it, been divefted out of the
original owner, or not, before the recapture. Neverthe-
lefs, when a fhip is infured " interell or no intereft," it has
been repeatedly determined, that if the fliip be taken, it is
a total lofs, however illegal the capture may be, and though
the (hip may be retaken and reftored to the owner. But
thouo-h no queftion can now arife between the infured and
the infurer, as to the effefl of a capture or recapture, in di-
vefting or revetting the property ; it may not be deemed
unimportant to inquire when a capture ftiall be deemed to
transfer the property to an enemy, and what (hall be the
efl'edl of a recapture in revefting it in the original owner.
The general opinion feems to be, that by the law of nations,
the property of things captured in war is changed when all
reafoiKible hope of recovering them is gone ; and, with refpeft
to thmgs moveable, all reafonable hope of recovering them is
prefumed to be gone when they ai-e brought within the pro-
teftion of the enemy's fortrefs. Grotius fays, that (hips or
goods, taken at fea, become the property of the captors,
when they are brought into the enemy's harbours, or to the
place where his whole fleet is Rationed ; for then all hopes of
recovering them may be faid to vanilh. But, he adds, that
by the law of nations, as introduced among European ftates
in more modern times, things are confidered as captured,
when they have been 24 hours in the power of the enemy.
Others deny this rule of the law of nations, and infill on
the rule of the Roman law, that the prize muft be carried
Vol. XXIX.

R E C

" infra prafidia" before it can become the property of the
captors; and by " prxfidia" Bynkerlhoeck underftands the
camps, the pbrts, the towns, and the fleets, of the enemy.
Ill our courts of admiralty, however, it has always been
holden, by the marine law of England, independent of
the ftatute which commands reftitution, and fixes the rate
of falvage, the property is not changed in favour of a ven-
dee or recaptor, fo as to bar the orignal owner, till there has
been a regular lentence of condemnation : and in the reign
of king Charles II., a folemn judgment was given upon
this point ; and reftitution of a (hip taken by a privateer was
decreed, atter (he had been fourteen weeks in the enemy's pof-
feftion, hecaufejhe had not been condemned. The fame doctrine
has, in feveral inftances, prevailed in our courts of common
law. In one cafe it was holden that nine days' poffefTion by
the captor, and in another, that four years' podcllion, and
feveral voyages performed, will not change the property,
without a fentence of condemnation.

Ill general, whenever a (liip is taken by the enemy, the
infured may abandon, and demand as for a total lofs ; and Ik-
Is not bound to make any claim or appeal in the enemy's
courts of admiralty, or to litigate there the validity of the
capture.

But the infured is in no cafe hound to abandon ; and, as
the law now (lands, no capture by the enemy can be fo total
a lofs as to leave no poflibility of recovery, for the_;ux poJU'i^
minii continues for ever, except in the cafe of a captured
(hip converted into a (hip of war. (Stat. 33 G. III.c. 66.
§ 42.) If the owner himfelffiiould retake his (hip or goods,
he will be fully intitlcd to them ; and if they be retaken at
any time, whether before or after condemnation, he will be
intitled to reftitution, upon payment of 3 fettled falvage.
Stat. 29 G. II. c. 34. § 24 ; and 33 G. III. c. 66. § 42.
The chance of the owner's recovering his property, does
not, however, fufpend the demand of the infured, as for a
total lofs : but in the cafe of a recapture, juftice is done
to the infurer by putting him in the place of the infured. In
queftions upon policies of infurance, the nature of the
contradl as an indemnity, ami nothing elfe, is always liberally
coniidered.

When there has been a capture, whether legal or not,
and the (liip has been recaptured or reftored, the infurer is
bound to defray all nece{rary expences which the infured has
been put to for the recovery of his property. He is there-
fore liable for a fum of money paid by the infured to the
captors, as a compromife made bondjide, to prevent the (hip
being condemned as prize. See Ransom.

It often happens that a recaptured (hip is in a ftate to
profecute her original voyage ; and, in that cafe, it is the
intereft of the recaptors, as well as of the other parties con-
cerned, that (he (hould be permitted to do fo. The lalt
prize aft (ftat. 33 Geo. III. c. 66. $ 44.) has therefore
very properly provided, " That if a (hip be retaken before
(he has been carried into an enemy's port, it (hall be lawful
for her, if the recaptors confent thereto, to profecute her
voyage ; and it (hall not be necefl'ary for the recaptors to
proceed to adjudication till fix months after the recapture,
or till the return of the (liip to the port from whence (he
failed ; and the mailer, owners, or agents, with the confent
of the recaptor, may difpofe of their cargoes before adju-
dication : and in cafe the veftel (hall not return to the port
from whence (he failed, or the recaptors (hall have had no op-
portunity of proceeding regularly to adjudication within the
fix months, on account of the abfence of the faid veffel, the
court of admiralty (hall, at the inftance of the recaptors,
decree reftitution to the former owners, they paying falvage,
upon fuch evidence as to the court (hall, under all the cir-
■5 T cumftances

RECAPTURE.

cumftavices t>f ihc cafe, appear realonable ; the expcnce of
fuch proceeding not to encecA fourteen pounds."

We {hall here obferve, tiiat there is an obvio\is difference
between capture and arreft of princes ; the objefl ol the one
is prize, that of the other detention, with a defign to reftore
the rtiip or goods detained, or to pay the value to the owner.
When a fhip is detained in a port after a declaration of war,
or the iffuing of letters of reprifal, this more relembles
a capture than a detention, and gives the injured an imme-
diate right to abandon, as for a lofs by capture, even though
BO condemnation be pronounced, and though the (hip be af-
terwards reitored. The moft frequent caufe of detention is
an embargo, which is a proclamation or order of Hate,
ufually iflued in time of war or threatened hoftiUties, prohi-
biting the departure of fhips or goods from fome or all of
the ports of fuch ftate until further order. An embargo
laid on (hips and merchandize in the ports of this kingdom
by virtue of the king's proclamation, is ftriftly legal, when
the proclamation does not contravene the ancient laws, or
tend to eftabH(h new ones ; but only to enforce the execution
of fuch laws as are already in being, in fuch manner as the
king (hall judge necelfary. But whether an embargo be
legally or illegally laid, the injury to the owner, by the de-
tention of his (hip or goods, is the fame ; and the infurer is
equally liable for the lofs occalloned by it. If a fhip be
feized after a ce(ration of arms and preliminary articles of
peace are figned, this (hall not be deemed a capture, but only
an arreft of princes. For the regulation of falvage upon a
recapture, we refer to the article Salvage.

Capture by an enemy or a pirate, or an arreft of princes,
or even an embargo, is prima facie a total lofs ; and imme-
diately upon tlie capture, or upon a mere arreft, or at any
time while the (hip continues under detention, the infured
may eleft to abandon, and give notice to the infurer of his
intention fo to do ; and thus entitle himfelf to claim as for
a total lofs from the infurer. For, from the moment of the
capture, the owners lofe their power over the (hip and cargo,
and are deprived of the free difpofal of them ; and, in the
opinion of the merchant, his right of difpofal being fuf-
pended or rendered uncertain, ic equivalent to a total de-
privation. It would therefore be unreafonable to oblige
the infured to wait the event of capture, detention, or
embargo.

There is this difference between a policy 7ipon interejl, and
a tvager policy, that in the one cafe the infured may, if he
thinks proper, abandon the moment he has notice of a cap-
ture or detention, and this will bind the underwriters, what-
ever maybe the ultimate fate of the (hip ; but in the cafe of
a wager policy there can be no abandonment, becaufe the
infured has nothing to abandon.

But a capture or arreft docs not neccfTarily, and at all
events, terminate in a total lofs, fo as to entitle the infured to
abandon ; for as he cannot abandon till he has received ad-
vice of the lofs ; if, at the time he receives fuch advice, or
before he has eletted to abandon, he receive advice that the
(hip or goods infured are recovered, or are in fafety, heean-
not then abandon ; becaufe he can only abandon •uihUe it is a
total lofs, and he knows it to be fo ; not after he knows of
the recovery. Therefore, if a captured fhip be retaken and
permitted to proceed on her voyage, fo that (he fuffers but
a fmall temporary inconvenience ; this would only be a par-
tial, and not a total, lofs.

On the other hand, a title to reftitution upon a recapture
does not neceffarily, and at all events, deprive the infured of
the right to abandon ; for if, in confequence of the cap-
ture, the voyage be loft, or not worth purfuing ; if the
falvage be very high ; if farther expence be nccefrary, and

the infurer will not undertake at all events to pay it, he may
abandon. The rule it, that, if the thing infured be recovered
before any lofs is paid, the infured is entitled to claim as for
a total, or a partial lofs, according to the (inal event ; that
is, according to the ftate of tlie cafe at the time he makes
his claim. There is no veiled right to a total lofs, till the in-
fured, having a right to aVjandon, elefts to do fo ; for he is
only entitled to an ijidemnity for his lofs as it (lands at the
time of the adlion brought, or offer to abandon.

But if, after a total lofs has been adlually paid, the
thing infured be recovered, the infurer cannot oblige the
infured to refund the money he has received ; but he
(hall (land in the place of the infured, and fo no injuftice is
done.

Cafes are mentioned by Mr. Serjeant Marfhall, which ferve
as examples to (hew, that though a captured (hip be recap-
tured, yet if the voyage be loft, the lofs will be total, and
the infured will have a right to abandon.

By the marine law, the property was not changed by the
capture, till after condemnation : and fincc the 29 Geo. II.
c. 34, the "jus pollliminii" continues forever. A recapture
does not in all cafes prevent the lofs being total. If the
voyage be abfolutely loft, or be not worth purfuing ; if the
falvage be very high ; if further expence be neceftary ; if the
infurer will not engage, at all events, to bear that expence,
though it fhould exceed the value, or fail of fuccefs : under
thefe, and many other fimilar circumftances, the infured may
difentangle himfelf and abandon, notwithftanding there was
a recapture. Upon a recapture the property returns to the
original owner, pledged to the recaptors for the amount of
the falvage : upon the payment of which he is intitled to
reftitution. If upon a recapture the captain, finding that
the voyage cannot be purfued, and, acting fairly for the
benefit of all concerned, fell the (hip and cargo to pay
the falvage, and thereby put an end to the voyage, the in-
fured may abandon and recover as for a total lofs. How-
ever, a capture does not neceffarily amount to a total lofs, nor
does a recapture prevent its being tot.il. If the captain
purchafe the (hip from the captors for account of his
owners, the money paid, being in the nature of falva<Te, is
only partial lofs.

To this article we (hall fubjoin two or three remarks
on the fubjeft of abandonment, which do not elfewhere oc-
cur. A time (hould be fixed when the degree of the ;-,i.
furer's refponfibility (hould be afcertained. In feveral mr-
ritime ftates on the continent, pofitive regulations have
been eftabliihed, limiting the time, after a lofs has happened,
within which the infured may abandon. In England we have
no fuch pofitive regulation, nor any time limited by law for
abandoning. But the courts have laid down a rule, better
adapted to the purpofe ; and the rule is, that as foon as the
infured receives advice of a total lofs, he muft make his
eleftioii whether he will abandon or not. If he determines
to abandon, he muft give the underwriters notice of this
within a reafonable time after the intelligence arrives ; and
any unneceffary delay in giving this notice will amount to a
waver of his right to abandon ; for unlefs the owner does
fome aft, (Ignifying his intention to abandon, it will be
only a partial lofs, whatever may be the nature of the lofs,
or the extent of the damage. If the infurers in any manner
prevent the abandonment, they fhall pay the whole lofs, to
the amount of the fum infured. If no intelligence be re-
ceived of a fhip within a reafonable time, it (hall be pre-
fumcd that (he foundered at fea : when the time has elapfed
which affords that prefumption, the infured may abandon,
and claim as for n total lofs. Marfhall on Infurance,
vol. ii.

RECAR-

11 E C

RECARDAINS, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in
tlie province of Beira ; 6 miles E. < f Bragan^a Nova.
RECCAN. See Aruacan.

RECCO, a town of the Ligurian republic, near the fea-
coail ; 1 1 miles S.E of Genoa.

, RECEIF, a fort and harbour on the coaft of Brazil.
S. lat. 8° lo'.

RECEIPT, or Receit, in Commerce, an acquittance or
difcharge ; or a written acknowledgment of having received
a fum of money.

Where the receipt is on the back of a bill, &c. it is
ufually called an endorfcment.

Among tradefmen the receipt ufually makes the fecond of
the three articles of an account ; the receipt contains the
monies received ; the two others the cxpence, and the re-
turn or balance.

By the 44 Geo. III. c. 98, the former flamp duties
were repealed, and others impofed ; by the 48 Geo. III.
c. 149, thefe lail were repealed, and the following were
impofed ; viz. _

Duty.
Receipt or difcharge given for or upon the pay-
ment of money
Amounting to 2/. and not amouwting to

ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
500/. or upwards
And where any fum of money whatever (hall be ~)

therein expreffed, or acknowledged to be re- / o 5 o

ditto

10/.

ditto

20/.

ditto

50/.

ditto

1 00/.

ditto

200/.

ditto

ijoo/.

aj-

e

J'.

J.

10/.

0

0

2

20/.

0

0

4

50/.

0

0

8

100/.

0

I

0

200/.

0

2

0

500/.

0

3

0

-

0

5

0

ceived in full of all demands

i'

And any note, memorandum, or writing whatfoever, given
to any perfon for or upon the payment of money whereby
any fum of money, debt, or demand, or any part of any
debt or demand therein Ipecificd, and amounting to 2/. or
upwards, fhall be expreffed or acknowledged to have been
paid, fettled, balanced, or otherwife difchargcd or fatisfied,
or which fhall import or fignify any iuch acknowledgment,
and whether the fame (hall or (hall not be figned with the
name of any perfon, (hall be deemed and taken to be a
receipt for a fum of money of equal amount with the fum,
debt, or demand fo cxprelled or acknowledged to have
been paid, fettled, balanced, or otherwife dilcharged, or
fatislied, within the intent and meaning of this fchedule,
and of the foregoing aft, and (hall be charged with a duty
accordingly.

And any receipt or difcharge, note, memorandum, or
writing whatever, given to any perfon for or upon the pay-
ment of money, which (hall contain, import, or fignify any
general acknowledgment of any debt, account, claim, or
demand, debts, accounts, claims, or demands, whereof the
amount (hall not be therein fpecified, having been paid, fet-
tled, balanced, or otherwife difcharged or fatisfied, or where-
by any fum of money therein mentioned (hall be acknow-
ledged to be received in full, or in difcharge or fatisfaftion
of fuch debt, account, claim, or demand, debts, accounts,
claims, or demands, and whether the fame (hall or (hall not
be figned with the name of any perfon, (hall be deemed and
taken to be a receipt for the fum of 500/. or upwards,
within the intent and meaning of this fchedule, and of the
foregoing aft, and iliall be charged with the duty of jj.
accordingly.

By 43 Geo. III. c. 126, fuch receipt (hall not be avail-
able in law or equity as fuch acknowledgment, or be
given in evidence, unlefs duly itamped as aforefaid.

R i<: c

And all receipts, difcharges, and acknowledgments of the
defcriptioii aforefaid, which (liall be given for or upon pay.
meiits made by or with any bills of exchange, drafts, pro-
miffory notes, or other fecurities for money, fhall be deemed
and taken to be receipts given upon the payment of money
within the intent and meaning of this fchedule and of the
foregoing aft.

Exemptlom from the preceding Duties on RcceipU.
Receipts exempted from (lamp duty by any aft or aft*
of the prefent feflion, relating to the a(i'c(fed taxes.

Receipts or difcharges given by the trcafurcr of the navy
for any money impretted to or received bjr him for the
fervice of the navy.

Receipts or difcharges given by any agent for money
impreded to him on account of the pay of the army or
ordnance.

Receipts or difcharges given by any officer, feaman,
marine or foldier, or their reprefentatives refpeftivcly, for
or on account of any wages, pay, or pcnfion due from the
navy-oflice, army pay-office, or ordnance-office.

Receipts or difcharges given for the confideration money,
for the purchafe of any fhare in any of the government or
parhamentary (locks or funds, or in the (locks and funds of
the governor and company of the bank of England, or of
the Ead India company, or South Sea company, and for
any dividend paid on any (hare of the faid flocks or funds
refpeftivcly.

Receipts given for money depofited in the bank of Eng-
land, or in the bank of Scotland, or royal bank of Scotland,
or in the bank of the Britilh linen company in Scotland, or
in the hands of any banker or bankers, to be accounted for
on demand, provided the fame be not expreffed to be re-
ceived of or by the hands of any other than the perfon or
perfons to whom the fame is to be accounted for ; but if
with interell, fee Promissory Notes.

Receipts or difcharges written upon promiiTory notes,
bills of exchange, drafts or orders for the payment of
money duly (lamped according to the laws in force at the
date thereof, or upon bills of exchange drawn out of, but
payable in Great Britain.

Receipts or difcharges given upon bills or notes of the
governor and company of the bank of England ; letters by
the general poll acknowledging the fafe arrival of any bills
of exchange, promiflbry notes, or other fecurities for money.
Receipts or difcharges indorfed or otherwife written upon,
or contained in any bond, mortgage, or other fecurity, in
any conveyance, deed, or inftrument whatever, duly llampeJ
according to the laws in force at the date thereof, acknow-
ledging the receipt of the confideration money therein ex-
preffed, or the receipt of any principal money, interefl, or
annuity thereby fecured.

Releafes or difchai-ges for money by deeds duly ftampt
according to the laws in force at the date thereof.

Receipts or difcharges given for drawbacks or bounties
upon the exportation of any goods or merchandife from
Great Britain.

Receipts or difcharges for the return of any duties of
cuftoms upon certificates of over entry.

Receipts or acknowledgments of payments indorfed upon
any bills, orders, remittance bills, or remittance certificates,
drawn by comraifhoneed officers, mailers, and furgeons in
the navy, or by any commiflioner or commiffioners of the
navy, under the authority of the aft paffed in the 35th
year of his majefty's reign, for the nioi'e expeditious pay-
ment of the wages and pay of certain officers belonging to
the navy.

3 T 2 Receipts

RECEIPT.

Receipts or acknowledgments of pa)-ments indorfed upon
any bills drawn purluant to any former aft o' afts of par-
liament, by the commillioners of the navy, or by the com-
mifTioners for viftualling the navy, or by the commiffioncrs
for managing the tranfport fervice, and taking care of fick
an 1 wounded feamcn, upon and payable by the treafurer
of the navy.

If any perfon (hall write or fign any receipt liable to any
Itamp duty, without being liril duly itamped as aforefaid ;
or with a (lamp of a lower value than is herein direfted : he
fli;ill forfeit lol. if the fum paid or exprclTed therein (hall not
amount to lool. ; and 20/. if the fum amount to 100/. or
upwards. 31 Geo. III. c. 27. f. 17. 35 Geo. III. c. 55.

f- 8.

Every perfon who (hall give any receipt or writing ac-
knowledging the payment ofmoney, in which a lefs fum (liall
be exprelTed than the fum aftually paid or received, or
■who fhall feparate or divide the fum aftually paid or re-
ceived into divers fums, or ftiall write oft any part of any
debt, or demand, or be guilty of or concerned in any con-
trivance with intent to defraud his majeily, (liall forfeit 5c/.
35 Geo. III. c. 55. f. 9.

And the perfons, or their agent, from whom any fum fhall
be due or payable, and who (ball have paid fuch fum, may
provide a (lamp with the proper duty, or of fome higher rate
of duty than required, and demand of the perfon entitled to
fuch fum, or any agent to whom the fame (hall have been
paid, a receipt for fuch fum, and alfo the amount of the
duty thereon as aforefaid ; and if fuch perfon refufe to
give fuch receipt upon demand thereof, or to pay the
amount thereof, every fuch perfon (hall forfeit for each
offence 10/. 43 Geo. III. c. 126. f. 5.

Stamps denoting the duties under former afts may be ufed,
provided they be applied to receipts of the like amount as
required by this aft. f. 8.

And all vellum, parchment, and paper liable to any flamp
duty as aforefaid, fhall be flamped before the fame be
written or printed upon ; or may be brought to the faid
commiflioners or their officers to be (lamped within 14 days
after fuch receipts fliall be given or bear date, and fhall be
ftamped on payment of 5/. over and above the duty ; and
if brought after 14 days within one calendar month, oh
payment of 10/. over and above the duty. ^I Geo. III.
c. 25. f. 19, 20. 35 Geo. III. c. 55. f. 10, II.

All penalties by tliis aft incurred may be fued for in the
courts at Weftminfler ; or any neighbouring juilice may
hear and determine any offence which fubjefts the offender
t» any pecuniary penalty ; who may, on complaint made
within three calendar months, fummon the party accufed,
and the witnefles, and examine into tlie matter of faft ; and
on confeffion, or the oath of one witnefs, may give judgment
therein, and levy fuch penalty by didrefs on the goods of
the offender, which, if not redeemed within fix days, may
be fold ; and fuch penalty (hall be diltributed half to the
king, and half to the informer ; and for want of fufficient
diftrefs, the offender (hall be committed to prifon for
three calendar months, unlefs fuch penalty (hall be fooner
paid. 31 Geo. III. c. 25. f. 24, 25. 35 Geo. III. c. 5^.
f. 12, 13.

If any perlon (hall find himfelf aggrieved by the judg-
ment of fuch juilice, he may, upon giving fecurity to the
amount of fuch penalty and coils, appeal to the next fef-
fions, which (liall happen 14 days next after (uch convi6tion,
on giving reafonable notice ; and in cafe fuch judgment
be alfirmed, they may award the perfon appealing fuch coils
as to them (hall feem meet. Id.

Provided, neverthelefs, that fuch juilice may, where he

(hall fee caufe, mitigate any fuch penalty, fo as not to reduce
the fame to Icfs than one moiety thereof over and above the
cods. 31 Geo. III. c. 25. f. 26. 35 Geo. III. c. 55.

WitnelTc? not appearing, having been duly fummoned,
without reafonable caufe to be allowed by fuch judice, or
refufing to give evidence, fhall forfeit /^os. to be recovered
in like manner. 31 Geo. III. c. 25. f. 27. 35 Geo. III.
c. 5J. f. 15.

Perfons counterfeiting or forging any (lamp hereby di-
refted to be made ufe of fhall be guilty of felony without
benefit of clergy. 31 Geo. III. c. 25. f. 29. 35 Geo. III.
c. 55. f. 17. 43 Geo. III. c. 126. f. 1 1.

All powers given by any former aft relating to the (lamp
duties (hall extend to this aft. 31 Geo. III. c. 25. f. 30.
35 Geo. III. c. s^. f. 18. 43 Geo. III. c. 126. f. 12.

Perfons fued or prolecuted on account of any thing
done in purfuance of this aft may plead the general ili'ue
and give the fpecial matter in evidence ; and if a verdift
be for the defendant, or the plaintiff be nonfuited, treble
damages fliall be awarded againil fuch plaintiff, f. i j.

By the 44 Geo. III. c. 98, the former duties on legacies
under the (jare of the commiflioners for (lamp duties were
repealed, and new duties were impofcd. By the 45 Geo. III.
c. 28, additional duties were impofed, and by the
48 Geo. III. c. 149, the following were impofed (being
by f. 3. of this laft aft placed under the provifions of
former afts relating to fuch duties,) and thofe impofed by
former afts were repealed.

Schedule, Part III.
Legacies and fuccejfton to perfonal or moveable e/late upon

tntejlacy.
I. Where the tejlator, tejlatrix, or hitejlnle, died before or upon
the ph of April 1 805.

For every legacy, fpecific or pecuniary, or of any other
defcription, of the amount or value of 20/. or upwards,
given by any will or tedamentary indrument of any perfon
who died before or upon the 5th day of April 1805, out
of his or her perfonal or moveable edate, and which fhall
be paid, dehvered, retained, fatisfied, or difcharged, after
the loth of Oftober 1808.

Alfo for the clear refidue (when devolving to one perfon'',
and for every (hare of the clear refidue (when devolving to
two or more perfons), of the perfonal or moveable eilate
of any perfon who died before or upon the 5th of April
1805 (after dedufting debts, funeral expences, legacies,
and other charges fird payable thereout], whether the
title to fuch refidue, or any fhare thereof, fhall accrue by
virtue of any tedamentary difpofition, or upon a partial or
total intedacy ; where fuch refidue, or fhare of fuch refidue,
fliall be of the amount or value of 20/. or upwards, and
where the fame fhall be paid, delivered, retained, fatisfied,
or difcharged, after the i©th of Oftober 1808.

Where any fuch legacy, or refidue, or fhare of
fuch refidue, fhall have been given, or devolved, £ s. d.
to or for the benefit of a brother or fider of the
deceafed, or any defcendant of a brother or fider
of the deceafed ; a duty at and after the rate of
2/. lOJ-. per cent, on the amount of the value
thereof - - - - - - -2100

Where to or for the benefit of a brother or
fitter of the father or mother of the deceafed ; or
any defcendant of a brother or fider of the father
or mother of the deceafed ; a duty at and after
the rate of 4/. per cent, on the amount or value
thereof - - - - - - -400

Where

RECEIPT.

Where to or for the benefit of a brother or £ s. d.
fitter of a grandfather or graiulinothcr of the
deceafed, nr any defceiidant.of a brother or filler
of a grandfather or grandmother of the deceafed ;
a duty at and after the rate of 5/. per cent, on
the amount or value thereof - - -500

Where to or for tlic benefit of any perfon in
any other degree of collateral confanguinity to
the deceafed, than is above defcribed, or to or
for the benefit of any ftrangcr in blood to the
deceafed ; a duty at and after the rate of 8/.
per cent, on the amount or value thereof - -800

II. Where the teftator, tejlalrix, or intcjlnte, Jhall have died
after the ^ih of April 1805.

For every legacy, fpecific or pecuniary, or of any other
defcription, of the amount or value of 20/. or upwards,
given by any will or teftamentary inflrumcnt, of any perfon
who (hall have died after the 5th of April 1805; either
out of his or her perfonal or moveable eltate, or out of or
charged upon his or her real or heritable eflate, or out of
any monies to arife by the iale, mortgage, or other difpofi-
tion of his or her real or heritable eflate, or any part thereof,
and which (hall be paid, delivered, retained, fatisfied, or dif-
charged after the loth of Oftober 1808.

Alfo, for the clear refidue, (when devolving to one per-
fon), and for every (hare of the clear refidue (when devolving
to, two or more perfons), of the perfonal or moveable
eftate of any perfon who (hall have died after the 5th of
April 1805, (after dedufting debts, funeral expences, le-
gacies, and other charges firlt payable thereout), whether
the title to fuch refidue, or any fhare thereof, fliall accrue
by virtue of any teftamentary difpofition thereof, or upon a
partial or total inteftacy, where fuch refidue, or fhare of
refidue, (hall be of the amount or value of 20/. or upwards,
and where the fame (hall be paid, delivered, retained, fatif-
fjed, or difcharged after the loth of Otlober i8o8.

And alfo for the clear refidue (when given to one perfon),
and for every fhare of the clear refidue (when given to two
or more pcrf^ns), of the monies to arife from the fale, mort-
gage, or other difpofition of any real or heritable eftate,
direfted to be fold, mortgaged, or otherwife difpofed of,
by any will or teftamentary inftrument of any perfon who
/hall have died after the 5th of April 1805, (after dedufting
debts, funeral expences, legacies, and other charges, firft
made payable thereout, if any), where fucli refidue, or fliare
of refidue, fhall amount to 20/. or upwards, and where
the fame fhall be paid, retained, or difcharged, after the
10th of Oftober 1808.

Where any fuch legacy or refidue, or any fliare £ s. d.
of fuch refidue, fiiall have been given, or have
devolved, to or for the benefit of a child of the
deceafed, or any defcendant of a child of the
deceafed ; a duty at and after the rate of i/. per
cent, on the amount or value thereof - -100

Where to or for the benefit of a brother or
fifter of the deceafed, or any defcendant of a
brother or fifter of the deceafed ; a duty at and
after the rate of 2/. 10^. per cent, on the amount
or value thereof - - - - -2100

Where to or for the benefit of a brother or
fifter of the father or mother of the deceafed, or
any defcendant of a brother or fifter of the father
or mother of the deceafed ; a duty at and after
the rate of 4/. per cent, on the amount or value

thereof - -400

6

Where to or for the benefit of a brother or £ s. d.
fifter of a grandfather or grandmother of the de-
ceafed, or any defcendant of a brother or fifter of
a grandfatlier or grandmother of the deceafed ; a
duty at and after the rate of 5/. per cent, on the
amount or value thereof - . . -500

Where to or for the benefit of any perfon in
any other degree of collateral confanguinity to
the deceafed, than as above defcribed, or to or
for the benefit of any ftranger in blood to the
deceafed; a duty at and after the rate of 10/.
/i"/- (rc«/. on the amount or value thereof - - 10 o o
And all gifts of annuities, or by way of annuity, or of
any otlier partial benefit, or intereit, out of any fucli eftate
or cffefts as aforefaid, ftiall be deemed legacies within the
intent and meaning of this fchedule.

Exemptions.

Legacies and refidues, or fliares of refidue, of any fuch
eftate or effefts as aforefaid, given or devolving to or for
the benefit of the hufband or wife of the deceafed, or to
or for the benefit of any of the royal family.

And all legacies which were exempted from duty by the
39 Geo. III. c. 73, for exempting certain fpecific legacies,
given to bodies corporate or other public bodies, from the
payment of duty.

By f. 43. of 48 Geo. III. c. 149, the commifTioners are
authorized to remit penalties incurred before palTing this
a£l by non-payment of the duty on legacies, if the duty in
arrear (hall be paid on or before the 31ft Jan. 1809.

By f. 44, in all cafes not provided for by f. 43, where
any receipt for any of the above matters fiiall be brought
to the head office to be ftampcd after the expiration of
three calendar months from the date thereof, it may be
ftamped on payment of the duty, together with the penalty
incurred for not ftamping the fame in due time : and if
the receipt have been figned out of Great Britain, and be
brought to be ftamped within 2 1 days after being received
in Great Britain, and no penalty to be incurred.

The faid duties to be under the management of the com-
mifTioners of the ftamp duties. 35 Geo. III. c. ^1. f. 3.

And in cafe of fpecific legacies, where the refidue of any
perfonal eftate fhall confiit of property not reduced into
money, the perfon taking adminittration of fuch effefts, or
by whom the duty ought to be paid, may fet a value thereon,
and offer the duty accordingly ; and may, at his own ex-
pence, require the ftamp commifiioners to appoint a perfon
to fet fuch value, and fuch commifTioners may accept the
duty fet by fuch perfon with an appraifement, but if they
fhall not be fatisfied with the value fo fet, they may appoint
a perfon to appraife fucheffefts, and to fet the value thereon,
and require the duty to be paid accordingly ; but if the
perfon who ought to pay fuch duty fhall not be fatisfied
with fuch valuation, he may caufe the fame to be reviewed
by the commifTioners of the land-tax of the diftrift where
fuch effefts fhall be, at their next meeting, if fourteen days
have elapfed before fuch meeting, and if not, at the next fuc-
ceeding meeting, of which appeal fix days notice fhall be
given to the flamp commifTioners ; and the faid commif-
fioners of the land-tax may appoint a perfon to appraife
fuch effefts, and to fet a value thereon, and may hear and
determine fuch appeal in like manner as appeals to them in
other cafes, and their judgment fhall be final ; and if the
valuation made under the authority of fuch ftamp commif-
Tioners fhall not be appealed from within the time afore-
faid, or ftiall be affirmed upon appeal, tlie duty fhall be paid
accordingly ; and if any variation fhall be made on fuch

appeal,

R E C

R K C

appeal, tlie duty fhall be paid according to fuch variation ;
and if tliL* duty afic^d'ed in manner aforefaid fliall exceed the
duty ofFircd to and refiifed by fuch ftanip officers, the
cxpcnces fliall be borne by the perfon liable to pay fuch
duty. If any difpute fliall arifc between perions entitled
to any fucli legacy, or refidue, or taking adniiniftration as
aforefaid, refpefting the value thereof, or duty to be paid
thereon, the duty fliall be aflefled by fuch ftamp commif-
fioners on reference to them by either party ; and if the
value of fuch property fliall be in difpute, fuch (lamp com-
iiiiffioners fliall caufe an appraifement to be made thereof,
at the expence of the perfon liable to pay the duty, in
manner aforefaid ; and if fuch perfon fliall be diffatisfied
with fuch valuation, the fame fliall be reviewed and finally
determined by the faid commiffioners of the land-tax, upon
appeal to them within the time and in the manner aforefaid.
And if tl;? effefts whereon fuch duty is payable fliall be
ten miles from London, fuch perfons as fhall be deputed
by the faid ftamp commiffioners fliall adl in their ftead. f. 22.
36 Geo. III. c. 52.

And if it fliall appear to the faid ftamp commiffioners,
upon oatli, to be ^dminiftered by a julfice, or mafter extra-
ordinary in chancery, that lefs duty has been paid than
ought to have been, by mifl;ake, without intention of fraud,
fuch miftake may be reftified by fuch commiffioners, who
may accept the duty really due within three calendar
months, if no fuit hath been inltituted, and on payment of
lol. per cent, thereon by way of penalty, f. 50.

Every perfon paying or receiving money contrary to this
aft, who fliall within twelve calendar months difcover the
other party offending, fo as he be convifted thereof, fliall
be indemnified and difcharged from all penalties againlt
this aft. f. 3 1 .

And all powers of forming afts relating to the ftamp
duties, not hereby altered, fhall be in force, in the execution
of this aft. f. 42.

Wherever any executor or adminiftrator fhall not have
paid the faid duties within time, the court of exchequer
may, on application from the ftamp office on fatisfaftory
affidavit, grant a rule for fuch executor to ffiew caufe why
he fhould not deliver to the commiffioners an account on
oath of all legacies, or of the perlonal property paid or
payable by him, and why the duties thereon have not been,
or fhould not be forthwith paid, and may make fuch rule
abfolute where it appears proper. And regiflrars of eccle-
fiaftical courts fhall, within a month of requifition, dehver to
the ftamp office an account of wills and letters of adminiftra-
tion in their cuftody, with particulars relating thereto, and
extrafts from any wills deemed neceffary by the commif-
fioners, on payment of fees agreed on or allowed by the
ccclefialHcal court, on pain of 50/. recoverable by informa-
tion by the attorney-general. 42 Geo. III. c. 99. f. 2, 3.
And by the 5 W. c. 21, the probate of the will or letters
of admiiiiftration of any common foldier or feaman, flain or
dying in the fervice, fhall be exempt from the flamp duties,
f. 6.

Receipt, or Refce'u, in Latu. See Resceit.

Receipt of Homage. See Resceit.

Receipt of the Exchequer. See Coi'RT of Exchequer.

Receu'T, in Medicine. See Recipe.

Receipts, Auditor of. See Auditor.

RECEIVER, or Recipient, in Chemiftry, a globe-
fliaped veffel, which is adapted to the neck or beak of an
alembic, retort, or other diitillatory vcfft I, in order to col-
left, receive, and contain the prodnfts of diftillations.

Receivers ffiould be made of glals, not only becaufe this
matter refills the aftion of the firongcil and moft corrofive

8

fubllances, but alfo becaufe being tranfparciit, it allows the
operator to fee through it, and to judge by the frequency
of the drops, if tlie dillillation be too quick or too flow,
pid alfo if the quantity and nature of the fubftanees that
come over be fuch as are required.

Almoft all receivers are kinds of bottles of different fizes,
of a fpherical form, the necks of which are cut fliort, and
each of which is pierced with a fmall hole in its lateral or
upper part, to give vent to the air or vapours, which are
too expanfive. Receivers of this form are called balloons ;
which fee. Some receivers are matrafles with long necks.
Thefe are generally adapted to the beaks of glafs alembics.
The long neck ferves to keep the belly of the receiver,
where the liquor is coUefted, at a proper diftance from tlie
fire.

Receivers have different forms for particular operations.
Such are thofe whicii have two or three beaks, either to be
adapted to other receivers, or to admit at the fame time the
necks of feveral diftillatory veflels, when the intention of the
operator is, that the vapours of different fubftances fhould
meet in the fame receiver. Such alfo are receivers for ef-
fential oils, obtained from aromatic plants diftilled with wa-
ter, which are lo made, that they are never full, bat that
the water runs out, and leaves the oil behind. Thefe are a
kind of glafs cucurbits, which contraft as they rife higher ;
fo that their neck or upper opening is but nearly of a con-
venient fize to receive the beak of the worm. Thefe re-
ceivers have another opening about the middle of the fwell-
ing or belly ; and to this opening is joined a glafs tube,
which bends and rifes vertically along the outer part of the
receiver, fo as to be within two inches and a halt as high as
the upper opening. At this height the tube bends again
towards the fide oppofite to the body of the receiver, to
pour into another veffel the liquor which arifes there. It
forms the figure of an S.

When this receiver is to be ufed, it is to be placed ver-
tically under the beak of the worm. During the diftilla-
tion, the liquor rifes to an equal height in the body of the
receiver, and in the crooked tube : when, therefore, the
height of the liquor in the receiver becomes greater than the
height of the tube, it muft begin to flow from the mouth of
this tube into another veffel placed on purpofe to receive it ;
but as effential oils are either lighter or heavier than water,
and as they are, therefore, always collefted either above or
under the water, and as the liquor which difcharges itfelf
through the tube is taken from the middle part of the re-
ceiver, nothing but water can be evacuated at the mouth of
the pipe, while the oil always remains in the receiver.
With fuch a receiver diftillation may be performed without
the trouble of changing the veffels. Macquer's Chem. Dift.
See Distillation and Laboiiatorv.

Receiver of an Air-Pump, is part of its apparatus ;
being a glafs veffel placed on the top of the plate, out of
which the air is to be exhaufted. To an air-pump belong
various receivers, of various forms and fizes, and ferving for
various purpofes. See Am-Pump.

Receiver, Exhaufled, in Pneumatics. See Exhausted.
And for the method of repairing thofe that are cracked, fee
Cement.

Receiver, Receptor, or Receptator, in Laiu, is ufed com-
monly in the bad fenfe, for fuch as knowingly receive ftolen
gcods from thieves, and conceal them.

This offence is only a mifdemeanor at common law : how-
ever, by the ftatutes 3 & 4 W. & M. c. 9. and 5 Ann.
c. 3 1, the offender is made acceffory to the theft and felony.
But becaufe the acceffory cannot in general be tried, unlefs
with the principal, or after the principal ii convifted, the

receivers

II E C

II E C

receivers by tliat means freciiiently eluded juflice ; to remedy Some fuppofc tliat thefc places fhoiild be a little liollow nr
which it is ciiafted by Ihitute i Ann. c. 9. and 5 Ann. excavated ; while others are of <juite a ditl'erciit opinion,
1-. _;i. that fucli receivers may be ilill profecnted for a mif- and t)n'nk that they (hoiild be even, or a little raifed. A
demeanor, and punilhed by fine and imprifonment, though very flight hollowintr is, however, probably the belt. An
:he principal felon be not before taken, fo as to be profe- experienced writer on this ful)ject fui'gefts, that it is not to
ciited and convifted. And in cafe of receiving ilolen lead, be inferred that, becaule they flionld be iioUow, they fhould
iron, and certain other metals, fuch oflence is, by (tatute alfo be deep ; as one principal ufe of them is to bring the
zg Geo. II. c. 50. punifllablc by tranfportation for four- i"ain waters, wliich fall within the yards or inclofed parts,
teen years. So that now the profecutor has two methods into a ilagnant (late, and to let them off fuperficialiy, fo as
in his choice : either to punifli the receivers for the mifde- to prevent any thing of the ground current kind from car-
meanor immediately, before the thief is taken (Folter. 373.); rying away the dung, either in a bodily manner, or in a
or to wait till the felon is convided, and then punilh them thick fluid ilate : they may, in this way, fuffer the more
as acceflbries to the felony. But it is provided by the watery particles only to pafs away into refervoirs, prepared
fame flat utes, that he fliall only make ufe of one, and not of to preferve and keep them for future ufe. It is believed
both thefe methods of puniflmicnt. that two feet on the lower fide, or deepeft parts, may be

By the fame ftatute alfo (29 Geo. II. c. 30.) perfons taken as a mean depth; but lefs may often be quite fuffi-
having lead, iron, or other metals in their cultody, and not cient : and the bottoms of the walle-water channels being
giving a fatisfaftory accoimt how they came by the fame, laid fix or eight inches lower than the rim of the bafons,
are guilty of a mifdemeanor, and punidiable by fine and the depth of water which they can contain is, it is con-
imprifonment. And by llatute 10 Geo. III. c. 48. all eluded, not more than fixteen or eighteen inches, when empty
knowing receivers of Itolen plate or jewels, taken by rob- of manure. But it is fuggefted, as necelfary to good farm
bery on the highway, or when a burglary accompanies the management, tliat, ioon after the winter's manure has been
itealing, may be tried as well before as after the conviftion removed and cleared away, floorings of marie, or fome other
of the principal, and whether he be in or out of cultody ; earthy fertilizing material, mixed with lime, to the thick-
and, if convifted, fliall be adjudged guilty of felony, and nefs of ten or twelve inches, fliould be fpread out over the
tranfported for fourteen years. By ftat. 21 Geo. III. bottoms of the bafons or hollowed parts ; by wliich means
c. 68. the receiving of any flolen copper, brafs, bell-metal, a rich compofl for grafs lands may be formed at fmall ex-
or utenfd fixed to any building, or any iron-rails or fencing pence, on which all the ofl'al materials of manure which can
fet up in any court or other place, is made tranfportation be colleifted, free from feeds of weeds, during the fummer
for feven years, or three years' imprifpnment to be kept to and autumn, (honld be depofited. In this manner the re-
hard labour. By flat. 21 Geo. III. c. 69. the rcceivnig ceptacles fliould be filled to the brims, even though no
of ft;olen pewter of any kind is fubjefted to the like penalty, liable manure were put into them during the above two fea-
although the principal has not been convidled. By flat. Ions ; fo that the winter's flail manures may have firm plat-
22 Geo. III. c. 58. the receiving of any flolen goods, forms to refl; upon, out of the way of water, the great evil
(except lead, iron, copper, brafs, bell-metal, and folder,) which antiquated prejudice fo much fears in thefe manure

is made a mifdemeanor, punifbable by fine snd imprifon-
ment, or whipping, as the court fliall appoint ; which fliall
exempt the offender from being punilhed as acceffory, al-
though the principal be afterwards convidled, and the of-
fence fliall appear to be grand larceny, or fome greater
offence. (See LAurEXY.) For the punilhment of re-

receptacles, as the prevention of the due maturation of theii-
different contents.

With thefe receptacles of manure there fhould be con-
nefted drains from the cattle-houfes, flails, and farm-ofRces,
for receiving and conveying the urine, and other liquid mat-
ters, from them to thefe bafons or receptacles ; and the

ceivers of goods flolen by bum-boats, &c. on the river mouths of their outlet channels fliould be well guarded, in
Thames, fee ilat. 2 Geo. III. c. 28. § 12. Receivers of order to prevent their being choaked up by the manure,
linen goods flolen from the bleaching-grounds are, by flat, when piled up to confiderable height above them. The

18 Geo. II. c. 27. declared felons without benefit of clergy, refervoirs, pits, or wells, which are made before them, are

In France, receivers are puniflied with death ; and the always to be kept free, for the fuperfluous water, or other

Gothic conftitutions dillinguifhed alfo three forts of thieves : liquid matters of the receptacles, to drain or filtrate into ;

" unum qui confilium daret, altcrum qui contreftaret, ter- and thence to pafs away in moift weather ; or to be pent up

tium qui receptaret et occultaret ; pari poena fingulos ob- in them, in dry warm feafons, for the purpofe of being

noxios." thrown over the piled-up manures, for the promotion of their

Receiver alfo denotes an officer, of which there are decay and maturation,
various kinds, denominated from the particular matters Where there are grafs lands lying conveniently below

they receive, the places where, or the perfons for whom, thefe receptacles and refervoirs for receiving their overflow-

&c. ings, all the different parts of the places, where they are

As receiver of rents; receiver-general of the cuftoms ; fituated, maybe made to fhelve gently towards them ; but

receiver of the fines, upon original writs in chancery, &:c. where land cannot be commanded for favouring this inten-

REfr'ElVER-GfHfra/ of the duchy of Lancatler, is he who tion, the receptacles or bafons fhould receive no other wa-

gathers all the revenues and fines of the lands of the faid ters than what are fupplied to them by the atmofphere.

duchy, all forfeitures, affeffments, &c. This regulation may eafily be accompliflied, fimply by

RECElVER-GcnwW of the public revenue is an officer ap- raifing their rims a few inches higher than the furrounding

pointed in every county, to receive the taxes granted by
parliament, and remit the money to the treafury.

Receiver's OJice. See Greeniuich Hospital.

RECENT Fruits. See Fruit.

RECEPTACLE of Stall Manure, in Agriculture, the

furfaces, which fhould be frequently cleared from the ma-
nure and litter dropped upon them, depofiting all fuch fub-
itances within their rims. The rain-water which falls, in
thefe cafes, is to be conveyed to the catch-pools, or the
moft contiguous common drains. In all cafes, that which

place where the various matters from the flails, and other falls upon the buildings fliould be conveyed away, without
places where animals are kept, are depofited and laid up. being fuffered to pafs tlu-ough the receptacles or bafons,

unlefs

R E C

unlefs where liquid manure is more in demand than that of
the bulky kind.

From the flmv progrefs made by manures of this fort to
maturation, in the winter feafon, in the open air, even when
piled up in the dried fituations, on account of its being con-
ftantly foaked or faturated with moillure, and expofed to
the effefts of the cold atmofphere, the plan of giving recep-
tacles of this fort a long oval fquare form, and covering
them with roofs, to free them wholly from rain, as well as
to defend them from cold, has been hit upon, and recom-
mended from authority. As by thus affording the articles
of manure the means of palfing into the ftate of fermenta-
tion, in the winter months, their putrefaftion and decay
would be beneficially promoted, for the ufe of the more
early crops of the fpring. But how far the advantage,
gained in this way, may equal or be fuperior to the expence
of building, and extra labour in the removals of the manure,
is a point which is by no means yet fully decided. And the
fuperior benefits, which have lately been denved from the
ufe of manure in its more raw or frefh ftate, render all fuch
fchemes perhaps of lefs importance than would otherwife be
the cafe.

As it is a matter of great confequence to prevent the ex-
ceffive wafte ef this fort of manure, which at prefent fre-
quently takes place in moll parts of the country, it has been
fuggefted by an experienced writer, who has attended much
to the fubjeft, and thought a great deal upon it, that piling
it in fhallow receptacles or bafons, and conducing the
liquor, when not wanted for moiftening the piles of manure,
which overflows from them, to refervoirs or catch-pools, in
order to flop, depolit, and arrell the heavier and more grofs
particles that may be conveyed in it, and to provide a valu-
able coUeftion of liquid manure in particular fituations, and
of rich muddy matters in others, are the moil appropriate
praftical means of accoinplifhing the matter, in an eafy and
cheap way, that can be adopted or had recourfe to. See
Dung, ¥ARM-Tard, Home.stal, Manure, Reservoir,
and Yard Manure.

RECEPTACULUM, Receptacle, in Botany :\nd Fe-
getable PhyfwIogy,'\!. th? feventh, or hft, part of fruftifica-
tion diftinguifhed by Linnxus, being the common bafis, or
point of conncdlion, of the others. (See Fructification.)
It is evident that fuch a part muft exift, under fome fliape
or other; yet the receptacle is not always dillinguifhed
by any particular figure. In fimple flowers it is often little
more than a mere point ; in compound ones it is very re-
markable and important, ferving, by its differences of
ftrufture, to afford very good generic diftinclions. The
receptacle of the Daify, Bellis, is conical ; that of Chry-
fanthemum convex. In Sphttranthus this part is very nearly
globular, while in fome fpecies of Centaurea and Carlina
it is either flat, or flightly concave. In Sonchus it is naked,
<leftitute of hairs or icales between the florets or feeds ;
while in Carduus it is hairy, and in ylnthemis varioufly fcaly.
This lafl genus differs, by the charatler in queflion alone,
from Chryfanthemum, whofe receptacle is naked ; but the
character is not quite fo natural, in this cafe, as could be
winded. Mr. Brown has obferved to us, that it affords not
even a certain artificial diftindlion, in the Chryfanthemum in-
dicum of the gardens, Curt. Mag. t. 327 ; which Willde-
now, like M. de Ramatuelle and profeffor Desfontaines,
has referred to jinthemis, becaufe they found the recep-
tacle to be fcaly. We are convinced they are in the right,
and yet this appears to be the very fame plant with Chry-
fanthemum ind'tcum, the fcales of the receptacle being va-
riable, and fometiii)!;? almofl, if not altogether, evanefcent.
Some genera of this clafs have a cellular, or honeycomb-

R E C

like receptacle, as Onopordum, and Tolpis (Creph barbata of
LinniEUs). In that cafe the edges of the cells are varioufly
jagged, toothed, or fringed, and they now and then are
fcarcely dillinguifhable from the reticulations or rugofitics of
fome naked receptacles.

The receptacle of the fo'wcr, in Linnaean language, means
the area or fpace between the flamens and flyles, in cer-
tain genera whofe germen is inferior ; as th.- whole umbel-
liferous order, in which the part in queflion is more or
lefs tumid, often coloured, and affumes a glandular af-
peft. The receptacle of the feeds is not unfrequently a
diflindl part from the capfule or its valves, ferving to con-
neft the feeds therewith. (See an example of it in Redu-
TEA.) The rachh, or common flalk of a fpike, or fpikelet,
in Grajfes, is alfo termed a receptacle.

In fome plants the receptacle undergoes great changes,
acquiring a different texture in the fruit, from what it
had in the flower. Thus, the whole fruit, as we call it,
of the Fig, (fee Ficus,) is a common receptacle, at firfl
coriaceous, and, like the reft of the plant, containing a
milky, fomcwhat acrid, juice. It forms a bag, hned with
flowers or florets, and having a fmall aperture at the top.
After the flowers are paft, this bag becomes pulpy, co-
loured, and full of fweet aromatic juice. So the fruit ot
the Strawberry, (fee Fragaria,) is but an originally
fmall dry receptacle, fubfequently enlarged, and become
pulpy, whofe outfide is ftndded with naked feeds. In
Broiijfonetla, defcribed under our article Papyriu.s, the
feparate ftalk of each germen becomes the enlarged and
pulpy fupporter of a naked feed. In PoLMCIllA, (fee that
article,) the common receptacle of the flowers, minutely
fcaly, and hardly difcernible, in its earlier ftate, changes to
a congeries of white, juicy, fweet, tooth-like fcales, ele-
vating the feeds in their appropriate withered perianths, and
altogether conftituting one of the moll extraordinary pulpy
fruits that we have ever met with. A fimilar change of
fubftance is obfervable in the calyx of the Mulberry, as
well as in Commelina Zanonia ; a change common and na-
tural in the germen of pulpy fruits, though rare in the par-
ticular parts of which we have been fpeaking.

Receptaculum Chyli, in Anatomy, that portion of the
trunk of the abforbing veffels, into which the lacleal ab-
forbents pour the fluids which they have taken up in the
alimentary canal : it is ufually rather larger than the neigh-
bouring portions of the vefiel, and fometimes very con-
fiderably fo. See Absorbents.

RECEPTARII, a term of reproach ufed for fuch phy-
ficiaris as wrote pompous receipts for loads of medicines,
more confulting the good of the apothecary than the pa-
tient ; as alfo for fuch as gave receipts for general medi-
cines, to be ufed at the difcretion of people wholly unac-
quainted with the nature of dif*3fes.

RECEPTION, Receptio, in Philofophy, denotes the
fame with pajfwn, confidered as oppofed to aS'ton.

Reception is alfo properly ufed for the manner of treat-
ing or entertaining a perfon ; and the folemnities and cere-
monies pradlifed on that occafion. See Entry.

The reception of ambaffadorsis ufually performed with a
great deal of pomp.

Reception is fometimes alfo ufed for the aft of ap-
proving, accepting, and admitting a thing. See Ac-
ceptance.

The canon law only binds where it is received: the civil
law is received in fome countries, and not in others.

The French would never reciive the council of Trent, the
Spanifh inquifition, nor the dogmata of the ultramontane
canonifts.

Receptionj

R E C

Rkcei'TION, in AJirohgy, is a dignity befalling two planets
when they excluingi- lioulc'S ; e. ^r. when tlie hin arrives in
Cancer, the honfe of the moon ; and the moon, in her re-
turn, arrives in the fun's honfe.

The fame term is alio ufed, when two planets exchange
exaltation.

RECEPTITIOUS Goods. Sec Goods.
RECESSION of the Equinoxes. See PRECESSION of ih:
Equinoxes.

RECESSUS, a word uled by fome medical writers to
exprefs an abfcefs, or apoilhumation.

Reckssus Imperii, liecefs of the Empire, a phrafe uled in
fpeaking of the affairs of Germany ; fignifying a colleAion
of the vote* or determinations of a diet.

At the end of each diet, before it breaks up, they gather
together all their refolutions, and reduce them into writing ;
the aft which contaius them they call the rccsffus imperii, be-
caufe made when on the point of retiring.

RECEYyJij- Oufce, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Cote d'Or, and chief place of a
canton, in the diilridl of Chatillon ; 15 miles S.E. of
Chatillon. The place contains 880, and the canton 5913
inhabitants, on a territory of 260 kiliometres, in 17 com-
munes.

RECHABITES, a kind of religious order among the
ancient Jews, hiftituted by Jonadab the fon of Rechab ; and
comprehending his family and pofterity.

Their founder prefcribed them three things : firft. Not
to drink any wine. Secondly, Not to build any houfes,
but to dwell under tents. Thirdly, Not to fow any corn,
or plant any vines.
t The Rechabites obferved thefe rules with great ftrift-
nefs, as appears from Jerem. xxxv. 6, &c. AVhence St.
Jerom, in his thirteenth epiftle to Pauhnus, calls them mo-
nachi, monh. Jonadab, their founder, lived under Jehoafli,
king of Judah, contemporary with Jehu, king of Ifrael ; his
father Rechab, from whom his pofterity were denomi-
nated, defcended from Raguel or Jethro, father-in-law
to Mofes, who was a Kenite, or of the race of Ken ;
whence Kenite and Reohabite are ufed as fynonimous in
fcripture.

The Kenites entered the promlfed land with the He-
brews, and dwelt in the tribe of Judah, about the Dead
iea. They were diftinguifhcd from the Ifraelites by their
retired fort of life, and by their contempt of cities and
houfes. Serrurius diftinguilhes the ancient Rechabites
defcended from, and inftitutv-d by, Jethro, from the new
Rechabites of Jonadab. The injuntlion of Jonadab laid
no obligation on the other Kenites, nor on the other de-
fcendants of Jethro. This they continued to oblerve above
300 years. Jehu began to reign A.M. 3120, and Jehoia-
kim, king of Judah, was put to death A.M. 3405, B.C.
599; but in the laft year of Jehoiakim, king of Judah,
Nebuchadnezzar coming to befiege Jernfalem, the Recha-
bites were forced to take refuge in the city. Hill, how-
ever, lodging in tents. During this fiege, Jeremiah re-
ceived orders from the Lord to converfe with the difciples
cf Rechab, to invite them into the temple, and to offer
them wine to drink. But the Rechabites would not accept
the offer.

The Rechabites were, probably, led captive, after the
taking of Jerufalem by the Chaldteans. (See Pfalm Ixx.)
They returned from their captivity, and fettled in the city
of Jabez beyond Jordan. {See i Chron. ii. 55.) Some
have fuggefted, that the Afrid;Eans of the Maccabees,
(l Mace. ii. 42. vii. 13. and 2 Mace. xiv. 6.) were fuccef-
fors and followers of the Rechabites. Others have con-
VoL. XXIX.

11 E C

founded them with the EfTenos. But it is certain, that tk?
nianmr of life ot the Effenes was very difft-rcnt from (hal
ot the Rechabites, as appears from Jofeph -s, Antiq lib
xviii. cap. 2. who informs us, that the Effenes had (ieJds
and inhabited houfes, but had neither wives nor children-
and did not perform their religious ceremonies with the
other Jews at Jerufalem : aU which was contrary to the
pradtice of the Rechabites.

RECHACING, in Hunting, the driving back of the
deer, or other bealls, into the forefls, chaces, &c. which
had flraggled out into the copfes or thickets, &c.

Anciently there were offices of rechacers of the decrs be-
flowed by the king on gentlemen, or old hunters, with falaries
for the keeping of running dogs to rechace the deer into the
forefts, and then to beat the dogs off, without purfuina- anv

farther

RECHANGE, in Commerce. See Re-exchange. ~
Rechange is alio ufed at fea for fuch tackle as is kent

in refcrve aboard the fhip, to ferve in cafe of failure of

that already in ufe. See Tackle.

Tfie Levantines ufe the word re/ped or refpil in the fame

fenfe.

RECHARGE of a Fire Jrm, is a fecond loading,
or charge. The recharge (hould never be fo deep as
the firfl charge, left the piece, being over heated, fliould
burft.

RECHBERG, if\ Geography, a town of Auftria : eitrht
miles N.W. of Grein. ^

RECHE, a river of France, which runs into the Am-
blave, near Malmedy.— Alfo, a town of England, in the
county of Cambridge, on the river Cam, formerly a place
of great trade, and before the draining of the fens, a port
for vefFels of confidcrable burthen ; five miles W. of New-
market.

RECHE AT, in Hunting, a lefTon which the huntfman
winds on the horn, when the hounds have loft their game,
to call them back from purfuing a counter-fcent.

RECHENBURG, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in
the circle of Erzgeberg ; four miles S.E. of Frauenftein.
RECHIA, a town of Servia ; too miles W. of NifTa
N. lat. 43^^ 12'. E. long. 19° 3'.

RECHICOURT, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Meurthe, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrid of Sarrebourg ; five miles N. of Blamant. The
place contains 992, and the canton 8516 inhabitants, on a
territory of 217^ kiliometres, in 18 communes.

RECHNITZ, a town of Hungary ; fix miles S.S.W.
ofGuntz.

RECHPERG, a town of Auftria; two miles N. of
Stain.

RECIMUS, among the Romans, a kind of fquare man-
tle, or veil, worn by women on the head. Salmafius
will have it to hav been a fort of gown ufed by the Ro-
man ladies, and tucked up before with a fipare pin, of a
purple colour.

RECINA, in Geography, a town of the marquifate of
Ancona ; three miles N.W. of Macerata.

RECIPE, in Medicine, a prefcription, or formula, of a
remedy, appointed to be admiuiftered to a patient. See
Prescription.

It is thus called, becaufe always beginning with the word
recipe, take; ordinarily exprefted by the abbreviation H;.

RECIPIANGLE, or Recipient-angle, a mathema-
tical iii/trument, ferving to take the quantity of angles :
ufed efpecially in the drawing plans of fortifications.

The recipiangle v.as formerly a popular iiiftrument amonor
tiie French, but little known among us ; it is afually very

3 U fimple,

R E C

fimple, in form of a fquarc, or rather a bevel (which lee) ;
confiding of two arms, or branches, rivetted together, and
yet moveable, like a fcdor, on the centre or rivet.

To take an angle with it, they lay the centre of a pro-
traftor to the joint, and the degrees cut by the edge (hew
the quantity of the angle : othcrwife the angle made by the
twQ rulers is drawn on paper, and then meafured with a pro-
traftor.

Sometimes there is a circle divided into degrees added over
the centre or rivet, with an index to (liew the degrees with-
out a protraftor. At other times the under branch is
divided.

To meafure a faliant angle with any of the rccipiangles,
apply the infides to the lines that form the angle ; for a re-
entering angle, apply the outfides, &c.

RECIPIENDO Excommunicato. See Excommuni-
cato.

Recipiendo et fac'iendo attoinnto. See Attoknato.
RECIPIENT, in Chemljry. See Receiver.
Recipient, Ilnnan, a vefiel like a tea-pot, intended for
the feparation of elfential oils from the watery liquor on
which they float.

Recipient of an Jir-pump. See Receiver.
RECIPROCAL, Reciprocus, fomething that is mu-
tual, or which is returned equally on both fides, or affeds
both parties alike.

The end of human fociety is to afford each other recipro-
cal aid ; there are reciprocal duties between the prince and
his fubjecfts, the hufband and wife, &c. There is a recipro-
cal aftion between the agent and patient.

The lex talionis eftablifties a kind of reciprocation of
juftice.

If two fimilar triangles be cut by parallel lines, the
feftions of the fides will be proportional ; and recipro-
cally, if the fides be cut proportionably, the triangles are
fimilar.

Reciprocal, in Lo/tc, is applied to terms which have
the fame fignification, or are convertible ; as, reafonabk animal
and man.

Schoolmen define reciprocation a converfion of the fe-
veral terms in an enunciation. And terms are faid to be
converted in an enunciation, when the predicate is put in
the place of the fubjeft, and, reciprocally, the fubjeft in that
of the predicate.

Thus, rationality andrifibility are faid to reciprocate ; for
we fay equally, a rational is rijible, and a rijible is ra-
tional.

Reciprocal, in Grammar, is applied to certain verbs
and pronouns in fome of the modern languages ; in regard
of their turning or reflecting the noun, or perfon, upon
himfelf.

Thus the pronoun relative, himfelf, refers Cato to Cato's
felf.

The abbe de Dangeau defines reciprocal verbs to be thofe
whofe nominative is plural, and denotes perfons afting mu-
tually on one another : as, Ces quatre hommes s^entrebattoient,
thefefour men fought together; Pierre et toi votis vous louez,
Peter and you praife one another, &c.

Reciprocal verbs are a fpecies of thofe which that author
calls pronominals, and which he diflinguiihes into reciprocal
and identical.

Reciprocal, in Poetry, is applied to verfes which run
the fame both backwards and forwards ; called alfo recurrents.
See Retrograde.

Reciprocal, in Arithmetic and Algebra, is the quotient
arifing fr«m the divifion of unity by any number or quan-

R E C

t'ty. Thus, the reciprocal of a = — , the reciprocal of — =

a J

y

-, and fo on.

Reciprocal Equations, in Algebra, are thofe equations
which contain feveral pairs of roots which are the recipro-
cals of each other. Thus, an equation wliofe roots are a, — ;

b, ~; &c. is called a reciprocal equation.

Some authors

define reciprocal equations, to be thofe equations whofe co-
eificients proceed in the fame order from both extremes, and
refpeftively equal to each other : thus, x" ■\- ax^ -f- i x' 4-
ix' -|- a.v + I = o, is a reciprocal equation ; but this form
ought rather to be confidered as a neceffary property of thefe
equations, by which they may be readily diilinguHhed, than
to be employed in the definition of them ; it being doubtlefs
the reciprocity of the roots from which they have received
their peculiar appellation.

The folution of thefe equations may always be made to
depend ujjon others of half the original degree, when the
equation is of even dimenfions ; or upon half the dimenfion
minus I , when it is odd.

Thus far, in faft, this property is not exclufively due to
reciprocal equations, as the fame may be done in all cafes
where any fimilar relation is known to have place between the
roots of an equation, whether by multiplication, divifion, ad- i
dition, or fubtraftion ; but in thefe cafes there is nothing in
the form of the equation by which fuch relations may be
known to have place, whereas in reciprocal equations their
reciprocity becomes immediately obvious by the peculiar
order of their co-efficient, thefe being the fame from both ex-
tremes, both with regard to fign and magnitude. Hence
any equation of the form

x" +<»«"■"' + bx"-'^ +....^x^-|-<3x+ 1 = 0

is immediately known to be reciprocal, and we may proceed
in its folution as follows.

Firft, if the equation be of odd dimenfions, as

«'" + '+ a x"-" + bx'"-' + ....bx^+ax-j-l = o,
then it is obvious that either -f i, or — i, is one of its
roots, for either -|- 1, or — i, fubftituted for x, according
as the figns of the co-efficients may require, will obvioufly
render the whole expreffion equal to zero, and is therefore
a root of the equation. The equation may, therefore, be
immediately reduced to another of lower dimenfions by di-
vifion, according to the known theory of equations ; thus,
let the propofed equation be

k' — 5 *' + 7 •■«' + 7 ■•«' — 5 * + 1=0-
Here x = — i is obvioufly one of the roots, as this fubfti-
tuted for X renders the whole equal to zero ; and confe-
quently the whole equation is divifible by .v -f- I, according
to the known theory of equation, which divifion being
made, we have, for our reduced equation,

x^ — 6 -v^ + 1 3 x' — 6 X -)- 1 = 0,

which is now of even dimenfion one degree lefs than the
original equation, and fl:iU reciprocal. We need, therefore,
only confider equations of the latter form ; -uiz. thofe of
which the index of the higheft power is an even number.

Let x"+ /x-'-'-l-jx"-" + &c. jx'-f-/x-(- I = o
be any reciprocal equation, whofe roots are a, — ; ^j -r »

RECIPROCAL EQUATIONS.

g, — , &c. Then from the theory of equations we may con-

fider this to be made up of the faAors («■

(*--i)(.V-y)(^-.)(-V-^), &C.

a '

^ . 1,1 I

Or, puttincr a A ■= ni, 6 -{■ ~-- =: n, c + — = J"?

a b e

&c. thefe become

(x'- + m* + l) (^^ + n* +.J) («" + r.r + l), &c.

If, therefore, we really perform this multiplication, and

Find the two values of z in the equation 2' + (^ — i\
-+?—/— I = o, and call them r, r' ; then x = — j

*• -^ i*- ± ^/ (i r' - I), ^ = i ^' + ^/ (I ^'. _ l)
6th deg. x' +px'' + q .v» + rx' \- qx' + px- + I =0.

Find the three values of 2 in the cubic equation z' +
Py + (y — 3) 2 + ,• _ 2/> = o, and call them r, r', r";
then

»= = S*- ± -v' (i '■' - I) .V = i »• + V (i »•" - I)
* = ir"+ ^(^r"^_ I)
7thdeg..v' + /..v« + 9x> + (-.T'+;rx5 4-«*^ + /.x+i = o
Find the three values of z in the cubic equation 2' +

equate the co-efficients, it is obvious, fince the multiplication (/' ~ i)z'+ (^q— p — z')n.-\-r — p~q +. i = o, and
is reduced to half the number of faftors, the equation by =^1' ^heifi r, r', »■"; then x

which the values of m, n, r, &c. are obtained, will be of
only half the dimenfion of the original equation ; and having
fouad thefe, fince

x"- + m X + I =0
x' + nx + 1=0
x' + r K + 1=0

we (hall have x = +

2 ~

-Y±^

(t - ■)•

&c.

Thus, for example, kt there be propofed the equation

A-' + 5 ^' -f. 7 x' + 5 X + I = O.

Multiply together x'' + m x + i
and x' + n X + 1

.V = i r + V (5 '•' - I ) i ■■' = I '•' ± ^/ (i r" _ , )

x=:^r"± ^{^r<"- I)

8lh deg. x' + px'' + q x' + ' . . . g x' + p .t, + i = q.

Find the four values of z in the equation 2^ + / 2> -{-
{q - 4) '^^ + (r - S p) ^ + s - 2 {q ~ 1) = o, and
call them r, r', r", /•'" ; then

x= if + ^(Ir- - l);x= iW + ^(ir" - l)

9th deg. x^+px''+ qx-^ + qx"- +px + 1 = o.

Find the four values of 2 in the equation 2* + (a — i ) a'

■^(q— p— $)z^ + {r~q— 2p+2)z+s — r~
q + p + I = o,and call them r, r', /■", r'" ; then x = — i

= h'

r 7 ^^ 4- m nl x'^ + m 1

+ «

Comparing the co-efficients, we have m + n =2 ^, and
mn + 2 =^ 7.

Hence, m =

and

5

+ a/5

2 '

5

+ a/5

4

5

- a/ 5

nd n =:

5 - V5

± Vdr^ - I); *=ir' + ^(^r'^ - i)
^= \r"± ^/{^rl"- l); .v=ir'"+ ^/(i,-'"^- l)

A reciprocal equation of the loth and higher powers,
requires the general folution of equations of the 5th and
higher powers, and therefore cannot be exhibited analyti-
caTly. Bonnycaftle's Algebra, vol. i.

Binomial equations are all reciprocal equations of a pe-
culiar kind, which renders them all refolvable by means of
certain trigonometrical formulae.

Binomial equations are all reducible to the form .r" + 1
= o; or 0,-"'= I ; or x"'= — I. Where it is obvious,
that if »i is even, or »; = 2 «, then x"- " = 1 will have two
real roots, -viz. -f- i, and — i ; and x" =l — i wiU have
two of its imaginary roots + V — '> and — ^/ — i ; fo
that, in both cafes, fuch an equation may be reduced two
degrees lower, by dividing it by ^'^ — i, or .r^ + i, and
the refulting equation will be a reciprocal one, having
each of its co-efficients equal to unity. If m be odd, then
From the preceding principles are readily deduced the fo- the equation will necefTarily have one real root, and no

more, which will be -)- i in the firft cafe, and — i in the
fecond ; confequently, fuch an equation can be reduced but
one degree, the fame as thofe above dated. We may, there-
fore, find a direft folution for all binomial equations of odd
dimenfions as far as the 9th power, and of even dimenfions
as far as the loth power, by the principles and formulas al-

± a/

30+ 10^/5 _ \

-■)

( ..

/30 - 10 V 5

4 ~ ■ V 16

which are the four roots of the propofed equation.
From the preceding principles are readily dedui
lution of all reciprocal equations under the loth power,

3d degree, x^ + px'^ + p x + 1 = 0.

Find a in the fimple equation 2 — /) — i =0, and call it

then

X = — 1, X = ^r + ^ {^1

- 0

4th degree, x' + p x^ + q x' + p x + 1 = 0.

Find the two values of 2 in the equation z' -j- p % + q —
2 = 0, and call them r, r' ; then

5th deg. x'^+p:if + qx^ + qx'-\-px + I =z o.

ready given, by merely making A = i, q = i, r = i, &c.
and it would, therefore, be ufelefs to repeat them again in
this place; we fhall proceed immediately to the general
folution of binomial equations, on the principles of analyti.
cal trigonometry.

All the imaginary roots of the equation

x" — X = o

3 U 2 are

RECIPROCAL EQUATIONS.

are contained in the general formula

r 2 kTT

2 col. .T + I = o ;

tion x' + 1 = o, or A-" = — i, will have for its generii
faftor

. (2 i + i) T

x' — 2 col. i — X + I = o;

n

i being any integer not divifible by n, and t reprefcutiiig the

femi-circumferenc*;. For it is a known trigonometrical pro- which, by fubllituting for /■ as above, becomes

perty, that if , ^

1 I .r' — 2 cof. X + 1 = 0

2 cof. y= X + — , then 2 cof. ny = x" + -^i n

r 3 '^

2 COi. ~ ;c 4- I = O

n

X -

r 5 '^

2 col. — .r + 1=0

n

&c.

from which two equations we readily draw the two fol-
lowing ; viz.

s' — 2 cof. ^ . ^ -t- 1 = O

x'" — 2 cof. n y . x" + I := O

•which have neceffarily one common root, being both derived &c. &c. &c.

from the fame value of .%■ ; and fince thefe are both recipro- , ■ , r , . • 11 .i • . r t . •

iroiu LUC la , r which formulae contam all the imagmary roots of the bmo-

cal equations, if x be one root, — will be another ; they have mial equation x" + i = o.

^ X Suppofe, for example, all the imaginary roots of the bino-

therefore two roots common, and confequently, from the mial equation a-' — I = o were required,
known theory of equations, the former is a divifor of the Here we (liould have

2 k -x
n

fatter. If, now, we make j = • , or ny = 2 i v, thefe

equations become

2 cof.

360°

+ 1=0

, 2ir
K^ — 2 col. .V + I = O

n

x'"' — 2 cof. 2 i T x" + 1 = 0

But the cof. 2 i ff = I, 2 T repr; Tenting the whole circum-
ference ; therefore the latter equation is the fame as

x" — 2 s" -f I = o, or (.v" — i)- = o,

having ftill for its divifor

, 2 ,f- T

X — 2 col. A- -)- 1 =: o ;

n

that is, the roots of the equation

(.r'' — I )' = o, or ;r" — I = o,

are all contained in the general formula

, ^ 2 hv

a' — 2 col. X -{■ 1 = 0;

n

and, therefore, by giving to h the fucceflive values I, 2,
3 . . . . 5 (?! — i), the following formula; will be ob-
tained ; ijiz.

r 2 . 360°

x' — 2 col. ~ .X -f 1=0

n

r 3 • 360°

X- — 2 col. j; + I = o

cof.i:^"

II

X -\- I —O

r 5 • 360

.V- — 2 coi. - — X -V 1=0

II

r 360° / -, 360° >w

whence, x = col. -^-7- + -\/ I col.^ — — i J

II

^= c°f- ^ ± ^' {^°^- — ,- - 0

X = cof. &c. &c.

And if the roots of x" ^ 1 =: o were required, we Ihould
have from the fecond general formula

— 2 cof.

180^

X + 1 = 0

2 cof.

• .V -1- I

.t' — 2 cof. -? x -f I = O

>t

r 6t
.r' — 2 col. X + I r= O

*' — 2 cof. — a; -f I i: O

r 3-I«0
X— 2 cof. X + I = C

II

7 - 5. 180

x^ — 2 cof. :- X + 1=0

1 1

&c.

&c.

Whence,

± ^/

II ~ V II y

which contain among them all the imaginary roots of the

equation k" — i = o. ^ — <^"f- ^^- &c-

. , .p . , 2 i r For more on this fubjeft, fee Barlow's Theory of Num-

And it, inltead of making^ = — -, as above, we bg^s, Bonnycaftle's Algebra, and our article Polygon.

(2i + 1) ■z KsciPROCAL Figures, in Geometry, are fuch as have the

make_jr = , our fecond formula becomes antecedents and coiifequents of the fame ratio in both figures.

See Plate XII. Geom.Jig. 2. Here

A : B :: C : D, or,
12:4:: 9; 3

That

;<:"■+ 2 j:" + 1=0, or (.v" -f 1 )' = o ;
becaufe cof. (2 i k + ■jr) z= — 1. Confequently, the equa-

R E C

R E C

! 'hat is, as much longer as tin" fide A, iu the firll reftangle,
i , than the fide B of the fecond reitanglc ; fo irtuch deeper is
the fide C in the fecond redtangle, than the fide D in the firll ;
and, confequently, the length of one is compenfated by the
depth of the other.

Alfo, as the fide A is ^ longer than the fide C, fo the fide
B is I: longer than D : wherefore the reftangles muft be
equal.

This is the foundatioiv of that Catholic theorem ; that the
redlangle of the extremes mult always be equal to that of the
means ; and; confequently, the rcalon of the rule of three,
or golden rule.

For, fuppofe there were given any three numbers, or quan-
tities, geometrically proportional, as A, B, and C ; and,
that it were required to find a fourth, D, proportional to
them : fince A : B :: C : D, therefore A D = B C, and,

T> /^

confequently, D = — x — j that is, the fourth term is
A

equal to the quotient of the fecond, multiplied by the third
term, divided by the firlt.

Or, thus in numbers : fuppofe given 12, 4, and 9, re-
quired a fourth proportional. Now as 12 : 4 :: 9 : Q.

But 12 Q = 4 X 9 = 36. Therefore Q = AiLi. _ ^^

by dividing both fides by 1 2 .

And hence it follows, that if any two triangles, parallel-
ograms, prifms, parallelepipeds, pyramids, cones, or cylin-
ders, have their bafes and altitudes reciprocally proportional,
thofe two figures or folids are equal to one another ; and,
•vice I'erfii, if they are equal, iheir bafcs and altitudes are re-
ciprocally proportional.

Reciprocal Proportion, is when in four numbers the
fourth is lefs than the fecond by fo much as the third is
greater than the firft ; and -vice verfa. See Proportion.

TV is is the foundation of the inverfe, or indirefil rule of
three. Thus, 4 : 10 :: 8 : 6.

Great ufe is made of this reciprocal proportion, by fir
Ifaac Newton, and others, in demonftrating the laws of
motion.

Reciprocal Theorem. See Theorem.

RECIPROCALLY, the property of being reciprocal ;
thus we fay, that in bodies of the fame weight, the denfity is
reciprocally as the magnitude ; wz. the greater the magni-
tude the lefs the denfity ; and the lefs the magnitude the
greater the denfity ; fo again, the fpace being the lame, the
velocity is reciprocally as the time, and the contrary.

RECIPROCITY. The law of reciprocity is a term
ufed by Legendre, in his " Theorie des Nombres," to denote
a reciprocal law, which has place between prime numbers of
different forms ; which is this ; that 711 and n being prime odd
numbers,

71 — 1
the remainder of m - -r- « =:

the remainder of n ' ■— m

provided m and n are not both of the form 4 .r — ij and if
they are both of tliis form, then

" — t
the remainder of n; ' -^ n = —

the remainder of n ' — m,

or they will have only contrary figns.

RECISSION, mLaiu. See Ademption.

REGIT, Fr, a genencal term in mufic, for what is fung
by a fingle voice. It is likewife applicable to inftruments ;
as, reck de bajfe, recti de hauthols, a folo part for the violoncello

or hautbois. Indeed reclt, in French, feems fynonimous
witli the word folo in Italian, to whatever vocal or inftru-
mental part it is applied, in oppofition to tuiti, or chorus, in
which the whole band is employed.

Redt in France is not only a technical term in mufic, but
in the drama, where, at the opening of a tragedy, or fub-
fequent to an event, it implies an account, a narration, the
recital of an event. In the French and Italian tragedies, in
imitation of the Greeks, battles and murders aro always re-
cited, but never tranfafted on the ilage.

RECITAL, in Law, the rcliearful, or making mention,
in a deed or writing, of fomething which has been done
before.

A recital is not conclufive, bccaufe it is no direft affirma-
tion ; and by feigned recitals in a true deed, men might make
what titles they pleafed, fince falfe recitals are not punifhable.
If a perfon, by deed of afiignment, recite that he is pof-
fefi'ed of an intereft in certain lands, and aflign it over by the
deed, and become bound by bond to perform all the agree-
ments in the deed ; if he is not pofleflcd of fuch interell, the
condition is broken ; and though a recital of itfelf is nothing,
yet being joined and confidered with the rcll of the deed, it
is material. And where it is but a recital, that before the
indenture the parties were agreed to do fuch a thing, it is a
covenant, and the deed itfelf confirms it. The recital of
one leafe in another, is not a fufficient proof that there was
fuch a leafe as is recited. But the recital of a leaje in a deed
of releafe, is good evidence of a leafe againft the relelfor, and
thofe who claim under him. A new reverfionary leafe (hall
commence from the delivery, where an old leafe is recited,
and there is none, &c. A. recites that he hath nothing in
fuch lands, and in truth he has an eftate there, and makes a
leafe to B. for years ; the recital is void, and the leafe good.
In this caf.', if the recital were true, the leafe would not
bind.

RECITATION, the aft of reciting, or delivering a
difcourfe, cither in the way of narration, rehearfal, declama-
tion, or the like.

RECITATIVO, Ital., RecltaUve. The Crufca Dic-
tionary gives no more early authority for the ule of this
word, as a mufical term, than that of Batifta Doni, de
Prreft. Muf. Veteris, publilhed in 1647 ; who defines it,
" a mufical compofition in an andante or plain ftyle, dif-
ferent from air: 'it is ufed in narrative poetry, in imitation
of reciting on the Ilage."

Roufleau's definition is more full and clear. He terms it
" a difcourfe, or fpccch, in mufical and harmonical tones.
It is a melody nearly approaching to common fpeech ; a
mufical declamation, in which the mufician ought to imitate,
as much as pofiible, the inflv;xions of voice in declaiming.
This melody is called recitative, becaufe it refembles a nar-
ration, a recital ; and is ufed in the dialogue of mufical
dramas."

We have prefented our readers, under the article Opera,
with extrafts from the prefaces of the poets and compofers
by whom recitative was invented, as well as from contem-
porary writers, who thought its origin of fufficient im-
portance to be recorded.

Giovanni Batifta Doni, about the middle of the 17th
century, (Op. Omn. tom. ii. in Firenze, 1763, folio,) 3
learned and elegai.t writer on mufic, though extremely
warped in his judgment by a predihClion for the mufic of
the ancients, in a difl'crtatlon on tiie Origin of Stage-finging,
during his own time, gives fo curious and inftrudive an ac-
count of the firft operas that were performed at Florence,
that we ihall tranflate a part of it.

" Some kind of cantlkna, or melody, has been introduced

in

li E C

R E C

in dramatic reprefcn tat ions, at all times, either in tlie form
of intermezzi (interludes), between the afts ; or, occa-
fionally, in tlie body and bufinefs of the piece. But it is
flill frefii in the memory of every one, when the whole drama
was firft fet to mulic, and fung from the beginning to the
end."

The revival of theatrical mufic was brought about by the
invention of recitative, as we have already ilatcd in our ar-
ticle Opera.

" The beginning of this century (1600) was the era of
niuiical recitation on the public ilage at Florence, though
it had been ufed there in feveral private exhibitions before.
There refided in that city, during thefe times, fignor Gio.
Bardi de' Conti di Vernio, who was afterwards called to the
fervice of pope Clement VIIT., by whom he was tenderly
beloved, and made his maeftro di camera. This moll ac-
complifhed nobleman was particularly attached to the lludy
of antiquity, and to the theory and praftice of mufic, to
which he had applied himfelf for many years fo clofely, that
he became, for the time in which he lived, a correft and
good compofer. His houfe was the conilant rendezvous of
all perfons of genius, and a kind of flourifliing academy,
where the young nobilitv often aflembled to pafs their leifure
hours in laudable excrcifes and learned difcourlc ; but par-
ticularly on mufical fubjecls, when it was the wifh of all the
company to recover that art of which the ancients related
I'uch wonders, as well as other noble inventions, which had
been ruined by the irruptions of barbarians.

" During thefe difcuflions, it was univerfally allowed that
as modern mufic was extremely deficient in grace, and the
exprefiion of words, it became ncceffary, in order to obviate
thefe objeftions, that fonie other fpecies of cantilena, or
melody, (hould be tried, by which the words fhould not be
rendered unintelligible, nor the verfe deftroyed."

Euridice was the firft mufical drama after the invention
of recitative. It was written by Ottavio Rinuccini, fet by
Jacopo Peri, and performed at Florence in 1600, on occa-
fion of the marriage of Mary of Medicis with Henry IV.
of France. The poem and the mufic were publifhed fepa-
rately the fame year. The poet, in his dedication to the
queen of France, fays, " It is generally imagined that the
tragedies of the ancient Greeks and Romans were entirely
fung ; but this noble kind of finging had not till now been
revived, or even attempted, to my knowledge, by any one ;
and I ufed to think, tliat the inferiority of our mufic to that
of the ancient was the caufe ; till heai-ing the compofitions
of Jacopo Peri to the fable of Daphne, I wholly changed
my opinion. This drama, written merely as an experiment,
pleafed fo much, that I was encouraged to produce Euri-
dice, which was honoured with ftill more applaufe, when
fung to the mufic of the fame compofer Jacopo Peri, who
with wonderful art, unknown before, had merited the
favour and proteflion of the grand duke our fovereign, it
was exhibited in a ,moft magnificent manner at the nuptials
of your majefty, in the prefence of the cardinal legate, and
innumerable princes and nobles of Italy and France."

Such is the abridged hiilory of recitative. The only
printed copy of the mufic to this primitive opera was in the
library of the marchefe Rinuccini, a defcendant of the poet
at Florence : in examining and making extrafts from which,
we obferved that it was printed in fcore, and barred ; two
very uncommon circumftances at the time of its publication ;
that the recitative feemed to have been not only the model
of fubfequent compofers of early Italian operas, but of the
French operas compofed by Lulli, a native of Florence ;
and that the time was as frequently changed as in the old
French operas.

The confufion arifing from all the parts finging different
words at the fame time, together with fome other circum-
ftances, mentioned under Oi-F.RA, account for the neceffitv
of a recitative, or a niiijica parlante, a fpeaking mufic, and
for folo finging in general on the (tage : befides, poetry was
injured, and rendered unintelhgible m fugues, canons, and
in chorufes, full of imitations and contrivances, all unfit for
narration and dialogue.

To defcribe the chara£leriftic difference of recitative from
air, and common fpeech : it is not air, as no time is kept ; it is
not fpeech, as every inflexion of voice is in tune with fome one
note of the iuftrument by which it is accompanied ; and as
to the length or (hortnefs of the notes that are written, the
accompanier watches for the accents or termination of
phrafes, or lines in the verfe, to give the chord to which the
note that is fung belongs.

It is fometimes accompanied by the orcheftra with rilor-
nelli, or iuterftitial fymphonies ; but then a regular time
muft be kept. This only happens in folemn fcenes of dig-
nity or diftrels, and in foliloquies.

No flats or fharps are placed at the clef in recitative t
thefe are all regarded as accidental ; nor is Italian recitative
ever confined to any one key.

After recitative was found, it was long ere any thing like
an air appeared in thefe mufical dramas. (See Opera,
Air, Motivo, and Measure.) Roufl'eau has treated the
article recitative at large, with great intelligence and good
tafte.

Recitative Slyk, is the way of writing accommodated
to this fort of mufic.

RECIV, La, in Geography,, a well-fortified town of
Brafil, in the jurifdidtion of Fernambuco.

RECKENITZ, a river which feparates the ,duchy of
Mecklenburg from Pomcrania, and runs into a lake, which
communicates with the Baltic near Ribnitz.

RECKHEIM, or Rekum, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Meufe, which gives name to a
county, fituated on the W. fide of the Meufe, and fur-
rounded by the biftiopric of Liege ; 7 miles N. of Maef-
tricht.

RECKLING, in Rural Economy, a provincial word,
fignifying the laft of the farrow or brood of pigs, poultry,
or other forts of domeftic birds.

RECKLINGHAUSEN, in Geography, a town of
Germany, fortified by a caftle, and capital of a county of
the fame name, which is fituated between the bifhopric of
Munfter, the duchy of Cleves, and the county of Mark ;
16 miles S.S.W. of Munfter.

RECKON, in Rural Economy, a term fometimes applied
to a pair of pot-hooks of a certain make, occalionally em-
ployed in dragging wells, ponds, &c.

RECKONING, in Navigation, th? aft of eftimating the
quantity of a ftiip's way ; or of the diftance run between one
place and another.

Or, more generally, a fliip's reckoning is that account,
by which at any time it may be known where the fhip is,
and on what courfe or courfes flie is to fteer to gain her
port. See l^oG-Board, LoG-Booi, and Journal.

This is ufually performed by means of the log-line ; the
manner of applying which, fee under its proper airticle,
L.OG-Line.

Yet this is liable to great irregularities. Vitruvius ad-
vifes an axis to be pafted through the fides of the ftiip, with
t>wo large heads piojefting out of the fiiip, in which are
to be included wheels touching the water, by whofe revolu-
tion the fpace pafted over in any given time may be mea-
fured. The fame has fince been recommended by Snellius ;

but

R E C

but there are few who have written of navigation, tliathave
not (hewn the infufficiency of this method.

Reckoning, Dead. See Dead Reckoning.

RECKSON, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; 6 miles
E. of Calcutta.

RECLAIMING, or Reclaming, in our .^ncietit Cuf-
toms, tlie aftion of a lord purfuing, profecuting, and recal-
ling his vallal, who had gone to live in another place, witliout
his permiflion.

Reclaiming is alfo ufed in a fimilar fenfe, for the de-
manding of a perfon or thing to be delivered up, or fur-
rendered, to the prince or it ate it properly belongs to ;
when, by any irregulaf means, it has come into the pofrefiion
of another.

Reclaiming, in Falcon/y, is the calling of a hawk, or
bird of prey, back to the fill.

The Ipavrovv-hawk, gos-liawk, &c. are reclaimed with the
voice ; the falcon only by ftiaking the lure. So that the
term luring, with regard to the falcon, is more proper than
reclaiming.

The partridge is alfo faid to reclaim her young ones,
■when (he calls them together upon their fcattering too much
from her.

Reclaiming is alfo ufed for taming animals that are wild
by nature.

Reclaiming, in a monadic fenfe. See Religious.

Reclaimins Lands, in yigriculture, the bufinefs of re-
ftoring and bringing them into a ftate of cultivation and im-
provement. There are various kinds and dates of land,
which admit of this fort of amelioration and improvement ;
as among the wet forts, all thofe of the bay or clUiary de-
fcription, which are wadied and occafionally covered by the
fea or other waters ; different defcriptions of fen lands, and
thofe of the more lirm marlhy nature, and thofc in more in-
terior (ituations, wkich are of a loofe fwampy or watery
quahty, as moraffes and boggy grounds. And among
thofe of the more dry, hard, walte, and wild defcriptions ;
all the varieties of the rough ftony forts of unimproved
lands ; the many different kinds of rough woody grounds ;
and the numerous forts of moory lands, as well as other va-
rieties, which are now and then to be met with in particular
circumftances and (ituations.

The firft of the wet or watery forts of land, noticed
above, are far from being always ready, or in a ripe (late
for admitting improvement of this nature ; yet in different
fituations and circumtlances, they occafioiially permit of its
being accompli(hed, without any great difficulty or trouble.
See Embankment, and Embanking agatnjl the Sea.

The fenny and mar(hy lands, where, in the former, they
are wholly or only in a partial manner overgrown by iifelefs
aquatic plants ; and in the latter, are become fo firm as to
bear pafluring (lock, and to afford nutritious herbage for
their growth and fupport, but are notwithdanding (lill liable
to be overflowed by high tides, or land floods ; are, of
courfe, capable of very great improvement in the above
ways, as well as by many other means. See Fen, Fenny
Land, Marsh Land, and Salt Marjli.

Thefe forts of watery lands are not incident to the flat
bays and inlets of the fea-coalls, or the mouths of the large
rivers, in a particular manner ; but are met with in the more
inland fituations of the country, accompanying the larger
rivers and waters in the more central parts of the kingdom :
confequently fuch forts of improvement mull be very ex-
tenfive in their nature, and of very great importance to the
nation.

The other kinds of fwampy watery lands, which are liable
to be covered with that fluid during wet feafons j thofe on

6

R K C

the fides of lakes and ponds ; the morafl'es which are choaked
and grown up with aquatic vegetables, fo as to have fome
fort of hardifli cruft; formed upon them ; and the foft boggy
lands, formed in fomewhat fimilar ways, are all capable of
allowing great improvement, by fuitablc draining, and other
methods of management. See Spring and Surface
Draining, SwAMi', Bog, and Mokass.

Lands of the above kinds are moflly met with on the
lower (lopes, or at the feet of hilly grounds ; being caufed
by the (lagnation of water in their internal parts, wnich has
the effcft of chilling and rendering them too moid for the
produftion of a nutritious and ufcful herbage, as well as of
promoting the growth of coarfe plants of the aquatic na-
ture, though their fituations may occafionally have fome
degree (;f relative height.

There are many valuable tradls of land of thefe kinds, in
many different parts of the ifland, which have been already
reclaimed by thefe methods of proceeding ; which fliould
have the e(feft of (linmlating the owners of fuch lands in
other places, where they (till remain unimproved, to exert
themfelves in getting them reclaimed.

Among the more dry kinds of unreclaimed lands, the
fird, or thofe of a rough, llony, wade quality, are all thofe
in the vallies of hilly or mountainous tracls, on the fliirts or
lower parts of mountainous heights, and the rough dony
lands, fit for cultivation, in other fitustions. They are the
mod readily r:;claimed and improved, in the lefs hilly forts
of lands and fituations. In fome cafes, where the furfaces
of the ground were in a great meafure covered by large
rocks and ftones of great fixes, very hard in their qualities,
and of fcarcely any value, the lands have been reclaimed,
and brought into an arable (late, and let for high rents : the
dones which were removed paying, in a great degree, the
expences of the labour ; they being exported and fold as
paving-dones, and for other ufes to the metropulis. And
though this cannot always be done, it (hews what is capable
of being performed by induftry and perfeverance ; and that,
where furface (tones can be turned to ufeful purpofes, the
mod rugged and barren lands may be reclaimed with advan-
tage, under proper modes of management. In fuch in-
ftances, inftead of leaving the furfaces of the grounds in
worfe dates than they were before, by being taken up with
pits, and heaps of ufelefs rubbifli, which buried the better
moulds, as is common in working fuperficial quarries, the
pits and other hollows were levelled, and filled up to fome
height, with the coarfe and rubbifh materials produced in
the courfe of the works, and the finer mould from other
parts thrown back upon the above fub-foil materials, fo as
to form an even top-foil ; the larger fpaces of the ground
being trenched over to a good depth, leaving the befl foil
on the furface. It is fuggeded, that by following (imilar
eafy methods of management, in carrying on other under-
takings of the fame kind, lands of a value in proportion to
that of the materials which are removed, may commonly be
created, without incurring any very great expence. Hence
it is thought to behove thofe who have the direftion and
management of landed edates, that comprehend grounds of
thefe forts, to examine and confider well whether the (tony
materials which they contain, and encumber their furfaces,
cannot be turned or converted to' fome profitable purpofe,
by the means of roads, iron railways, canals, or fome other
eafy mode of conveyance for fuch heavy fubftances.

It mud be noticed, however, that the method of levelling
and trenching over the lands by the fpade, in fuch circum-
dances, can only be praftifed in a very few cafes, where
labour is particularly cheap.

There is another defcription of itony lands, of a much

lefs

R E C

K J-: c

Icfs formidable nature, which frequently ftaiuk in need of
being reclaimed, and in which the furfacc is lefs encumbered
than the interior part? of the foil. In thefe cafes, the inter-
rupting materials are rather large ftones than rocks, though
the latter may fometimes in part form them. The means
which arc bell fuited to the bringing of thefe into a profit-
able iRite of cultivation, are to be found in the more northern
parts of the idand, in the praflicc and exertions of particular
fpirited individuals. The plan of the improvement is per-
fcflly fimple, but it is expenfive in its performance ; the
whole of the lands being tr<.*nched over, by means of the
fpade, to a proper depth, as from one to two feet. The
ftones which are not wanted for ufe are thrown into pits,
and the hollow parts, to contribute to their being made
level, and fometimes into the deep trenches formed in dig-
ging, being fail covered over with the worft of the earthy
materials, upon which the better moulds and turfy fub-
ftance, which" arc ftirred in the work, arc fpread out as a
foil, by which the whole is rendered very fuitable for agri-
cultural purpofes.

The coll of reclaiming lands in this way depends, in fomc
meafure, on the caft of furface in the lands, the nature of
the interrupting matters, and the depth of the earthy fub-
ilances to be removed, in raifuig a fufficiency of mould for
forming the furface foil : but from five to twenty pounds
the acre may be confidered as the limits of the charges.

And this, it is fuppofed, leaves an ample profit in the
fale of fuch lands, or otherwife, in thefe fituations where
tythes are not taken, and where the rates and taxes are fo
very few and trifling, and where labour and living is fo
cheap. It can now, however, be done in this manner in
but few inllances, as has been already noticed.

It is, notwithitanding, beheved that there are very many
lands, not only in thefe northern parts, but in England and
Wales, that would more than repay the expences of this
fpirited mode of improvement. It may be remarked, that
where the ftones are very large, or where fragments of
rocks are met with, in thefe undertakings, they may be got
rid of either by blaftmg, or rending their upper parts, or
by finking them in the foil, fo as to allow the plough to pafs
over them with fafety.

The former method is more fuited to the foft forts of
ftones ; the latter to thofe of the harder kinds.

Such rocky grounds as are comajon in hilly and moun-
tainous fituations, which, on account of their climate, and
the compadl nature of the rocky materials, as well as their
quantity, are incapable of being cleared as corn-lands, or fo
as to admit the plough, may often be reclaimed and im-
proved as pafture lands for ftieep, &c. or fometimes as hay
lands. The plan of proceeding, in thefe cafes, is that of
removing the ftony matter from the furface, and allowing it
entirely to the growth of grafly herbage ; the means of ac-
complifhing which are fimilar to thofe already noticed, but
the coll confiderably lefs : the main intention here being
merely the fmoothing of the furface ground, tor the pur-
pofes of pafturing or mowing ; but the more the ftony fub-
llances are covered with good earthy mould, the better
and greater will be the quantity of produce. See Til-
lage.

There are many rough woody trafts of ground, of the
Ihrubby or other kinds, which may be cleared and reclaimed
with vaft advantage to their proprietors, as well as the com-
munity in general, as corn-lands, or for other ufcs. The
moft ufual method of accomplifhing this fort of improve-
rnent has been to dig out the whole of the roots, whether
of low woods or timber woods, at the time of emoving the
Jops, fo as to admit the plough immediately, rin perform-

ing this !n this way, however, wliere the ftooh are of li.'r
timber kind, numerous and large, deep breaking of the
ground is often neced'ary, which is laborious and expenfive ;
and rotten wood, mould, leaves, and other furface matters,
are apt to be left in mixture with the infertile or poifonous
fub-ilrata. As lands, cleared and reclaimed in thi<; manner,
have been known to remain in a ranv unprofitable condition,
for feveral years, although hmed, dunged, and raifed in
fiiarp ridges, in order to its amelioration.

This improper practice has Gonfequently been highly
difadvantageous, injurious, and ruinous, and thrown much
difficulty and interruption in the way of clearing and reclaim,
ing fuch waile lands for the growth of corn, however fuit-
able they may be for the purpole in the nature of their foils
and fituations, thereby tending to propagate and fnpport
the notion, that fuch forts of land will not repay the ex-
pences and trouble ef being improved.

But from attending to what has naturally happened to
the cleared parts of wood-lands, it will be feen that a deptli
of fertile mould, relling on lefs fertile fubilances, form a re-
gular foil and fub-foil, which are free from the roots of
trees, ready to receive the plough, and afford corn crops in
due fucceflion. This is fuppofed to take place fomewhat
in this way. The trees having been fuffered to become de-
cayed, or more properly cut down in due feafon, and the
brufii or underwood cut and cleared away from time to
time by the occupiers, while fuch commons or other
places were fully or too much flocked with cattle and fheep,
the young fhoots were of courfe browzed off and nibbled away
quite to the ftumps, confequently weakened, and at length
finally dellroyed. The roots and other parts foon followed
this courfe, and palled into a flate of vegetable mould, in-
creafing and enriching the foil at the fame time. Nay, this
may, in the natural flate, it is fuppofed, be, in fome mea-
fure, effefted alone by the grazing animals, as it is eiTential
to their exiflence.

This natural procefs, however affiftcd in this way, is
flow, requiring a length of time for its completion ; yet by
proper means of art, well applied, it may be accomplifhed
in a few years ; the larger roots being extrafted from the
ground, inftead of waiting for their redudlion by a flow de-
cay, without any unneceffary difturbance of the fub-foil ;
and then filling in the pits by the roughneffes of the na-
tural furface : by which means the cleared ground will be
fmoothed, aud made fit in due time for being cultivated.
Where the furface is much incumbered with leaves and rot-
ten woody matters, they are to be raked up, and put into
heaps to decay ; or they may be burnt, and the afhes fpread
out over the furface of the land. Proper draining and fur-
ther levelling muft likewife take place, where necefiary ; as
well as harrowing or hacking the furface fward, fo as to fow
it with proper grafs feeds ; again raking off any rubbifh
that may arife, and then rolling the whole quite fmooth for
mowing. It fhould be ftocked hard, efpecially with fheep,
mowing off occafionally any woody fhoots that may be per-
mitted to arife ; keeping the whole in the flate of clofe paf-
turage, until the fmaller roots, which were left, be fo de-
cayed as to become obedient to the plough-fhare. At this
period, but not before, fuch pafture ground may be broken
up for grain crops in proper fucceflion.

The procefs might be haftened by the ufe of lime, cr
other calcareous matters in union with the vegetable fub-
ftances which were removed, as they would be fooner dif-
folved or reduced, and the compofl be more rich. And by
fpreading them out on the land a fimilar effeft might be
produced, and a finer fort of herbage be encouraged, which
would caufe a clofer bite, and fooner bring the land into a

R E C

more thick fet ftate of fward, wliich is the prolific matrix
for corn crops.

The really iieceflary expcncc of reclaiming and bringing
tfcefc kinds of wooded lands into a ftate of cultivation, by
thefe means, is inconfiderable, particularly where fuel is
dear. Where the timber wood is properly cut down by the
axe, and the underwood taken off rather below the furface,
the larger roots, and the ftubs which are left, will, in fome
inftanccs, more than repay the coll ot the clearing and le-
velling the furface. And the other expenccs will be repaid
by the immediate produdlion of a pallure ground, the value
of which is conltantly increafing without any further charge,
until it may probably be worth two or three times what the
lands were while they were in the woody condition.

In cafes where fuel is clieap, and particularly when the
timber wood is rapidly fallen, as in the barking feafon, they
may be cut off by the faw level with the furface of the land j
the ftools and large fuperficial roots benig after that care-
fully difbarked to fome inches within the ground, fo as to
prevent their throwing out (hoots to injure the furface and
keep the roots alive. In thii way the (tools will be fo de-
cayed in a few years as to be capable of being removed with
little trouble or expence. See Tillage.

In clearing and reclaiming moory lands where they arc
too wet, the firil ftep is that of properly draining them ;
they are afterwards brought into cultivation and to their
full value by other means, fuch as in large undertakings, by
fuitable divifions of the lands into fields proper for the farm
or farms to which they are to be laid, and fo ditched as that
the furface water may be effectually taken off, without hav-
ing deep, open, expenfive troublefome drains in other parts ;
the furface of each field being adjufted in fuch a manner as
to fhoot off the rain water into the interfering ditches, in
order to prevent injury from happening, in that way, fo as
to impede the cultivation for any length of time.

As the furfaces of thefe kinds of land are moltly rugged
and uneven, as well as of a loofe fpongy texture, which un-
fits them for the tillage proceffes, without previous aflill-
ance from hand labour ; where the moory earth, or vegeta-
ble mould, is deep, and rifes to the furface uncovered by
foffile matters, fome length of time is requifite to bring it to
that fohdity andJirmnefs of texture which is fuited to the
common arable purpofes. Hence the general principle of
improving deep moory lands, where there is no foffile cover-
ing, is fuppofed to be the fame as that advifed for bringing
woodlands into cultivation ; namely, that of converting
them to a profitable ftate of herbage, before corn, crops are
attempted to be produced.

The procefs mull be guided and regulated by the nature
and fituation of the traft to be improved. Where the fur-
face is very irregular, full of inequalities, and of an abrupt
nature, it muft firft be adjufted fo as to admit the means of
tillage when they can be properly had recourfe to, and for
carrying away the furface wate.'s in the manner already no»
ticed. Then to pare off the leffer hillocks and rifings, as
the tufts and haffocks which were formed during its wet
ftate, and more or lefs of its general furface, fo as to remove
the coarfe plants and ftale mould which occupy it, and
thereby produce a freihacfs in the whole.

In dry feafons, when the furface has fufhcient firmnefs to
bear the tread of animals, the paring may be done by the
plough for that purpofe, but in other cafes by the breaft-
plough or paring-fpade. When the furface has been cut
over in this manner, and any part has the appearance of
being too wet, as may be judged of by the colour of the
mould, in fome degree, covered drains are to be formed in
fuch places, which may commonly be made in a cheap and

Vol. XXIX.

R E C

durable manner by the firm fibrous tufts collefted from the
furface. The reft of the roots and mould which were pared
off ihould be burnt, and their aflies fpread evenly over the
furface, being immediately raked or harrowed into the foil.
At this period of the improvement almoft any kind of foffile
material can be thrown over the afhes at a little expence ;
and a full quantity of different grafs feeds be covered m with
it ; leaving the furface to take on a fward without any fur-
ther trouble or outlay of money.

Afterwards the grady herbage is to be kept clofcly fed
down when the weather will permit, firft by (lieep and then
by heavier forts of (lock, until the furface becomes firm and
the foil is well bound together by the fibrous roots of the
herbage, fo as to be capable of affording corn crops in pro-
per fuccefiion.

It has been objefted to this fummary mode of bringing
the land into the ftate of herbage, that there are no im-
mediate grofs returns for the money laid out in reclaiming
and bringing it into the cultivable ftate. But although
corn caiuiot be raifed on fuch raw loofe-textured forts of
land at firft, potatoes are found to anfwer well, and rape
with flill more advantage in its culture, the labour attending
it, and the profit which it affords. See MoOR, MoORY-
Land, Spring and Surface Draining, &c. See alfo the
Invernefsfhire Agricultural Report.

The reclaiming and bringing lands of thefe feveral dif-
ferent defcriptions into a ftate of cultivation and improve-
ment is evidently a work of very great importance, particu-
larly in a country where the population is getting too nume-
rous for the produce, as by fuch means the extent of agri-
cultural territory may be juftly faid to be increafed. Ex-
tenfive improvements of thefe kinds have lately taken place
in Cornwall, and fome other fouthern diilrifts.

Reclaimixg Plantations and Timber Woods, in Rural
Economy, the reftoring of fuch as have grown into a wild,
neglefted, and improper ffate from fome fort of mifmanage-
ment, or want of attention. The caufes which have a ten-
dency to produce this effeft are very numerous, and have
been the means of vaft individual as well as national lofs.
One material and very frequent caufe is the negleft of their
boundary fences ; another is the miftaken notion of its being
the beft praflice to leave them entirely to nature after they
are once properly planted ; a third is the very abfurd fup-
pofition, that nothing (hould be done to thjm for a length
of time after planting, in the way of rendering the trees
more thin among themfelves, or in their branches ; and laftly,
an univerfal careleffnefs and difregard of them, frequently
from the narrow conception of expence being incurred with-
out the chance of any immediate return of profit. It is, on
the whole, much too common to take great care in firft
forming the plantations, without ever thinking or taking
any fort of intereft in their after-management. But the
bufinefs is by no means accomplifhed in the fimple aft or
operation of planting out the trees. Good examples of this
kind of management are indeed few, but they occafionally
exift, and much has been written on the matter, fo that in-
formation may be readily obtained. And there is every
inducement to get it ; as well prepared, inclofed, planted,
cultivated and managed plantations, will far outgrow others
that have exifted for a much longer time, but have been
otherwife treated, often affording more than woods of three
times their length of ftanding.

In direfting the proper management in all cafes of this
nature, fome attention muft be paid to the particular kinds
of the plantation which they may be, in the firft place ; after
which, the means of reducing them to their appropriate
ftates, or to fome other in the moft eafy and convenient
^ X manner,

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11 E C

manner, may be tflkcn into confideration. It may often liap-
pen that their proper originally intended dates cannot be
attempted, but that which has been gradually acquired muft
be promoted. With a view to the accomphniment of thofc
intentions, plantations may be confidered as confilling either
of hard woods only, of evergreen or refmous trees only, or
of both thefe forts of trees in mixture.

in the firll of thefe kinds, or thofe which arc compofed
folely of the hard-wooded forts of trees and plants, where
they are to be brought to the ftate of woods, as timber
trees and undergrowths, and the latter to be ufcd only as
fuel, the good trees of fuch kinds as are fuitable to the foil,
and the probable demand of the vicinity and other parts,
/hould be fixed upon, and left as llandard trees ; the whole
of the others being cut over by the furface of the ground,
fo that they may become llools for fupplying the under-
growths. When this has been performed, the ground,
where neceflary, (hould be dug, hoed, or trenched over, as
circumftances may direft ; but where the trees and under-
woods have been much crowded, thefe kinds of work will
feldom be required. However, if, inltead of the common
underwood, oak be required, then after pitching upon the
TOoll proper and fuitable llandard trees for remaining, the
whole of the reft are to be taken up by the roots, the land
dug over, and acorns planted out upon it ; which, when they
are grown up, muft be kept clean and free from weeds for
fome years, in order to promote their healthy growths and
rifing to the ftate of young trees.

Where the whole is to be reduced to the ftate of copfe
wood for fuel only, the beft way is to cut over every part
by the fmface of the ground ; and when for bark, to root
out the whole, only referving the oaks, and planting with
acorns, as already noticed.

In cafe the grove forms are to be produced, the moft
-uitable and appropriate trees are to be left at proper dif-
tances, and the whole of the remainder taken out by the
roots ; after which the ground (hould have the proper cul-
ture, until the trees are incapable of being injured by cattle
ftock ; at which time the whole may be laid down with
natural grafs feeds.

In the fecond forts of plantations, where they have re-
mained, after planting, without being in any way thinned,
for a great many years, they are often, in a great meafure,
incapable of being remedied, as they arc, for the moft part,
fo overpowered by each other, that their growth is fuf-
pended ; wherever any thinning takes place, the trees all
around are deftroyed. In thefe cafes it is the advice of fome
to have the whole grubbed up by the roots and replanted,
after the ground has been properly prepared by fallowing
and repeated corn crops. But as there may fometimes be
much lofs in this way, it may be proper to try the cautious
thinning of them, which (hould be done during the latter
fummer months in a careful manner, as fuccefs has occa-
fionally attended this method.

With natural plantations of this kind under twenty years'
growth, and artificial ones under ten, much advantage has
been gained by fuitable cautious thinning and retrenching.
In all thefe cafes there is no neceflity whatever for the culti-
vation of the ground, as the trees fuffer few or no plants to
rife below them, and befides, injury may be done to their
fuperficial roots.

The management in the laft or mixed kinds of planta-
tions, where the evergreen trees are in fuch proportions as
not to admit of either of the above modes, is to reduce them
to the grove plan only, or to this in fome parts and the
wood kind in others ; the modes of accomplidiing both of
V'hich have been already laid down. However, in each of

thefe methods, it will frequently happen that the tree or
trees which are the moll advantageous and defirable in the
parts where the plantations exift, are either very deficient,
or wholly wanting. In all fuch inllunccs it is probably the
belt and moft beneficial praftice to grub up nearly the
whole of fuch trees, and replant the ground with the pro-
per fort or forts ; care being taken to leave fuch a number
of the old trees, either in a fcattered manner, or in narrow
ftripcs and fcreens, for (heltcring and protefting the young
trees, plants, and feeds, which have been put in, planted,
or fown. See Plantation and Wood.

It may be noticed that in reclaiming all kinds of wild
and negleftcd plantations in lands which are inclined to the
retention of moifturc ; the firll thing which is nccefiary is
invariably that of the removal of the llagnant wctnefs, as
where this is not properly performed, the other operations
will be of but little avail, however well they may be exe-
cuted. In many extcnfive tradls of this nature, the injury
which is fuftaincd by this fort of negleft is fcarcely to be
calculated. There are many thoulands of acres, in dif-
ferent fituations in this country, which would by this means
alone be brought to twenty times and more their prcfent
value. And as this fort of work in fuch cafes can, for the
moft part, be accomplilhed by open cuts or gutters alone,
at a very trifling expence in comparifon of that for arable
and fome other forts of land, it (hould never be neglefted
where good management is in the leaft degree attended to.
See Spuing and Sl'ri'ace Drawing.

It is a material point in reclaiming all thefe forts of plan-
tations and timber woods, to keep the furrounding ditches
and fences well up and in a proper fafe ftate, as large trails
are often completely ruined in a very (hort time by inatten-
tion in this refpe£t, from the cropping, rubbing, and de-
ilrudlion in other ways produced by the entrance of cattle
of difi"ercnt kinds into them. There is hardly any thing fa
injurious to the more young timber plantations as cattle
being luflered to get into them. See Fence.

The retrenching of old ill-managed plantations of thefe
kinds (hould conllantly be done in a very gradual manner,
having due regard to their length of Handing, the nature of
the trees, the quality of the land, the fituation and expofure,
as well as fome other points. Their outfide parts are in
general to be left more thick and clofe, than thofe which
are more in the interior, and the parts of the foil which are
of a bad thin quality, (hould be left lefs thick of trees and
plants than where it is of greater depth and richnefs. And
open expofures ihould be kept more thick and clofe than
where they are more warm and (heltered.

In retrenching the branches of the different trees, the
work (hould be performed according to the length of time
the trees have been growing, their particular growths and
fizes, the difference of kind, and the ufes, purpofes, and in-
tentions for which their wood or other parts are deCgned*
It is always proper to ftop rather (hort, than to carry it to
an extreme, as there is fometimes danger in the latter cafe.
See Prunixg.

It is always necelTary and elTential to reclaim thefe old
wild forts of plantations as foor. as poflible, as the forming
of new trafts of this kind chiefly benefit pofterity, while
the ameliorating and improving of the other, by thefe
means, ai-e an immediate and direft gain to the prefent pro-
prietors, of very great national importance at the prelent
time, and which would otherwife be complete lofs to both.
No forts of woods of the timber kind (hould indeed ever
be luffered to remain any great length of time without
being properly looked over and put into fuch Hates as that
they may go oa in the moil beneficial and profitable manner, as

^^he^e

R E C

ivhcre thoy are in any way or by any means reftrided or im-
peded in their growths, there is a conftant a[id continual
lofs taking place, and the ultimate difadvantage is prodi-
gioufly great, as the timber never becomes either fo good
or in fuch quantity ; of courie it is of inferior value in both
refpedls, which makes a diftercnce of much confcquence to
the proprietors as well as to the nation at large. See
Wood.

RECLINATION of a Plane, in Dialling, tlie number
of degrees which a dial-plane leans backwards, from an cx-
aftly upright or vertical plane, i. e. from the zenith.

The reclmation is eahly found, by means of a ruler, and
a quadrant ; for having drawn an horizontal line on tlie
plane by a level or quadrant, and to it another line at right
angles, apply a ruler, fo that one end of it may hang over,
or reach beyond the plane ; then will a quaurant, applied
to the under edge of the ruler, (hew the degrees and minutes
of the plane's reclination ; counting from tliat iide of the
quadrant that is contiguous to the edge of the ruler.

RECLINATUM Folium, in Botany, a leaf whofe
point is curved downwards, below the level of the bafe. See
Leaf.

RECLINATUS Caulis, a reclined ftem, is bent to-
wards the earth, as in many fpecies of Ficus, Salix, Rubus,
See.

RECLINER, or Reclining Dial, is a dial whofe plane
reclines from the perpendicular ; i. e. leans from you when
you Hand before it.

When this reclination is equal to the height of the pole,
the dial is faid to be equinoftial. See Dial.

Recliner, Declining, or Declining reclining dial, is a
dial which neither ftands perpendicularly, nor oppofite to one
of the cardinal points. See Dial.

RECLUSE, among Religious, a perfon clofe (hut up in
a very narrow cell of an hermitage, or other religious houfe ;
and cut off, not only from all converfation with the world,
but even with the houfe.

The word is chiefly ufed for fuch as thus imprifon them-
felves out of devotion, to do penance. It is fometimes alfo
applied t© incontinent wives, whom their hulbands procure
to be thus kept in a perpetual prifon in fome convent.

Reclufes were anciently very numerous ; they were then a
kind of folitaries who fliut themfelves up in fome little cell,
with a vow never to ftir out of it.

None were admitted to this oath until they had given fuf-
ficient proofs of their abftinence, and had leave from the
bifliop, or the abbot of the monaftery where they were fhut
up ; for the cells of the reclufes were always to join to fome
monaftery.

The prelate's permiflion being obtained, they were tried
for a year in the monaftery ; out of which, during that time,
they never ftirred.

They were then admitted to their vow of ftability in the
church before the bilkop ; which being done, and the reclufe
having entered his little cell, the bifliop fet his feal on the
door.

The cell was to be very fmall, and very exaftly clofed.
The reclufe was to have every thing within it neceftary to
life ; and even, if he were a prieft, an oratory confecrated
by the bifhop, with a window which looked into the church,
through which he might make his offerings at the mafs, hear
the finging, fing himfelf with the community, and anfwer
thofe who talked to him. But this window was to have
curtains before it, both withinfide and without ; fo that the
reclufe might neither fee, nor be feen.

Indeed he was allowed a little garden in his reclufion, to
plant a few lierbs, and take frelh air ; adjoining to his cell

R E C

was that of his difciplcs, which he was very rarely without;
with a window, tiirough which they ferved him with necef-
faries, and received his inftruftions.

When it was judged proper to have two or three reclufes
together, tlieir cells were made contiguous to. each other
with windows of con>munication ; if any woman would
confiilt them, or confefs to them, it was to be in the church
and in the face of all the world. '

Where there were two or three reclufes together, they
were never to hold any conference, but on fpiritual matters,
and to confefs to each other ; where there was but one, he
was to confefs and examine himfelf.

If the recliile fell fick, his door was opened for people to
come in and affift him ; but he was not allowed to ftir out on
any pretence whatever.

Thefe articles are extrafted from the rule, compiled for
the reclufes, by Grimlaic, a prieft in the ninth century.

There were alfo women reclufes, who led the fame life, in
proportion. St. Viborade lived a reclufe at St. Gall, and
was there martyred by the Hungarians in 825.

RECLUSION, the ftate of a reclufe ; or the cell and
other appurtenances of it.

F. Helyot gives a particular account of the ceremonies
praclifed in the reclufion of a woman, in that of mother de
Cambray, inftitutrix of the order of the reprefentation of
Notre Dame. A cell being built for her in 1625, adjoining
to the church of St. Andrew, in Tournay, the biftiop waited
for her early in the morning at the church-door. Upon her
arrival, proftrating herfelf at the feet of that prelate, he
gave her his benediftion ; condufted her to the grand altar ;
and there bleffing a mantle, veil, and fcapular, he put them
on her, and gave her a new name.

Having here made her vow, and the bifhop having ha-
rangued the people in praife of the new reclufe, he con-
duced her proceflionally to her reclufion ; the clergy all the
way finging Veni, fponfa Chrijli, Sec.

Here the bilhop, blefling her afrefti, confecrated the re-
clufion, and (liut her up in perpetual confinement.

RECOGNISANCE. See Recognizance.

RECOGNITION, Recognitio, denotes an acknow-
ledgment. The word is particularly ufed in our law-books,
for the title of the firft chapter of the ftat. i Jac. I. by
which the parliament acknowledged the crown of England,
after the death of queen Elizabeth, to have rightfully
defcended to king James.

Recognitions of Clement, in Eccleftajlical Hijlory, a fup-
pofititious or apocryphal book, afcribed to St. Clement, but
really compofed by fome learned and eloquent man in the
fecond century. Rufinus, who tranflated the ten books of
Recognitions out of Greek into Latin, in whofe tranflation
only we now have them, plainly fuppofes them to have been
written by Clement of Rome ; but th.nt the copies, in his
time, had been corrupted in fome places. The firft eccle-
fiaftical writer who has mentioned this work is Origen, by
whom it is cited twice ; but he does not feem to have held
it in high eftimation. Eufebius, who is fuppofed to mention
the Recognitions under the title of " The Afts of Peter,"
which made a part of them, rejefts thefe, and owns no
work for St. Clement, but his epiftle to the Corinthians.
Epiphanius mentions " The Travels of Peter" as written
by Clement, but corrupted by the Ebionites, fo that httle
was left that is genuine. St, Jerome's opinion of the works
of Clement coincides with that of Eufebius. This book is,
for a large part of it at leaft, fays the learned Dr. Lardner,
a fiftion or romance, in which divers things concerning the
Chriftian religion are reprefented in a pliilofophical manner,
in order to render them more agreeable to the Greeks. It
3X2 is

R E C

is called the " Circuits," or " Travels and Adis of Peter,"
from its fubjeft, ai it contains an account of the apoftle
Peter's difputes with Simon Magus, and his difcourfes to
other people, and his miracles. It is called the "Recogni-
tions," from Clement's recognizing his father, and mother,
and brethren, who had been long feparated from each
other.

Mr. Whifton, though he allows that this work was not
written by Clement himfelf, fuppofes that it was the pro-
duftion of fome of the hearers of Clement, and other com-
panions of the apollles ; but Dr. Lardner is of opinion,
that it muft be reckonod to be Clement's, or to be fuppofi-
titious. With regard to the age of this work, Laidner
farther adds, that the arguments here urged againfl Hea-
thenifm feem to imply, that the Chriitian was not yet the
prevailing eftablifhed religion. And the author often fpeaks
of the power of Chriitians to heal difeafes, and to expel
dxmons, as if it was common in his time. That fuch gitts
were enjoyed by many Chrillians in the fecond, and in the
beginning of the third, century, we are alRircd by Irenxus,
Tertullian, Origen, and others ; after which time, or how-
ever after the end of the third century, they were not fo
common, if they did not quite ceafe. Mr. Whifton's opi-
nion of this book is, that if it be not, in fome fenfe or
other, itfelf a facred book, yet it ought certainly to be
cfteemed in the next degree to that of the really facred
books of the NewTeftament. But in the opinion of many
other learned men, it is a worthlels piece, of little or no
ufe. It contains, however, as Dr. Lardner fuggefts, fome
excellent fentiments, and fine palfages, intermixed with very
great faults, for which no excufe can be made. This book
contains pafl'ages of our four gofpels, though it has been
doubted whether he ufed the four, or fome one gofpel con-
taining in it all thefe. Its author feems to own the firll
epillle of St. John, and the book of the Revehtion. He
was alfo well acquainted with the book of the A£ls of the
Apoftles ; but it is not certain how far he owned it. The paf-
fages from St. Paul's epiftles are not fufBcient to prove,
that they were elteemed by this writer to be of authority.
The author does not feem, indeed, to have any great kind-
ncfs for the apoftle Paul, and on this account he made little ufe
of his epiftles, and of the Ads of the Apoftles. From his fly
infinuations, and injurious refleftions upon St. Paul, it may be
fufpefted that he was a mere Ebionite ; the ancients afl'uring
us, that this feet of Chriftians rejefted the authority of that
apoftle and his epiftles. The author bears teftimony to many
principal fafts of the New Teftament. He gives an account
of our Lord's temptation ; he mentions the choice of the 12
apoftles, and afterwards of other 72 difciples. In one
place he fpeaks of the 1 2 apoftles in fuch a manner as if he
intended to exclude Paul from the honour of the apoftlefhip,
and even to deny him the character of a fufficient and faith-
ful " preacher of Chrift's word." We have alfo, in this
book, relations of the miracles of our blefted Lord's mi-
niftry, and of his death and refurreftion, and the extraor-
dinary figns attending thefe events. Grabe's Preface to the
Writings of St. Clement in his " Spicilegium." Coteler
apud Patr. Apoft. tom. i. p. 484. Lardner's Works, vol. ii.
p. 342, &c. See Clementine HoMlLlES.

Recognition, in the Drama. See Discovery.

RECOGNITIONE adnullanda per vim et duritlem faaa,
in Latu, is a writ to the juftices of the common bench for
fendmg a record touching a recognizance, which the recog-
nizor fuggefts to have been acknowledged by force and hard
deahng ; that, if it fo appear, it may be annulled.

Tranfcriptio Recognitionii faSa coram juftitiartis itinerantiius.
See Transcriptio.

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I

■

RECOGNITORS, Recggnitores. The jury impa-;
ncUed upon an aliize are called recognitors, becaufe theyV
acknowledge a dilleifin by their verditt.

RECOGNIZANCE, or Recognisance, a bond or.
obligation of record acknowledged to the king ; teft.ifT..
ing the recognizor to owe to the recognizee a certain fui
of money ; with condition to do fome particular aft,
to appear at the affizes, to keep the peace, to pay a debt,
or the like.

It is thus called, becaufe recognized, or acknowleg^d io
fome court of record, or before fome judge, mafter in chan-
cery, or juftice of the peace.

It is, in moll refpefts, like another bond ; the difference
being chiefly this : that the bond is the creation of a fre(h
debt or obligation de novo, whereas the recognizance is an
acknowledgment of a former debt upon record ; the form
of wlrich is " A B. doth acknowledge to our lord the king, g
to the plaintiff', to C. D., or the like, the fum of ten pounds," ,
with condition to be void on performance of the thing ftipu- |i
lated ; in which cafe the king, the plaintiff, C. D., &c. i
called the " cognizee," it cui cognofcitur, or recognizee, at >
he that enters into the recognizance is called the " cog- j
nizor," or recognizor, is qui cognofcit. This, being either I
certified to, or taken by the officer of fome court, is wit- I
nefled only by the record of that court, and not by the !
party's feal ; fo that it i< not in ftrift propriety a deed,
though the effedls of it are greater than a common obliga-,)
tion ; being allowed a priority in point of payment, and I
binding the lands of the cognizor, from the time of enrol-
ment on record. Stat. 29 Car. II. c. 3.

There are alfo recognizances for bail (which fee), otheri
for appearing at the feffions to profecute a felon, others fo:
good behaviour, &c. See Good Clearing.

There are alfo other recognizances of a private kind, i:
nature of a Statute Staple, (which fee,) by virtue of the
ftatute 23 Hen. VIII. cap. 6. which are a charge upon
real property. This recognizance is a fecurity, acknow
ledged before either of the chief juftices, or (out of term)
before their fubftitutes, the mayor of the ftaple at Weft,
minfter, and the recorder of London : by which the be-
nefit of their mercantile tranfaftions is extended to all
the king's fubjefts in general by the above cited ftatute
23 Hen. VIII. c. 6. amended by 8 Geo. I. c. 25, which
direft fuch recognizances to be enrolled and certified into
chancery. But thefe, by the ftatute of frauds, 29 Car. II.
c. 3. are only binding upon the lands in the hands of bona
Jide purchafors, from the day of their enrolment, which is
ordered to be marked upon the record.

Recognizance is alfo ufed, in our Ancient Statutes, for
the verdift of the twelve jurors impanelled upon an aflize ;
hence called recognitors.

RECOGNIZEE, or Cognizee, is he to whom one is
bound in a recognizance. He that is fo bound is called re-
cognizor.

RECOIL, or Rebound, the refilition of a body, chiefly
a fire-arm ; or the motion by which, upon explofion, it ftarts
or flies backwards ; the caufe of which is the impelling force
of the powder, which afts equally on the breech and on the
ball ; fo that if the piece and ball were of equal weight,
and other circumftances the fame, the piece would recoil
with the fame velocity as that vi^ith which the ball is dif-
charged ; but the heavier any body is, the lefs will its velo-
city be, when the force impelling it continues the fame.
Therefore fo many times as the cannon and carriages are
heavier than the ball, juft as many times will the velocity of
the cannon be lefs than that of the ball ; and the fpace
through which the cannon recoils whilft the ball moves
I O along

R E C

along the cylinder, is to the length of the cannon diminifhcd
by the i'pace behind the ball, as the weight of the ball is to
the weight of the cannon. Let a twenty-four pounder
often feet be 6400 pounds weight, and when the ball quits the
piece, the cannon will have recoiled ^4J-o- X 10 — -g\ of a
foot, lefs than half an inch.

The greater the charge, cateris paribus, the greater the
rebound. By an experiment made before the Royal Society,
and related in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, it was found,
that cannons, charged to a certain degree, throw the ball
from right to left of their own direftion ; but that the can-
nons themfelves recoil from left torigiit.

Some of the gentlemen of the French academy doubting
the julhiefs of the oblervation, M. Caffini, the younger, un-
dertook to repeat the experiment ; which he did by means of
a machme, as like that ufed in England as he could : and
that tried over and over again.

The refult was, that the ball, when the gun had liberty
to recoil, was always thrown to the right of the point to
which it was thrown when the gun was fixed without a pof-
fibility of rebounding ; but then the recoil was always made
the fame way, •viz. to the right ; and he never found that
contrariety of diretlions between the ball and the rebound,
obferved iu the Engliih experiment. See Hill. Acad. R.
Scienc. A. 1703. p. I20, &c.

The caufe of the phenomenon feems very difficult to
affign ; for fuppofing the guns of a common make, with the
touch-hole on the top, we cannot fo much as guefs what
caufe fhould conitantly determine the ball from right to left ;
unlefs fome verv material circumftances be omitted in the re-
cital they have given us in the experiment.

Guns whofe vents are a little forward in the chafe recoil
moft. To leden the recoil of a gun, the platforms are gene-
rally made Hoping towards the embrafures of the battery.
See Pkojectiles.

RECOLATION, a method of fining the decocftions
of vegetables, &c. by repeated percolation, or draining
them feveral times fucceffively through a linen or woollen-
bag.

RECOLLECTION, a mode of thinking, by which thofe
ideas, fought after by the mind, are with pain and endeavour
found, and brought again to view. See Memory and Ima-
gination.

RECOLLETS, a congregation of reformed Francif-
cans, called alfo friers minor of St. Francis, of the flriS ob-
fervance. They were effablifhed about the year 1532, when
fome religious of the order of St. Francis being willing to
keep his rule to the letter, Clement VII. gave them houfes,
whither they might retire, and receive fuch as were difpofed
to follow them. The fame year he approved the reform ;
and in 1584 it was carried from Italy into France, where
thefe religious had already been eftabliflled, in the towns of
Tulles in Limoifin, and Murat in Auvergne. They had
a convent at Paris in 1603 ; and fince they have erefted no
lefs than a hundred and fifty in the whole kingdom, where
they are divided into feven provinces.

RECOLOGNE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Doubs ; eight miles W. of Be-
fangon.

RECOMMENDATI. See Affidavit.
RECOMMENDATION, in a Military Senfe, denotes
a certificate, ilating an individnal to be properly qualified
for a fituation in the army. This certificate muft be figned
by a field-officer in the regulars, addrelfed to the command-
ing officer of the regiment, by whom it is forwarded to the
commander-in-chief, who lays the name of the perfon re-
commended before the king.

R E C

RECOMPOSITION, in Chemi/lry, the compounding
of bodies from their feparated parts, or principles, fo as to
compofe the original whole again. This is extremely diffi-
cult to cd'ca uiuverfally, but in fome cafes it may be done,
and that fo perfedlly, that the recompofcd body (hall not
be dillinguilhable by the fenfes from that which had never
been feparated by the fire. If the art of chemidry were
perfeft, we fhould thus be able, at lead in fome degree, to
recompofe all the bodies we divide ; but this is far from
being the cafe at prefcnt. We can by no means do this
in vegetable and animal bodies, where there is a vafcular
flrufturc, and therefore we are carefully to diftinguilh be-
tween the regeneration of organized, and that of unorga-
nized bodies.

RECONCILIARI, inourZ^w^Wj-, &c. A church
is faid reconciliari, to be reconciled, when it is confecrated
afrefh, after having been polluted or profaned ; as by the
poffefTion of pagans, heretics, &c.

RECONCILIATION of Penitents, in Church Hiflory,

See POENITENTES.

RECONNOITRE, in War, implies to view and examine
the date of things, in order to make a report of them.

The word is French, figiiifying, literally, to Inoiu, re-
collect.

We fay to reconnoitre the coails, to reconnoitre a port,
&c. A body of horfe was fent to reconnoitre their camp,
the ground, the condition of the roads, rivers, &c.

Parties ordered to reconnoitre, are to obferve the country
and the enemy ; to remark the routes, convenier.cics, and
inconveniencics of the firll ; the pofition, march, or forces
of the fecond. In either cafe, they (hould have an expert
geographer, capable of taking plans readily ; he fhould be
the befl mounted of the whole, that in cafe the enemy happen
to fcatter the efcort, he may fave his works and ideas.

All parties that go for reconnoitring only, (hould be but
few in number : never more than twelve or twenty men.
An officer, be his rank what it will, cannot dechne going
with 10 few under his command : the honour is amply made
up by the importance of the expedition, frequently of the
moft interefting confequence, and the propereil to recom-
mend the prudence, bravery, and addrefs of any officer that
has the fortune to fucceed.

It is previoufly neceflary that the officer ordered on this
duty fhould be well acquainted with the countiy, the roads,
and the diftance of the enemy. His party muil confift of
men of approved fidelity, part of whom fhould be difguifed.
This detachment muft march off in the night. The men
muft have ttricl orders neither to fmoke tobacco, make a
noife, nor fpeak. The officer m.uft be provided with two
guides, who are to be ftriftly interrogated, but are to re-
main ignorant of the route you intend to take. A detach-
ment of this kind (hould be furnifhed with fubfiftence for
two or three days. The horfes are to be fed every two or
three leagues, for it is abfolutely necefTary that they fhould
be always frefh and fit for duty. The officer will take care
never to halt, but at a diftance from any road, and alfo take
every precaution to prevent Iiis being furprifed, whilft hil
horfes are feeding, &c.

Reconnoitre is alfo ufed at fea. To reconnoitre a vef-
fel, a fleet, &c. is to approach near enough to examine the
rate and burden of a veflel, &c. the force it may have aboard,
what nation it is of, &c.

To reconnoitre a land, or fhore, is to obferve its fituation,
in order to find what land it is.

RECORD, Recordium, in Laiv, an authentic teftimony
of any thing in writing, contained in rolls of parchment, and
preferved in a court of record. See Court, and Custom.

Records

R E C

R E C

Records are faid to be vctujlatis (jf vcritatis vijligia. So Records, Imbezzling nf. See Imbezzle.

early as the Conqiieft we find the '^ prieleritorum memor'ia Recohd, matter, mujler, oyer, prifoner upon matter of, lee

eventorum" reckoned up as one of the chief qiiahtications Matter, Muster, Oyer, and Prisoner, Sec.

of thofe who were lield to be " legllus patrix oplime injli- Kv.vov.ri, Trial by, is ufed only in one particular inftance ;

tutl." For it is an eilabUilied rule to abide by former prece- where a matter of record is pleaded in any action, an a (inc.

dents, where the fame points come again in litigation ; as well a judgment, or the hke ; and the oppofite party pleads

to keep the fcale of juftice even and fteady, and not liable to '< tiul tie! record," that is, there is no luch matter of record

waver with every new judge's opinion, as alfo becaufe the
law in that cafe being folemnly declared and determined,
what before was uncertain, and perhaps indiflercnt, is now

exifting : upon this, iffue is tendered and joined iu the fol-
lowing form, " and this he prays may be enquired of by
the record, and the other doth tlie like ;" and hereupon the

become a permanent rule, which it is not in the breail of party pleading the record has a day given him to bring it
any fubfequent judge to alter or vary from, according to in, and proclamation is made in court for him " to bring
his private fentiments : he being fworn to determine not ac- fortii his record, or he fhall be condemned :" and, on his
cordins; to his own private judgment, but according to the failure, his antagonill fliall have judgment to recover. The
known law and cuftom of the land ; not delegated to pro- trial of this iflue is, therefore, merely by the record ; for, as
nouBce a new law, but to maintain and expound the old one. fir Edward Coke obferves (i Inft. 117. 260.), a record or
Yet this rule admits of exception, where the former deter- enrolment is a monument of fo high a nature, and im-
mination is molt evidently contrary to reafon ; much more puteth in itfelf fuch abfolute verity, that if it be pleaded
if it be clearly contrary to the divine law. But even in fuch there is no fuch record, it (hall not receive any trial by
cafes the fubfequentjudges do not pretend tomake a new law, witnefs, jury, or otherwile, but only by itfelf. Thus, titles
but to vindicate the old one from milreprefentation. For if of nobility ftiall be tried by the king's writ or patent only,
it be found that the former decifion is manifelUy abfurd which is matter of record. (6 Rep. 53.) Alfo in cafe
or unjuft, it is declared, not that fuch a fentence was bad of an alien, whether alien, friend, or enemy, (hall be tried
laiu, but that it was not law, that is, that it is not the ella- by the league or treaty between his fovereign and our's ;
blifhed cuftom of the realm, as has been erroneoufly deter- for every league or treaty is of record. (9 Rep. 31.) And
mined. An aft conunittcd to writing iu any of the king's alfo whether a manor be held in ancient demefne or not,
courts, during the term in which it is written, is alterable, (hall be tried by the record of Domefday in the king's ex-
being no record ; but that term once ended, and tlie aft chequer. Blackft. Com. book iii.

iurollcd, it is a record, and of fuch credit as admits no alter
ation, or proof to the contrary.

It is a fettled rule and maxim that nothing (hall be
averred againft a record (fee Court,) nor (hall any plea,
or even proof, be admitted to the contrary. (Co. Litt.
260.) And if the exiftence of a record be denied, it
(hall be tried by nothing but itfelf; that is, upon bare in-
fpeftion wlietlier there be any fuch record or no ; elfe

Record, among Foiukrs. A bird is faid to record, when
it begins to tune or fmg within itfelf ; or to form its notes
and difpofe its organs for finging.

The cock thru(li is diftinguifhed from the hen in re-
cording ; the lirft being more loud and frequent in it than
the fecond.

Inltances have been known of birds beginning to record
when they were not a month old. This firft elfay does net

there would be no end of difputes. But if there appears any feem to have the lead rudiments of the future fong ; but

jniftake of the clerk in making up fuch record, the court as the bird grows older and ftronger, one may perceive

will direft him to amend it. Courts of record, or repofitories what the nelthng is aiming at. A young bird commonly

for the public records of the kingdom, were firft eftabhlhed continues to record for ten or eleven months, wlien he is

by Edward 1., our Englilh Juftinian, fome of which are more able to execute every part of his fong, which afterwards

ancient than the reign of his father, and thofe were by him continues fixed, and is Icarcely ever altered. The term

coUefted. record is probably derived from a mufical inftrument, for-

Lawyers reckon three forts of records ; iiiz. a judicial merly ufed in England, called a recorder, which feems to

record, as attainder, &c. ; a nniiijlcrial record upon oath, have been a fpecits of flute, and was probably ufed to teach

as an office of inquifition found ; and a record made by con- young birds to pipe tunes. Lord Bacon defcribes this

•veyance and confent, as a fine, or deed inrolkd, and the like,

Record, AJfurances ly matter of, are fuch as do not en-
tirely depend on the aft or confent of the parties them-
felves ; but the fanftion of a court of record is called
in, to fubftantiate, preferve, and be a perpetual teftimony
of the transfer of property from one man to another ; or
of its eftabhfhment, when akeady transferred : of this na-
ture are private afts of parhament, the king's grants, fines,
and common recoveries.

Record, Court of. See Record, fupra, and Court.

Record, Debt of, is a fum of money, which appears to
be due by the evidence of a court of record, Thus, when

inftrument (in his fecond Century of Experiments) to
have been ftraight, to have had a lefler and greater bore,
both above and below, to have required very little breath
from the blower, and to have had w hat he calls a fipple or
Hopper.

RECORD A RI facias hquelam, in La-w, a writ di-
refted to the (lieriff to remove a caufe depending in an
inferior court, as hundred-court, county-court, court of
ancient demelne, &c. to the king's bench, or common
pleas, &c.

It is thus called, becaufe it commands the (heriff to make
a record of the proceedings either by himfelf, or others ;

a fpecific fum is adjudged to be due from the defendant to and then to fend up the caufe,

the plaintift, on an aftion or fuit at law, this is a contraft of RECORDE, Robert, in Biography, an early Englifh

the higheft nature, being eftabil(hed by the fentence of a phyfician, of Welfh origin, commenced his education at

court of judicature. Debts upon recognizances, together Oxford about the year 1525; and in 1531 was elefted

with ftatutes merchant, and ftatutes fl;aple. Sec. if forfeited fellow of All-Souls' College. Direfting his ftudies to

by non-performance of the condition, are alfo debts of phyfic, but w here, or under what mafters, we are not told,

record; the contraft, on which they are founded, being he was created doftor in that faculty at Cambridge in 1545.

witnefled by tlifi higheft kind of evidence, viz. by matter Both before and after this period he is faid to have taught

pi record, aritlimetic at Oxford, and to have excelled all his predecef-

8 fors

R E C

Ibrs in rendciliig this branch of knowledge clear and fami-
liar. He is likewife mentioned ;;s remarkably (killed in
rhetoric, allronomy, geometry, mufic, mineralogy, and
every part of natural hiftory. He was well acquainted
with the Saxon language, and made large colleftions of
hiilorical and other ancient manufcripts. To tiiefe various
ftudies he joined that of divinity, and was attached to the
principles of the Reformers. But e.otwithftanding he was
juftly deemed a prodigy of learning and talents, it does not
appear that he met with encouragement at all adequate to
his merits ; fince all that we know furllier of him is, that
he died in the king's bench prifon, where he was confined
for debt, in the year 1558.

He was author of leveral works, fome of which were
leveral times reprinted, on the following fubjefts.

" The Ground of Arts, teaching the Work and Pradlice
of Arithmetic, both in whole Numbers and Fraftions,"
1540. This was dedicated to king Edward VL " Tiie
Whetftone of Wit," a fecond part of the former. " Tiie
Path-way to Knowledge, containing the fird Principles of
Geometry." " The Caftle of Knowledge, containing the
Explanation of the Sphere." " The Urinal of Phyfick,"
1547, which was reprinted in London in 1582, IJ99, and
l66y ; and in the lall mentioned year, the title of " The
Judicial of Urines" was given to it. This book contains
a delcription of urinary vedels with figures. It is a (liort,
but very methodical treatife, full of divifions and fubdi-
vilions relative to the different kinds of urines, and the
prognoflics to be deduced from them. Neverthelefs he
candidly acknowledges at the beginning, that the judg-
ment to be formed in difcafes from the urine is not fo cer-
tain as fome have reprefented ; and indeed tlie perplexity
and variety of opinions concerning this fubjeft are fuffi-
ciently apparent from his treatife. His other works were,
« Of Anatomy ;" " Of Auricular Confeflion ;" " Of the
Encharill ;" and "The Image of a true Commonwealth."
Aikin's Biog. Memoirs of Medicine.

RECORDER, Recoiidator, a perfon whom the
mayor, or other chief magillrate of any city, or town
corporate, having jurifdicf ion, and a court of record, within
their precinfts, does affociate with him, for his better direc-
tion in matters of juftice, and proceedings according to
law. He is uiually a counfellor, or other perfon, verfcd
and experienced in the law. In lome towns, which have
tlieir particular aflizes within themfelves, and no mayor, the
recorder is the judge.

The recorder of London is one of the julUces of oyer
and terminer, and a j\illice of peace of the quorum, for
putting the laws in execution for preferving the peace and
government of the city ; and being the mouth of the city,
he delivers the ientences and judgments of the courts
therein, and alfo certifies and records the city cultoms, &c.
He is chofen by the lord mayor and aldermen, and at-
tends the buUnefs of the city, on any warning by the lord
mayor, &c.

Recouder, in Mufic. See Record, fupra.
RECORDO i^ procejfu niittendis, in Lazu, is a writ to
call a record, together with the whole proceedings in the
caufe, out of an inferior court into the king's court.

RECOVERY, in a legal fenfe, an obtaining of any thing
by judgment, or trial at law; anfwering to evlHio among
the civilians.

There is a true and a fiigrud lecovery.
Recovery, True, is an aAual or real recovery of any
thing, or of the value of it, by judgment. As if a man
fue for any land, or other thing, and have a verdift or judg-
ment for him.

R E C

Recovery, Feigned or Common, is a fort of Jiaio jurii,
being a certain form or courfe prefcribcd by law to be ob-
ferved for the better afl'uring of lands and tenements to us ;
the end and effect of which is, to difcontinuc and deflroy
eftates-tail, remainders, and revcrfions, and to bar the in-
tails of them.

Thefe common recoveries were invented by the ecclefiaf-
tics to elude the ftatutes of mortmain ; and afterwards en-
couraged by the fineffe of the courts of law in 1 2 Edw. IV.
in order to put an end to all fettered inheritances, and bar
not only eftates-tail, but alfo all remainders and rcverfions
expeftant thereon.

A common recovery is fo far like a.Jine f which fee), that
it is a fuit or aftion, either attual or fiftitious ; and in it
the lands are recovered againfl the tenant of the freehold ;
which recovery, being a fuppofcd adjudication of the right,
binds all perfons, and velts a free and abfolute fee-fimple
in the recoveror.

This recovery is either with a. ftngle or double -voucher;
and fometimes a treble or farther voucher, as the exigency
of the cafe may require.

As a recovery is in the nature of an aftion at law, not
immediately coinpromifed like a fine, but carried throuo-h
every regular ftage of proceeding, its form and method are
not eafily underltood by thofe who are unacquainted with
the courfe of judicial proceedings. Judge Blackflone has,
therefore, itated its nature and progrefs as clearly and con-
cifely as pofiible ; avoiding, to the utmoft of his power,
all technical terms and phrafes not before interpreted. Of
his luminous ftatcment we fhall avail ourfelves in the fequel
of this article.

Let us (fays he), in the firft place, fupppofe David Ed-
wards to be tenant of the freehold, and defirous to fuffer
a common recovery, in order to bar all entails, remainders,
and rcverfions, and to convey the fame in fee-fimple to
Francis Golding. To effeft this, Golding is to bring aa
aftion againfl him for the lands; and he accordingly fues
out a writ, called a prtscipe quod reddat, becaufe thofe were
its initial or moft operative words, w-hen the law proceed-
ings were in Latin. In this writ the demandant, Golding,
alleges, that the defendant, Edwards, (here called the tenant)
has no legal title to the land ; but that he came into poffef-
fion of it after one Hugh Hunt had turned the demandant
out of it. The fubfequent proceedings are made up into a
record or recovery roll, in which the writ and complaint
of the demandant are firft recited ; whereupon the tenant
appears, and calls upon one Jacob Morland, who is fup-
pofed, at the original purchafe, to have warranted the title
to the tenant ; and thereupon he prays, that the faid Jacob
Morland may be called in to defend the title, which he fo
warranted. This is called the •voucher, voccitio, or calling
of Jacob Morland to warranty ; and Morland is called the
'vouchee. Upon this, Jacob Morland, the vouchee, appears,
is impleaded, and defends the title. Whereupon Golding,
the demandant, defires leave of the court to imparl, or confer
with the vouchee in private; which is (as ufual) allowed
him. And foon afterwards tlie demandant, Golding, re-
turns to court, but Morland the vouchee difappears, or
makes the default. AVhereupon judgment is given for the
demandant, Golding, now called the recoveror, to recover
the lands in queflion againft the tenant, Edwards, who is
now the recoveree : and Edwards has judgment to recover
of Jacob Morland lands of equal value, in recompenfe for
the lands fo warranted by him, and now loll by his default ;
which is agreeable to the doftrine of warranty. This is called
the recompenfe, or recovery in value. But Jacob Morland
having no lands of his own, being ufually the cryer of the

court

RECOVERY.

court (who, from being frequently thus vouclied, is called the
common -vouchee) it is plain that Edwards has only a nominal
recoMipenfe for the lands fo recovered againll him by Guid-
ing ; which lands are now abfolutely veftcd in the faid rc-
coveror by judgment of law, and feifin thereof is delivered
by tha fheriff of the connty. So that this coUufivc re-
covery operates merely in the nature of a conveyance in
fee-fimple, from Edwards the tenant in tail, to Golding
the purchafor.

The recovery, here defcribed, is with a fingle voucher
only ; but fometimes it is with dmibk, treble, or farther
voucher, as the exigency of the cafe may require. And in-
deed it is now ufual always to have a recovery with double
voucher at the leaft : by firlt conveying an citate of free-
hold to any indifferent perfon, againft whom the pmcipe is
brought ; and then he vouches the tenant in tail, who
vouches over the common vouchee. For, if a recovery be
had iramediately againft tenant in tail, it bars only fuch
cRate in the premifes of which he is then aftually feifed ;
whereas if the recovery be had againft another perfon, and
the tenant in tail be vouched, it bars eveiy latent right and
intereft which he may have in the lands recovered. If Ed-
wards therefore be tenant of the freehold in podeflion, and
John Barker be tenant in tail in remainder, here Edwards
doth firft vouch Barker, and then Barker vouches Jacob
Morland the common vouchee ; who is always the lail per-
lon vouched, and always makes default : whereby the de-
mandant, Golding, recovers the land againft the tenant Ed-
wards, and Edwards recovers a recompenfe of equal value
againft Barker the firft vouchee ; who recovers the like againil
Morland the common vouchee, againft whom fuch ideal re-
covery in value is always ultimately awarded.

This fuppofed recompenfe in value is the reafon why the
iff^ue in tail is held to be barred by a common recovery.
For if the recoveree Ihould obtain a recompenfe in lands
from the common vouchee (which there is a poffibility in
contemplation of law, though a very improbable one, of his
doing) thefe lands would fupply the place of thofe fo re-
covered from him by coUufion, and would defcend to the
iffue in tail. This reafon will alfo hold with equal force,
as to n.ojl remainder-men and reverfioners ; to whom the
poffibility will remain and revert, as a full recompenfe for
the reality, which they were otherwife entitled to : but it
will not always hold ; and therefore, as Pigott fays, the
judges have been even q/luli, in inventing other reafons to
maintain the authority of recoveries. And, in particular,
it hath been faid, that, though the eftate-tail is gone from
the recoveree, yet it is not dejlroycd, but only transferred ;
and ftill fubfifts, and will ever continue to fubfift (by con-
ftruftion of law) in the recoveror, his heirs, and affigns :
and, as the eftate-tail fo continues to fubfift for ever, tlie
remainders or reverfions expedant on the determination of
luch eftate-tail can never take place.

To fuch awkward <hifts, fuch fubtile refinements, and
fuch ftrange reafoning, were our anceftors obliged to have
recourfe, in order to get the better of that ilubborn ftatute
de don'ts. The dcfign, for which thefe contrivances were
fet on foot, was certainly laudable ; the unrivctting the
fetters of eftates-tail, which were attended with a legion of
mifchiefs to the commonwealth : but, while we applaud the
end, we cannot but admire the means. Our modern courts
of juftice have indeed adopted a more manly way of treating
the fubjedl ; by confidering common recoveries in no other
light, than as the formal mode of conveyance, by which
tenant in tail is enabled to aliene his lands. But, fince the
ill confequeiices of fettered inheritances are now generally
feen and allowed, and of conrfe the utility and expedience

of fetting them at liberty are apparent ; it hath often
been wifticd, that the procefs of this conveyance was
(hortened, and rendered lefs fubjedl to niceties, by either
totally repealing the ftatute de donit ; which perhaps, by
reviving the old dodtrine of conditional fees, might give
birth to many litigations : or by vcfting in every tenant
in tail of full age the fame abfolute fee-fimple at once,
which now he may obtain whenever he pleafcs, by the col-
lufive fiftion of a common recovery ; though this might
poffibly bear hard upon thofe in remainder or reverfion, by
abridging the chances they would otherwile frequently have,
as no recovery can be fuffered in the intervals between term
and term, which fometimes continue for near five months
together: or, laftly, by empowering the tenant in tail to
bar the eftate-tail by a folemn deed, to be made in term
time and enrolled in fome court of record ; which is liable
to neither of the other objeftions, and is warranted not
only by the ufage of our American colonies, and the de-
cifions of our own courts of juitice, wiiich allow a tenant
in tail (without fine or recovery) to appoint his eftate to
any charitable ufe, but alfo by the precedent of the ftatute
21 Jac. I. c. 19. which, in cafe of a bankrupt tenant in
tail, empowers his commiffioners to fell the eftate at any
time, by deed indented and enrolled. And if, in fo national
a concern, the emoluments of the of&cers, concerned in
palling recoveries, are thought to be worthy attention,
thofe might be provided for in the fees to be paid upon each
enrolment.

The force and e^ffeff of common recoveries may appear,
from what ha-, been faid, to be an abfolute bar not only of
all eftates-tail, but of remainders and reverfions expeftant
on the determination of fuch eftates. So that a tenant in
tail may, by this method of affurance, convey the lands held
in tail to the recoveror, his heirs and affigns, abfolutely free
and difcharged of all conditions and limitations in tail, and
of all remainders and reverfions. But, by ftatute 34. and
35 Hen. VIII. c. 20. no recovery had againft tenant in
tail, of the king's gift, whereof the remainder or rever-
fion is in the king, (hall bar fuch eftate-tail, or the remain-
der or reverfion of the crown. And by the ftatute
1 1 Hen. VII. c. 20. no woman, after her huft)and's death,
ftiall fufter a recovery of lands fettled on her by her huf-
band, or fettled on her hufband and her by any of his an-
ceftors. And by ftatute 14 EHz. c. 8. no tenant for fife,
of any fort, can fuffer a recovery, fo as to bind them in
remainder or reverfion. For which reafon, if there be
tenant for life, with remainder in tail, and other remainders
over, and the tenant for life is defirous to fuffer a valid re-
covery ; either he, or the tenant to the prxcipe by him
made, muft -uouch the remainder-man in tail, otherwife the
recovery is void : but if he does vouch fuch remainder-man,
and he appears and vouches the common vouchee, it is then
good ; for if a man be vouched and appears, and fuffers
the recovery to be had againft the tenant to the precipe, it
is as effectual to bar the eftate-tail as if he himfelf were
the recoveree. Salk. 571.

In all recoveries it is neceffary that the recoveree, or tenant
to the pritcipe, as he is ufually called, be aftually feifed of the
freehold, elfe the recovery is void. (Pigott, 28.) For all
aftions to recover the feifin of lands, muft be brought
againft the aftual tenant of the freehold, elfe the fuit
will lofe its effeft ; fince the freehold cannot be recovered
of him who has it not. And, though thefe recoveries
are in themfelves fabulous and fictitious, yet it is necef-
fary that there be aSores fabulx, properly qualified.
But the nicety thought by fome modern praftitioners
to be requifite in conveying the legal freehold, in order

to

R E C

R E C

to make a good tenant to the prMpe, is removed by
the provifions of the llatute J4 Geo. II. c. 20. which
enafts, with a retrofpedl and coiiformity to the ancient rule
of law, that, though the legal freehold be velted in Icli'ees,
yet thofe who are entitled to the next freehold ell ate in re-
mainder or reverfion may make a good tenant to the prte-
c!pt; — that, though the deed or Hue which creates fuch
tenant be fubleqiient to the judgment of recovery, yet, if
it be in the fame term, the recovery (liall be valid in law ;
—and that, though the recovery itfelf do not appear to be
entered, or be not regulaly entered, on record, yet tlie
deed to make a tenant to the precipe, and declare the nfes
of the recovery, fiiall after a polfefiion of twenty years be
fufficient evidence, on behalf of a purchafor for valuable
confideration, that fuch recovery was duly fufFcred. And
this may fuffice to give the ftudcnt a general idea of com-
mon recoveries, the lall fpecies of afl'urances by matter of
record.

For an account of deeds to lead, or declare, the ufts of
fines, and recoveries ; fee U.sks.

In fome manors, by fpecial cuftom, recoveries may be
fufFiired of copyhold (Moor, 637.) ; but aa thcle differ
in nothing material from recoveries of free land, excepting
only that they are not fuffered in the king's courts, but in
the court baron of the manor, we fhall refer this fubjeft
to the article Sukrendku. In this place we (liall obi'erve,
however, that a fine or recovery had of copyhold lands in
the king's court may, if not duly revcriVd, ;Jter the tenure
of the lands, and convert them into frank-fee, which is de-
fined in the old book of tenures to be " land pleadable at the
common law:" but upon an aftion on the caie, in the nature
of a writ of " deceit," brought by the lord in the king's
court, fuch line or recovery will be reverfed, the lord will
recover his jurifditlion, and the lands will be reltored to their
former Hate of copyhold. Blackft. Com. b. li.

Clerh of Inrolments of Recoveries and Fines. See Ci.eiik.

Recoveti-y, Fort, in Geography, a fort of America, fn
the Indiana territory, lituated on a branch of the Wabafh
river, about 23 miles from Greenville. It confiits of two
block-ln^ufes, and barracks with curtains, fufficient for 60
men.

RECOUPE, French ; formed of re, and couper, to cut
again, in Laiv, to rebate, or dilcount.

Tims, if a man have ten pounds iifuing out of certain
lands, and he diflfeifes the tenant of the land ; in an affife
brought by the diileifee, if he recover the land and damages,
the diffeifor lliall recoupe the rent due in the damages.

Recoupe alfo denotes a quick, Iharp reply, to a peremp-
tory demand. See Repartee.

RECREANT, in our old Law-Boohs, implies cowardly,
faint-hearted.

Hence recreciniife. See Craven and Champion'.

Recreant was fo reproachful a word, that Glanville would
not defcribe it. Recreantes equi is ufed by Fleta, lib. ii.
cap. 2. for dull, jaded horfes.

RECREATION Island, in Geography, a fertile idand
in the Southern Pacific ocean, difcovei-ed by Roggewin in
the year 1722. Some of the Ihip's company obtained a
quantity of antifcorbutic herbs ; but upon venturing into the
country, they were aflaulted by the natives, who, by calling
ftones at them, killed fome, and wounded almoil all. Many
of the iflanders were killed by the fire-arms in return. The
foil produces fugar-canes, cocoa-nuts, pomegranates, Indian
figs, &c. The inhabitants were well made, • robull, aiiJ
very lively : their bodies were painted, and they were armed.
S. lat. i6=. W. long. 148^

RECREMENT, RecireMENTUM, in Medicine, fotne
Vol,. XXIX.

fuperfiuous matter feparated from (ome other tJiat iv
ufeful.

In which feufe, it amounts to oiuch the fame with faecet,
or excrement.

Recrements of vegetables are ufeful z» manure.

Recrement is fometimes alfo ufed to denote fuch fe-
crcted juices in the body, as arc afterwards of ule in the
economy ; as the lympha, gall, &c. which are thus called,
in contradiftinilion to excrements, which are expelled out of
the bodv, as of no farther ufe.

RECRIMINATION, a potterior accufation brought
by the aecufed againft his accufer, upon the iajane faft.

When two partii r, have made their mutual complaint at
the fame time ; the bulinefs is, firll, to determine who fhaU
be the accufer, and who the aecufed, i. e. on whom ftalJ
fall the ri'crimination.

By ttie French laws, recrimination is of no force till the
criminal hatli been purged legally.

RECRUDESCENCE, Recrudescbntia, in Medi-
cine, is a relapfe, when a difeafe that has gone off returns
again.

RECRUITS, in the Military Art, new men raifed to
fupply the places of fuch as have loll their lives in the fer-
vice, or are rendered unferviceable by age or wounds. See
Listing.

RECUUlT-ZTor/fj-, are the horfes brought up for com-
pleting the regiments of horfe or dragoons every year.

RECTANGLE, in Geometry, called alfo oblong, and
long fquare, a quadrilateral rectangular figure M L I K,
[Plate XII. Geometry, Jig. 3.) whole oppofite fides, ML
and I K, as well as M 1 and L K, are equal.

Or, a reftangle is a parallelogram, whofe fides arc ua-
equal, but its angles right.

To Jind the area of a reSangle, fee PARALLELOGRAM.

If from the fame point A, (Jig. 4-) be drawn two lines,
one of which, A D, is a tangent to a circle, the other a
fecant A B ; the fquare of the tangent A D will be equal to
the reftangle under tlie fecant A B, and that part of it with-
out the circle A C. If two or more fecants, A. a, A B,
&c. be drawn from the fame point A ; the reftangles, un-
der their wholes, and their parts without the circle, will be
equal. If two chords interfeft each other, the reftangles
under their fegments will be equal. The reftangles under
equal lines are equal. The lum of all the reftangles
contained under a given line, and all the parts of another
any how divided, is equal ta the redlangle contained under
the two whole lines. If from any point, within a reclangle,
to the angles of a rectangle, four lines be draw-n, the fums
of the fquares of thofe di-a\\n to the oppofite angles will be
equal. The rectangles contained under the correfponding
fides of equiangular triangles, taken alternately, are equal.
The reClangle under the two fides of any triangle is equal to
the rectangle under the perpendicular to its bafe, and the
diameter of the circumfcribing circle. The fquare of a line
bifeding any angle of a triangle, and terminating in the op-
pofite lide, together with tiie reftangle under the two feg-
m.ents of that fide, is equal to the reftangle of the two fides,
including the propofed angle. The rectangle of the two
diagonals of any quadrilateral infcribed in a circle, is equal
to the fum of the two rectangles contained under the oppo-
fide fides.

Rectangles, Similar. See Similar.

RErTANCLE, in Arithmetic, is the fame with produft or
fadtum.

RECTANGLED, Right-angled, Triangle, is a tri-
angle, one of whole angles is right, or equal to 90°. See
Triangle.

? Y There

R E C

II ii C

^ Tliere can be but one right angle in a plain triangle ;
therefore a rcftanglcd triangle cannot be equilateral.

RECTANGULAR, in Geometry, is applied to figures
and folids which have one or more angles right.

Such are fquares, reftangles, and reftangled triangles,
among plain ligures ; cubes, parallelepipedf, Sec. among
folids.

Solids are alfo faid to be rrdnngular with refpcft to their
fituation : thus, if a cone, cyUnder, &c. be perpendicular
to the plane of the horizon, it is called a redtangular or
right cone, cylinder, &c.

The ancient-B ufed the phrafe reHangular fetVion of a cone,
to denote a parabola ; that conic fedion, before Apollonius,
being only confulered in a cone, whofe feftion by the axis
would be a triangle, right-angled at the vertex. See Conic
SeSions.

Hence it was that Archimedes entitled his book of the
quadrature of the parabola, by the name of " Rettanguli
Coni Seftio."

Rectangulah Barometer. See Barometer.

Rec'tangulak Whidmills. See Windmills.

RECTIFICATION, compounded of redus, right, ill-
refl, and^fo, / became, the aft of reRify'mg, i. e. of correfting,
remedying, or redrelling, fome defctt or error, in refpeft
either of nature, art, or morality.

Rectification, in ChemtJIry, is the repeating of a diilil-
lation or fublimation feveral times, and generally with a lefs
degree of heat than at firft, in order to render tlie lubftance
purer, finer, and freer from aqueous and earthy parts.

Reftification is a reiterated depuration of a diililled mat-
ter, e. gr. brandy, fpirits, or oils, by diftilling them over
again, to render them more fubtile, and exalt their virtues.

That the rcdtification of fpirits may, in all cafes, proceed
with the greatell exatlnefs, a due regard to it mull be had
even from the firft fermenting the fubllance from which they
are to be made, and continued through all the ftages of dif-
tillation, the low wines, proof fpirit, and alcohol. The
management of the fermented liquor, to this purpofe, is
principally the letting it ftand to fubfide after the fermenta-
tion is over, and the drawing it off clear and thin, not too
rich for the ftill. The ftill is not to be overfilled with this.
Great care mull be taken to prevent its burning, and the
faints that run laft muft be kept feparate. not mixed with
the refl of the liquor diililled, which is now called the low
wines. In the rettifying of thefe into proof fpirit, great
caution muft be ufed that the fire be kept regular, not raifed
by fudden fpirts, which always throw up the oil in large
quantities, which is to be left behind. In the fucceeding
reftification of the proof fpirit into alcohol, the fame cau-
tious management of the fire is necelTary ; and, in both this
and the laft, the faints are not to be fuffered to run in among
the fpirit, but to be faved feparate. They may be all mixed
together at laft, and reduced to a fpirit fit for burning in
lamps ; but the keeping out of the reftified liquor will keep
away the coarfeft and moil ftinking part of the oil of the in-
gredients.

By thefe eafy means, without any additional trouble or
charge, we might be furniftied witli a fpirit greatly exceed-
ing what we commonly meet with. And in general, the
art and myilery of our fellers of the feveral forts of Englifli
brandies, fcem to confift in this prudent management, and
in the adding a little of the oleum -virii, or oil of wine-lees, to
the fpirits tliiis procured pure : this gives the flavour of
foreign brandies, and is fo exteiifive in its ufe, that half an
ounce of it is fufficient for a hogrtiead of pure fpirit.

M.ilt fpirit is that which principally requires all this care
ill the redtitication, bccaufe its oil is more naufeous and

oftenfive than that of any other fpirit ; but all others will bt"
greatly the better for being treated in the fame manner,
and it is indeed necefl'ary that they (hould for fome particular
afes.

It is remarkable, that no one method of combinatory re<.-
tification, that is, of the rettification performed by mean;,
of fait, and other additions, is fuited to all the feveral kinds
of fpirits ; fcarcely indeed will any one way lerve for any t\A o
fpirits: but this method, by fimple and careful diftillation,
is equally fuited to all. Molades-fpirit, cydcr-fpirit, wine-
Ipirit, or brandy, rum, and arrack, are all improved by it ;
and all ol them are then known to be perfectly reftifitd,
when, in the ftate of alcohol, they not only prove totally
inflammable in a little veiiel floating upon cold waters, but
when poured into the purcll Ipring water they have not the
leaft power of making any change in it, nor leave any marks
of oihnefs, or that undluofity which, on the mixture of the
lefs pure fpirits, floats on the top, and in certain lights gives
the rainbow colours. Shaw's Eflay on Diftillery. See
Alcohol and Distillation.

Fixed falts are re£lified by calcination, diflblution, or fil-
tration.

Metals are reftified, i. e. reined, by the coppel ; and re-
guhifes by repeated fufions, &c.

In a word, all rectifications are founded upon the fame
principle ; and confift in feparating fubftances more volatile
from fubftances lefs volatile ; and the general method of
effecting this is to apply only the degree of heat which is
necelTary to caufe this feparation.

Rectification of intrwlk Add. See Concentration.

Rectification, in Geometry, is the finding of a right
line equal to a propofed cnrve, or fimply finding the length
of a curve line ; a problem which, even in the prefent ad-
vanced ftate of analyfis, is attended in many cafes with con-
fidcrable difficulty ; and was, in all, totally beyond the
reach of the ancient geometers, who were not able to afTign
the length of any curve line whatever ; though they could,
in a few inftances, determine the area of a curvilinear fpace.
See Quadrature.

The firft rectification of a curve line was effected by Mr.
H. Neal, as we are informed by Dr. Wallis, at the con-
cluCon of his Treatife on the Cilioid. This curve was the
femicubical parabola, and Neal's rectification of it was pub-
lifhed in July or Auguft, 1657 ; and two years after, viz.
in 1659, the fame was done by Van Haureat in Holland.
See Schooten's Commentary on Defcartes' Geometry.

It is, however, to the dottrine of fluxions that we owe
the complete reftification of curve lines, in finite terms,
when they admit of it ; and in others by means of infinite
feries, circular arcs, logarithms, &c. ; of which method we
fhall give a general view in the prefent article.

Let A M O ( Plate XIII. Analyfis, Jig. i o. ) be a curve of
any kind, whofe ordinates are parallel to one another, and
perpendicular to the axis A H ; and let the fluxion of the
abfcifs A P be denoted by P/> or M R, and R m be taken to
reprefent the correfponding fluxion of the ordinate P M,
then will the tangent M m be the line whicii the generating
point of the curve would defcribe, if its motion were to be-
come uniform at M ; confequently this line will truly ex-
prefs the fluxion of the fpace A M. Hence putting A P
= .V, P M = >■, and A M = z, we have z = M »; =
^/ (MR' + Rm') =^ V (x' + -;-) ; from which, and the
equation of the curve, the value of z may be determined.
But if all the ordinates of the propofed curve ARM
(Jig. ) be referred to a centre C ; then, putting the tan-
gent R P, intercepted by the perpendicular C P, = /, the
arc B N, of a circle defcribed about the centre C, =; x, the

radius

RECTIFICATION.

radius CN (or C B) = a, Sec. (fee Quaduature of and thi.' fluent of the lad of the two terms is = i a x In-p

Curves, Cafi 2.) we {hsilhavez:}:: y {CK) : I (RV); , v

■ log. of^ -1- da' +/)•; therefore 2 = A ^ (^a- -f. y^'-

and confequently, z = "^ ; whence the vahie of z will be . "

, , .^ , , . -' . . + i^i X hyp. log. of^ + (^a'+/)i. But when z and

found, it the relation ot jj and i is given. y vanifli, or become equal o, as they do at the vertex, this

I. To find the length of the femi-cubical parabola, of fluent becomes = ^e x hyp. log. of i a ; and, therefore,

j-J the faid fluent being correfted, gives the true value of z, or
which the equation is a x'' = y; or jc = — .

a'- the length of the curve A M = -- x (^ a + jr")/ 4. i. a

^V' y 9yy^

Here.v= --^, or i^ = -^--- ; fubftituting, therefore, ^ j.^p. j^g. of ,-. + (^ a' + ;■): - ^ a x hyp. log.

this value of .»■' in the general expreHion
- ~ = ^/ [i'' + )■'), wc have

\ 4 '2 / 2 a'

ch is

X (9>' +- 4^)- -r C, correftion.

tlie fluent of which is
I

27 ai

of U « = — X (t «' 4- /)'■ + i a X hyp. log. of

ia

Hence, if A C and D C (fig. 12.) be the conjugate femi-
axes of an equilateral hyperbola; and A C = a, MP'=:
2y, Q M = X, then will A P = a; _ a ; and a-' - a' =
4 y'' ; therefore x' = 4 y' + a- ; confequeiitly x z= ^
(4>' + "1- If then qm be fuppofed infinitely near Q M,
we fliall have Q y =j, and therefore the element of the area
C Q M A ~_y x ^/ (a' + 4^1 ). Whence it appears, that
the reftification of the parabola depends on the quadrature
of the hyperbolic fpace C Q M A.

III. To determine the length of an are of the common hyper-
bola. Let the femitranfverfe axis be reprefented by b,

which is the length of the cui've,"anfwering to any length ^^"'^ '''^ femiconjugate by ., and we fliall have -^ = zb >:

of the ordinate V. , ■> r .1 ^ r .1 /r tt

n-r a-r ^1 i II . c J .1 1 lU +• ■»" J irom the nature or the curve (fee HyperbolvI •

. To reSify the common parabola ; o~ to nnd the length ' ^" w ^i<.c iiirtKuui^.i; ,

of any parabolic arc AM { fi?. II.) Let the parameter , .u r I' \' {<:' + y^)

.V. ^^ -r a d <■ 1, £• ..u 'i"d therefore x — — ^ — ^ =— ^ — b : hence i =

— a, the abfcifs = A P = x. Sec. as above. From the c "t.m.e x —

Now when the arc = o, then j- = o ; therefore

4 a- _
27 ai

-)-C=o, orC= —

27 ai
whence the complete fluent is

(gy + 4«)^' - 4a

27 ai

V

{.

well known property of this curve, a .v = y'' ; and ax =

2y y ; confequently x = —-—, and .i" = —-7- > which fub- ^ -/ (^' 4- >")

ilituted for x' in the general expreffion for the lengfth of the -; r-. rr t = J' a' ( ' + - — - = — I ; which, by co

6 ^ ^ f' X (f - 4- /) J ' <:* + cy / '

■ve, makes z = ( X^^ h 7 ) = - X (a" + 4j'-)'

\ a- /a

ich, thrown into an infinite fe

/ 2/ 2^ 4/ ^ \

(a + --^ --4 +if , &c. )
\ a a' a' /

b'

into an infinite feries, becomes y ^/ [1 -f-

vertinj? -:-

y ^ + '^'J''

which, thrown into an infinite feries, becomes = — x ai 1 i- i z: « zi 3

''^ ~f ^+-f--^, &c.) But ftill we have the

I. e. % — y -X- _— ^^

a' fquare root to extraft : in order to which, let it be affumed
z= I + A/ + B;-' 4- C/ -^pf, &c. Then, by fquar-
ing, and tranfpoling, there arifes

^, , , f,,,- r ■ • , ='->'' 2/ 4y I + 2A/4-2B/+2C/ + 2D/, &C.

The fluent of this feries ,s a = j, + — -^ - — -^ + _-- + A^ / 4- 2 A B jr« + 2 A C;.^ &c

+ B'/, Stc. ;> = o.
I - -;7 X y 4- -^ xy- -7 x/ 4- — X /, &c.

^ 4- ^. &c.
a' a

la' s» T^
— , &c. = the length of the curve A M required.

y I ' y

Other wife : the above x = — X (a" + 4J'^)- is = - —

a a

4J'

a'yy + 4yy

\a'yy 4- ^y'y

■^ayy^'^yy Hence A= —j B= --

')5 «x(^V + 4/r ^'^ *

2-^'= ~rr6~aT»' ^

('j' 4- ^yf a X («•/ + 4^-';

- X (a^ j^' 4- ^y'Yh X (i <2' jyi + = 7;» - -^^ = ^' + 4:^ + 767^' ^'- ^^- Therefore i

,« X (<jM 4J'')'
4/-') 4 ^'J X n-T

two terms

But the fluent ofthefirft of thefe = i V (' + -^. &c.) =i x (i 4- A/ + By.&c.)

3 Y 2 «* -f

(i'''4-y')^

aa

RECTIFICATION.

14 19 ^

L ) X v' »■) &c. And confequently z = y +

4f'° 16 c"/

I' v^ / b- i'\ y' / 1" t* , i' \

14c'

By the very fame way of proceeding, the arc of an tOipfis
may be found, the equations of the two curves differing in
nothing but their figns.

IV. To reaify the Jpiral of Archimedes. The value of /

(AT./f. 13.) being denoted by —^J-—^ (fee Tan-
gent of the Spiral, &c.) we have z ( = 7") = ■>

^ ^ ILjLi ; which fluxion being the fame as that exprefl'-

b
jng the arc of the common parabola (Prob. II.), by inferting

in the cxpreffion i = — x (a' + 4/)^, b for \ a, its

fluent will, therefore, be truly rcprefented by the meafure

— - + -i—
i.3 2

= (,-^.

2.3 2

T

.4.5

.4.5

7

+

4.6.7

+

5/

— +

_3
2

_ 3
2.4.6

/'
9

X V *

4- &C.) X >>

(

1 — r s'

+

+

3 0

+ &c.) X t
r')

+ &c.)

X r

s 2 • 3 .f 2 . 4. 5 r

where ;• is retained in the latter for fake of analogy.

It is obvious, therefore, that the arc may be computed
by any of thefe, in terms either of the fine or verfed fine,
tangent or fecant, and confequently alfo in terms of the co-
fine, co-tangent, co-fecant, &c.

Thus, in the firfl, taking x = — , which h the verfed

fine of 60^, we have
I

arc 60'^ = ( I -I-

-f

of the faid arc, or by

hy v/(^' f/)

+ i * X hyp. log

y '^ ^ S — ■^ ', the value there found, by making the
b

propofed fubftitution.

V. To reaify the involute of a circle, whofe nature is fuch,
that the part P R [fg. 14.) of the tangent intercepted by
the point of contafi; and the perpendicular C P, is every
where equal to the radius C O of the generating circle.

In this cafe i t— ^— j = '—-, we obtain e =
- which, correfted by making _)■ = a = A C, becomes

cp-

2 a

ylz

2

AR.

_ _i / C P' \

— I ^ - J, the true meafure of the required arc

VI. To find the length of a circular arc. — This may be ex-
prefled either in terms of the fine, cofine, verfed fine, or
any other trigonometrical line, as follows. Firft,

Let the verfed fine = .v, the fine =; y, radius = r, and arc
= 2, then, by the property of the circle, y^ ^^ 2 r x — .v-

^ r^ + f

or, putting tangent = /

and fecant = s, gives - - y'^ = '- p^ j-'

as are readily deduced from the known properties of the
circle.

Nov? , by means of thefe values of y'', or of 2 r .v — x",
and the general equation i =; ^/ (i^ + })> we readily
draw the following values of 2;, "viz.

(2.

.V) V ('

f)

r' + t' ^ (x' - r)

the fluents of which can only be found in feries, which
iu-e as follows ; making radius r ■=. i, viz.

2.3 2'.3.4

-^-^^

J.; 5
•4

6.'/ 2

In the fecond, afTuming y ■= — z= fin. 30°, we have

arc 30° = ( I -I

I

2'. 3 2'

.4.

+

3 -5

-) X -•

5 2'. 4. 6. 7' 2
In the third, alfuming ; = i = tang. 45°, we obtain

/'III

arc 45° =( I -1 1- —

3 5 7 9 II
In the fourth, afluming ;• = 2 = fee. 60°, we get

-— -f&c.).r

arc 60° = (

2 —

'- + ''-

+

3(2^- i^)

-1- &c.).r

2 • 2*. 3 2°. 4. 5

Then multiplying the numbers obtained from thefe feries
by the number of times that the arc is contained m the whole
circumference, will give the circumference required.

But no one of thefe feries is fufficiently convergent for
afcertaining the circumference of the circle to a great degree
of accuracy, and therefore other methods have been con-
trived, in order to produce feries better calculated for this
purpofe, of which that of Machin has been the moft popular ;
though it does not appear that he employed it in his cele-
brated quadrature or reftification, in which he found the
circumference to one hundred places of figures.

In order to render thefe feries more converging, it is ob-
vious that lefs arcs muft be aflumed, and the difficulty con-
fifts only in finding the tangents (for example, ufing that
feries) of a fmall arc, which may be expreffed in numbers
that are tolerably manageable in the general feries.

For this purpofe Machin, knowing the tangent of 45° to
be I, and that the tangent of an arc being known, any
multiple of it is readily found, confidered, that if there
were aflumed fome fmall fimple number for the tangent of an
arc, and then the tangent of the double arc were continually
taken, until a tangent be found nearly equal to i, the tan-
gent of 45° : by taking the tangent of this fmall difference
between 45° and the multiple arc, there would be had two
very fmall tangents, the one of the firft arc, and the other
of this difference. Then computing the arc to thefe tan-
gents, whether the meafure of them in degrees, &c. were
known or not, the whole arc of 45^ would become known ;
•viz. by multiplying the firft by the aflumed multiple, and
adding the laft arc to the produft, if the tangent of the
multiple arc were lefs than i , or the arc itfelf lefs than 45° ;
but fubtrading it if greater.

Having

RECTIFICATION.

Hnviiig thus laid down his plan of operation, by a few
trials he k-U upon a number well fuited to his purpofe, viz.

knowing the tangent of — of 45°, or 11° 15', to be very
nearly — , radius being i, ho allumed for his firft arc that

whofe tangent is — ; then fince tan. 2 a

2 tan. n

I — tan.' ,

120

he had — for the tanpent of his double arc, and -^-^ for
12 '' 119

the double of this, or of four times the firll, which being
a little greater than 45^, was well adapted to his views ; for
by a known trigonometrical property, tan. (3 — 45) =

; that is, the tangent of the finall arc, which is

tan. a + I °

120

equal to the excefsof his multiple above 45°, was — —

— I

120
119

+ I

=39

He had, therefore, two arcs to compute, the one

having for its tangent — , and the other ; and then four

5 239

times the firft of thefe arcs minus the latter, would evi-
dently give the exaft arc of 45°, and both thefe numbers
being fuch as to converge very well in the general feries, the
difficulty attending the ufual approximation was avoided.
Other approximations, however, have fince been difcovcrcd,
which, if not more rapid, their invelligation is, at lead,
more fimple, of which, perhaps, that of Euler's is the moft
deferving of notice. This celebrated geometer obferves,
that every arc whofe tangent is commenfurable with the ra-
dius, as, for inftance, 45'^, may be divided into two arcs, of
which the tangents, though much fmaller, are ftill com-
menfurable with the radius ; for fince

. ,^ tan. a -j- tan. i>

tan. [a + b) =: ■ -•,

I — tan. a tan. b

we have alfo

tan. a =

tan. (a + i) — tan. i

tan,

[a + b) . tan. 6 + 1 ^

I I

3'^ riF

I I

— ; + - &c.

•3' 9-3'

3 3-3' 5-3' ?•

In both which feries, the terms diminifh much more ra-
pidly than in the original feries, and may therefore be com.
puted with tolerable eafe.

But it is evident that we may proceed farther in this ap-
proximation, by dividing each of thefe into other two arcs,
by which means the convergency will obvioufly be much
more rapid ; and though, generally fpeaking, for every fub-
divifion we double the number of our feries, yet the degree
of convergency is fo much the greater as amply to compen-
fate for the additional number of feries. Bcfides, we may
always fubdivide our greater arc, fo that one of its fubdivifions
fliall be the fame as the fmaller arc, in which cafe we do not

increafe the number of feries. Thus ; arc to tan. — = arc

2

therefore arc to tan. 1 = 2

I I

to tan. 1- arc to tan. —

3 7

arc to tan. 1- arc to tan.

3

I 2

= arc to tan. f- arc to tan. —

7 II

1

Again

therefore arc to tan

arc to tan. —
3

3 arc to tan. — -)- 2 arc to tan.

and fo on to

2

+ 2 arc to tan. — •,
7 II

any extent required, wliich might in courfe be purflied fo
far as to render the operation as fimple and as little laborious
as can be expefted in fuch kind of computations. Even
with thefe already mentioned, the circumference of the circle
might undoubtedly be computed to 200 places of decimals,
with Icfs labour than it colt Vieta to carry them to 10 places,
or Romanus to 15.

The reader will obferve, that this approximation differs
from Machin's in nothing except the fimplicity and gene-
rality of the invcltigation ; for if we make the fucceffive
lubdivifion of the greater arc, fo as always to include in it
the fmaller one, we (hall find in our refults the identical
formula of Machin.

Let us repeat our former expreflion

tan. i

tan. (a + i)
tan. a = . ^ —

tan. a

R

Let tan. {a + b) = =-, tan. a =
R' R/-Ti

tan. b
R>

, tan.*= -,and

where it is obvious that if tan. (a + b) and b be rational,

tan. a will alfo be rational ; thus, if tan. {a i- i) = tan. 45° ^e (hall have generally —

I, and tan. b = — , we have tan.
2

-, and we fhall

evidently have a fimilar refult, whatever rational fraiftion we
adume for tan. b.

We (hall find, therefore, by the feries which gives the arc
in terms of the tangent, each of thefe arcs, the fum of which
will evidently be the meafure of the whole arc fought ;
whether the arcs themfelves, which belong to thefe tangents,
be rational or irrational, with relpedl to the whole arc of
which they foi'm the parts. Thefe tangents, fubllituted in

t\)e general feries abore, give arc to tan. ( — J =

- &c.

Rr + Ti

Let now tan. [a + b) = l, anfwering to arc 45^, fo that
R := I, and T := l ; atfume alfo r = I, then, by con-
(tantly fubftituting, in the general exprefTion, the values
found for R', R", R"', &c. and T', T", T'", &c. for R and
T refpeftively, we fhall have

R' / - I

T'

R'^

"-£11

TTJi"

R^ _ ___^

T'" ~ /• -t- 4/' — 6/- - 4/ -(- I

R' _ ." — 5/-* — lot' ■+ IP/' -i- 5/ — I

aw

+

I

—

2t

-

I

+

Zt ■

-

I

fl

—

3'"-

-

• 3'

+

I

4-

3'^

-

• 3'

—

I

f\

• —

4''

-

• 6r

+

4'

+

I

R E C

R E C

R>0

nt"-

" (" - 0 ,»-,

+ &C.

^ nt"- ' — —^ '-(«-- — &c.

+ arc

So that, generally, arc to tan. i = » x arc to tan. —

If we take ti = i, and ; = 3, we have arc

2, and / = 3i

to tan.

T"

tan. I = arc tan

— 4- arc tan. — If «
3 ^

we have arc tan. i = 2 x arc tan
« :::= 4, and /

I I

— 4- arc tan. —

3 7

If

5, we have arc. tan. i = 4 x arc tan. — —

arc tan ; which is tlie formula of Machin ; and by

239
giving other values to « and /, a variety of other formulae
might be found, though it would, probably, be difficult to
find one more convergent than the laft. The reader will find
more on this fubjeft in vol. i. of Dr. Hutton's Trafts.

We fliall conclude this article by giving the circumference
of the circle to 155 places, as given by Zach, from a ma-
nufcript which he faw in the Ratcliff library at Oxford, dif-
tinguifliing the periods of the feveral npproximatiens of dif-
ferent authors mentioned in the preceding part of this article,
and the article QuAnuAXUKE.

The diameter pf a circle being i, the circumference will be
a b c d

3.14 159, 2 6;35, 89793, 2 3846,

e
26433- ^3279' 50288, 4'97i.

69399> 37510' 58209, 74944>

f
59230, 78164, 06286, 20899,

g

86280, 34825, 34211. 70679,

*
82148, 08651, 32823, 06647,

h
09384, 46095, 50582, 23172,

i
53594, 08128, 4802.

a, Archimedes ; b. Melius ; c, Vieta ; d, Adrianus
Romanus ; e. Van Ceulen ; f, Abraham Sharp ; g, Ma-
chin ; h, Lagny ; i, Oxford Manufcript.

* This figure is a 7 in Lagny's approximation, but Vega,
in the revifion of the computation, afl'erts that it ought to
be an 8, as we have given it.

RECTIFIED Spirits, &c. are fuch as have undergone
the operation of reftification, or have been diftilled over and
over, to feparate from them any heterogeneous matter,
which might have arifen with them in the former diftilla-
tions.

Hence we fay, fpirit of wine twice reftified, thrice rec-
tified, &c. ^

It is the reftification that makes the difference between
brandy and reftified fpirits of wine. See Spirits.

RECTIFIER, in Navigatien, is an inftrument ufed for
determining the variation of the compafs, in order to rectify
the {hip's courfe, &c.

It confifts of two circles, either laid upon, or let into
one another, and fo faftened together in their centres, that
they reprefent two compades, the one fixed, the other
moveable ; each is divided into thirty-two points of the
compafs, and three hundred and fixty degrees, and num-
bered both ways, from the north and the fouth, ending at
the call and well in ninety degrees.

Tlie fixed compafs reprefents the horizon, in which the
north, and all tiie other points, are liable to variation.

In the centre of the moveable compafs is fallened a filk
thread, long enough to reach the outfideof the fixed com-
pafs : but if the inllrument be made of wood, an index is
ufed inilead of the thread.

Rectifier, in the DyilUcry, the pcrfon whofe employ-
ment is to take the coarfe malt-lpirit of the malt-lliller, and
re-di(lil it to a finer and better liquor. The art of the rec-
tifier might be entirely fet afide, if the malt-fliller could
make his fpirit perteft at a fecond operation ; which feems
very prafticable, if tlie malt-llillers could be induced to
forfake their old practice. The great tilings to be recom-
mended for the improvement of their art, would be, firft,
the brewing in perfedlion ; and fecondly, the keeping of
their wafii after the manner of Hale beer, till it has entirely
loll its malt flavour, and acquired a pungent acid vinofity ;
and then, thirdly, leaving out the lees, to diflil with a well-
regulated fire. It is fcarcely to be thought how pure a
fpirit is to be obtained from malt this way ; but the great art
would be, the finding of a method to make malt liquors arti-
ficially flale, bright, and flavourlefs, though otherwife vinous.
Shaw's Leftures, p. 223.

RECTIFYING of Curves. See Rectification.

RecTIPYIxg of the Globe or Sphere, is a previous adjuft-
ing of the globe or fphere, to prepare it for the folution of
problems. For the method of doing it, fee Ufe of the Ce-
kfl'ial Globe.

RECTILINEAR, Right-lined, in Geometry, is ap.
plied to figures whofe perimeter confills of right lines.

Rectilinear Angle, Maps, and Superjicks. See the fub-
flantives. '

RECTITUDE, Rectitudo, Reaum, in matters of
philofophy, refers either to the aft of judging, or of will-
ing ; and therefore, whatever comes under the denomination
of reftitude is either what is true, or what is good : thefe
being the objefts about which the mind exerciles its two
faculties of judging and willing.

Recl'ttude of the mind, confidered as it judges, i. e. recti-
tude of the faculty of judgment, confills in its agreement
and conformity to the nature and reafon of things, and in
its determming and deciding about them according to what
their conilitutions, properties, ufes, &c. really are.

ReS'itude of the mind, confidered as it wills, called alfo mo-
ral reSitude, or uprightnefs, confills in the choofing and pur-
fuing of thofe things which the mind, upon due enquiry and
attention, clearly perceives to be good ; and avoiding thofe
that are evil.

RECTITUDINES, in La-w, rights, or legal dues, be-
longing either to God, or man. See Right.

RECTO, a writ ufuaOy called a writ of right ; of fo high
a nature, that whereas other writs in real aftion are only to
recover the pofleffion of the lands, &c. in queflion, lofl by
the plaintiff, or his ancellor ; this aims to recover both the
feifin thus loft, and the property of the thing : fo that both
rights are here blended together ; that oi property, and that

If a man lofe his caufe upon this writ, he is without
all remedy.

There are two kinds of this writ : breve magnum de reSo,

or

RE C

R E C

ox brew dc reSo palem, a writ of right patent; and reSo
claufttm, a writ of right clofe.

'rhc iirit is fo called, bccaufe feiit open. It lies only for
him that hath fec-fimple in the lands fued for, againll the
tenant of the freehold at leaft.

Indeed, the writ of right patent is extended, in pradlice,
beyond its original intention ; for a writ of right of dower,
which lies for the tenant in dower, is patent ; and fo in fe-
veral other cafes. Fitzherb.

The writ of right clofe, called alfo bre%>? partntm tie rello,
is directed to the lord of ancient dcmefne, or the bailiff of
the king's manors; and lies for thole who hold lands and
tenements by charter, in fee-fimple, or in fee-tail, or for
term of life, or in dower, if they be ejefted out of fuch
lands, or diffeifed. In fuch cafe a man, or hi;; heirs, may
fue out the writ of right clofe, direfted to the lord of ancient
demefne, commanding him to do liira right in his court.
This is called a writ fecundum confuetnd'inem manerti. See
Possession, Property, Title, and Writ.

Recto de advocations ecclejitc, a writ of right, lying where
a man has right of advowfon in fee to him, and his heirs;
and, the incumbent dying, a ilranger prefents his clerk to
the church ; and he, not having brought his aftion of qitare
Impedit, nor darrein prefentmsnt, within fix months, has fuf-
fered the ilranger to ufurp upon him. See Difturbancc of
PATnONAGE, QuARE impedit, and AssiSA darrein prefent-
nient.

Rrcto ele ciijlodia terrte & haredis, a writ which lies for
him whofe tenant dying in his nonage, a Itranger enters, and
takes the body of the heir.

This writ as to lands holden m eapite, or by knight's fer-
vice, is become ufelefs by the ilat. 12 Car. II. but not where
there is a guardian in focage, or appointed by the lall will of
■he ancellor. See Guardian.

Recto de dole, a writ of right of dower, which lies for a
woman that has received part of her dower, and proceeds
to demand the remnant in the iarae town againll the heir, or
his guardian. This extends either to part or the whole, and
,:, a more general remedy than that mentioned in the next
article.

Recto de dote unde nihil habel, is a writ of right wliich lies
in cafe where the hufband, having divers lands and tenements,
has alFured no dower to his wife ; and flie is thereby driven
to fue for her thirds againll the heir, or his guardian. See
Doweu, and Writ of Entry.

Recto quando or quia dominus remifit, a writ of right,
which lies in cafe where lands or tenements in the fignory of
any lord, are in demand by a writ of right.

If the lord hold no court, or, at the prayer of the de-
mandant or tenant, fend his writ to the king's court, to put
the caufe thither for that time ; this writ iii'ues for the other
party, and has its name from the words comprifed, which is
the true occafion of it.

RncTO de rationabi/i parte, a writ that lies between pri-
vies of blood, as brothers in gavel-kind, or filters, or otlicr
coparceners, as nephews and nieces, and for land in fee-
fimple.

If a man leafe his land for life, and afterwards die, leav-
ing ilTue two daughters, and, after, tlie tenant for life likewife
dies ; the one filler entering on all the land, and to deforcing
the other, the filler fo deforced fhallhave this writ to recover
her part.

Kecto fur difclaimer, a writ which li^s where the lord, in
the court of common pleas, does avow upon his tenant, and
the tenant difclaims to hold of him ; upon which dif-
claimer the lord fhall have this writ. This takes place
when the tenant upon a writ of afiife for rent, or on a re-
6

plevin,difowns or difclaims liis tenure; whereby the lord
lofts his verdia ; in which cafe the lord may have this writ,
grounded on this denial of tenure, and (hall, upon proof of
the tenure, recover back the land itfelf fo holden, as a
punifliment to the tenant for fuch his falfe difclaimer. This
piece of retaliating juftice, whereby the tenant who endea-
vours to defraud his lord is himfelf deprived of the eftate,
as it evidently proceeds upon fcodal principles, fo it is ex-
prefsly to be met with in the feodal conftitutions : " vafal-
lus, qui abnegavit fcudum ejufve conditionem, exfpolia-
bitur."

Recto folio. See Folio.

RECTOR of a parifh, the parfon, or he who has the
charge or cure of a parilh church. See Parson.

If the predial tythes of the parilli be impropriated, or ap-
propriated, /. e. either in lay hands, or in thofc of fomeeccle-
fiaftical community, then, inftead of rc&or, the parfon is
called vicar, (which, fee). In England are reckoned 3485
redlories.

The name reftor denotes him governor or ruler, quia
tantum jus in ecclefia parochiali habet, quantum prtelatus In
eccltfia collegiala.

Rectok alfo denotes the chief cleftive ofRcer in feveral
foreign univerfities, particularly in that of Paris.

Rector is alfo ufed in feveral convents for the fuperior,
or officer who governs the houfe.

The Jefuits ufed it for the fupcriors in fuch of their houfes
as were either femiiiaries, or college:;.

RECTORY, or Rectouate, RcRoria, a parifli chureh,
parfonage, or fpiritual living, with all its rights, glebes, and
tythes.

RECTRICES, in Ornithology, denote the ftrong feathers
of the tails of birds.

RECTUM Intestinum, in Anatomy ; or in Englilh,
fimply the i-eSum ; is the lall portion of the large intelline,
and of the whole alimentary canal. It begins at the left
facro-iliac fymphyfis, below the figmoid flexure of the colon,
and ends at the anns. See Intestine.

Rectum, Abfceffes in the Neighbourhood of. See Fis-
tula in Ano.

Rectuji, Concretions and extraneous Sub/lances lodged in.
The concretions formed in the larger inteflines, and efpe-
cially in the reftum, by the accumulation and protracted
lodgment of the feces, may become the caufe of obflinate
contlipation, which can only be removed by their extrac-
tion. Sometimes thefe matfes of indurated matter include
no extraneous fubftance ; in other inflances, their nucleus
is a biliary calculus ; in a vaft number of cafes, they are
merely compofed of the feces in a dry hardened ftate. It is
remarked that women, and perfons of advanced age, are
moft fubjeiEl to the conftipation arifing from the obftruclion
thus occafioned in the large intellines. Children and adults
in the vigour of life are not, however, entirely exempt
from the diforder, though they feldom have it, except when
the formation of fuch concretions in the bowels has been
brought on by fwallowing a large quantity of hard indi-
gellible bodies, like cherry and plum-llones. Laftly^, ex-
ceflively hardened malfes of fecal matter have been noticed
in patients who have for a long while been confined to bed
in the recumbent poflure by fevere difeafes.

Whatever may be the caufe of the diforder, whether the
defeft itfelf confills in a mere accumulation of indurated
feces, with which the reftum is diftended, and behind which
the excrement is detained ; or whether the conllipation
is not complete, the concretion allowing the liquid part of
the feces to pafs out between it and the infide of the intef-
tine ; the exiftence of the hardened inafs may be known

by

RECTUM.

by the conftipation which it produces ; by the fenfc of
weight which the patient feels about the fundament ; and
alfo by the poffibility of ailually touching the indurated
obftrufting body, when a finger is introduced up the
reftum.

Oily emollient clyftcrs, and carminative draughts, will
ferve for expelling fuch concretions as are not of too firm a
confifteuce ; but the extraftion of tiiem is abfolutely ne-
celTary when they are particularly hard. The operation is
to be done with a fpoon, or fuitable forceps, properly oiled ;
and, after the concretion has been removed, an emollient
clyiler is to be adminillered, in order to allay any irritation
which may have been caufed by the introduttion of the
requifite initruments. When the fphinfter ani contrafts fo
forcibly, that the operation is attended with extreme pain
and difficulty, we are advifed by furgical writers to make a
dilatation of the anus, by praclifing an incifion at its pofte-
rior angle. A wound made in this direction cannot do
injury to any part of confequence, whilft there would be a
rifl< of wounding the urethra in the male, or the vagina in
the female fubjcft, if the cut were made at the anterior
angle. An incifion, carried laterally, would be apt to in-
jure the pudic veflels. A divifion of the fibres of the
fphintler ani does not produce any material permanent
vveaknefs of its action, and a paralyfis of this mufcle, ac-
cording to Richerand, can never proceed from fuch a caufc.
Nofographie Chirurgicale, tom. iii. p. 414. edit. 2.

The hard concretions which lodge in the reftum cannot
be reached witli the finger when they are fituated high,
and, in this circumftance, the furgeon mull ufe a probe, or
found, in order to allure himfelf pofitively of their prefencc,
their moveablenefs, and their fize.

With regard to foreign bodies lodged in this intelline,
fome have been fvvallowcd, and have palled through the
whole extent of the alimentary canal ; while others have
been pulhed up the anus to a greater or lefler height.
The extraftion of thefe lalt is generally attended with a
great deal of difficulty, and even demands on the part of
the operator more than ordinary fagacity, in confequence
of the various Ihapcs, the hardnefs, and the fragility of
thefe different bodies. GUfs phials, inftrument cafes, (but-
tles, &c. have been introduced into the reftum by maniacs.
One perfon of this defcription put into his redlum a flint-
ftone, which did not admit either of being extrafted, or
broken, owing to its hardnefs, and flippery furface, and
which in the end caufed the patient to die in the greatell
agony, with fwelling and gangrenous mifchief in the abdo-
men. Marchetti has recorded an inltance, in which a pig's
tail, hardened by cold, was forcibly thruft up the reftum
of a girl of the town. This extraneous body could not
be withdrawn, as the fhort bridles, which all inchned out-
ward, immediately came into contaft with and pierced the
inner part of the bowel. It remained in the part fix
days, and occafioned a train of alarming fymptoms, fuch as
fever, vomiting, fwelling of the abdomen, and obftinate
conftipation. Marchetti faftened a ligature to the end of
tiie foreign body, which protruded at the anus, and then
palled the ligature through a long piece of reed, which he
introduced up the reftum, in order that tlie foreign body
might be drawn through this lube without the intelline
being lacerated. The experiment was completely fuccefs-
ful. Obf. Med. Chir. p. 126.

In another example a piece of wood, three inches long,
and two in width, was introduced into the reftum. Colic,
lenfion of the abdomen, fever, conftipation, and difficulty
of making water, came on, and lafted fix days. The im-
poffibility of removing the extraneous fubftance with a

pair of forceps, led to the idea of ufing a borer, which,
having been palled up the rettum under the guidance or the
linger, was inferted deeply enough into the piece ot wood
to draw it out. The txtradtion, however, could not be
clfofted without a great deal ot pain. Sec Melangei. de
Chirurgie, par M. Saucerotte, p. 484. Memoircs del' Aca-
demic de Chirurgie, tom. v. p. 605. l^aft'us, Tathologie
Chirurgicale, tom, ii. p. 569, edit. 2.

Reciu.m, Congenital and Syphililic Contra3'tons of its in-
ferior Portion. A contraction of the lower end of the
reftum is fometimes an original malformation ; but more
frequently it arifes from what has been confidered by various
furgical authors to be a venereal thickening ol the parietes
of this intelline. If this be really a fyphilitic difordcr, a
circumftance which is to be doubted, it is certainly as
grievous as any of the more common effccls ot the venereal
difeafe. Excrefcences grow from the mucous membrane at
the reftum, and difcharge a purulent matter, which is con-
tinually oozing from the anus. When a finger is palled
within this aperture, the irregularities occafioned by the
tumour may be plainly felt. Such wriiers as believe in tlie
fyphilitic nature of this complaint inform us, that the truth
of this may be known by the antecedent and co-exillent
fymptoms of the venereal difeafe. They admit, however,
that the diforder almoft always lafts after the cure of every
other mark of fyphihs, and they caution us not to perfiit
ralhly in adminillering mercury any longer for a difeafe
which cannot be further benefited by it. Thefe circum-
llances are quite fuffitient to prove that there is not much
reafon for the doftrine, that this fort of contraftion of the
lower end of the reftum is venereal.

Such writers as confider the complaint te be connefted
with fyphilis, of courfe recommend the exhibition of mer-
cury, and they further advife the frequent injeftion into th;
reftum of a weak folution of the oxymuriate of the fam.e
mineral. Tents, fmeared with mercurial ointment, are alfo
recommended to be paffed into the bowel. The latter ap-
plications are ftated to have the advantage; ill, of op-
pofing, by mechanical pred'ure, the further increafe of the
excrefcences ; 2dly, of dilating the contrafted part ; and,
jdly, of afting on the difeafe by their medicinal quality.

For our own part, we much doubt the reality of the
venereal Hature of the foregoing complaint. The language
of the advocates for fuch a doftrine mult raife fufpicions,
that they are influenced in their judgment more by pre-
judice than reafon. " The venereal affeftion of the coats
of the reftum (fays one of thefe writers) almoft always lafts
after the total extinftion of the fyphilitic virus. Then, we
ought to be content with the employment of dilating me-
chanical means, without perfilliiig in the ufe of medicines,
which would ferve only to ruin the patient's conftitution.
An elaftic gum cannula is to be preferred, and it Ihould be
of a conical Ihape, in order that it may be gradually intro-
duced further and further, in proportion as the dilatation
of the bowel is effefted." Richerand, Nofographie Chirurg.
tom. iii, p. 418, edit. 2.

In cafes of congenital contraftion of the reftum, the
only plan which can be adopted, is that of making an in-
cifion through the pofterior part of the inteftine.

Rectum, Polypi of. Sometimes, though not often,
polypi grow from the mucous membrane of the reftum,
and by tneir fize obftruft the paflage of thofcfeces. Their
exillence is at firil manifefted by an uneal'y fenfe of heavi-
nefs, and afterwards they are protruded outwardly in the
efforts which the patient makes at llool. The anus contraft-
ing after their expulfion, their roots become llrangulated, fo
that they cannot return, and exceffive agony is produced.
5 I"

R E C

In this circumflance, the furjjeon (liould take the oppor-
tunity of removing them with a knife, after having tied
their root, or even without this precaution. The Uning of
the reftum, frfeed from the weight of the tumour, imme-
diately retrafts, and if tlie polypus fliould have received a
fupply of blood from a large velfel, hemorrhage may enfue.
Such accident may be remedied by completely diltending
the wounded part of the reftum with a large piece of
fponge, or with a comprefs of lint ; but as it is eafier to
prevent the hsemorrhage altogether, than to flop it after
it h:is occurred, we would advife furgeons, whenever the
excrefcence is of any fize, always to tic its root before
removing the reft of it witii a cutting inftrument.

Rectum, Prolapfus of. See Prolapsus Am.

Rectum, Snrrho-contraSed. Scirrhus of the reAum is
not uncommon at an advanced period of life. Sometimes it
extends over a confiderable length of the gut, but generally
it is more circumfcnbed. The coats of the bowel become
much thicker and harder than in the natural Hate. The
mufcular coat is fubdivided by membranous fepta, and the
internal coat is fometimes formed into hard irregular folds.
The furface of the inner membrane is occafionally ulcerated,
fo as to form a cancerous difeafe. Every veflige of the
natural ftru(Surc is occafionally loft, and the gut is changed
into a griftly fubftance. The cavity of the bowel is always
rendered narrow at the fcirrhous part, and is fometimes
ali«oft obliterated. When the paflage through the gut
is much obilru£led, the bowel is always a good deal en-
larged juft above the ftoppage, or ttrifture, from the accu-
mulation of the feces there. As the difeafe advances, adhe-
fions form between the reftum and adjacent parts, and
ulcerations produce communications between them.

The difeafe is ufually not much noticed till fomewhat
advanced, not being at firlt very painful. The patient
only thinks that he is coftive, and that he voids his ftools
with a little difficulty. In time, a good deal of pain is
felt in the part affefted, efpecially at ftool, after which fome
relief is experienced. Pus and blood may fometimes be
noticed with the excrement, particularly when the difeafe
has advanced to the ulcerated ftate. The patient at length
becomes fallow, the conilitution fuffers, and diflblution
follows. Severe tenefmus attends the whole courfe of the
difeafe.

Default has often feen the difeafe form a communication
between the redlum and vagina, and the feces have paffed
tllrough the latter part. In the latter ftage of the affliftion,
the reftum, bladder, vagina, uterus, and adjacent parts, are
all involved in one common ulceration.

When the difeafe has attained the ulcerated ft:ate, it is
probably always incurable. Palliatives can now only be
reforted to, fuch as anodyne and emollient gly iters, the
warm-bath, &c. with the exhibition of medicines like opium,
cicuta, uva urfi, &c. Claudius applied his remedies to the
infide of the bowel by means of tents, and did not employ
the latter as a mode of curing the difeale, when lefs ad-
vanced. Valfalva ufed to introduce a cannula pierced
with numerous holes, when his patient got into the bath,
fo as to let the fluid enter the inteftine. Numerous prac-
titioners, among them Morgagni, made mercurials the bafe
of their treatment, from a fuppofition that the complaint
was of venereal origin.

When the difeale is not attended with ulceration, the
contraftion and thickening of the gut may be diminiftied
by introducing bougies, keeping them for a certain time,
every day, fo introduced, and incrcaiing tlieir fize gradually.
The preft'ure of thefe inftruments feems to lefTen the difeafe,
and ftop its progreis ; a proof that its nature differs from

Vol. XXIX.

R E C

that of what is ufually underftood by (lirrlms. Default
ufed to employ lung tents, made of hnt, fmeared with
cerate, and palFed into the bowel by means of a probe, with
a forked end. This furgeon gradually increafed the fize
of the tents, fo as to contmuc the comprefllon, to which he
conceived all the good was owing. Their length was alib
augmented by degrees. Frefh ones vit^ro:, at firft, intro-
duced twice every day. When any hardnefFcs were fituated
on the outfide of the anus. Default cured them on the fame
principle, vi-z. by making pretfure on them with comprefles
and a bandage. Tliis eminent furgeon cfre(',ted a cure of a
fcirrho-contradted re£tum by this method. The woman
was taught to pafs occafionally the tents herfelf, fo as to
prevent a relapfe. The diieafe is faid to afflia women
more frequently than men : from a comparative table kept
at the Hotel-Dieu, this has been the cafe there in the pro-
portion of ten to one. See CEuvres Chirurgicales de De-
fault, torn. ii. p. 422.

Rectum, Hemorrhoidal Stuellings of. See Hemorrhoids.

Rectum, in Laiv. See Recto.

Rectum, in our old Laiu IVrilers, ib alfo ufed for a trial
or accufation.

Rectum, Commune, denotes a trial at law, or in the com.
mon courfe of law. Stare ad redtim, denotes to ftand a
trial. Rc3um rogare, to petition the judge to do right.

RECTUS, in Anatomy, a name applied to feveral mu!"-
cles, generally, but not invariably, diftinguifhed by the
ftraightnefs of their fibres, or of their general direction.

Rectus abdominis. See ObliqUUS.

Rectus abducens, or externus, ")

Rectus adducens, or Interni/s, i mufcles of the globe of

Rectus attollens, or fuperior, (" the eye. See Eye.

Rectus deprimens, or inferior, J

Rectus fln/.r/>rr«m, or /-.;,,on,,l ^>"°"y'"s of the

Rectus extenfor cruris, or fcmoris, f K'iCTUS cruris ;
■' J which fee.

Rectus capitis anticus major et minor. Sec Rectus
internus.

Rectus capitis internus major, redlus anticus major, tra-
chelo-fous-occipiticn ; a mufcle of the head, flattened, broader
and thicker above than below, occupying the anterior and
lateral part of the neck, and reaching from the tranfverfe
procefs of the fixth cervical vertebra, to the inferior furface
of the bafilary procefs of the occiput. Its anterior furface
is covered by the carotid artery, tlie internal jugular vein,
the nerve of the eighth pair, the great fympathetic, and the
pharynx. The longus colli, the redtus capitis internus
minor, the articulations of the occciput and atlas, and of
the latter bone, and the fccond vertebra, are covered by it.i
pofterior furface. The inner edge lies on the longus colh,
and is connefted to it by cellular fubftance : the outer is
fixed to the front of the tranfverfe procefles of the fixth,
fifth, fourth, and third cervical vertebra, and is unattached
above the latter. The lower end, very thin and pointed, is
fixed to the tranfverfe procefs of the fixth cervical vertebra :
it afcends with a little obliquity from witliout inwards, in-
creafing in breadth and thicknefs : it approaches the mufcle
of the oppofite fide, and is attached by its upper ejid to
the bafilary procefs of thff occipital bone, in front of the
foramen magnum. At the upper part of this mufcle is a
broad and thin aponeurofis, which defcends on the anterior
and inner furface : the attachments to the tranfverfe pro-
ceffes are by fmall tendons terminating in mufcular portions.
The mufcular fibres run obliquely between the laft mentioned
tendons and the aponeurofis.

This mufcle bends tlie head forwards on the neck ; atid

reftores it after it has been carried backwards. The mufcle

3Z of

R E C

R E C

of one fide, rifting fingly, indines the head towards its own
fide.

Rectus cafilh InUrnus minor, or reftus anticus minor, tra-
cheli-fou5-occipitien ; a fmall mufcle of the head, lying under
the hift, fhort, narrow, and flattened, and extending fro;n
the atlas to the occiput. It is covered in front by the
reftus internus major, the internal carotid artery, and
the great fympathetic nerve : behind it covers the capfule
of the articulation between the atlas and occiput. The
outer and inner edges prefent nothing remarkable. Its
lower extremity is fixed to the anterior Uirface of the lateral
portion of the atlas, and to the neighbouring part of its
tranfverfe proccfs. Thence it afcends, increafiag fouiewhat
in fize, and inclined a little inwards, and is fixed to the
under furface of the bafilary procefs of the occiput, be-
hind and a little on the outlide of the reftus internus major,
and to the cartilaginous mafs filling the fpace between the
occipital and .temporal bones. It has aponeurofes at its
extremities, and very fliort mufcular fibres between thefe.

Its a£lion on the head is exactly the iame with that of the
reftus internus major.

Rectus cnpitu lateralis, le premier tranfverfaire anterieur
Winflow, atlo'i'do-maftoidien, petit droit lateral ; a fmall
mufcle of the head, fituated at the upper and lateral part of
the neck, flattened and quadrilateral, reaching from the
tranfverfe procefs of the atlas to the occiput. It is covered
in front by the internal jugular vein ; and it covers behind
the vertebral artery. The two edges prefent nothing re-
markable. Below it is fixed to the front of the upper fur-
face of the tranfverfe procefs of the atlas : thence it afcends
a little outwards, and is attached above to the rougli impreflion
behind the jugular foffa. It is mufcular, except jull at the
attachments, which are tendinous. Its aftion, like that of
the two lalt mufcles, is to rcitore the head, when it has been
bent backwards ; to bend it forwards ; and, when one mufcle
afls fingly, toinchncit laterally.

Rectus capitis pojUcus major, axoVdo-occipitien ; a muf-
cle of the head, of a triangular flattened figure, placed at
the upper and back part of the neck, and extending from
the fpinous procefs of the fecond cervical vertebra to the
occiput. Its polterior furface is covered by the complexus,
and above by the obliquus fuperior capitis ; the anterior
furface covers the pollerior arch of the atlas, the rectus
pofticus minor, and the occiput. The inferior extremity,
narrow, and almoll pointed, is attached to the fpinous
procefs of the fecond cervical vertebra, thence it afcends,
direfted outwards, and a little backwards, and gradually
increafing in breadtli, to be inferted in the inferior furface
of the occiput, at about an equal dillance from the great
external tranfverfe rijge, and the foramen magnum, be-
tween the complexus, the obliquus fuperior, and the redlus
poiUcui minor. The extremities alone are tendinous ; the
reft being mufcular. It rellores the head, when it has
been bent forwards ; and carries it back on the vertebral
column. When one mufcle aifls fingly, it will have the
power, from the oblique direction of its fibres, of rotating
the head, fo as to turn the face towards its own fide.

Rectus capitis pojiicus minor, atloido-occipitien ; a
fmall flattened mufcle with radiated fibres, and confequently
a triangular figure, placed at the upper and back part of
the neck, extending from the atlas to the occiput, and
lying with its fellow in the interval between the two
recti majores. Its pofterior furface is inclined downwards
and covered by the complexus ; the anterior furface cor-
refponds to the occiput, and to the interval between it and
the atlas. The lower extremity is the narrowell part, and
13 fixed to the roi:gh imprefilon in the middle of the pof-
5

terior furface of the pofterior arc of the atiau : it afcends
parallel to the oppofitc mufcle and dire£ted backwards, and
is fixed to the external furface of the occipital bone at a
Ciort dittance from the foramen magnum. It raifcs the
head when bent forwards ; and extends it or carries it back
on the neck.

Rectus cruris, reftus extenfor or anterior cruris, droit
ou grcle anterieur, ilco-rotulien ; a mufcle of the thigh,
long and fiat, broad in the middle, and narrow towards its
extremities, occupying the middle and front part of the
limb, and reaching from the anterior and inferior fjjine of
the ihum to the patella. It is covered in front by the
iliacus internus, the fartorius, and the fafcia lata ; behind
it covers the orbicular ligament of the hip, the great ex-
tenfors of the knee, and the external or anterior circumllL\
veiTels. The outer and inner margins of the mufcle are ui.-
attached in their upper three-fourths ; they are confounded,
in their lower fourth, with the extenfors of the knee.

The fuperior extremity of the redlus cruris prefents two
tendons, one of which is llraight, the other curved. The
former is fixed to the anterior and inferior fpine of the Oo
innominatum : the latter, curved from before backwards,,
and from above downwards, is fixed to the outer furface o'
the OS innominatum for about an inch, immediately above
the edge of the acetabulum. From this upper attachmeni
the inufcle defcends vertically in front of the thigh, grow-
ing broader to the middle of the limb ; it then becomes
narrow towards the lower part, and is fixed to the bafis
of the patella.

The redus is tendinous at its extremities, and flelhy in
the middle. The upper tendon has been already defcribed
as divided into two portions ; the anterior of thefe, at-
tached to the anterior and inferior fpine of the os innomi-
natum, is the thickeft and fiiorteft, and has the fame direc-
tion as^ the mufcle ; the other is longer and curved, and de-
taches fome fibres to ftrengthen the orbicular ligament of
the hip. The two portions foon unite in a common tendon ;
this fpreads out into a broad aponeurofis, which defcends
about four inches on the front of the mufcle, and then dips
into its fubftar.ce. The inferior tenden is broad and flat,
and rifes from the bafis of the patella ; its pofterior furface
is united to the great extenfors of the knee, and the edges
are ftrongly connected to the vaftus externus and internus.
It is broad at the patella, grows a little narrower as it
rifes, then fpreads out again, and forms a broad apo-
neurofis, covering the back of the mufcle above its
middle. The fuperficial fibres of this tendon defcend over
the front of the patella, to which they are ftrongly united,
and are loft below in the tendon which unites this bone to
the tibia. The mufcular fibres arc placed very obliquely
between the fuperior and inferior tendons : they cover the
back of the firft up to the part where its two portions
feparate; and they defcend on the front of the fecond to
within two inches of the patella.

It extends the knee-joint, either by bringing the leg for-
wards upon the thigh, or the thigh upon the leg, according
as the one or the other part is rendered a fixed point. If the
knee be extended, or firmly retained in the bent pofition
by its flexor mufcles, the rettus may bend the thigh upon
the pelvis : when the leg and thigh are fixed, it can bend
the pelvis forwards upon the latter, as in the attitude of
ftooping to pick up any object from the ground. In the
erect attitude it prevents the pelvis from inchning bark-
wards ; and reftores it when it has been carried in that direc-
tion.

Rectus in curia, in Laiu, one who ftands at the bar,
and no man objedts any thing againft him,

Whea

II

E C

"Wheti a ilKui hath vsverfed tlse .outlawry, and can partici-
pate of the benefit of the law, he is faid to be rUliis in curia.
RECULVER, in Geography, ;i village and parilli in the
upper half-hundred of Blcan-Gate, lathe of St. Augudine,
and county of Kent, England, is fitiiated at the diitance
of lo miles N.E. by N. from Canterbury. It is; noted in
hiltory as the fcite of the Roman Regulhium, the itation or
caltle which defended the northern entrance to the cele-
bratcd Partus Rutupenfis. It is remarkable, that while the
ocean has receded from the fouthern entrance, leaving Rich-
borough (Rutupium) confiderably inland, it has gradually
advanced upon Reculver. This is proved on the authority
of feveral ancient writers, particularly Lcland, wlio dates,
that in his time it ftood about half a mile from the (hore,
v,-hereas, at prefent, the tide wafhcs the walls of many of the
village houfes, and threatens to overwhelm the whole at no
diftant period. Regulbium was a flation of much imjjort-
ance, as it not only commanded an extenfive view of the
open fea, but likewifc of the mouths of the Thames and
the Medway. It was therefore ufed as a watch-poll to dif-
cover the approaches of au enemy ; and alio as a light-
houfc to guide failors. In its pcrfedt (late the llalion was of
a fquare form, with tiic angles rounded iiff, and was en-
vironed by a ditch exterior to the walls, of which a con-
ijderable portion ftill remains. The extent of the inclofcd
area from eafl to weft is about 190 yards, and from ioutli
to north about 198 yards. The ancient town was without
the ftation, and is fuppofed to have ftood towards the
north, on that part of the coaft long iince Iwallowcd up by
the waves : " and from the prefent Ihore, as far as a place
called Black. Rock, feen at low water mark, w-here, accord-
ing to tradition, a church once ilood, there have been
found great quantities of tiles, bricks, fragments of walls,
teffellated pavements, and other marks of a ruinated town ;
and remains of the houfehold furniture, drefs and equipment
of the horfes belonging to its inhabitants, are continually
met with among the fands ; for after the fall of the chffs,
the earthen parts of them being wafhed away, thefe metal-
line fubftances remain behind," When a part of the cliff
here fell down about the conclufion of the feventeenth cen-
tury, a number of fmall vaults, arched over, and feveral
cifterns, were difcovered. The latter were all of the fame
figure, namely, fquare, and meafured from ten to twelve
feet in length each fide, and the fame in depth. They were
conftrufted of pofts, driven deep into the ground, with
planks two inches thick fixed to them. Their ufe was
evidently the reception and prefervation of rain water,
which the Romans thought more wholefome than fpring
water. Vaft quantities of Roman coins have been dif-
covered both in the fields and along the fhore here ; and
Du Frefne has produced many, which, from the markings
upon them, appear to have been flruck at a mint in this
place. Britifli and Gaulifh coins are likewife occafionally
found here ; alfo feals, keys, fpoons, gold rings, bracelets,
hgulx, bullae, belts, bridles, harnels, beams of fcales or
ftiliards, and many other articles of which the ufe has not
yet been determined.

When Kent was fubdued by the Saxons, Regulbium
became a principal feat of the monarchs of that dynafty.
It was then called Raculf and Raculf-cejier ; and hither
king Ethelred retired with his court, after his converfion
to Chriilianity by St. Auguftinc. In the next century it ob-
tained the name of Raculf-minfter, from a Benediftine abbey
founded here by BafTa, a prieft and nobleman, to whom
lands were granted for that purpofe by king Egbert, as an
atonement for the murder of his two nephews. This abbey
was difTolved previous t.o the Conquell, having probably

It E C

been dellroycd by the Danes. The town, however, con-
tinucd in a flourifhing condition for many years after that
event, and had the privilege of a weekly market granted
to it in 1313 ; but this right has be(-n long difcontinued.
'I'he church here is an ancient and Ipacious edifice, confilt-
lug of a nave, with two aifles, a chancel, and two lofty towers,
furmounted by fpires at the angles of the well front. T.he
nave is feparatcd from the aillcs by five pointed arches,
riling from fliort oblong piers ; and from the chancel by
t!nve fmall feini-eircular archej, fpringing from tall round
columns, with very fingular capitals. In this church kings
Lthclliert I. and 1 1, are faid to have been btu'icd ; and a
monument i-rcdted to the memory of the firll is defcribed
by Wecver in his " Funeral Monuments," though it has now
difa])peared. On the floor of the chancel are feveral braffes
of girat antiquity. (See Richborouoh.) Beauties of
England and Wales, vol. vii. by E. W. Brayley. Hiliory
and Antiquities of Reculver and Heme, by W. Battely,
D. D. 8vo.

RECUMPADO, in dography, a town of Hindooflan, in
the circar of Rajamundry ; 23 miles N.W. of Rajamundr)'.
RECUPERATORES, among the Romans, were com-
millioners appointed to take cognizance of private matters
in diiputo, between the fubjefts of the ftate and foreigners,
and to take care that the former had juftice done them.

It came at lait to be ufed for commifTioners, to whom
the prxtor referred the determination of any affair between
one fubjeft and another.

RECURRENS, in jinatomy, a name under which the
inferior laryngeal branch of the par vagum is often defcribed,
from the circumftance of its arifing in the chell below the
point of its diftribution to the larynx, and then going back
into the neck in a retrograde courfe. oee Nerve.

RECURRING Sekiks, is a feries fo conftituted, that
each fucceeding term is connefted with a certain number of
the terms immediately preceding it, by a certain and inva-
riable law ; as the fums or differences of fome multiples of
thofe terms. Thus the feries

7
5 ^--S

9 x''

S &c.
II x\ &c.

is a recurring feries ; for thefe terms being refpedively reprc-
fented by k, /S, y, J, Sec. we have

y = 2 .r .S — x'' a,
i = 2 X y — x' $
t = 2 xS — x^y
3= Sic. &c.

that is, each term is equal to 2 x times that which precedes
it, minus x'^ times the one preceding the lall.
Or, generally, let

a /3 y 0 £ fl &c.

a.

i X, ex', Jx^, ex*, S^^i &c.

be any ferise whofe terms are denoted as above, by a, 0, y, S,
&c. Alfo, let ju, V, 5, &c. reprefent the fucceffive multi-
pliers by which the terms are conncfted, fo that

/3=;3

y=ZfA.x^ + i'x'-a.+ &C.
S — fixy f V .v' /3 -t- &C,
£ = lixS + V x'y -\- &c,

e = &c. &c.

then this feries is called a recurring feries ; and (n -f » -f-

&c. Dc Moivrc calls the fcale of relation, which is faid to

be of one, two, three, &c. terms, according to the number of

3 Z 2 multipliers

RECURRING SERIES.

mnltiplicrs by which it is contieftcd. Tntlic above we have law we have determined, and it not, we muJl iiicrcafc the

ijfcd only two, /x and », whence ^ -f » is called the fcale ot terms in our fcale of relation ; for it may be oblerved, that

relation, which is here of two terms ; and i minus the fcale we can never fail of determining them in confequence of

of relation, as i — fi — », is called by the fame author the having aflumed too many terms, as we fhall, in that cafe,

differential fcnU, which is always equal to the denominator of have one of ourrefults zero

the fr:iftion from which the fcrics is produced.
If, in the above ferics, the terms had the relation

y = '/

5 = IX.X.
t =: IJ.X .

6 = lix .
&c.

+ y x' .y + ( x'' 0

+ v.r
&c.

&c.

then the fcale of relation would be |x + v + ?, which is of
three terms ; and the differential fcale, or the denominator of
the fraftion, is i — p — » — {.

The following problems are naturally connefted with the
doftrine of recurring feries ; vix.

1. Any recurring feries being propofed, to find the fcale
of relation, or the law of the feries, which is not always
obvious on infpeftion.

2. To find the fuin of an infinite recurring feries, or the
fum of any number of its terms (n).

3. To find a general expreliion for any indefmite term of
fuch a feries, as, for example, the ?;th term.

We (hall confidereach of thefe problems under their fcpa-
rate heads.

I. Tojind the fcale of relation in any propofed recurring feries.

Let a, ;S, y, i, 1, 6, &c. be a recurring feries, of which it
is required to find the fcale of relation

Alfume J = fi' y + »' ^ + &c.

J = ^' ^ + v' y + &c.
9 = &c. &c.

Where /S, 7, J, &c. are known, and fx, -i-, &c. unknown
quantities, whofe numeral values are required, and which are
readily found by the ufual method of elimination. Thus in
the above, ufing only f* and i, we have

Lagrange has formed a different rule for afcertaining whe-
ther a given feries be recurring or not, which Mr. Bonny-
cadle has given at p. 323 of his Algebra; but as it does not
leem adapted for detedling the law of formation, we (hall
not infert it.

IL To find the fum of any recurring feries, of which the
fcale of relation is known.

) t e &c.

X% £ X*, fx\ &C.

- E(3

f- =

^<3'

and

H-' =

26 jr*
49 x'

-45*°

4-^

-4»*

= — I ;r'

21 a" — 25.1''

when ^ = 2, and y ^ — 1.

The fame method may obvioufly be employed in any other
cafe ; but in order to know whether or not we have affumed
a fcale of relation of a fufficient number of terms, we muit
repeat the fame operation upon three other terms, of which
one at lealt was not before employed ; and if both give the
fame values, we may be affured of the truth of our refults : or
we may otherwife, inilead of repeating the operation, exa^
mine

Let

{:.

y

c r',

be a recurring feries, of which the fcale of relation i»

ft -)- V, fo that

^ =

$

y =

^x

•0 +

,x'a.

3 =

u X

•y +

yx-'B

( =

y.X

.!! +

».r' y

&c.

&c.

&C.

fiere it is obvious, that the

whole fum

S =

« -1-/3 +

y + ^ +

1 +

&c.

S =

a + /S +

/x X (^ -1-

y +

« + )

+ v.r'(»

S =

« + /3 +

^.v(S-

cc) +>.x^

s

whence S =

CC + 0

— ij.ax

+ 0+7 + &C.)

I — fj-x — tar

which is a general expreflion when the fcale of relation is ot
two terms.

When the fcale of relation is of three terms, fo that

7 y — d (3 ^ 0 — y^

Thefe values of ^', and ;', will obvioufly contain in them the
powers of the indeterminate quantity x, which being taken
out, we fhall have the required numeral values of n and v.

Let it be required to afcertain the fcale of relation in the
feries

a /S y 5 f 9 &c.

I, ^x, sx\ 7 k', gx", II xS &c..

Here, by fubltituting the proper values of 0, y, 3, &c. in
the above equation, we have

35 ^'-27^' _8;c' _

0 = 0

7 = y

3 z= fix. y + -J x''
f = ax.S +»x'^
6 = 'f^x.! + JX^
&c. &c.

/S-I-5.VV

.y + ?*'iS
.5 -t-?*'y
&c.

it is equally obrious that

S = a + B + y + ^ + '■ + (!+ &c. or
0 + y +

S =

1.x (y + 3 + c -J-

-M/9 + 7 + ^ +
^x' {a. + 0 + y +

S = a-l-(3-{-y-l-fjA-(S -

whence we have

&c.) +
&c.) +
&c.), or

/9) + V x^- (S - a) « *' + S

s =

+ 0 J^ y - f..X {a. + 0) -^x"
I — a .V — V x'' — f **

which is the general expreliion for the fum, when the fcale
of relation is of three terms.
In the fame manner we have

«4 g + y + ^— /•>»(« + g + y) — >x'(« + ^ —jx'^.a

I — fix — vxj — gjc' — <rx*

for a fcale of relation of four terms ; and fo on.

, ..^ ^ ^ , .__ But as the terms a, /S, 7, ^, &c. contain m them certain

the fcveral te'rmf, and fee whether they agree with the powers of m, we may reduce the above expreffions to fimpler

forms

IIECURKING SER1E.S.

forms by fubftituting a for a,
which cafe the above become

i X for (S, ex'' for y, &c. in

S =

_ a + (6 — a ju)

S = -T-

I — il. X — t X

l-t (^ ~ ''^') •»' + ((^ — i /i — a ») w^

I — /J. X — ► jr' — f .r'

a + (i — aix)x + (c ~ b^L — av) x'' — (d — Cf* —

Qj i» — Of) w'

I — /* »: — V A'* — jx' — 0- .r'

which are the feveral exprellions for the fcales of relation o'
two, three, or four terms, and the law of formation is fuffi-
ciently obvious for any other fcale.

The fame law might have been otherwife obtained as fol-
lows. It is evident, from what is done above, that the fcale
of relation fubtrafted from unity is always equal to the de-
nominator of the generating feries, and the fame may alfo be
demonftrated on other principles. In order, therefore, to
find the numerator, we might alTume the propofed feries

a +ix + cx'' + dx^+ &c.
_ a' + l/'x + c' .<^ + d' .V' + &c.

I — fJiX — v;c^ — ^ x^ — &c.

then multiplying this denominator by the propofed feries,
and equating the co-efficients of the produtis with thofe ot
the like powers of x in the numerator, we (hould find
a' = a

V ^ b - a i^
c^ = c — b jj. — a V
d<= &c. &c.
as in the preceding formulx.

It is only neceuary to obferve, farther, that if the^indices
of X do not follow the law we have fuppofed, we muft make
the neceflary correftion in the general exprelTion, and if the
propofed feries have no power of x in it, as commonly hap-
pens, we muft, in the conclufion, make v = + I.

The above formula, it will be obferved, give the fum of
the infinite feries. When only a certain number of terms
are to be fummed, different formulae are required, which we
fhall inveiligate, after having ihcwn how to obtain a general
exprellion for the nth term of fuch recurring feries. We
'propofe, however, in the firlt place, to illuftrate the above
rules by one or two examples.

Exam. I. — Required the fum of the infinite recurring
feries i + 6 x + iz x'' -Y j\& x' -[■ &c. the fcale of rela-
tion being i + 6.

Here a = i, 5 = 6, p = i, and v = 6, whence

a + (b — Ofj.) X > + S *

_ 15 -,

I — n X — > x I — x — o ji

the fum required.

Exam. 2 — Required the fum of the infinite
feries

63.

1 + ^ X + 6x'^ + 1 1 A-' -f 28 ** -f
the fcale of relation being 2,-1, f $•

Here 0=1,4=4,^ — 6; /*=2» » = —
e = 3 ; whence

a + {b — a fj.) X + {c — b (jl — ai) _
1 — ft X — V x'' — { x'

I + (4- 2)x + (6- 8 +

recurrmg
&c.

S =

0^-'_

(1

- 2X + x' ~ 3 x'
+ xY - 2 x"

as required

(I -■»•)'- 3*'

^^^- — To find the general I crm of any propofed recurring
feries.

From the preceding pan of this article it appears,, that
every recurring feries may be confidercd ai arifing from thc
devclopement or expanfion of lome rational fradion of th'
form

n ■{■ bx -\- c x"- -'r </*' 4 &c.

I — a, X ~

■ x' - y x> - 3 xf* — &c.

Let us, therefore, fuppofe this fraftion to be converted
into the infinite recurring feries A + B .r -f- C a' -}- D x
+ E .v' -I- &c. of which we already know how to deter-
mine the co-efficients, and the law of their formation.

Now if this rational fraftion be decompofed into itb fiin-
ple fraftioiis by the method explained under the article Ra-
tional Frafiions, and each of thcfc fimple fraftions be then
converted into a recurring feries, it is evident that the fu.m
of all thefe feries ought to be equal to the original feries

A -f- B ;c -J- C ;t:' -f D ;r' -h E *• + &C.

Now each of thefe partial fraftions being of the form

A'

— — , the feries thence arifinc; will have the form

A' + A'r.x- + A'r^«' + A' )•■':«•'

A'

of which A r" x" is the general term. Hence, the feveral
feries arifing from the partial fraftions may be fuppofed
to be

A' + A' r .V + A' r x'' + A' r' x^ .

. .A' r"x"

A" + A",' X -\-A" r"- X-' + A" r" x<.

. .A" r'-x"

A'" + A"' r" X + A'" t'"- x^ + A'" r"' .r' .

. . A'" r"" x

A- -f- A"r"' X + A- r""-x-' + A" r'i"x'.

. . A" r"" X

and fince the fum of thefe feries is equal to the original
one propofed, we know that the co-efficients of the like
powers of x are alfo equal, whence we have

A

=

A'

+

A"

+

A'"

+

A-'

+

Sec.

B

=;

A'r +

A" r

+

A"'r"

+

A"

r"

+

&c.

whence it appears that the co-efficient of any term x" of the
recurring feries is equal to the fum of the co-efficients of the
fame power of x, which arife from expanding the feveral
fimple fraftions into which the given fraftion is decompofed ;
and this co-efficient is always equal to the fum of each of the
numerators of the feveral fimple fraftions, multiplied into
the «th power of the correfponding value of r in the deno-
minator of the fame fraftion, at Icaft while the denominator
contains no equal faftor. But if, among the partial fraftions,

A'
there is any one of the form . — , the general term of

this will be (n + 1) A
(u + i) (h -I- 2)

{l-rxY
of

A

and term is

I . 2

the general term is

(n+ 1) (« + 2){n + 3)

(l-rxy
A r" x"; and univerfally

the general
A

{l-rxy

{n + i-l)

1.2.3... (^-i)

we may, therefore, in all cafes wherein the generating
fraftion of the original feries admits of a rational decompo-
fition, arrive very readily at the general term upon the prin-
ciples above explained^

Thus,

RECURRING SERIES.

Tliu'i, -x^. an exnmple, let there be propofed the recurring wliitli tliereforc arifes from the fraftion

ferics

I + 4.r + 14. v' + 46 .v' + r46K* + &c.

1 — Z X + x^

to find the general term, or the co-efficient of .r". C, a. t^ ■»•" _ C2 k — r 1 a-" + '

Tiie fiini of this feries is found by the preceding part of ' L^+ " '^ >^ " " •*

this article to be

(I -x)'

I — 5 X + 6x^ whence the fum of n terms is

J 2

This rational fraftion is equal to + — —• Now , 4. .^ _ (2 « f 1) :>;" 4- (2 n ~ i)x" + '

, 2 c-^r

the general term of ^-— ^ is - 2"^' ; and of ^—-j^ ^_ Required the fu.m of « terms of the feries

is - 2 . 3".t% as fhewn above, therefore the general term , _ ^. j. /„ _ jX ^> , („ _ ,\ j,.i ^ &c.

of the propofed feries will be (2 . 3" - 2") .r': ^ / • V / ^ \ 3/

It may be obfervcd, however, that this method is in fome J^ere again the fcalc of relation is + 2 — i, tiierefore the

cafes very laborious, and not always prafticable ; it will, infinite Turn is

therefore, frequently be better to make ufe of the multinomial . _ , W. 1 f „ _ 2) a;' — 2 (n — I ) a-'

theorem, wliich may be done by putting the generating frac- L — -J — 1 '"_ \i~ " — =

tion under the form ^ '

{a + bx + cx' ^ &c.) (i -o.x-(ix'--yx'- &c.r' (n - i).t-n.v'

See Multinomial Tuv.owvAU ^ '

IW.—Tofnd the fum of any number [n) terms of a recur- ^^^^^ ^ terms, it becomes - «" + ' - 2 y^""- 3cc. thefum

ring ferics. ,, + 1

For this purpofe it is only neceifary to find the co-efficient ^f ^^.j^jj-ji \^ found in the fame manner to be -j there-
of the n 4- ithtermof the feries. Then, from the fum of (1 — *)'
the entire feries fubtraft the fum of the ferics beyond the fore n terms of the propofed feries is
«th term, and the difference will obviouflybe the fum of the , > „ ,.1 1 ^« + «
rlt n terms lought. r^

Let there be propofed as an example to find the fum of (' ~ *)

n terms of the feries Hence, alfo, n terms of the feries

1 + 2.V 4- 3 ..' + 4-' + • • • • -"- • («-,)..(« - 2) .v^ ^ («ZLl)ji'4. w .

The infinite fum of this feries is readily found = , _ - n n n

^ "/ {n - 1) X ~ n x' ->r x'*'

In the fecond cafe, viz. of the terms beyond n .v" ", the n[l — xY

feries is ^

(« + 1 ) .v" f f n 4- 2) .r" + ' 4- (« + 3) x'^^, &c. ; ^n a fimilar manner the fum of « terms of the feries

andintheformula. = " + ^ " " '^ ^; we have only to fub- 1 = + 2^r + 3'^^ + 4' *' + &c.

' - '^ •* - ' * , ^ . ,. , . is found to be
ftitute a = (« 4- i) .V-, and (3 = (n 4- 2) .r'+S milead of

a = I and /S = 2 X, as in the former. Hence we have i 4- x — (n + i)^ .r' -t- (2 n^ 4- 2 « — i) x"''' — «'«" + '

, (n 4- I) «•■ + (« +2).r»+--2(«+l).i^"^' (l - ^)^

S ^ — ■ — ~ : 'J ur

I — 2 * 4- .*" the fcale of relation being 3 — 3, i.

(n 4- i) a:" — nx"*' I" ^^ ^^^ preceding examples we have determined the in-

-»' = — — / _ — 7y5 — ; finite fum of the feries, as beginning at the firft term, and at

' , . the (« + I )th term, a more eafy method is as follows, which

and, therefore, 1 — /, or the fum of the firft n terms is jg jue to Simpfon. Ellays, p. 96.

equal to LetA+B4-C + D4-...+K4-L4-M4-Nbe

1 _ (n 4. i) >:» 4. nx"'*'' any finite recurring feries, of which each term depends upon

(j _ ^Y ' the three which precede it, the fcale of relation being^, q, r,

fo that

2. Required the fum of n terms in the feries

/A4-?B4-'-C=D

I + 3 K + 5 a' + 7 V + .... (2 « — I ) x"-'. pB + qC + rD = E

Here, by trial, we find the fcale of relation to be ji =

4- 2, and »z= — I, as before, therefore the infinite fum is ^^^ which is the fame,

, _ »+ g -«/x« _ I + sx- zx _ I + -f ^ />A4-?B+rC-D = o

I — fix — V x'' I — 2j;4-*'' (i— *)' /B4-5rC4-rD — E=o

After n terms, the feries becomes

/>C 4-jD4-rE-F=o

(2b + l)a;" + (2 n + 3) .v» + ' 4- (2 n 4- 5) «"+*[- &c. pK.+ qL + rU— 1^=0

whence.

R E C

RED

}=»

s =

wlicnce, by addition

/(A + B + C + ..K) i y(B.fC+ I) -I I.) 1 ] _ „
r(C + B + D+..M) - (D + E+F + N) j "" °

Or, rcprefenting the whole lum by S,

^(S-L-M-N)+j(S-A-M-N +
r(S-A-B-N)- (S-A-B-C

whicli, by addition and divifion, gives

/. (L + M + N) + y (A + M + N) + ;■ (A + B
+ N)- (A + B +C)

where the fum depends merely upon the three firft and the
three lad terms of the ferics ; and a fimilar expreffion, it is
obvious, may be obtained for any other fcale of relation.

It may not be amils to obferve, that when the propofed
feries is wholly numeral, (the fum of whicli, as we have be-
fore obferved, is to be found by making .v = i ) ; both this
formula and the preceding one fail, in the cafe in which the
denominator of the fraftion becomes zero, and we mull, there-
fore, in fuch cafes, have recourfe to other methods of fumma-
tion, as given under tlie article Skkiks.

On this fubjeft the reader (liould confnlt De Moivre's
Mile. Analyt. and his Doclrine of Chances, and Euler's
An.ilyfis Infinitornm, where he will find an explanation of its
application to the approximation to the I'oots of equations.
Colfon's Comment on Newton's Fluxions. Stirling's Me-
thodus Differ. Cramer's Analyfis des Lignes Courbes.
Bernoulli de Serieb. Inf. &c. See alio a chapter on this
fubjeft, in vol. ii. of Bonnycaftlc's Algebra.

RECURVIROSTRA, the Avocet, in Ornithology, a
genus of birds of the order Grallx, of which the generic
charaiSer is ; bill depreded, lubulate, recurved, pointed,
flexible at the tip ; the feet are palmate, four-toed, the
hind toe not connefted, very ftiort, and placed high up ;
the noftrils are narrow, pervious ; the tongue is (hort.
There are only three

Species.

* AvocETTA ; Scooping Avocet ; called alfo in different
parts of this country, butter-dip, fcooper, yelper, crooked-
bill, &c. This bird is variegated with white and black ;
the bill is three inches and a half long ; irides hazel ; crown
black ; a white ipot behind and beneath the eyes ; rell of
the head, neck, back, exterior part of the wmgs, leffer
quill-feathers, tail, and under part of the body, white ;
inner fcapulars and greater quill-feathers without and at the
tips black ; legs blueifli, and very long ; membrane conneft-
ing the toes indented. It refides in the temperate parts of
Europe, weighing thirteen ounces ; and meafuring, from
the tip of the bill to the end of the tail, eighteen inches.
It breeds in the fens of Lincolnfliire, and on Romney Marlh,
in Kent. The female lays two white eggs, tinged with
green, and marked with large black fpots. In winter thefe
birds atfemble in fmall flocks of fix or feven, and frequent
tlie fhores, particularly the mouths of large rivers, in fearch
of worms and marine infeijts, which they icoop out of the
nuid or fand. They feem to be particularly fond of the
cancer, pulex, or loculla. By means of their long legs,
they run over fhores that are covered five or fix inches with
...iter. In their movements they are lively, alert, vol.atile,
..'.d difficult to catch. When the female is frightened off
'.,ti nell Ibe counterfeits laraenefs ; and when a flock is dif-
turbed, they fly with their necks ftretched out, and their
legs extended behind, over the head of the fpcCtalor, mak-

mj^ a llinil nolle, and uttering a yelping cry of twit, twit,
all tlie time.

AiMERKANA ; American Avocet. The head and neck
are rcddifh ; back black, beneath it is white. It inhabits
North America and New Holland : is fourteen inches long.
Bill black ; front dnfky-white ; neck above wfiite ; primary
and tertiai wini^-coverts black, the middle one;, and fome of
the fecondary iinill-fcithers, white.

Ai.HA ; Wliite Avocet. This fpecies is white ; the lower
wing-coverts brownifh ; l)ill orange ; legs brown. Inhabits
Hudfon'ii Bay ; fourteen inches and a quarter long. Bill
tipt with black ; edge of the wings, greater quill-feathers,
and tail, tinged with yellowifli.

RECUSANTS, in a general fenfe, perfons, whether
Papiits <n- others, who rcfufc to go to church and to wor-
fliip God after the manner of the church of England.
Popifh reculants are Papifls, who fo refufe ; and a popifh
recufant convift is a Papift legally convifted of fuch offence.
See Papist, Pk.»:mun'ike, and Toi.kkation.

RECUSATION, Recusatio, an act by which a judge
is defired to refrain from judgnig fome certain caufe, on ac-
count of his relation tio one of the parties ; or of fome
capital enmity, or the hke.

By the French laws, kinlliip within the fourth degree is
deemed a legal caufe of recufation ; as alfo the judge's being
godfather, &c. of one of the parties.

By the laws of England alfo, in the times of Brafton
and Fleta, a judge might be refufed for good caufe ; but
now the law is otherwife, and it is held that judges or juf-
tices cannot be challenged. Co. Litt. 254. See Chal-
lenge.

RED, in Phyfics, one of the fimple or primary colours
of natural bodies, or rather of the rays of light.

The red rays are thofe which .ire of all rays the leali re-
frangible : hence, as fir Ifaac Newton fuppofes the different
degrees of relrangibility to arife from the different magni-
tudes of the luminous particles of which the rays confift, the
red rays, or red light, is concluded to be that which confifls
of the largeft particles. See Colour, Light, and Ray.

Authors diflinguifli three general kinds of red ; one bor-
dering on the blue, as colombine, or dove-colour, purple,
and crimfon ; another bordering on yellow-, as flame-colour
and orange ; and between thefe extremes is a medium,
partaking neither of the one nor the other, which is what
we properly call rtd.

Acids generally turn black blue, and violet into red ;
and red into yellow, and yellow into a very pale yellow.

Alkalies change red into violet, or purple ; and yellow
into feuillemort, or dead leaf-colour.

Terreltrial and fulphureous matters become red by ex-
treme heat ; and fome, at length, black, as we fee in brick,
red bole, red chalk, date, &c. All thefe, when vitrified
by a burning-glafs, become black.

Loblters become red by a moderate fire ; and by a violent
one, black. Mercury and fulphur mixed and heated over a
moderate fire make a beautiful red, called artificial cinnabar.
An acid fpirit, as lemon juice, being poured on a blue
folution of turnfole, turns it into a beautiful red. Alkali
reilores it again to its original blue. Filtrating of fome
reddifh wines takes from them all their red colour.

M. De la Hire oblerves, that a very luminous body
viewed through a black one, always appears red ; as when
the fun is feen fhiniv.g through a black cloud. He adds,
that fome people who fee all the other colours perfeiSly weU,
yet have no idea of red, and only fee it as black.

Red, in Cofmet'ics, a fucus or paint with which the ladies
enliven their cheeks and lips.

There

R ]<: D

R E D

There are two kinds of reds ; the one in leaves, called
Spanifh red ; the other a liquor, which is an oxtraft of a
fcarlet dye.

Red, in Dyeing, is one of the five fimple or mother colmirs
of the dyers.

Some reckon feven kinds, or cads of red : -viz. fcarlet-
red, crimfon-red, madder-red, lialf-grain-red, half-crimfon-
red, lively orange-red, and fcarlet of cochineal. But they
may be all reduced to three, according to the three princi-
pal drugn which give the colours ; which arc kennes, co-
chineal, and madder.

The fine fcarlet, cd\\ed/car!et of the Gobelins, is given with
agaric, bran-water, woad, and fcarlet grain, or kermes.
Some dyers add cochineal, and others fenugreek ; brighten-
ing it with bran-water, agaric, tartar, and turmeric. See
Kermes and Scarlet.

Crimfon-red is dyed with bran-water, tartar, and meftique
cochineal. See Crimson.

Madder-red is dyed with madder ; to which feme add real-
gar, or led arfenic : others, common fait, or other falls,
with wheat-flour ; or agaric with fpirit of wine, with galls
or turmeric. See Madder.

The half-grain is made with agaric and bran-water, half
fcarlet grain, half madder, and fometimes turmeric.

The half-crimfon is made of halt madder, half cochineal.
As to the lively orange-red, the iluff rauft be firft put in
yellow, then in a liquor made of goat's hair, (which has been
boiled feveral times with madder,) diflolved over the fire with
certain faline liquors, as urine, tartar, &c.

The fcarlet of cochineal, or Dutch fcarlet, as the French
call it, is made with ftarch, tartar, and cochineal ; after firll
boihng It with alum, tartar, fal gemma, and aqua fortis
in which pewter has been diflolved.

Befides thefe feven reds, which are good and allowed co-
lours, there is alfo a Brafil red ; which is difcouraged, as
fading eafily.

Of the feven good reds, only four have particular calls,
or fhades ; the madder-red, crimfon-red, lively orange-red,
and fcarlet of cochineal.

The calls or fliades of crimfon are flefli colour, peach
colour, carnation rofe colour, and apple-tree flower colour.
Thofe of madder are flefli colour, onion-peel colour, and
flame colour. Thofe of orange are the fame with thofe of
crimfon. Sca»-let, befides the fhades of all the rell, has
fome peculiar to itfelf, as cherry colour, fire colour, &c.
See Dyeing.

Red, in the Manufaaure of Glafs-. See i?C(/ Glass.

To make a deep red in glafs, the following method is
that molt praftifed by the glafs-men. Take cryftal frit
twenty pounds, broken pieces of white glafs one pound,
calcined tin two pounds ; mix thefe well together, and put
them into a pot to melt and purify. When thefe are
melted, take fteel calcined, fcales of iron from the fmith's
^ anvil, both powdered very fine, of each an equal quantity ;
put leifurely an ounce of this mixed powder to the before
mentioned metal ; mix all well together, and let them Hand
fix or eight hours in fufiou to incorporate ; take out a proof
after this, and if there be too little of the powder, it will
appear of a dulky yellow ; then more of the powder mull
be added, and then add three quarters of an ounce of cal-
cined brafs, ground to a fine powder ; mix them thoroughly
together, and the mafs will be of a blood red ; continue ftirring
the whole together, and frequently taking out proofs of the
colour, when it is right, work it immediately, otherwife it
will lofe its colour and become black. The mouth of the
pot mull in this procefs be left open, elfe the colour will be
loll. Neri'sArt. of Glafs, p. loo.

.See Gules.

For painting in oil colours tliey uf ■
or vermilion ; and anotlier called laccu.

Red, in Heraldry.

Red, in Painting.
a red called cinnabar,
See each in its place

In limning and frefco, for a violet red, inftead of lacca
they ofe reddle, a natural eartfi found in England ; for a
brown red, they ufe burnt ochre, which is a native yellow
earth, made red by calcination. It is chiefly brought
from Oxfordfhire ; and burnt by thofe who prepare it
in large ovens. The marks of its goodnefs are bright-
nefs of colour, and a friable chalky texture, without ma-
nifeltnig any gritty roughnefs when rubbed betwixt tlie
fingers.

The common Indian red, which is of a hue verging to the
fcarlet, is much ufed, on account of its flanding and warm
though not bright colour, in finer as well as coarfer paint-
ings in oil. It may be prepared by taking of the caput mor-
tuum or ochre left in the iron pots after the diflillation of
aqua fortis from nitre and vitriol, two parts ; and of the
caput mortuum or colcothar left in the long necks after the
diflillation of oil of vitriol, one part ; breaking the lumps
found among them, and putting them into tubs with a good
quantity of water : and having L-ft them to Hand for a day
or two, frequently ilirring tlieni, then lading off as mucli
water as can be obtained clear from them, and adding a frelli
quantity ; repeating the fame treatment till all the falts be
wafhed out, and the water comes off nearly infipid. The
red powder which remains mufl: then be wafhed over, and,
being freed from the water, laid out to dry. When this is
defigned for nicer purpofes, it lliould again be wafhed over
in bafons.

The true Indian red is a native ochreous earth of a purple
colour, brought from the ifland of Ormus, in the Perfian
gulf ; and called, among the authors on thefe fubjefts, terra
Perjica. At prefent it is very rarely to be found ; but it
is certainly very valuable (there being no other uncom-
pounded purple colour in ufe with oil) as v^ell for the force
of its effeft, as for the certainty of its Handing. In its
genuine flate, it needs no other preparation than grinding
or wafhing over. It may be eafily dillinguifhed from, any
fidtitious kind, by its being more bright than any other ochre
which can be made fo purple ; and if it \>t rendered artifici-
ally purple by any addition, the fire will foon betray it ;
into which the genuine may be put without any hazard of
change.

Venetian red is a native red ochre (fee Vexeta Waj),
not much different from the common Indian red, but fouler ;
and may be eafily prepared, by mixing common red ochre
with the colcothar or caput mortuum taken out of the aqua
fortis pots, and waflied over. As it is generally ufed by
the houfe painters in imitation of mahogany, it requires no
other preparation than to be well ground with the oil with
which it is ufed ; but when it is ufed in miniature painting,
it Ihould be carefully wafhed over.

Red, Bloiun, in the Porcelain ManufaHure, a name given
to a peculiarly coloured china ware, of a fpangled red, or to
the colour alone that fpangles it. It is an ornament eafily
introduced into ufe in our own manufaftories of porcelain
ware, and is done in the following manner. The colour is
to be prepared of common copperas, calcined to a red
colour in a charcoal fire, in a crucible, with another luted on
the top of it inverted, and with a hole in its bottom. The
fignal of the calcination being finilhcd, is, when the black
clouds ceafe to come up tlirough the hole, and a fine white
thin vapour rifes in their place. The veffels are to be then
fiiffered to cool, and the red matter in them is to be reduced
to a iinc powder, while the veffels to be coloured with thii

7 are

RED

RED

are yet wet. The operator is to provide a glafs pipe, and
covering one end of it witli a piece of fine gauze, lie is to
dip this into the powder, and taking it carefnlly out, with
what little is ilicking to it, he is to blow againll the vefTcI
at fome dillance from it : thus the tinell part of tlie powder
only will reach the veffel, an<l will be laid on in form of
glittering fpangles, very fmall, but alldilUnft. This i»
fort of colouring much efteemed by the Chinefe themfelves,
and they have a way of ufing the common blue in the fame
manner ; but few of the velfels thus painted come over
to us.

Red Clover, in Agriculture, an ufeful artificial grafs for
arable lands. It has this name in contradiftinftion to the
white and fome other forts. There were at firfl many and
very great prejudices agsinfl and objcftions made to the in-
troduction of this plant into cultivation by farmers, which
were not furmounted without difficulty, and it prevailed for
fome length of time in particular diflrifts, as StafFordfhire
and Worceflerfhire, before it was known in fome other coun-
ties, where it is now very predominant and beneficial, as
Chefliire, Lancafhire, and many moie.

In fome arable counties red clover is found to fail as a
crop when long cultivated, dying away in the winter and
fpring, which the farmers defignate by faying that the
land is fick of it. This is a fevere inconvenience to them
in many cafes ; and renders fuch variations in the courfes of
cropping neceflary, as may prevent the recurrence of it fo fre-
quently as has hitherto been the cafe. It is very liable to fail
!u every part of the county of Eflex, but of the caufe of
whicii there are different opinions, fome thinking that the land
becomes fick of the plant, while others do not afcribe it to
any latiety of this nature, but alter their modes of cropping
that it may not take place fo often. About the Belcamps
and Bofely this is very much the cafe, fome venturing it
only once in feven years, and in that cafe it fucceeds well.
In all the Tendring hundred it is found to decline little on
the ilrong rich lands, but is felt on the lighter forts ; on both
the cropping is varied in regard to it. In the neighbourhood
of Thorndon the lands are fick of it. And at Audley End
the land is tired of it, but more in many cafes from want of
fufficient feed than any thing elfe. In the vicinity of Hal-
lingbury it is very liable to fail, if fown oftener than once
in feven or nine years, though the fyftem thereabouts is crop
and fallow.

In the county of Oxford fome fow red clover twice in
ten years, the land being new to it ; of courfe it never fails.
On the gravelly loamy foils about Henly it dies from re-
petition, fo that it is alternately omitted in cropping,
others being fubltituted, as white clover, trefoil, and peas.
Nothing of this fort was known forty years ago, but now
they fow it only once in two rounds. The loams and ilone-
brafh lands around Wood Raton are not in general tired of
this plant ; fome however find it to fail on the latter fort of
foil. About Great Tew, where the lands have been in-
clofed forty years, they are not yet tired of red clover. At
Atterbury, where the lands have been inclofed more years,
it does not now fucceed quite fo well as it did fifteen or twenty
years ago. In thefe failures other crops are put in, as tares
and early peas drilled.

Some fufpeft Iheep's dung to be deftruftive to the red-
clover plant, but there are no proofs of the faft.

The mofl proper management of red clover as a prepara-
tion for wheat is a matter of great importance. Some
think feeding it off wholly the beft praftice ; others mowing
and feeding ; and a few mowing altogether. The method
of feeding off the crops altogether, when done in a clofe
even manner, is probably the mofl advantageous in this
Vol.. XXIX.

intention, though there may be fome immediate lofs and
inconvenience ; after which that of mowing the firfl crop
and feeding the fecond in a ufeful manner ; the third mode,
or that of mowing twice, is moil to be feared, but upon fome
forts of land it may be done and anfwer well for wheat.
Thefe methods are all pradlifed and have their advocates in
different parts of Effex ; and fome think that they get as
good wheat after white as red clover, as well as that feeding
the latter does no injury in this refpedl.

The farmers in Oxfordfliire follow nearly the famepraclices
and hold much the fame opinions in regard to the management
■ )f this crop as a preparation for wheat. And the cultom of
mowing and feeding off the firfl year, is thought the beft
pradlice in fome other counties.

But in the county of Lancafler, and fome others adjoining
it, they know nothmg of the land being everjici or tired of
this fort of crop, though they grow it in more frequent
fucceffion and in a more full manner than perhaps any where
elfe in the kingdom. Alk the farmers about this, from one
end of the above county to the other, they are all of the
fame opinion, and appear much furprifed at the queflion, not
ever having any conception of fuch a circumftance. What
can be the reafon that red clover has been as long and as fre-
quently cultivated in thefe diftrifts, as in thofe where it is
fo liable to fail ? Does it depend upon the difference in the
nature or quality of the foils, or the management in regard
to the quantity of feed and other matters ? The circumftance
is worthy of further and more clofe attention and in-
veftigation, in confequence of its great importance to the
farmer.

There is one particular feature of management in the cul-
tivation of red clover in the county of Oxford, which is
that of hand-fowing over it from fourteen to fifteen bufhels
of Newbury peat-afhes, that are brought into the Thames,
by the Reading canal, on the acre, about the end of Febru-
ary or the beginning of tlie following month ; which has an
immediate effect upon it, feldom failing to produce a crop,
except where it naturally declines. The expence is eftimated
at about ten fhillings the acre. Thefe afhes do not, how-
ever, feem to be employed in this way to the red clover crop in
the diflridl where they are found and prepared.

Seeded red clover undergoes two fucceffive threfhings, the
firft, which only beats off the heads and chaffs containing the
feed from the ftalks, is called cobbing in fome places ; the
parts thus feparated being denominated the red-clover cobb.
The work is performed ou a thick wooden plank frame for
the purpofe, and requires much labour to feparate the feed,
which, when done, is cleaned and palled through different
fieves, being ultimately divided into two forts, the primary and
fecondary. The coll of thefe operations is very great,
amounting to from four to fix fhillings the bufliel, and fome-
times much more. It has been concluded by Mr. Middleton,
that this plant grows a full crop in all Uie arable lands of this
country, from the fands of Norfolk to the clays of Cleve-
land and Suffex. And that various foils that have been ex-
haufted by corn, and not much accuftomed to red clover,
have been fo much rellored by it, as to produce a good crop
of wheat ; but that to do this every means fliould be ufed
to fecure a full crop, as that is an excellent preparation for
cern, and feldom fails of enfuring a confiderable produfee,
arifing from fhade, fmother, and putrefadlion, the natural
and conflant attendants of full-grown red clover. It is
fuppofed advifeable, in fome cafes of poor land, to feed both
crops off on the land by fheep and other animals, in fome
way or other. And fometimes to mow tiie firll and feed
the fecond, or the contrary. In every point of view this is
an intereiling plant to the farmer. See Clover.

4 A Red

RED

RED

Red Gum, an infeft difeafe on wheat, by which the cars
of the grain are deprived of their nutrition, and thereby
prevented from perfefting thcmfolvcs. It is defcribed by
Mr. Middleton to be a coUeftion of infedls, which are vi-
fible to the anaffilled eye, and which, in the early part of
their growth, are of a reddifh colour, but become brown
with age : the black fpots on the draw, blades, and cars of
the wheat, are fuppofed to be the excrement of the infefts.
The blighted ears are probably rendered fo, by the infcfts
piercing the necks of the draw immediately below them,
and fucking the faccharine juice, otherwife deilined for
fiUing the corn. In thofc cars which have both perfeft and
imperfeft grains, the infecl; has perhaps inferted its probe at
the connection between the corn and the ftraw, and by
drinking up the food of the grains feverally, has ftarved
many of them in fuch a manner as to caufc their deftruftion
and decay. The exaft nature of the difeafe is not, how-
ever, yet well afcertained.

Red Hay, a term ufed to fignify fuch as is mow-burnf ,
in oppofition to fuch as is green from a moderate heat, and
•vinny hay, or fuch as is mouldy.

Red Land, a term ufed by hufbandmen to exprefs a
fandy foil of a reddilh hue, interfperfed for the moft part
with pieces of fand-ltone of the fame colour, or fomewhat
deeper.

It may be noticed that there are feveral varieties of this
foil : one of which is almoft entirely made up of fand ;
another with an admixture of loam with the fand, the whole
making a loofe loamy earth ; and a third full of fragments
of a poor fandy iron ore, and often containing fhising fpe-
culae of felenite. See Soil.

In fome of the more northern parts of the coimty of Ox-
ford, there is a rich red fandy loam, upon a red grit-llone
rock. In fome places this land is of a more fandy quality
than in others ; and, in particular inftances, a deep red
loam, or red clay. The lands are moftly of an excellent
quality, both for arable purpofes and thofe of grafs ; but
the fandy forts are better than thofe of the clayey kinds,
efpecially for the former ufe. The red foiled trafts in this
diftrift are oonfidered as the boaft and glory of the county,
as they are deep, found, friable, and yet capable of tena-
city ; being well fuited to almoft every fort of plant which
can be trufted to them, in the way of cultivation. Soils cf
this nature prevail more or lefs in a vaft number of counties
throughout the kingdom, even from the more fouthern ones
to thofe far advanced towards the north.

Red Roan, a term fignifying the red tinge in ripening
barley, and fometmies other forts of grain.

Red Row, a provincial term, applied to the grains of
barley, when in a ripening ftate, or ftreaked with red. The
crop is then faid to be in the red row.

Red Antimony, in Mineralogy, an ore of that mineral, of
a cherry-red colour, containing, according to Klaproth,
67.5 antimony,
10.8 oxygen,
19.7 fulphur.
It occurs moft frequently in minute diverging capillary
cryftals. It melts and evaporates before the blowpipe,
yielding a fulphureous odour. See Antimony.
Red Arjemc. See Arsenic.
Red Chalk. See Reddle, and Ores of Iron.
Red Cobalt, called cobalt crujl, and cobalt bloom or ochre,
an ore of cobalt, of a peach bloflbm red colour. See Co-
balt.

Red Copper, Ruby copper, an ore of copper, of a cochineal
red colour, inclining to a lead-grey. It confifts, according

to Klaproth, of 91 parts copper and 9 of oxygen. Si-
Copper.

Red Hmmallte, Fer ol'igijle concrelicnne of Haiiy, an ore of
iron, found in kidney-lhapcd and globular balls. The
ftrutlure is fibrous, and divergingly radiated, but arranged
in concentric curves; the colour is a blueifh-grcy, inter-
mixed with red. By friftion, it acquires a high metallic
luftre. It yields from 60 to 70 per cent, of pure iron,
(See Iron.) An excellent ore of^ this kind is procured
near Ulverftone, in the north of Lancaftiire, much valued,
as producing an iron of a peculiarly dudtile quality, fuited
for the purpofes of the wire-drawers.

Red Lead. See Minium and Lead.

Red Scaly Iron Ore, Fer olii^i^e lulfant of Haiiy. It con-
fifts of fc " ■■-■■■ ^ ■ ■

s ot Icaly particles (lightly cohering ; it has an unftuout
feel, and ftains the fingers. It pailes into micaceous iron
ore.

Red Schorl. See Ores o/ Titanium.
Red, or Ruby Silver Ore, Argent antimonie fulphure of
Haiiy. Werner divides this into two fub-fpecies, dark
red filver ore, and light red filver ore, diftinguifhed from
each other by their colour, and the fituations in which they
occur. The dark red ore is commonly accompanied by ga-
lena, antimonial lulphuret of filver, quartz, calcareous fpar,
and pyrites. The colour is between cochineal red and lead-
grey. It occurs mafhve, difleminated, and cryftallized in
equiangular fix-fided prifms, frequently varioufly truncated.
The form of the primitive cryftal is an obtufe rhomboid,
whofe plain angles are 104° 28' and 75° 32' ; the inclination
of the faces 109^' 28' and 70° 32'. The external lultre is
fplendent, and in fome fpecimens metallic ; internally it is
fhining, and fometimes femi-metallic and metallic. The
frailure is uneven, and in the cryftallized varieties imper-
feftly fmall conchoidal. See Ores of SiLVBR.

The mafiive varieties are opaque ; the cryftallized, fcmi-
pellucid and pellucid. The colour of the ftreak is a cochi-
neal red. This variety yields eafily to the knife: before
the blowpipe or charcoal it decrepitates, and melts with a
flight efFervefcence, emitting a denfe fmoke, which colours
the charcoal yellow, and leaves a globule of filver. The
fpecific gravity is 5.563 to 5.608.

The light red filver ore is ufually accompanied by native
arfenic, white cobalt ore, orpiment, and fulphate of barytes.
The colour pailes from a carmine red to a medium between
cochineal red and lead-grey. In moft of its charafters it
agrees nearly with the dark red filver ore ; but when fufed,
it yields an arfenical vapour. Hence fome chemifts have
conjeftured that this ore differs from the dark red ore, by
the former containing antimony, and the latter arfenic.
According to Klaproth, red filver ore contains nearly

60 of filver,
10.5 fulphur.
Combined with 29.4 f 20.3 antimony,
of antimonial kimes, .< 3.2 oxygen,
or - - - (^ 5.9 fulphur.

A variety of red filver ore, probably the light red ore of
Werner, analyfed by Prouft, gave

74 fulphuret of filver,
25 fulphuret of arfenic.
.6 oxyd of iron.
Red filver ore may be diftinguilhed from cinnabar and red
copper ore, by its fpecific gravity, which is confiderably
lefs than the former, and greater than the latter ; the fpe-
cific gravity of red filver ore being 5.6 to 5.8.
of cinnabar 7 to 7.5.

red copper 3.9

Red Vitriol, a fait found at Neufohl, in Hungary, in the

form

RED

form of tranfparent cryftals of a pale rofe-red colour, and
more or k-fs tranfparent. It was difcovered by Klaproth
to be a fiilpliate of cobalt. Its folution affords a pale blue
precipitate, with carbonate of potafli, which tinges borax
a pure blue colour.

Rkd Charr, in Ichthyology. See CllARR.
Red Eye, Erythrophthahnus, the cypnnus erythrophthalmus
of Linnieus, called by fome rothauge, or rootang, which, in
the German language, fignifies the fame. It very much re-
fcmbles the common river bream in fhape, but that it is
fomewhat thicker. The fins are all red, and the whole body
of the fifh is ftained with a very elegant red, but no part
of it fo much as the iris of the eyes. When the fcales are
off, the body is of a greenifh hue ; and it has a yellow fpot
under the tongue. It much refcmbles the river mullet in
fome particulars, but it is of a more beautiful colour, and
its eyes are more red. Its largeft fize feems a foot in
length. It is a well-tafted fifh ; and fpawns in April,
under cover of the roots of trees. Ray.

This fifh is called rudd by fome Englifh authors ; it is
alfo called rutilus latior, rubellto JtuviaiUls, inAJinJcale. It
is very common in many of the rivers of Germany and
England, and is in feafon all the year, except in fpawning
time, when the male is fubjeft to a great number of white
fpots on its head, and is more rough than at any other
feafon. Willughby. See Cyprinus F.rythrophthahms.

^V.n-Breajl, in Ornithology, a well-known bird, tor the
charafters of which, fee Motacilla Rubecula.

The fong of this bird is remarkably fine and foft, and
continues through the greateft part of the winter, fpring,
and fummcr. Many of the autumnal fongfters feem to be
the young cock red-breafts of that year. Pennant.

Thompfon, in his Seafons, Winter, line 246, has admir-
ably defcribed the annual vifits of this guefl : and the an-
cient ballad of " The Babes in the Wood," recording the
affeftion of this bird for mankind, is univerfally known.

Red Chatterer of Latham, Red-bird from Surinam of
Edwards, and yfrnpelis carnifex of Gmelin, a bird of red
colours, with an ocular band, and the wing and tail-feathers
black at their tips. It is found in New Spain, Guiana,
and Surinam.

Red Game, an Englifh name of a bird, common in the
mountainous parts of Yorkfhire, and fome other of our
northern counties. See GoK-cock, Grouse, and Tetrao
Lagopus.

RED-Pole, or Linnet. See Fringilla and Linnet.
RED-Pole, Tellotv, or Red-headed Warbler. See MoTA-
CILLA Petechia.

RED-Shani, the name of a water bir-d, called by authors
gallinula erythropus, and callidrys ; the fcolopax calidris of
Linnius. It is about the fize of the common plover.
The back is of a greyifh or brownifh-green, ufually fpotted
with black ; its neck grey, and its throat variegated with
black and white ; the breaft is white, with a few loofe
flreaks of black ; the wing-feathers are variegated with
black, brown, and white ; the bill is two fingers breadth
long, flender, and Ihaped like the beak of the woodcock ;
reddifh at the bafe, and blackifh lower down ; its legs are
of a fine beautiful red, and the hinder toe is very fhort and
fmall. It breeds in the fens and marlhes ; is found on moft
of our fhores ; conceals itfelf in winter in the gutters ;
and is generally found fingle, or at moft in pairs. When
difturbed it flies round its nelt, making a noife like a lap-
wing. It lays four eggs, of a whitifh colour tinged with
olive, and marked with irregular fpots of black, chiefly on
the thicker end. Ray and Pennant. See Scolopax.
RED'Start, the Englifh name of the ruticilla, or motacilla

RED

phanicurus of Linnseus, a very beautiful bird. The bill
and legs of the male are black ; the forehead white ; the
crown of the head, hind part of the neck, and the back,
are of a deep blue-grey ; the cheeks and throat black ; the
breaft, rump, and fides, are red ; the two middle feathers
of the tail brown, the others red ; the wings brown. In
the female, the top of the head and back are of a deep afh
colour ; the rump and tail of a duller re<l than thofe of the
male ; the chin white ; the lower fide of the neck cinereous ;
and the breaft of a paler red.

This bird appears among us only in the fpring and fum-
mer, and is obferved to come over nearly at the fame time
with the nightingale. It is fo fhy, that it will forfake its
neft, formed with mofs on the outfidc, and hair and feathers
within, in hollow trees and the holes of buildings, if the
eggs are only touched. It has a very fine foft note ; and
is remarkable for fhaking its tail, and moving it horizontally,
as a dog does when fawning. Pennant.

RETi-Start, Greater. See Lanius Infaujlus. See alfo
Tu KDU.s Saxatilis.

REB-Start, Indian or Bengal. See Lanius Emeria.
REVi-Start, Small American. See MusciCAPA i?«/K(//a.
RED-Start, Grey. See Motacilla Gibraltarienfu and
Erithacus.

RsD-Stone Poll. See Linnet.

Reu-ToH. See MoTAClLL.\ Erithacus and Guiancnjis.

Red Tanager, and Summer Red-bird. See Tanagra.

RED-Wing, the name of a bird of the turdus, or thrufh

kind, called alfo in fome places the ivind ihrujh, or fivine

pipe; and by Linnseus and others the turdus iliacus, or

Hi as.

It is a little fmaller than the common tiirufli, and is lefs
fpotted. Its back, neck, and head, are of the fame colour
with thofe of the common thrufh ; but its fides under the
wings, and the featliers which line the wings, are of an
orange colour, orduiky red ; its belly and breaft are whitifh,
and its throat yellowifh, with brown fpots : the wings are
of a fort of chefnut colour, a httle variegated. It feeds
on infefts, as worms, and the like ; and is a bird of pafTage,
coming to us in large flocks about the fame time with the
fieldfare, and leaving us alfo when that bird does. When
the red-wing appears on the coaft in autumn, it is certain
the woodcocks are near. It is not well known where they
breed, though fome have gueffed it to be in the mountains
of Germany and Bohemia. They have a bitterifh tafte,
and are lefs valued than the fieldfare. With us they have
a difagreeable piping note ; but in Sweden, during the
fpring, they fing very finely, perching on the top of fome
tree among the forefts of maples. They neft in hedges,
and lay fix blueifh-green eggs fpotted with black. Ray and
Pennant.

Red Water, a difeafe in (heep. It has been fuppofed
by farmers to be caufed by takmg too much watery food,
fuch as turnips, clover, rape, eddilb, &c., but it is not
peculiar to fheep feeding on turnips or rape, as has been be-
lieved by fome. Its removal has been attepipted by the ufe
of common fait, a tea-fpoonful of elixir of vitriol, and
the frequent driving the animal about ; and it is afferted,
that the difeafe may be wholly prevented by having re-
courfe to the ufe of dry food, in the night time, while the
ftieep are feeding upon thefe juicy kinds of food. See
Sheep.

In Suflex the fheep are fometimes afFefted with this com.
plaint on their being firft turned into turnips, which is fup.
pofed to be caufed by their eating too large a portion of
them in wet feafons. The difeafe is alfo believed to ojrigi-
nate in the fheep being let out of the fold, when^he ground
4A 2 is

RED

is covered with hoar froft ; and often from feeding in the
oat-er(hcs about tlie beginning of the autumn, when the
young oats are Ih-ong. It is thought here to be readily
obviated by allowing a fmall quantity of hay fo as to coun-
teraft the great watcrinefs of the turnip ; the quantity of
half a pound or even lefs in the courfe of the day is be-
lieved to be quite enough for each fhccp in this intention.
It is likewife fufpefted, that clover, ftubble, and folded
land, are produAive of it in wet weather or moilt feafons.

Red Weed, in Botany, a name given to a plant common
in the Bermudas, and fome other places ; and called by our
firft travellers to that part of the world, the Summer IJlancl
''red weed. Its berry is of a fine red colour, and affords a
tinfture little inferior to that of cochineal, and pofl'efling
all its virtues in medicine : the only misfortune of this,
and fome other very fine vegetable colours, is, that they
fade foon. The juice of the fruit of the opuntia, or
prickly pear, is as fine a dye as can be procured from the
cochineal; but it will not ftand ; the infedl feeding on this,
however, we find affords a colour of the fame nature that
will ftand. The fruit of the red weed is in the fame man-
ner liable to be eaten by infects as that of the prickly pear ;
and it is worthy u trial, whether the colour obtained at
fecond hand from thofc infe&s, will not ftand as well as the
cochineal does, and whether the infefls may not be pro-
pagated in a fufficient abundance to ferve the markets in
the fame manner. Phil. Tranf. N° 40.

Red Weed is alfo a provincial term, Cgnifying the
round fmooth-headed poppy, a pernicious weed in corn-
fields. See Weeds.

Red Worm, in Natural Htjlory, the name of an infeft
very deftruftive to young corn crops. The following de-
fcription of this worm has been given by Mr. W. Baker :
after obferving, that he has often heard of the havoc
which red worms make in young wheat, barley, and oats ;
and in fome few writers upon huflsandry has read of them,
but never faw them till May 1764 ; when, to his great mor-
tification, in a few days they deftroyed almoft totally nine
acres of his> vs'heat, for he did not reap above half a barrel
per acre ; and that the ingenious M. de Chateauvieux fpeaks
of an infeft, which is certainly of the fame kind, if it be
not the very infeft which he has now under confideration ;
and in noticing the lofs fuftained in wheat crops, fays, they
found in it many little white worms, which afterwards be-
came of a chefnut colour. They poft themfelves between
the blades, and eat the ftems. They are ufually found be-
tween the firft joint and the roots ; every ftalk which they
attacked grew no more, but became yellow and withered.
And the fame misfortune happened to them in the year
1732. The infefts appeared about the middle of May,
and made fuch havoc, that the crops were almoft deftroyed ;
Stillingflcet, alfo, in the fecond edition of , his Mifcel-
laneous Trafts, fpeaks of an infeft, which is probably the
fame as in Suflolk and in fome parts of Norfolk, where
the farmers find it their intereft to encourage the breed of
rooks, as the only means to free their grounds from the
grub, from which the tree or blind-beetle comes, and which
in its grub ftate deftroys the roots of corn and grafs to fuch
a degree, that he has feen a piece of pafture l.md where you
might turn up the turf with your feet : he adds, that Mr.
Matthews, a very obferving and excellent farmer of War-
grove, in Berkfhire, told him, that the rooks one year,
whilft his men were hoeing a turnip field, fat down in a
part of it, where they were not at work, and that the crop
was very fine in that part, whereas in the other part there
were no turnips that year ; though M. de Chateauvieux
defcribes this worm as being firil white, and afterwards be.

I

RED

coming of a chefnut colour, he has carefully fought them
at different periods during the pait year, but always found
them of the fame chefnut colour, never varying in any par-
ticular except that of fize, which he finds to be the cafe at all
fealons in which he has feen them ; and he obferves, that the
infett fpoken of by Stillingflcet as a grub, whit'/., he fays,
dettroys corn and grafs, induces him to believe that it is the
fame infeft (though the report which he relates from Mr.
Matthews feems to contradift it), becaufe he has obferved
that the red or chefnut worm never appears voluntarily
upon the furface ; but when the earth is turned up,
either with plough or fpade, the rooks or crows are very
bold in their approach to pick them up, a circumftance
which, he owns, has in fome degree abated his enmity to
thefe birds ; he therefore never aeftroys or frightens them
off his land whilft he is ploughing it ; but when he fows,
when the corn rifes, and when it is ripe, he deftroys or
banifhes them as well as he can, becaufe the mifchiet which
they do at thefe times is intolerable ; he has alfo obferved
his lucern to decay in its tops' foon after it lias be^n up ;
and upon examining the roots hi.- has found the red worm
which had cat them off ; and that, in faft, this infeft feems to
be every where in Ireland called the red worm, but by fome
of the Englith writers, who have fpoken of an ii.feft which
deftroys the corn in the mam/ r already mentioned, which he
thinks undoubtedly the fame, it is calif d a grub, by others the
large maggot, and the rook worm, becaufe the rooks eat it.
Thefe worms are about half an iiich long, and about one-
tenth of an inch in diameter ; they are jointed in their
fkins, and are of a very firm texture : they have many
ftiort legs, two fmall black fpecks, which appear to be
their eyes ; and two fmall points fpringing from their heads,
with which, he believes, they eat the corn, and which in
that work, he apprehends, aft like forceps : and all that
he has feen of this fpecies are of a bright chefnut colour.
For this reafon, he ftiould conceive it would be more de-
fcriptive to call them the chefnut-worms. When they are
expofed to the air, by turning up earth which is infefted
with them, they will very foon cover themfelves again in
the foil, which they are very capable of doing by the
ttrength which their make gives them, although they ap-
pear to be a fluggifh infeft, and have not the advantage of
a (limynefs upon their fttins, which the common large creep-
inrr worm has, which enables that inoffenfive worm to pene-
trate the earth, and get under timber and ftones with eafe.
The red worm, immediately endeavouring to cover itfelf from
the air, is certainly, he thinks, from natural inftinft, as it will
foon die when expofed to the air, as will appear by the ex-
periment, N° 10, mentioned below.

It is further ftated, that thefe worms deftroy wheat, bar-
ley, oats, and lucern, while in an infant ftate, in the months
of March, April, and May. Late fown barley and oats
they will deftroy as late as June. He has not yet expe-
rienced that they deftroy any other crops. The mifchief
done by them is in dry weather. Rain fufficient to pene-
trate the ground makes them defift fi'om deftroying the
corn ; and he fuppofes every thing elfe which they at any
time injure. They eat wheat off juft above the crown of
the roots ; barley and oats in the fame place, and alfo
higher up, upon any part of the ftem which is below the
furface of the earth. And thefe worms feem to abound
more in ground which is lightly tilled, than in fuch as
hath been well tilled ; but in lay ground they feem to be
more numerous than any where elfe : and the fields upon
his farm in which he has found them, are wetter than
other fields where they are not ; whether that circumftance
contributes to their increafe, he cannot fay ; but the fol-
lowing

RED

lowing experiments prove that tlicy will live longer in water
than they can when txpofed to the open air.

Experiments,

N' I. He put ton red worms into a wine glafs with com-
mon fait in it. They were all dead in four hours.

N° 2. Into a glafs with brine in it he put ten red worms.
They were all dead in fix hours.

N"^ 3. Into a glafs with lime in it, which had been
flaked for a long time, and cxpofed to the weather, he put
the like number. They were all dead in forty-four hours.

N° 4. Into a glafs with the above lime, and fome water
in it, he put the like number. They were dead in twenty
hours.

N^ 5. Into a glafs with lime newly flaked, and when
cold, he put the like number. They were dead in fourteen
hours.

N'^ 6. Into lime water, made with cold water, he put the
like Yiumber. They were dead in ten hours.

N^ 7. Into a glafs with foot in it, he put the like
number. They were dead in four hours.

N^ 8. Into foot and water he put the like number.
They were dead in four hours.

N° 9. Into pure water he put tlie like number. They
were dead in fifty-two hours.

N° 10. Into a glsffs, without any thing in it, he put
the like number. They were dead in thirty-two hours.

It is ftated that by tliefe experiments it is feen that all the
articles ufed will kill this infeft in a fhort time, particularly
the fait and foot. He thought it necefiary to confider dif-
ferent articles, the better to fuit different parts of the
kingdom.

Where lime can be conveniently had, and that it is ufed
as manure, he is apt to believe, from the experiments,
that no injury can be fudaincd from thefe worms ; but he
is afraid a fmall quantity will not effeftually deftroy them ;
befides, he fhould fear, if it were not put on before the fow-
ing of the corn, that it might finge the blades of the corn ;
for, from thefe experiments, it appears that lime newly
flaked is more fnddenly deflruftive to them than old lime,
and therefore it is to be preferred.

Where lime is ufed for no other purpofe than to dellroy
this worm, he fhould conceive, that about eight barrels,
regularly fown by hand on an acre of ground, might be
fufficient : it muft be firft flaked and cold before a man
can poffibly cafl it upon the ground with his hand, lime
being a very Itrong cauftic ; and even when it is cold the
man fliould have a thick glove upon his hand.

Where fait may be ufed to deflroy this worm, it muft al-
ways be fown upon the ground before the intended crop ;
for although corn will vegetate, and receive benefit from
fait as a manure, when it is ufed antecedent to the fowing
of the corn, yet if it be added after the corn is growing
it will certainly deftroy it : therefore it fliould never be
ufed for this purpofe, but before the corn is fown, or at leaft
before it vegetates.

He conceives that where fait is ufed for this purpofe
onlv, about four hundred and a half to an acre will an-
fwer the purpofe, which is a httle more than one ounce to
every fquare yard.

It is feen by the experiments, that foot kills this worm
as foon as fait ; and as in moft places it is to be had at a
much lefs price than fait, he thinks there can be no doubt
about preferring it ; befides which, it may be fafely ufed
after the corn is up.

He had fome fmall parcels of barley under experiments,
vfhich thefe worms began to deftroy ; and in order to con-

\l E D

vey the foot as foon as pofliblc to the roots of the plants,
he mixed a little of it in water, and poured it on the plants
with a garden watering-pot : tlic confequence was that he
did not lofe one plant afterwards.

It will hardly be imagined that he means that the fame
method i» to be purfued upon a whole farm : no ; the
method he would recommend to the praftice of the farmer
is this ; to fpread, or call by hand, as he fows his corn,
about fix or eight barrels of foot on an acre, and let him
be careful to choofe a calm day for the work, otherwifc the
wind will carry away a great part of it : and as what re-
mains cannot be regularly difpofed, let him be careful to do
it early enough in the fpring, that the rain may wafh in the
foot and convey it to the rpots of the plants before the worm
begins the niifchief ; if he does this, he is perfuaded his crop
will be preferved.

It is found by the experiments, that thefe worms will live
longer in water, by twenty hours, than when expofed to
the open air ; but at length, that is in fifty-two hours,
they died in the water ; perhaps this might be from the
effect of drowning ; but if lo, he might have expefted
they would have been totally deftroyed in his two fields
in the winter of 1763 and 1764, by the immoderate rains
which fell at that feafon for a long continuance, which
often flooded the lands. But they furvived that winter,
as appeared by the great lofs he afterwards J'jltained by
their deftroying his wheat ; and therefore, whether water
be an enemy to them or not, it fecms not eafy to deter-
mine : but if thofe which died in the glafs of water were
really drowned, he thinks we may conclude that water is
neceffary to their exiftence in the earth, and probably aids
them in getting their food from it : and what feems to
confirm this notion is, that when the land is wet, they do
not touch the corn, but as foon as ever the land is dry, they
begin their mifchief. However, this fpeculation he mull
fubmit to the confideration of perfons more capable of dif-
cuffing it than he is.

It is feen by experiment N° 10, that they cannot live
in the open air, which feems to prove, that, where they
abound in land, the oftener it is ploughed, particularly in
the fummer, when they cannot penetrate the ground fo
eafily as when it is moift, they muft be, by fuch plough-
ing, greatly diminifhed : befides which, the frequent plough-
ing gives the crows more opportunities of picking them up,
in which, as he has before faid, they are very watchful.

Frequent ploughing has been recommended by fome
writers as the only means of deftroying this worm ; and
they have recommended the ploughs being ftuck with nails,
urging, that by thofe nails the worms are cut to pieces ;
others have recommended walnut leaves being foaked in
water, to fprinkle the land, and fteeping feed corn in va-
rious liquors, as infallible remedies ; but fuch methods as thefe
are founded upon mittaken principles ; they only miflead the
farmer, and muft difappoint him.

Worlidge recommends a ftrong ley made of fixed falls,
but that would be imprafticable. Mortimer recommends
fea-water, which he believes would anfwer very well. He
fays, he ufed foot once with fuccefs, but that it did not
fucceed with him afterwards. Mr. Baker is perfuaded he
did not ufe the foot early enough to have it wafhed into
the ground by rain, or perhaps he ufed too fmall a quan-
tity. He concludes by obferving, that he would not be
thought to arrogate any merit to himfelf, on account of
what he has here offered on this fubjeft, fince it appears
that other perfons have ufed the articles which he has
recommended, againft this common enemy ; but many per-
fons have been difappointed in their expedations from thefe

remedies,

RED

remedies, which muft; have arlfen, he thinks, from their
either having ufcd too Imall a quantity, or not having
oblerved the necelFary precautions ; if thofe which he has
recommended fhall be put in praftice and found to anfwer,
he fliall think himiVlf amply rewarded.

Tliis worm undoubtedly does great mjury to grain crops
in many cafes, in particular foils and forts of land ; but a
great number of additional fafts and experiments are want-
ing to fully prove its nature, and the ways in which its
deftrudtive effefts on fuch crops are produced, as well as
the belt, moll ready, convenient, and effeftual ways in which
it can be deftroyed. See Wike-^o;vh.

Red Deer.,JiJh,Jlar,Jlorax, tartar. See the fubftantives.
Red Ink. See Ink and Piunting.
Red Notes, in old Mufic, befotrc the invention of printing,
were uied for diminution. In the MS. at Paris of the
Latin and French poems of Gullaume Machau let to mufic,
chiefly motets for a fingle voice, fome are written in black
and red notes, with this inftruftion to the fingers ; " ni-
grac funt perfeftas, et rubrx imperfectae ;" an admonition
worth remembering by thofe who wifli to decypher mufic of
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, in which red notes
frequently occur. It was an eafy expedient of diminution till
the inventioii of the prefs, when the ufe of different coloured
inks on the fame page occafioned the trouble and expence
of double printing. See Machau.

In the Pepyfian coUeftion at Cambridge, there are ex-
amples of the ufe of red notes for diminution in fragments
of mufic by Joleph Gwinneth and Robert Davie, who flou-
rifhed in the time of Edward IV. Morley has given fome
examples of the ufe of red notes in his annotations.

Red Bank, in Geography, a fort of the United States, on
the S.E. fide of Delaware river, in the town of Woodbury,
Gloucefter county, New Jerfey ; feven miles S. of Phi-
ladelphia.

Red Bay, a bay on the N. coaft of Spitzbergen. N. lat.
79° 44'. E. long. !0° 42'. — Alfo, a bay on the S.E. coaft
of Labrador. N. lat. 51° 50'. W. long. 56° 10'.— Alfo,
a bay on the N. part of Buffaloe's bay, on the S. coall of
Mafl'achufetts, in America.

Red Crab IJland, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
near the coatl of Arracan. N. lat. 21° 30'. E. long.
91° 50'.

REDZ)«»-Z,al?, a lake of North America. "N.lat. 55° 10'.
W. long. 1 12°.

Red Flaggy Bay, a bay on the N. coaft of the ifland of
St. Chriftopher, E. of Ragged Point.

Red Haven, a bay of Scotland, on the N. coaft of the
county of Banff; three miles E. of CuUen. N.lat. 57^
39'. W. long. 2° 38'.

Red Head, a cape of Scotland, on the E. coaft of the
county of Angus ; fix miles S. of Montrofe. N. lat. 56°
33'. W. long. 2° 26'. — Alfo, the N. point of the ifland
of Eda. N. lat. 59° 6'. W. long. 2° 40'.

Red Hills, rocks in the German fea, near the coaft. of
Northumberland. N. lat. 55° 26'. W. long. 1° 17'.

Red Hook, a town of America, in the townfliip of Rhy-
nebeck, and Dutchefs county, Ne\v York, on the E. bank
of Hudfon's river ; 21 miles S. of Hudfon.

Red Horfe, Vale of, a diftridl of England, in the county of
Warwick, which owes its name to a horfe cut in a hill, the
foil of which is reddifti.

Red IJland, an ifland near the E. coaft of Labrador. N.
lat. 43° 55'. W. long. ^^° 50'. — Alfo, an ifland near the
W. coaft of Newfoundland. N. lat. 48° 35'. W. long.
59° 10'.

Red Z.(3i«o a comparatively fmall lake of North Ame-

RED

rica, at the head of a branch of the Bourbon river, fome-
times called " Red river ;" its form is nearly round, and
its extent is about 60 miles in circumference. It has on
one fide an ifland, clofe by which a river enters. It lies
almoft S.E. both from lake Winnepeck, and from the lake

of the Woods. N. lat. si"" 5'. W. long. 94° 10' Alfo, a

lake of North America, in N. lat. 47 40'. W. long. 95" 15'.
Red Lick, a fait fpring of the ftate of Kentucky ; 32
miles E. of Stamford.

Red Point, a cape on the E. coaft of New Holland.
N. lat. 34° 29'. W. long. 208=^ 45'.

Red River, a river of Louifiana, which rifes in about
N. lat. 35°, and W. long. 96^ and runs into the Miflifippi,
N. lat. 37° 15'. W. long. 91" 48'.— Alfo, a river of Upper
Canada, which runs into lake Superior. N. lat. 47° yi'.
W. long. 85° 48'. — Alfo, a river of Tenneflise, which runs
into Cumberland river, about two miles N.W. of Clarkf-
ville. N. lat. 36° 18'. W. long. 87^ 46'.— Alio, a river
of Kentucky, which runs into Kentucky river, about nine
miles above Boonfborough, N. lat. 37° 45'. W. long. 84'
18'. It is 60 yards wide at the mouth. — Alfo, a river of
North America, which rifes from Red lake, in N. lat. 47*
40', and runs into Winnipeg lake. — Alfo, a river of Canada,
which runs into the Utwas ; 60 miles W. of Montreal. See
alfo Natchitoches.

Red Sea, called by the ancients the " Arabian gulph,"
forms the grand natural divifion between Afia and Africa,
and extends about 21° or 1470 Britilh miles from the ftrait*
of Babelmandeb to Suez ; it terminates in two branches,
the weftern being extenfive, and the eaftern afcending a little
beyond the parallel of mount Sinai.

This fea is called, in the Old Teftament, the fea of Suph
or Zuph, the fea of weeds, on account of the great quan-
tity of alga and fuci, and perhaps the madrepores and coral-
line fubftances, anciently fuppofed to be of vegetable
origin, found at its bottom, and near the ftiores. In fcrip-
ture language it is alfo denominated " the tongue of the
Egyptian fea ;" in the Greek and Latin geography, it was
called the gulph of Heroopolis ; and by the Arabian geo-
graphers, the weftern arm of the fea of Kolzum, (al Kol-
zum, with the article,) which feems to have fome affinity
with " Clyfma," another name by which this gulph was for-
merly known ; Kolzum in Arabic, and Clyfma in Greek,
fignifying dcftruftion, in reference, as it is fuppofed, to the
deftruflion of Pharaoh's hoft. Don Jol>n de Caftro, vice-
roy of the Indies for the king of Portugal, conjeftures that
it was called the Red fea from the great quantity of coral
that is found in it. Pliny fays that it obtained this name, in
Greek " Erythrea," from a king called Erythros, who
reigned in Arabia, and whofe tomb was feen in the ifland
Tyrine or Agyris. Several learned men believe, that this
king Erythros is no other than Efau, or Edom ; Edom, in
Hebrew, fignifying red or ruddy, as Erythros does in
Greek. But Calmet is of opinion, that Edom never dwelt,
either on the fliore of the Red fea, or the Perfian gulph,
which has been fometimes alfo called the Red fea. His
habitation was eaft of the land of Canaan, towards Bozra ;
and he inclines to beheve, that the name of the Red fea was
not given to this gulph till after the Idumeans, defcended from.
Edom, had fpread themfelves from eaft to weft as far as the
Red fea. At that time it might receive the name of the
fea of Edom, which the Greeks rendered by the Red fea, or
" thalafla erythrea."

The famous miracle of the paflage of the Red fea by
600,000 Ifraelites, befides old men, women, and children,
recorded in the facred writings, is well known. Thofe
who have been defirous of explaining this paflage, with-

7 out

RED SEA.

out aJmitting the miraculous part of the hillory, have
had recourfe to a variety of conjeftures ; both as to the
place and the manner in which this pafl'age was effeftcd. As
to the place of tlie padage, tliere has been a difference of
opinion even among thofe who have not hefitated to acknow-
ledge that it was miraculous. Till of late years it has been
generally believed, that the pad'age of the Ilraelites was at
Baideah, or Bedea, which, according to Niebiihr, is about
fix German miles from Suez, and where the fea, fays Bruce,
is fomething lefs than four leagues broad, by 50 feet deep.
In fupport of tliis hypothefis. Dr. Shaw has traced the march
of the Ifraelites to then- third encampment before Pihahhi-
roth. Whilll they were removing from the edge of the wil-
dernefs of Etham towards this ftation, they had left the open
country and were marching through a narrow pafs, betwixt
the mountains of Gewoubee and Attackah. In thefe cir-
cumflances the Egyptians might well imagine, that they
could have no poflible way of efcape, as the mountains of
Gewoubee would obftruft their progrefs towards the foutli,
and thofe of Attackah would impede their advancing towards
the land of the Philiftines : the Red fea lay before them to
the call ; whilft Pharaoh clofed up the valley behind them,
with his chariots and horfemen. This valley terminate-s at
the fea, in a fmall bay, made by the eaftern extremities of
the mountains above-mentioned ; and is called " Tiah Beni
Ifrael," i. e. the road of the Ifraelites, from a tradition dill
exifting among the Arabs of their having palled through it ;
and it is alfo called " Baideah," from the nciw and unheard-
of miracle that was wrought near it, by dividing the Red fea,
and dellroying in it, Pharaoh, his chariots and his horfemen.
The encampment of the Ifraelites, according to Dr. Shaw,
was at this bay, before Pihahhiroth, betwixt Migdol and
the fea, over-againll Baal-tzephon, Exod. xiv. z. Baal-
tzephon, as this learned geographer fuggells, might have
relation to the northern fituation of the place itfelf, or to
fome watch-tower, or idol-temple that was erefted upon it ;
or it may be .taken for the extremity of the mountains of
Suez, or Attackah, the molt confpicuous of thefe deferts,
as it overlooks a great part of the Lower Thebais, as well as
the wildernefs that reaches towards, or rather which makes
part of, the land of the Philiftines. Migdol might lie to
the fouth, as Baal-tzephon did to the north of Pihahhiroth.
The marches of the Ifraelites, from the edge of the wilder-
nefs, being towards the fea, /'. e. towards the S.E., their en-
campment betwixt Migdol and the fea, or before Migdol,
could not well have any other fituation. Pihahhiroth, or
the mouth of Hhiroth, or a narrow gullet or defile, may
denote the mouth, or the moft advanced part of this valley
towards the E., or towards the Red fea. But as the
Ifraelites were delivered at this place from their captivity
and fear of the Egyptians (Exod. xiv. 13.) we may lup-
pofe that Hhiroth denotes the place where they gained
their liberty, horar and hhiroth being words of the like import
in the Chaldee. It may be further urged in favour of this
explication, and alfo of the tradition Hill preferved, of the
Ifraelites having palTed through this valley, that the eaftern
extremity of the mountain, fuppofed to be Baal-tzephon, is
called, even to this day, by the inhabitants of thefe deferts,
*' Jibbel Attakah," or the mountain of deliverance ; which
appellation, together with thofe of Baideah and Tiah Beni
Ifrael, could never have been given or impofed upon thefe
inhabitants at firtt, or preferved by them afterwards, with-
out lome faithful tradition, that fuch places had been once
the aftual fcene of thefe remarkable tranfaftions. The fea
likewife of Kolzum, i. e. deftruftion, as the correfpondent
part of the Red fea is called in the Arabian geography, is a
further confirmation of this tradition. Moreover, the

Ichthyophagi, who lived in this very neighbourhood, are
reported by Diodorus Siculus (1. iii.) to have preferved the
like traditionary account from their forefathers, of this mi-
raculous divifion of the Red fta. There are likewife other
circumftances that tend to prove, that the Ifraelites took
their departure from this valley, in their padage through the
Red fea ; for an account of which we refer to Shaw's Travels,
ch. v.

This hypothefis, however, fays Geddes, (Crit. Remarks
on Exod. xiv.) has been fairly given up by our beft modern
critics; and the " Sinus Heroopolitanus," or gulph of Suez,
pitched upon as the fcene of adtion. The idea was firft fug.
gelled by Le Clerc, and fince adopted and defended by
Michaelis, Niebuhr, and almoft all the German commen-
tators. But Mr. Bryant ftill contends for Bedea (Baideah),
and calls the arguments of Niebuhr " prejudice and mifcon-
ception." Dr. Geddes, whofe fentiments concerning Mofcs
and his whole hiftory are fingular, denies that there was any-
thing mirncubus in the event ; and ftrenuouflv maintains,
that Suez or its vicinity was the place of paftage ; fiir here,
he fays, at this day, are ftiallows fordable at low water, and
which might, in former times, have been frequently dry.
We all know what changes happen in the bed of feas as well
as that of rivers, efpecially where that bed is fand, which is
the cafe with that of the gulph of Suez. The occurrence
is thus defcribed by Dr. Geddes. When Mofes faw that
the Egyptians had found out that the Ifraelites meant not to
return, and were about to purfue him with a force which he
could not refift, he wifely took the only courfe that was
moft likely to afford him an efcape. Acquainted, as he mull
have been, during his long ftay in Midian, with the nature
of the Red fea, and its ebbs and flows, he deemed it better
to take his chance of paffing over fome fliallow which he
knew to be fordable at low water, than to cxpofe himfelf to
be overtaken in a defert, where no ftratagem could fave him.
If he'got the rtart of the Egyptians but for a fingle day, he
would have time to watch the tide, and begin his march as
foon as the paffage was fordable ; and in the fpace of a few
hours might be fafe on the other fide. The width of the
fea at Suez is at prefent, according to Niebuhr's meafure-
ment, 757 double paces, or 3450 feet. It is common for the
Arabs to pafs on foot over this paffage, although not always
without danger, as the fea fometimes flows back unex-
peftedly. At Suez, according to Niebuhr, it is low water,
at the full of the moon, at half paft fix ; but as the paffage
of the Ifraelites muft have happened fome days after the
full of the moon, the ebb and flow muft have been con-
fiderably later, and the former muft have occurred in the
night-time, during which the Ifraelites are faid to have
palled. Michaelis was of opinion, that, as a ftrong wind is
laid to have accompanied this event, it might have caufed a
double ebb, as it fometiaies does on the coaft of Holland
and North Germany ; but Niebuhr thinks that no fuch thing
is likely to happen in tne Red fea. Be this as it will, the
wind might certainly have prolonged the ebb ; and, if it
happened at the time of the paffage, might well be con-
fidered as a providential interference, and readily conftrued
into a miracle. Jofephus, in recording this tranfa£lion, puts
a formal fpeech into the mouth of Mofes to his terrified and
difcontented people, and a prayer to God before he ftrikes
the fea with his rod ; yet he tells us that all this he has re-
lated as he found it in the facred books. But he feems not
fure, whether to confider it as a miracle or a natural effeft.
" Let no one," fays he, " wonder at this account of a way
of fafety being opened to thofe old-world innocent folks,
even through the fea, whether by the will of God or natu-
rally ; fince, of later days, the Pamphylian fea opened a

way

RED SEA.

way for Alexander's army, when God through him had de-
creed to overturn the Pcrfian empire." (Antiq. 1. ii. c. i6.
n. c. ) For this he appeals to all Alexander's hillorians ;
and, indeed, both Appian and Arrian, who relate the
event, feemed to have confidered it as a fort of divine inter-
pofition ; but honed Strabo tells us, tiiat Alexander only
took the advantage of low water ; and, trufting to liis good
fortune, paffed through the llreight with his army ; but not
on dry land ; for the water came up to the navel. (Strab.
1. xiv.) The fame was the cafe with Scipio's foldiers, who
furprifed New Carthage by taking the advantage of an ebb ;
.ilthough they waded fometimes up to the knee, at otlier
times up to the navel, in water. (Liv. 1. xxvi.) Here,
fays Geddes, the fame two natural caufes, the tide and a
Ilrong wind, concurred to make a pad'age through the water,
as concurred at the pad'age of the Red fea ; and in both
cafes they were converted into a miracle. Jofephus con-
eludes his narrative with thefe words. " Of fuch things,
let every one think as he plcafcs ;" and the author now cited
adopts his language. It has been faid, and thus the prieils
of Memphis explained the hiilory (fee Eufeb. Prsep. 1. iv.
c. 17.), that Mofes taking advantage of the time of the ebb,
led the Hebrews over in fafety ; but tiie Egyptians, not
knowing the nature of the fea, and eafily entering it juft be-
fore the return of the tide, were all fwallowed up and
drowned.

In oppofition to all conjeftures for explaining this hif-
tory, without having recourfe to miracle, we lliali content
ourfelves with appealing to the hiftory itfelf, Exod. xiv.
16, 17, &c. from which it appears that the Hebrews tra-
verfed the fea from fhore to fhore, on a large fpace of dry
ground, which was left by the retiring waters ; and that
they were driven back to overwhelm the purfuing holt of
Pharaoh. See alfo Ifaiah, Ixiii. 1 1, &c. Habbakuk, iii. 15.
Wifdom of Sol. xix. 7, 8. x. 17, 18.

It is thought, fays Calmet, after Eufebius, that the' place
where the Hebrews palled the Red fea, is two or three
leagues below its northern point, at the place called Kolfum,
or Clyfma. Niebuhr informs us that, every where on the
coall of Arabia, we meet with indications, that the waters
are withdrawn ; e. gr. Mufa, which ancient authors mention
as a port of Arabia, is now at many leagues diftance from
the fea ; near Loheia, and Gidda, we fee great hills filled
with the fame kind of fhells and corals, as are now found
living in the fea ; near Suez, are petrifications of all thefe
things. From thefe and fimilar circumftances he infers, that
fome thoufand years ago this Arabian gulf was much larger,
and extended much farther north, efpecially that arm of it
near Suez, for the (hore of this extremity of the gulf is very
low. The breadth of the arm of the fea at Suez, he adds, is
about 3450 or 3500 feet (in its prefent flate). Although
it would much fhorten the diftance of their way, no caravan
now crofles this arm, nor could the Ifraehtes have crofled it,
without a miracle. The attempt muft have been much more
difficult to the Ifraelites, fome thoufand years ago, the gulf
being then probably larger, deeper, and longer toward the
north, at the lowell time of the tide. Niebuhr croffed,
when returning from mount Sinai, that arm of the fea, over
to Kolfoum, upon his camel ; and the Arabs, who accom-
panied him, were only immerfed to their thighs in water.
The banks of the Red fea are pure fand from Suez to Gi-
rondel ; but lower to the fouth are banks of coral. If the
Ifraelites had crofted the fea upon fuch banks, they muft have
been greatly incommoded by them.

The Red fea, notwithrtanding the difficulty and danger,
and alfo the tedioufnefs of its navigation, was, for many ages
before the difcovery of the paftage by the Cape of Good

Hope, the channel of communication between Egypt and
other countries, bordering on the Mediterranean, and India.
Accordingly, Dr. Robertfon obfervcs, in his " Hiftorical
Difquifition concerning Ancient India," that navigation
made its firit efforts in the Mediterranean and the Arabian
gulf, and that in them the firft adlive operations of com-
merce were carried on. Nor are the accounts of the earlieO.
hiftorians in this rcfpeft at all improbable, if we confider
the pofition and form of thefe two great inland feas. They
lay open the continents of Europe, Afia, and Africa, and
fpreading to a great extent along the coafts of the moll fer-
tile and moft early civilized countries in each, feem to have
been deilined by nature to facilitate their communication
with one another. We find, accordingly, tliat the firft
voyages of the Egyptians and Phoenicians, the moft ancient
navigators mentioned in hiftory, were made in the Mediter-
ranean, and, moreover, by acquiring early polfeinon of
ports on the Arabian gulf, they extended the fphere of their
commerce, and are reprefented as the firit people of the
weft who opened a communication by fea with India. Se-
foftris, in the courfe of his reign (if we may give credit to
fome hiftorians), was able to fit out a fleet of 400 (hips in
the Arabian gulf, which conquered all the countries ftretch-
ing along the Erythrean fea to India. The Phoenicians,
who, by their lituatioii on the Mediterranean, and the im-
perfeft ftate of navigation, could not attempt to open a
dircft communication with India by fea, were prompted by
the enterprifing fpirit of commerce to wreft from the Idu-
means fome commodious harbours towards the bottom of
the Arabian gulf. From thefe they held a regular inter-
courfe with India on the one hand, and with the eaftern
and fouthern coafts of Africa on the other. The diftance,
liowever, from the Arabian gulf to Tyre was fo confider-
able, that it became neceflary for them to take poffeffion of
Rhinocolura, the nearcft port in the Mediterranean to the
Arabian gulf. Thither all the commodities brought from
India were conveyed over land by a route much ftiorter, and
more practicable, than that by which the produdlions of the
Eaft were carried at a fubfequent period from the oppofite
(hore of the Arabian gulf to the Nile. At Rhinocolura
they were reftiipped and tranfported by an eafy navigation to
Tyre, and diftributcd through the world. For an account
of the trade which the Jews carried on by the Red fea, we
refer to the articles Ophir and Tyre. For the manner in
which the Egyptians carried 011 their trade with India by
means of this gulf, fee Alexandria and Berenice.

All the commercial tranfadlions of the ancients with the
Eaft were confined to the ports on the Malabar coaft, or at
the fartheft extended to the ifland of Ceylon. To thefe
ftaples, the natives of all the different regions in the eaftern
parts of Afia brought the commodities which were the
growth of their feveral countries, or the produft of their
ingenuity, in their own ved'els, and with them the fhips from
Tyre and from Egypt completed their inveftments. While
the operations of their Indian trade were carried on within
a fphere lo circumfcribed, the conveyance of a cargo by
the Arabian gulf, notwithftanding the expence of land-car-
riage, either from Elath to Rhinocolura, or acrofs the de-
fart to the Nile, was fo fafe and commodious, that the
merchants of Tyre and Alexandria had little reafon to be
folicitous for the difcovery of any .other. During the
period in which this mode of carrying on commerce fub-
iifted, the price of goods imported from India into Europe
was very much enhanced by the various operations to which
the conveyance of them was fubjedt. In Ceylon, or the
ports on the Malabar coail to which they were brought
from the various countries of Alia by the natives, they were

put

RED

put on board the Ihips which arrived from tlic Arabian girlf.
iVt Berenice they were landed, and carried hy camels 25S
miles to the banks ot tlie Nile. There tiiey were again em-
l)arkcd, and conveyed down tiie river to Alexandria, whence
they were diipalched to difl'erciit markets. But, after the
paflage to India by the Cape of Good Hope was difcovcrcd
by Vafco de Gama, at tlie clofe of the iifleeiith centin-y,
its various commodities were purchafed at llrll hand in the
countries of whicli tliey were the growth or manufacture ;
and as the carriage of mercantile goods by water is much
lefs expenfive than by any other mode of conveyance, the
Portuguefe, as foon as they could import the productions
ot India in fufficient quantities to fupply the demands of
Europe, were able to afford tliem at fuch a reduced price,
that the competition of the Genoefe and the Venetians, vvlio
bad been aftively engaged in this commerce, ceafed almoll
entirely ; and the full llream of commerce took its natural di-
rection towards the cheapell market. The confequence was,
that early in the lixteenth century, the fubjeCts of the Por-
tuguefe monarchs became poflefted of a monopoly of the
trade with India, founded upon the only equitable title, that
of furnifhing its produClions in greater abundance, and at a
more moderate price. From tlie era of the difeoverv now
mentioned, the Arabian gulf or Red fea loll its importance
as a cliannel of communication between the weilern and
eaftern parts of the globe ; and from this time both its naviga-
tion, and the commerce connected with it, have been partial
and reitrifted. An account ot its principal ports will be
found under their refpedtive articles.

REDA, a town of Turkith Armenia, in the government
of Erzerum ; 36 miles N. of Ifpira.

REDANS, or Redant See Redens.

REDARIDES, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Mouths of the Rhone; 16 miles
S.S.E. of Orangi.

RED-BOOK uf the Exchequer [liber rubeus fcaccarii) is
an ancient record, in which are regillered the names of thofe
that held lands per barumam in king Henry IPs. time. It is
a manufcript volume of feveral mifcellaneous treatifes, in the
keeping of the king's remembrancer, in his office in the ex-
chequer ; and hath fome things (as the number of the hides
of land in many of our counties, &c.) relating to the times
before the Conqueil. There is likewife an exact coUeftion
of the efcuages under king Henry I., Richard II., and king
John ; and the ceremonies ufed at the coronation of queen
Eleanor, wife to king Henry III. &c.

REDD AT. Precipe quod Reddat. See Precipe.

REDDENDIS Chahtis. See Chautis.

REDDENDUM, in Law, a claufe in a leafe, &c. by
which a rent is referved to the lelTor ; whicli anciently con-
filled of corn, flelh, fllh, and other viftuals. 2 Rep. 71.

REDDIDIT Se, is where a man procures bail for him-
felf to an aftion in any court at law ; if the party bailed at
any time before the return of the [econd fci re fiicias againil
the bail, renders himfelf in difcliarge of h.is bail, they are
thereby difcharged. 2 Lill. Abr. 430. See Bail.

REDDITARIUM, an ancient law term for a tarricr,
roll, or rental, in which the rents and fervices of a manor
are fet down.

REDDITION, Redditio, a furrendcring or reftoring.
In Laiv, it alfo denotes a judicial acknowledgment that a
thing in queftion belongs to the demandant, and not to the
perfons fo furrendering.

REDDITUS Assisus, a fet or ftanding rent. See
Assisus.

REDDLE, Red Ochre, or Red Chalk, in Mineralogy,
the red oxyd of iron intermixed with earthy matter. It is

Vol. XXIX.

RED

uled for crayon"-., either in its natural ftate, or pounded and
wadied, and afterwards mixed with gum, and calt into
moulds. Tile colour of reddle varies from a blood-red to
a brown-red ; its fiMdlure is earthy ; it is foft, friable, and
Itaiiis the liugens. See Ores o/ IiioN.

This is liie common Englifh name for the (ubtlance called
in Latin riihvica, and ufed in painting, and for marking
(heep, &c. There are two kinds of it, a harder and a
ibfler.

The firll, or harder kind, is but little in ufe, except
among the turners in wood, hs it does not mark io eafily,
requiring to be lirll wetted, and then pre'ied hard upon the
fubllance to be marked. Th.is is dug in Lincolnfhire, Hamp-
tliire, and Suflex ; and is a hard and dry earth, of a fome-
what pale red, like the common pale red bricks, and is of a
very regular and dole texture, and always compofed of a
number of thin laminse, lying clolely and evenly on one an-
other. It is of a rough uneven furface, adheres firmly to
the tongue, is not eafily broken between the fingers, and
(tains the hands a little ; it is of a very attringent talle, and
melts pretty readily in the mouth. It is very readily dif-
fulible in water, mouldering to powder, foon after being
thrown into it ; and makes no effervelcence with acids.

Tlie fecond, or foiter kind, is very common, and put to
a number of different ufes. It makes limply a very good
pale red tor the painters, and i."! very lerviceable to them in
their mixed colours. It is in conllant ufe in many parts of
the kingdom for the marking of ffieep ; and when wafhed
and leparated from its fandy particles, is, by fome of our
modern druggifts, fold under the name of bole armenic.

It is found in many parts of the world : the bed; in Eng-
land is that from feveral parts ot Derbylhire, from whence
the colour-ffiops and druggilts of London are fupplied ;
many of the latter thinking this a Ihorter method than the
common or.e of our bole armenic makers, of preparing it
from a mixture of tobacco-pipe clay, and the red ochre
called Spaniffi brown.

This foft, or common reddle, is a loofe ponderous earth,
of a lax texture, and very friable ; and of a pale, but tole-
rably bright red, of a fomewhat Imootli and glolTy furface,
foft to the touch, adhering firmly to the tongue, eafily
broken between the fingers, and itaining the hands. It is
of a rough aullere taile, very readily break'-, and falls to
powder in water, and makes no effervefcence with aqua
fortis. Hill.

Some call reddle, lapis hematites ; but tlie real haematites
is another thing.

REDEEMABLES, in Laiu, are lands, funds, &c. fold
with a refervation of tlie equity of redemption.

Crown lands are redeemable for ever ; others only for a
certain time.

RE-DELIVERY, an yielding or dehvery back oi a
thing : if a perlon has committed a robbery, and llolen the
goods of another, he cannot afterwards purge the offence by
any re -delivery. Co. Litt. 69. H. P. C. 72.

RE-DEMISE. See Demuse.

REDEMPTION, Reuemptio, ^ faculty or right of
re-entering upon lands, &c. that nave been fold, and
alTigned ; upon reimburling the purchafe-money, with leo-al
colls.

Bargains in which the faculty, or, as fome call it, the
equity of redemption, is referved, are only a kind of pignora-
tive contracts.

A certain time is limited, within which the faculty of
redemption Ihall be exarcifed ; and beyond which it thai!
not extend.

Redemption, in Theology, denotes the recovery of man-
4 B kind

R E D

RED

kind from fin and death, by the obedience and facrifice of
Chriil, who on this account ia called the ReJtemer of the
world. See Covenant.

Redempiion.s, Retkmptionirr, in our old Latv IVriUrs,
denote grievous muldts impofed by way of commutation for
the head or life of the delinquent.

Redemption of the National Debt. Sec Fund.

REDEN, or Rkdzyn, in Geography-, a town of Pruflia,
in the territory of Culm ; 20 miles N.E. of Culm.

REDENS, Redans, or Reliant, in Fortification, a kind
of \york indented in form of the teeth of a faw, with faliant
and re-entering angles ; to the end that one part may flank
or defend another.

It is alfo called yaw-TOO//', and indented work. The faces
in this flank one another.

Redens are frequently ufed in the fortifying of walls,
where it is not neceffary to be at the expence of building
bailions ; as wlien they ftand on the fide of a river, a marlh,
the fea, &c. But the fault of fuch fortification is, that the
befiegers from one battery may ruin both the fides of the
tenaille or front of a place, and make an affault without fear
of being enfiladed, fincethe defences are mined.

The parapet of the corridor alfo is frequently redented, or
carried on by way of redens.

REDES, in Geography, a river of South America,
which runs into the gulf of Darien, N. lat. 7^ 37'. W.
long. 76^ 40'.

REDHIBITION, Redhibitio, in the Civil Latu, an
aftion allowed a buyer, by which to annul the fale of fome
moveable, and oblige the buyer to take it back again, upon
the buyer's finding it damaged, or that there was fome per-
fonal cheat, &c.

The redliibition, or redhibitory a£lion, has a place in fe-
veral cafes, in the body of the civil law. If a horfe was fold
that had the glanders, were broken-winded, or foundered,
it was a redhibitory cafe ; and the feller might be obliged to
take him again within nine days.

RED I, Francis, in Biography, an Italian phyfician,
was defcended from a noble family, and born at Arezzo, in
Tufcany, in the year 1626. He commenced his ftudies at
Florence, and then removed to Pifa, for the profecution of
his philofophical and medical purfuits, where he received the
degree of dcftbr in both thefe fciences. He had acquired
great reputation both in fcience and literature, and was in-
duced to fettle at Florence, where he at length gained the
favour of the court, and was appointed firlt phyfician to
Ferdinand II. duke of Tufcany, and fubfequeiitly to
Cofmo III. Thefe appointments and his conftant profef-
fional employment did not, however, prevent him from cul-
tivating his favourite ftudy of the belles lettres. He de-
voted much of his time to the language of his country, and
contributed not a little to the perfeftion of the dictionary of
the academy of La Crufca, of which, and of feveral other
learned bodies, he was a member. Totally free from pre-
furaption, and attached to every cultivator of learning and
fcience, he was always ready to give his afliftance to them in
every way he could, and was univerfally elteemed and be-
loved. He difplayed both in his pracflice, and in the pro-
fecution of his mquiries in natural hiltory, a Angular acute-
nefs of obfervation, and a complete incrLdulity as to the
marvellous, which was fo prevalent in his time ; and he cau-
tioned liis friends and pupils againft the popular errors in
this refptfl. Although he was afflifted with epileptic fits
in his latter years, yet he appears neither to have abandoned
his fludies, nor his profeflional bufinefs, until his death,
which took jjlace in 1697, in his 7ifl year.

Redi was the author of feveral Italian poems, which are

held in muchi edimation. His other works were all written
in Italian, and his ftyle was deemed fo pure and elegant, that
the authors of the diftionary of La Crufca have often cited
it as a (landard. Moft of his writings 011 natural hiftory
have been tranflated into Latin ; efpecially his " Experi-
menta circa Generationem Inicdtoruin, cum Figuris jEncis;"
his " Obfervationes de Viperis ;" his " Experimenta circa
diverfas Res naturales, fpcciatim illas qux ex Indiis ad-
fcruntur ;" and his " Obfervationes de Animalibus viventi-
bus, qus intra Animalia viventia reperiuntur." He alfo
publifhed a letter on the Ufe of Speclacles, and an Eday on
Styptics. Eloy Did. Hifl. de la Med.

Redi, in the notes to his " Bacco in Torcano," a dithy-
rambic poem, publiflied in 1685, has given many curious
etymologies and explanations of the mufical terms ufed by
the Italians in early times.

REDIGOODEM, in Geography, a town of Hindooaan,
in the circar of Ellore ; 25 miles W. of EUore.

REDIMICULUM, among the Romans, a girdle,
which going about the neck, divided on the bread, and
paffing down each fide, wenfround, and kept the robe tight
to the body.

REDINKA, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Beira ; 14 miles S. of Coimbra.

REDINTEGRATED Medals. See Medal.

REDINTEGRATION, Redintegiiatio, in the Civil
Latu, the aft of reitoring a perfon to the enjoyment of a
thing, of which he had been illegally difpoflefled.

In France, where a perfon is defpoded of his property,
he claims it again by redintegrand, or aftion of reftitution.
But the redintegrand muil be demanded within a year and
a day, otherwife it is precluded.

Redixtegration, in Chemiflry, the refforing of any
mixed body, or matter, whole form lias been deflroyed by
calcination, cori'ofion, fublimation, or the like, to its former
nature and conftitution.

The redintegration of mercury is properly called revivifi-
cation. Mr. Boyle has .in exprefs treatife on the redintegra-
tion of faltpetre ; where he fhews, that after reducing it by
fluxion into fixed nitre, which is next of kin to fait of tar-
tar in all its properties, he could prefently redintegrate it,
by pouring a fufhcient quantity of fpirit of nitre on it ; i. t.
he could re-produce true cryftals of the ufual form and virtue
of faltpetre.

It is a ftrong objeftion againft the chemical principles,
that we cannot redintegrate the body they were procured
from, by re-mixing them.

This feems to argue, that the body did not properly con-
fift of fuch elements, or that they were not originally con-
tained in it, but were rather produced by the fire.

REDIPATAM, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,
in Marawar ; 18 m.iles N. of Ramadnaporum.

REDIRE ad Paeem,'m Law, is applied to a perfon, whofc
outlawry is reverted, and who is reftored to the king's peace.

ilEDISSEISIN, a diffeifin made by him who once be-
fore was found and adjudged to have difieifed the fame man
of his lands or tenements ; for which there lies a fpecial writ,
called a writ of redijfeijin. See Assise of Novel Diffeifin,
Disseisin, and Yoat-Dijfeiftn.

REDMANS, or Radmans, in Doomfday and other
ancient books, are probably the fame with rod, or rad-
knights ; vi%. men who, by the tenure or cuftom of their
lands, were to ride with, or for, the lord of the manor,
about his bufinefs.

REDNITZ, in Geography, a river of Germany, formed

by the union of the Upper and Unter Reilat, about 5 miles

S. of Roth", in Franconia. After receiving in its courfe

I fevei al

R 1^: D

RED

feveral flreams, it dilcharges itfclf into the Maine, a littli;
below Bamberg-.

REDOLESCO, a town of Italy, in the dejiartment of
the Mincio ; 14 miles W.S.W. of Mantua.

REDON, a town of France, and principal place of a
dlftrift, in the department of the Ille and Vilaine ; 32 miles
S.S.W. of Rennes. The place contains 3783, and the
canton 11,620 inhabitants, on a territory of iSyi ki-
lionietres, in 5 communes. N. lat. 47° 39'. W. long. 2°.

REDONDA, an ifland in the Weft Indies, about 10 miles
in circumference, without ports, rivers, or towns. N. lat.
16' 55'. W. long. 6j° 20'.

REDONDELA, or Redoxdili.o, a town of Spain,
in the province of Gahcia, near the well coaft, defended by
a ilrong caftle ; 32 miles W.S.W. of Orenfa.

REDONDO, a rock, about three miles in circum-
ference, between the iflands of Montferrat and Nevis, in the
Weft Indies. N. lat. 17° G. W. long 61° 35'.

Reuondo Novo, a town of Benguela. S. lat. 1 1" 22'.
E. long. 13° 45'.

Redondo, 0, a town of Portugal, in Alentejo ; 14 miles
E.N.E. of Evora. N. lat. 38° 33'. W. long. 7° 22'.

REDONDOS, a town of Portugal, in the province of
Beira ; 17 miles S. of Coimbra.

REDOUBLE', Fr., in Mufw, a doubled interval in
the oftave above a fingle interval. Tlie oftave of the oc-
tave, with us, is called the 15th. See Intekval.

REDOUBT, or Redoute, Reduaus, in Fortification, a
fmall fquare fort, without any defence but in front, ufed in
trenches, lines of circumvallation, contravallation, and ap-
proach ; as alfo for the lodging of corps de garde, and to
defend paflages. See FoRT.

They are ufually figures of three, four, five, or fix fides,
encompafied with a ditch, and a bank of earth, which con-
fifts of two parts, called rampart and parapet.

In marfhy grounds, redoubts are often made of ftone-
work, for the fecurity of the neighbourhood ; their face
confifts of from ten to fifteen fathoms ; the ditch round them
from eight to nine feet broad and deep ; and their parapets,
which are cut into embrafures and merlons, have the fame
thicknefs. See Reduct.

The inner fides of fquare redoubts are ufually between
the limits of twelve and thirty-two yards; and when they
are to be defended by muflcetry, the number of men necef-
fary to the defence may be thus determined : half the fide
fquared gives the number of troops ; and twice the fquare
root of a given number of men, fliews the length in yards of
the fide of a fquare redoubt proper to contain them.

To conjlrucl a fquare redoubt Mark out a fquare,

whofe fide is adapted to the number of troops allotted for
the defence, as A B {Plate W\. Fortificatioti, Jig. 5.) for
the infide of the rampart. About this fquare, at the dif-
tance of ten or twelve feet, defcribe another fquare, whofe
fide, C D, is the inner boundary of the parapet ; make a
parapet of about nine or ten feet thick, whofe outline is the
line E F ; leave a berm about three ov four feet broad,
whofe fide is G H ; and dig a ditch about fixteen feet wide,
and about fix or feven feet deep, which ftiould be rounded
before the angles of the redoubt. Make the rampart from
four feet to nine or ten feet high ; let the parapet be fix or
feven feet higlier, and let the foot-bank be four feet and a
half lower than the crovi'n of the pai'apet. On that fide
moft fecure from the enemy, make a bridge acrofs the ditch,
and a pafiage through the rampart, about four or five feet
broad when the defence is muflcetry, about nine or ten feet
broad when cannon are to be ufed ; and fhut up the pallage
by a ftrong gate. It the redoubt is to be defended by can-

non, both the rampart and parapet fhould be at leaft five
or fix feet thicker. In order to make the fire pretty nearly
equal on all fides, and fufficient for defending the angles of
the work, M. Clairac has contrived to cut the infide of the
parapet into notches, whofe two fides, of a yard each, are
at right angles to one another, and make half-right angles
with the fides of the work ; the manner of which, and its
defence, are plainly fiiewn in tlie figure, where the lines with
dots at the ends reprefent the fire three different ways from
the fame fide.

For the method of conftrufting flanked redoubts, fee Fort.

A detached redoubt is a kind ol work refembling a ravelin,
with flanks, placed beyond the glacis ; luch as B ( Plate V.
Fortification, Jig. 6. ) They are made in order to occupy
fome fpot of ground which might be advantageous to the
befiegers ; and likewife to oblige the enemy to open their
trenches farther oft than they would otherwife do. Their
diftance from the covert-way ought not to exceed a hundred
and twenty toifes, that they may be defended by muflcet-ftiot
from thence. The gorge, ab, is forty toifes ; the flanks,
ac, bf, which are perpendicular to tlie gorge, ten ; and the
faces, e d, fd, thirty : the ditch before it is fix toifes, ending
in flopes at both ends ; the covert-way, four ; the branches
of the covert-way about forty-two toifes long ; the faces of
the places of arms, y, y, which are perpendicular to the
branches, ten ; and the other, which is parallel to them,
feurteen. The communication from the covert-way to tlie
redoubt is five or fix toifes wide ; and there is a traverfe
made juft at the entrance, and another in the middle when
it is pretty long. The parapets of this communication ter-
minate in a flope or glacis. Robertfon's Marine Fortif.
p. 20, &c. MuUer's Fort. p. 43, &c. See Arrow.

Redoubts are alfo fmall works of the fame form made in
a ravelin.

Redoubt, Cajlle or Donjon. See Reduct.

Redoubts en Cremaillere, differ from other redoubts b)
having the infide line of the parapet broken, fo as to re-
femble a pot-hook, or the teeth of a faw ; by which a
greater fire can be brought to bear upon the defile than if
only a fimple face was oppofed to it, and confequently the
paffage is rendered more difficult.

Redoutes de Terre, Fr. redoubts that are haftily thrown
up, and made with earth, for the purpofe of fecuring en-
trenchments, circumvallations, paffages of rivers, &c.

Redoutes de Maconnerie, Fr. redoubts made of niafon-
work ; generally conftrufted in places where an enemy
might derive advantage from eilablifliing himfelf ; they are
likewife built upon the faliant angles of the glacis.

Redoutes Cafcmatces, Fr. cafemated redoubts, or fuch
as are arched over and made bomb-proof. Thofe con-
ftrufted for the defence of Gibraltar, and for the fecurity
of Dover caftle, are of this defcription.

Redoutes a Machicoulis, Fr. are thofe which are made
of brick or ftone-work feveral ftories high. The higheil
ftory juts out about one foot beyond the wall that fur-
rounds or fronts tiie redoubt.

REDRESSING, the reftifying or fetting any thing
ftraiglit again.

Trees and other plants have a natural faculty of redrefling
themfelves, when, by any externa] caufe, they are forced
out of the perpendicular.

In the moral fenfe, to redrefs grievances, is to reform or
remove them. The redrefs of injuries is the objeft with a
view to which courts of juftice are inftituted in every civi-
lized fociety ; in order to proteft the weak from the infulte
of the ftronger, by expounding and enforcing thole laws,
which define rights and prohibit wrongs. This remedy is,
4 B 2 tlierefore.

RED

U E L)

therefore, to be fought for by apphcatioii to tlicle courts ;
that is, by civil fuit or aftion.

To rcdrcfs a ilag, among hunters, is tu put him oil his
changes.

REDRILL, To, in Military Language, is to put a foldier
through the firll elements of military training. Every lol-
tlier, after his return from long abl'ence, muft be redrilled
before he is permitted to nft in the ranks of a company.

REDRUTH, in Geography, a confiderable market-town
in the eail divifion of the hundred of Penwith, and county
of Cornwall, England, is fitiiated on the road from Laun-
cellon to the Land's-End, at the diftance of 262 miles
3.W. from London. It occupies the declivity of an emi-
nence in the very centre of the minmg diftridt, and derives
Its fupport entirely from the mines. Dr. Pryce luppofes it
to liave been a town m Saxon times ; but if fo, the records
of its hiilory during that period have been entirely loll. It
is firil mentioned in the year 1332, when William BafTet,
the then proprietor of the manor, obtained for the inhabitants
the privilege of fairs and markets. In 1502 a fimilar grant
was made in favour of John BafTet, efq. ; and in Oliver
Cromwell's time, Mr. BuUer of Morrall procured a charter
for a market on Fridays, which was confirmed by king
Charles II. At preleut there are two weekly markets, held
on Wednefday and Friday ; and three annual fairs, chiefly
for cattle and ozier mannfaftures. The tolls of two of
thefe fairs and the markets belong to the Bnller family ;
and the other fair to lord de Dunftanville, the defcendant
of the Baflets. The increale of this town, fince the com-
mencement of the copper mines in the laff century, has been
as fix to one, as appears by the average of baptifms. Ac-
cording to the pjpiilation return of 1801, it contained 664
houies, and 4924 inhabitants ; but In 181 1 the houles were
returned as amounting to S79, and the inhabitants to 5903
in number.

Redruth confill!', ciiieHy of one long flree-t. The church,
the living of which is a redlory, was built, in 1770, by lord
de Dunltanville, in the Head of a more ancient one. This
building is fituated about half a mile from the town. Here
are the remains of a chapel of eafe, dedicated to St. Rumon,
which has been unroofed for many years. In Redruth are
meeting-houfes for (Quakers and Anabaptifts, beiides two
for Methodllii-. in the town, and a third in the north part
of tiie parilh. In 1803, a large ichool-houfe was built here
by fubfcription, and a mafter placed in it by the lame means ;
but the lublcriptiou having been diiconiinued, the fchool is
now kept open by the mafter on his own account.

Among the numerous mines in Redruth and the con-
tiguous parifhes of Gwennap, Kenwyn, and St. Agnes,
tl'.ofe denominated the C-Juennap tnlties are confidered to be
the principal. Thefe lie to the fouth-ealt of Redruth, in a
part of the county where the tin and copper lodes are pecu-
liarly rich, and in fome places interfeft each other. The
country of the united mines Huel-Virgin, Poidice, and
Huel-Unity, is fchiflus ; that of Huel-Jev/ell, Huel-Gor-
iaud, and Trefavan, is granite ; and it has been remarked,
that the metallic veins moftly obey the courfe of the granite
mountains, and run very nearly parallel with tliem. The
anited mines employ about 600 men, of v/hom 400 work
under ground. The water is drawn off by four immenie
Aeam-engi.ies, one of tiie cylinders of which is nearly feveii
feet in diameter. The Huel- Virgin mine is 160 fathoms
deep, and is extremely produftive ; but the Huel-Unity and
Foldice mines are ftill more rich, and are wrought to fuch
advantage, that the proprietors ufaally ftiare from 1 6,00c/.
to 20,000/. per annum. The depth of the Poidice mine is
1 70 fathoms ; but at prefci.t it is not worked at a lov/er

depth than 140. This is one of the oldeit minia in the
county, and yields a yellowifli copper ore, a rolin tin, and a
few Hones of galena. The Huel-Gorland mine is 120
rathonu below the furface, and is wrought at the expence
of about 1000/. a month. The North Down mines, nine
in number, occupy an extent of two miles in length, and
one in breadth, and have their lurplus water carried away
by the fame long adit which runs through the Gwennap
mines to the Carnon-Stream works.

Befides the mines, there are feveral other objefts in the
vicinity of Redruth not undeferving of notice. Portreath,
about four miles to the north, is a fmall fea-port for the
importation of coals and lime, and the exportation of cop-
per ore to the works in Wales. It is defended by a fort,
mounting four guns, and was erefted by lord de Dunftan-
ville m the year 1782, and is maintained at hia expence.
Tchidy park, the ancient feat of the Dunftanville family,
adjoins Portreath on the -iuuth-weft. Tiiis manor is firft
mentioned as being in their poifeilion as early as the year
1 100, about thirty years before the marriage of Cecilia de
Dunftanville with William Baffet, who carried the Dunftan-
ville eftates to the Baflets. The prefent manor-houfe is of
modern erection, confilling of a centre, and four detached
]);\vllions at the angles, the whole conftrudled chiefly of
Coniifli free-ilone. The principal rooms are decorated with
fome good portraits by Vandyke, Kneller, and fir Jofliua
Reynolds ; and alfo with a few pieces by Rubens, Carlo
Dolci, Bononi de Ferrari, Rembrandt, Borgognone, and
others of lefs note. The ])ark and pleafure grounds at-
tached to this manfion are very extenfivc ; containing about
feven hundred acres, finely varied by wood and lawn, and
appearing like a well-cultivated garden in the midlt of a
defert.

Weftward from Redruth, about a mile and a half, is
Carn-breh hill, which Dr. Borlafe and others contend ought
to be regarded as the grand centre of Druidical worihip in
this county, almoll every kind of monument commonly at-
tributed to the Druids being found, as they allege, upon
that eminence. How far this opinion is correct, we (hall
not pretend to decide ; but we may obferve, that feveral
late writers maintain, that a part of the fuppofed monu-
ments of leligion, viz. the caves, are in faCt the refult of
natural convullion. No doubt, however, fome of them are
artificial, and probably belonged to the Druids ; and what
feems to corroborate this idea is, the circumftance of Red-
ruth being a corruption for Dre-Drnith, which fignifies
the Druids' town. On the fummit of this hill is a circular
foi-tification, called the Old Caftle, which appears to have
been formerly furrounded by a ftrong wall ; and about 300
yards to the eaftward, on a ledge of fuccumbent rocks, ftands
Carn-breh caftle, part of which lays claim to a very high
antiquity ; but the remainder is at comparatively modern
date. The rocks upon which this ftrufture is eretled not
lying at all contiguous to each other, are connefted by mal-
five circular arches thrown over the cavities.

On the fouth-well fide of Carn-breh hill is Pendarves,
the feat of John Stackhoufe, efq. It is a large handfome
building, fituated on an eminence commanding extenfive
views over the weflern parts of the county. In a field
contiguous is a large cromlech, compofed of three upright
ftones, and an impoft. Clowance, fituated about three
miles further to tlie foutli-weft, has beeirfor feveral centuries
a feat of the family of St. Aubin. The houfe is deeply
embofiimed in wood ; and contains, befides feveral pictures
of curiofity and value, a large collection of rare and choice
prints, accumulated in the portfolios of its prefent poffeftor.
Lyfons'b Magna Britamiia, vol. iii. London, 1814, 4to.

Beauties

RED

RED

Baiities of England and Wales, vol. ii. by Juliu Uritloii
and E. W. Drayley.

REDSEAR. See Iron.

REDSTONE, in Geography, a town of Peniifylvania,
on the Monongahela ; 55 miles N.W. of Pittfbiirg.

REDUBBORS, thofewho buy llolen clothes, &c. and,
to the end they may not be known, turn them into fome
other falhion, &c. See Fku'J'Kuy, and Rehkatok.

REDUCE, in Chemiflry. See Reduct.

To Reduce a Place, in Military Language, is to oblige
the governor to furrender it to the befiegers by capitulation.

To Rkhuck the Circle, is to rellore or bring back a batta-
lion or company which has been formed in circle to its ori-
ginal pofition in line.

To Reduce the Square, is to reftore a battalion or batta-
lions which have been formed in a hollow or oblong fquare
to their natural fituation in line or column.

REDUCED Chart. See Chart.

To he Reduced, in Military Language, is to be taken off
the eltabhlhment, or ceafe to receive pay as foldiers. When
a regiment is reduced, the.ofiicers are generally fent upon
half pay. Sometimes, as at the clofe of a war, the corps are
reduced, and the ofScers remain upon full pay. Hence are
derived the expreffions in and out of the break. //; the break
denotes the liability of being reduced : out of the break fig-
nifies the certainty of being kept upon the eftablifhment.

To be Reduced to the Ranhs-, is to be taken from a fuperior
appointment in a regiment, and to be ordered to the duty
of a common foldier. This fometimes happens by way of
punifhment, when a ferjeant or corporal mifbehaves. A
ferjeant, however, cannot, at prefent, be reduced, except
by fentence of a regimental court-martial.

REDUCING Scale, is a thin broad piece of box, with
feveral lines and fcales of equal parts upon it ; for turning
chains and links into acres and rods, by infpeftion.

It is nfed by furveyors to reduce maps and draughts from
one dimenfion to another ; it is fometimes alfo called a fur-
veying fcale.

REDUCT, Reduit, or Redoubt, a military term, fig-
nifying an advantageous piece of ground, intrenched and
feparated from the rell of the place, camp, &c. for an army,
garrifon, &c. to retire to, in cafe of a furprife. Rcduits
have been fometimes made for the purpofe of fecuring dif-
ferent polls in a town independent of its citadel. They
were propofed by the celebrated Vauban. See DoxjON.

Reduct, in Building, a kind of recefs, or little place,
taken out of a larger, to make it more uniform and regular ;
or for fome other convenience, as for a little cabinet alide of
a chimney, for alcoves, &c.

Reduct, or Redux, among Chemijls, is a powder by
which calcined metals and minerals are reduced again to their
regulus, or pure fubitance.

REDUCTION, Reductio, in the j'lr/joo/f, amannar of
bringing a term or propofition, which before was oppofite to
fome other, to be equivalent to it.

ReduAion is effeited by the addition or retrenchment of a
negative particle. Thus, to reduce this propofition, no man
is an animal, to be equivalent to its oppofite, every man is an
animal, I drop the negative, and fay, man is an animal.
After the like manner might the term every man be reduced,
by adding the negative and faying, there is no man,

Reductiom of Propofitions is ufed in a more general fenfe,
for any expreffion of one propofition, by anotiier propofition
equivalent to it.

To a redudion, therefore, there are two propofitions re-
quired, tlic reduced, and the reducing ; which are conlldered
as the e.'ttremes of it, and to be connedled in the reduction by

iiicans of the particle that is ; which liere has the cfFe£t of a
copula.

As here, only animals ihinle ; that is, animals think, and
nothing brjides animals thinks. Where the propofition preced-
ing the particle is reduced, and the fubjeit of the reduftion ;
that following the panicle reduces, and has the effeft of the
predicate of the rcduAion, and the particle that is acls as a
copula, importing, not barely that the propofition is ex-
prcfled by another, but by another equivalent one, or, as
it were, the fame.

Reduction of Syllogifms, is a regular changing or tranf-
forming of an imperfeft fyllogifm into a perfeft one. Or,
it is a change of a fyllogifm in refpeft of form, by which
the ncceflity of the illation, or inference, is made more
evident.

Reduction obtains in fyllogifms of the fecond and third
figure ; as alfo in the indirect modes of the firft. By it thefe
are all brought to the firft.

There are two kinds of this redudtion ; the one direB, or
qjlenjivc, performed merely by a converfion of one or both
the premifes, or by a tranfpofition of them ; as when camejlres
is reduced to celarent : the other indired, called ^fr impojjibile,
or ad abfurdum ; by which the perfon w'ho denies the good-
nefs and legitimacy of an imperfeit fyllogifm, is reduced to
alfert or grant fomething abfurd and impoffible, or contra-
diftory to fome other thing maintained by him.

Suppofe, e.gr. a perfon granting the premifes of the fol-
lowing fyllogifm, denies the conclufion : All fraud is pro-
hibited; but fome trading is not prohibited ; therefore fome trad-
ing is not fraud. We thus proceed againit kim if the fyllo-
gifm be not good, the antecedent is jull, but the confequent
falfe ; and, therefore, the contrary of the conclufion mull
be true : now I take the contrary of the conclufion, which
you thus give, viz. all trading is fraud ; and of that, with
the other premife ot the former fyllogifm, viz. the major,
which you likewife grant, make a new fyllogifm ; thus, All
fraud is prohibited ; all trading is fraud : therefore all trading
is prohibited. But this propofition, all trading is prohibited,
and the other, fome trading is prohibited, which you granted
me in the firll fyllogifm, are contraditlories.

Reduction, in Arithmetic, is the converting of monies,
weights, 01- meafures, into the iame value in other denomi-
nations ; c. gr. pounds into (hillings and pence ; or (hillings
and pence into pounds.

The reductions of the principal monies, coins, weights,
and meafures, ancient and modern, foreign and domeftic,
are found under Coin, Weight, Measure, Pound,
Foot, &c.

Reduction is of two kinds : i. Defending, when a quan-
tity is to be brought from a higher denomination to a
lower.

This is done by confidering how many of the next lefs
denomination are contained in the next greater before, and
by that number multiplying the greater.

Thus pounds are reduced into (hillings, by multiplying
by 20 ; iliillings into pence, by multiplying by 12 ; and
pence into farthings, by multiplying by 4.

Troy pounds are reduced into grains, by multiplying by
12, 20, and 24: and avoirdupois hundreds into ounces, by
4, 28, and 16.

2. Afcending, when a lower denomination is to be reduced
to a higher.

In order to this, the bufinefs is to divide the lead by fo
many of its denomination as are contained in the next greater :
thus, 24,720 pence, divided by 12, and the quotient by 20,
gives 103 pounds.

If there remain any thing in each divilion, it is ref^eft-

ively

RED

ively either odd pence, or (hilUngs : thus, 6713 pence re
duced, give 27/. 19X. 5^. cut off the laft, the reft are the
pounds required.

To expedite the praftice, feveral compendious ways ot
reduftion have been invented. See Practice.

Thus, yards are turned into ells by fubtrafting a fifth ;
and into ells Flemifh by adding a fifth. Ells Flen-iilh are
reduced into yards by fubtratling a quarter. Ells Flemifh
reduced to ells Englilli by multiplying by 6, and cuttmg oil
the right-hand figure.

Great pounds of filk of twenty-four ounces are reduced
to pounds of fixteen ounces by adding one-half; and pounds
of fixteen ounces into pounds of twenty-four by fubtradl-
ing one-third.

ReductiOxV of Decimals. See Decimals.
Reduction of FraSiom. See Fractions.
Reduction of Railoi. See Ratios, Redua'nn of.
Reduction of Surds. See Surds.

Reduction of Equations. Various algebraical operations
are clalled under this head by different authors ; fome con-
fidering it to be the fame as is otherwife, and more properly,
' called ihe folution of equations, or the finding of their roots :
fome define it to be the taking away or extermmating all
the unknown quantities except one, otherwife called elimina-
tion : others again, under this head, treat of what is more
ufually termed the transformation of equations ; and others
again apply it to the depreffing of an equation, or the reduc-
tion of it to another of lower dimenfions, which latter
feems to us the only operation that can properly be treated
of under the above defignation. See Resolution, and
Transformation.

There are but few cafes in which the reduftion of an
equation can be effefted, viz. only when a known re-
lation has place among ft any of its routs, in which cafe
the equation will admit of being reduced as many degrees
• lower, as there are independent conditions known to have
place. So that if the relation be only between two roots,
which is one condition, the equation may be reduced two
degrees ; if the relation extend to three roots, it may be
reduced three degrees ; and fo on.

The conditions or relations more commonly confidered,
are thofe in which the roots of an equation form an arith-
metical or geometrical progrefTion, and when an equation has
any numbe'r of equal roots. The two former relations feem
rather obieas of curiofity than utility, as it is not probable
tl«it an equation fliould have fuch relations obtain between
its roots ; but with regard to equal roots they may frequently
arife in the folution of various problems. When any geo-
metrical or phvfical problem is propofed, the number of its
poffibls folutions is generally limited, and therefore the
ultimate refult arifing out of fuch inveftigation ought to
be an equation, the number of whofe roots agree with the
limited number of folutions. But it may happen that the
analyft, by not purfuing the beft mode of operation, is led to
an equation of higher dimenfions than is requifite, in which
cafes, upon inveftigation, it will always be found that his
refulting equation has fome number of equal roots, whicii
being taken away, will reduce the equation to one of lower
dimenfions, which gives the proper number of folutions to
the original problem. As to the cafes in which the roots of
an equation form a geometrical progreflion, they occur almofl
exclufively in the folution of binomial equations, having
prime indices, a property which M. Gaufs has turned to a
good account in the folution of thefe equations. See Po-
lygon, and Reciprocal Equations.

Nearly all other relations between the roots of equations

RED

are feigned for the purpofes of framing quelliows, and ex-
ercifing the ingenuity of authors and their lludeiits.

I. To afcertain whether a propofed equation has any
equal roots.

Let x'" + ax"-' + /Sx"'-" 4- yo:'" ' + &;c. = O, be
any equation whofe roots are a, b, c, d, &c. then from the
known theory of equations we have

x" + ax"-' + px"-" + yx"-' + &c. =
[x — a) {x ■- b) {x - c) {x — d), &c.

And it may be fhewn alfo, that the equation m*""' -j-
(w- i) a-v"*-^ -f (m — 2) ^x" ' -1- &c. =

(.1- - a) (x — b) {x — c) &c. +
[x - a) [x -b) [x- d) &c. +
{x — a) (-K— ^) \x - <') &c- T
(.r — b) t^x — c) [x — d) &c. ;

that is, it is equal to the fum of all the tn equations that
can be formed by the different combinations of the m firlt
raots, taking m — i at a time. (See Waring's Meditationes
Algebraicae, cap. 3.) Now if we fuppoie the firll equa-
tion to have two equal roots, as, for example, <z = £, the
above products will become

x" + a.x"-' + ^x""' + yx"-'' + &c. =

(jf — a) (x — a) {x — c) (.V — d) &c. and

mx"" -' + (m — l) ax"-^ -I- (ffi — 2) ISx"-' + &c. —

(x — a) [x — a) (x - c) &c. +
{x —a) {x — a) [x — d) &c. +
\x -a) [x — c) [x — d) &c. +
\x — a) {x — c) [x — d) &c. ;

where it is obvious that both the one and the other of thefe
equations have the fame factor, wz. (j; — a).

If the equation had three equal roots, it is equally ob-
vious that both equations would have the common fa£tor
(x — a) ' ; and generally, if the equation had p equal roots,
they would both have the common faftor (x — a)'-'.

Therefore, when it is propofed to find whether a given
equation have equal roots, we muft from the propofed equa-
tion draw the de/'ived ec\\i3X.\on as above, (which, it will be
obferved, is the fame as would arife from taking the fluxion
of the firrt, leaving out of courfe the ;f's,) and find by the
ufual methods, whether thefe two funftions have any com-
mon meafure ; which, if they have, will furnifh us with the
equal root fought ; and conlequently the original equation
may then be reduced by divifion to another of two degrees
lower dimenfion for two equal roots ; of three degrees
lower for throe, and fo on.

Exam. I. — It is required to find the equal roots of the
equation x' — 484? — 128 =; O.

Here the derived equation is 3 x' — 48 ^ o, and the
common meafure of thefe two funftions is x ■+ 4 ; whence
— 4 and — 4 are the equal roots ; the third root being

Exam. 2. — It is required to afcertain whether the equa-
tion

.V -4- 3.1:' — 14 v' — I2.V -t- 40 = O

have equal roots, and what they are.
Here the derived equation is

4.1' + 9. r' — 28 a' — 12 = 0;

and the common divifor of the two is *• — 2 ; whence .r
= 2, 2, which are two of the equal roots. Divide now
the original equation by jr' — 4.1: -f 4, and we have

x"- -f 7 J + 10 = o,

whofe

11 E D

RED

whofe roots arc — 2, and — 5 ; therefore, the four roots
of the propofed equation arc 2, 2,-2, — 5-

If the roots of -.ai equation be equal, but with contrary
figns, the operation is more fimple. For, in this cafe, we
have only to change the figns of the roots in the propofed
equation, by changing the alternate ilgns of its co-efficient ;
and we fhall thus have two equations, having neceffarily
a common quadratic faftor of the form x^ — a, which
may be found, and the equation depreffed as before.

Exam. 3. — Required the roots of the equation k' + 3.1''
— 7 A-' — 27 A- — 18 = 0, two of which are equal, but with
contrary figns.

By changing the figns of the alternate terms, we have
*•' ~ 3 •■«' ~ 7 x^ + 27 -i- — 18 = 0, the common quadratic
divifor of which is a' - 9 = O ; whence the equal roots
with contrary figns are + 3, and — 3. Now dividing the
propofed equation by x" — 9, we have .\' -|- 3 x -|- 2 =: o ;

-3 /'

whence x = — -\- \/ ~ - = — 2, and — i, which are
2 — V ^

the other two roots.

On this fubjeft the reader fliould confult Waring's Mcdi-
tationes Algebraicse, cap. 3. See alfo Bonnycaille's Al-
gebra, vols. i. and li.

Rf.duction of I liter eft of the public Debt. See Fund.
Reduction o/" Carivj. See CiinvE.
Reduction of a Figure, Defign, or Draught, is the
making a copy of it, either larger or fmaller than the ori-
ginal , ftill preferving the form and proportion.

The great ufe of the proportional compaffes is in the re-
duction of figures, &c. whence they are alfo called conj^iT^j
of reduBion.

There are various methods of reducing figures, Sec. ; the
moft eafy is by means oi the pentngrnph (which fee), or pa-
rallelogram : but this has its defcfts. The bell and moft
ufual methods of reduction arc as follow :

To reduce a figure, as A B C D E [Plate XII. Geometry,
fg. 5.) into a lefs compafs. — About tlie middle of the figure,
ns ■z., pitch on a point ; and from this point draw lines to its
feveral angles, A, B, C, &c. then drawing the line ab pa-
rallel to A B, be parallel to B C, &c. you will have the
figure ahc de fimilar to A B C D E.

If the figure abcde had been required to be enlarged,
there needed nothing but to produce the lines from the point
beyond the angles, as z D, z C, &c. and to draw lines,
TOz. DC, C B", &c. parallel to the fides fl?r, cb, &c.

To reduce a fgure by the angle of proportion. — Suppofe the
figure ABCDE {fg- 6.) required to be diminifhed in
the proportion of the line A B to iji {fis- ?•) • draw the
indefinite line GH {fg. 8.), and, from G to H, fet off
the line A B ; on G dilcribe the arc HI; fet off the line
a 3 as a chord on HI, and draw G I. Then with the
angle I G H you have all the mcafures of the figure to be
drawn. Thus to lay down the point c, take the interval
B C, and upon the point G defcribe the arc K L ; alfo on
the point G defcribe M N ; and upon a, with the diftance
M N, defcribe an arc cutting the preceding one in c, which
will determine the fide be. And after the fame manner are
all the other fides and angles to be defcribed. The fame
procefs will alfo ferve to enlarge the figure.

To reduce a fgure by a fcale. — Meafure all the fides of the
figure, e. gr. ABCDE, by a fcale, and lay down the
fame meafures refpeftively, from a fmaller fcale in the pro-
portion required.

To reduce a map, defign, or figure, by fquara. — Divide the
original into little fquarcs, and divide a frefh paper of the
dimenfions required, into the fame number of fquares ;

which arc to be larger or lefs than the former, as the map is
to be enlarged or diminiftied.

This done, in every fquare of the fccond figure, draw
what you find in its correfpondcnt one in the firft.

Reduction to the Ecliptic, in Aftronomy, is the difference
between the argument of latitude, as N P [Plate XIX.
Aflronomy, fig. 10.) and an arc of the ecliptic N R, inter-
cepted between the place of a planet and the node N.

To find the reduHion. — The angle of inclination PNR,
and the argument of latitude N P, being given, find, by the
dodlrine of fpherics, the arc N R ; fubtracl N R and N P
from each other, the remainder is the reduftion»

Reduction into firfl Matter, is a term which alchemifts
formerly ufed, when they found their fubftances putrefy,
and grow black.

Reduction was more particularly ufed for the conver-
fion of a dry matter into a liquid, particularly into water ;
which by the akhemifts was held the principle of al)
things.

The rcduftion of metals into their firft matter, or prin-
ciples, according to thefe philofophers, can only be effefted
by mercury ; nothing elfe being able to loofen the fixed ful-
phur of metallic bodies, which binds them together.

Reduction, in Metallurgy, is the decompofition of a
metallic oxyd, fo as to leave tlie metal in a ftate of greater
or lefs purity, and exhibiting the lultre which is fo emi-
nently charafteriltic of metallic bodies.

Reduction is, for the moft part, effefted by charcoal and
a high temperature, either with or without the affiftance of
fluxes. For the various modes of reduftion in a£lual prac-
tice, fee the articles of the different metals.

Reduction, in Surgery, denotes an operation by which
a diflocated, luxated, or fraftured bone is reftored to its
former place. Rcduftion, or repofition, is always to be per-
formed before any remedy be apphed.

REDUIT, in Military Affairs. See Reduct.

REDUNDANCY, or Redundance, a fault in dif-
courfe, confifting in the ufe of a fuperfluity of words.

Words perfeftly fvnonimous are redundant, and ought to
be retrenched. Redundancy neceffarily makes the ftyle
weak and languid. See PleonA-sM.

REDUNDANT Hyperbola, in Geometry, is a curve
of the higher kind, thus called, becaufe it exceeds the conic
feiSion of that name in the number of its hyperbolic legs ;
being a triple hyperbola, with fix hyperbolical legs.

Redundant Interval, in Mufic, is ufed for an interval
exceeding the truth by a comma.

Some apply redundant to an interval exceeding a diatonic
interval by a femitone minor ; but this is more ufually called
a fnperfluous interval. See Interval and Second.

REDUPLICATION, in Rhetoric, a figure by which
a verfe begins with the fame word as the preceding one ends
with. See Anadiplosis.

Reduplication, in Logic, is a kind of condition ex-
prefl'ed in a propofition, indicating or affigning the manner
in which the predicate is attributed to the fubjett.

The ufual reduphcative words are quatenus, as, fo far as,
confidered as, inafmuch as, &c. Hence,

"REDUPLICATIVE Propositions, are fuch in which
the fubjeft is repeated, with fome circumllances or condi-
tion. Thus, Men, as men, are rational ; hings, as iings, are
fubjeB to none but God.

REDUTEA, in Botany, fo called by the late M. Ven-
tenat, in honour of his friend M. P. J. Redoute, one of the
moft accurate and intelligent botanical draughtfmen, and
perhaps the fineft botanical painter, ever known. He is
the author of a fplendid coloured work in folio, on the Li-
liaceous

RED

liaccous tribe, including Come other beautiful plants allied
thereto, whicii lia? ah-eady extended to the feveuth volume ;
and it is to hij pencil that the peffeftion of moH botanical
works that have apj)cared in France, for near tiiirty years
pad, particularly the publications of L'Heritier and Ven-
tenat, is owing. — Venten. Jard. de Cels, 1 1. Poiret in La-
marck Didl. V. 4. 87 Clals and order, MonadeJfhta Poly

andria. Nat. Ord. Columnifera; I-inn. Mahace,e, Jull.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, double, permanent:
the outer of many minute leaflet? : inner much larger, of
one leaf, in five very deep fegments. Cor. Petals five,
roundilh kidncy-rtiaped, imbricated obliquely, united at the
bafe to each other, and to the column of the Itamens. Stam.
Filaments numerous, united below into a conical tube, lub-
divided and branched above ; anthers kidney-lhaped. Pijh
Germen fuperior, ovate, Ample ; ftyle thread-lhaped, fwell-
ing upwards, about as long as the llamens ; iligmas three,
obtufe. Peru. Capfule ovale, of three cells and three valves,
the partitions from the middle of each valve. Receptacles of
the feeds three, infertcd into the bafe of the caplnle, alter-
nate with the valves, and nearly equal to tiiem in length,
linear, bearing feeds on each edge. Seeds fix or eight in
each cell, obovate, minutely (talked, inferted in two rows
on the receptacle, each clothed with denfe wool.

Eff. Ch. Calyx double ; the outer of many minute
leaves; inner in five deep fegments. Stigmas three. Caplule
of three cells and three valves. Seeds enveloped in wool.
Receptacles three, linear, unconnedled with the valves.

Obf. Ventenat confiders the three dillindl receptacles, as
affording the moft eflential diftinftion, between this and
every other malvaceous genus. The woolly feeds, moreover,
diflinguifh it from all except Gojfypium, whofe large three-
leaved outer calyx is abundantly different from Redutea.

The only known fpecies is

I. R. hetei-ophylla. Various-leaved Redutea. Vent. Jard.
de Cels, t. II. — Difcovered by Riedle in the ifland of St.
Thomas, and raifed in M. Cels's garden at Paris. The
plant is herbaceous and annual, and M. Ventenat feemed to
think it might ferve to decorate our flower-borders, like
other annuals of very hot climates, in the open air, being,
we prefume, raifed on a hot-bed in the fpring. Every part
of the herbage is befprinklcd with fmall, whitifh, fringed
fcales, readily feen with a magnifying glafs. The root is
ipiiidle-fhaped, yellowifh. Stem eredt, twelve or fifteen
inches high, about the fize of a goofe-quill, angular, pithy,
branched, leafy, dark green, many-flowered. Leaves alter-
nate, on longiih ftalks, fpreading widely, ovate, undivided
or three-lobed, entire, an inch or inch and half long ; paler
beneath. St'tpulas minute, awl-fhaped, deciduous. Floivers
large, handfome, fulphur-coloured, with a dark purple ra-
diating fpot at the bafe of each petal, folitary, ^-ect, on
long, fimple, axillary ilalks. Segments of the inner calyx
nearly linear, half as long as the petals. Style hairy. Cap-
fule the fize of a filberd. Wool of \.\\z feeds of a dirty grey.
— We have not heard of this plant in any Engliih colledtion.

REDUVI A, in Surgery, a word ufed by feme for a whit-
low, and by others for a painful crack, or other diforder
about the nails, either of the fingers or toes.

REDUX, in Chemijlry. See Reduct.

REDWAETH Bay, or Traeth Cocb, in Geography, a
bay on the N. coalt of the ifland of Anglefey. N. lat. 53°
17'. W. long. 4° 25'.

REDWITZ, a town of Bavaria, in the bifliopric of
Bamberg ; 4 miles N.N.W. of Kuniladt.

Redwitz, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Culmbach ; 4 miles N. of Bayreuth.

II E E

REDWOOD RivLii, a river of America, which runs
into the Wabatli, N. lat. 40" 16'. W. long. 87'= 5',

REE, or Rk, in Commerce. See Rees.

Ree, Lough, in Geograjthy, an expanfion of the waters
of the river Shannon, in Ireland, between the county of Rof-
common and the counties of Longford and Weflmeath,
reaching from Lancfborough nearly to Athlone, with feve-
ral illands, and in fome places three miles broad.

REED, \n Botany. SeeAltLNDO.

The root of the arundo donax of Diofcorides, attraifs
any matter lodged in wounds, if powdered and applied to
them with wine ; or if it is taken frefh and reduced to
powder with an onion, or mixed with honey. (Oribas de
Morb. Cur. lib. iii. cap. 32.) It alfo removes pains arifing
from diflocation of limbs, and carries off pains in the hips.
The green leaves cut and apphed, are faid to cure the ery-
fipelas. Poor people boil the flowers in water or in beer,
which they mix with honey, and drink, after being filtrated,
to cure coughs, opprcflions of the breaft, and confump-
tions. The ancients made flutes and otjier mufical inllru-
ments of the reed. James's Med. Dicl.

Reed, Barr. See Spaucamum.

Reed, Indian foimcrlng. See Cakna.

Reed Mace. See Typha.

Reed, in Agriculture, the name of an aquatic plant,
infefling boggy lowlands or meadows on the fides of
rivers.

The beil method of deltroying reeds, is by draining the
land ; for if the drains be cut deeper than their roots it will
take away their nourifhmeiit, and, cosfequently, deftroy
them. Afhes, or foot, will likewife fometimes kill them ;
and fo will ploughing up the land, and laying it in high
ridges. They always indicate a deep good moill foil, as a
bad one will not nourifh or fupport them. There are many
different forts of reeds, but thofe of the more flrong and
tall kinds are often of much ufe in thatching the different
forts of farm buildings, where other better kinds of cover-
ings are fcarce, and thefe abundant. There is alfo a fort
of reed found in Huntingdonfhire, and fom.e of the adjoin-
ing counties, that is very valuable for the purpofe of laying
plafler floors with. In other fituations, reeds of the other
kinds may be met with, that may be found ufeful for dif-
ferent purpofes either of the farmer or in the arts. In fuch
fituations they may be cultivated with advantage as an article
of profit : and it may often be more beneficial than to have
them deilroyed, efpecially where they are of a valuable nature,
and where the land is of too moiil and boggy a quality to be
ever fully reclaimed and brought into either the ftate of good
arable or meadow ground. Slips on the fides of large rivers
or brooks are likewife, frequently, the moil advantageoufly,
conveniently, and profitably kept under reed crops, as the
overflow of the waters prevent their being ufefully managed
in any other manner. There are other fituations, as thofe
about the borders of large ponds, lakes, and other waters,
where they may be" preferved with far greater propriety than
having them deflroyed, provided even rhat can be accom-
plifhed without difficulty, as not any thing more valuable
can in general be raifed in futh places. They are, however,
by no means to be continued wlierever any better crop will
grow and fucceed.

Reed is alfo a term applied to fuch flraw of the wheat
or rye kinds as has not been bruifed by threfhing or in any-
other way.

Reed Hedge, in Gardening, tliat fort of hedge fence which
is formed from reeds. They are a fort of temporary internal
fences made with thefe dried materials which may be had
cheap, and be expeditioufly formed into hedges by the affift-

7 anee

R E E

ance of poll and railing, being of great utility for occafional
iifiMn gardens, to indole particular internal fpaces of ground,
fo as to afford (lieltcr to certain fcedling plants, both in nur-
feries and large kitchen gardens ; and in lome nurferies, to
form places of flielter for many forts of fcedling trees and
fhruhs, &c., which being tender whiUl young, require the
flicker of a fence in wjnter to break of! fevere or cutting
blalls two or three years, till they gi-adually gather Itrength
and a greater degree of hardinefs. They are alfo ufeful in
training feveral forts of wall-fruit-trees againll, to form them
for rows, or what are called trained trees ; admitting of
planting trees againil each fide of them, fix, eight, or ten
feet afunder. See NuRSERY.

And in large open kitchen-gardens they are occafionally
made ufe of to inclofe the melonary, or place for raifing
early melons and cucumbers in, and often as crofs internal
fences, under which to form warm borders for the purpolc
of raifing various early crops of efculents.

The proper fort of reeds for thefe fences are the dried
ftems of the common marfli reed, which grows in great
plenty by river fides, and in lakes, and marfhy places, fur-
nilhing a crop of ftems annually fit to cut in autumn, when
they fliould be bound in bundles, and Hacked up, or houfed,
to remain for ufe.

Thefe fences are fometimes erefted in fixed ranges, and
fometimes formed into moveable pannels. In the firll mode,
fome ftout pofts fhould be placed fix or eight feet afunder,
and five or fix high, and from poft to poll carry two or
three ranges of flat thin railing, one range near the bottom,
another near the top, and a third in the middle ; againft this
raiUng, the reeds mull be placed about two inches thick,
having other railing fixed diredlly oppofite ; fo that the
reeds being all along between the double railing, the bot-
toms retting either upon a plate of wood, or let into the
ground, but the former is preferable ; and as foon as one
pannel is formed, the railing fiiould be nailed as clofe as
pofllble, driving fome long fpike-nails through each double
railing, or binding them with itrong withy bands, or tar
rope-yarn, but nailing is the beft, in order to bring them as
clofe as may be, to fecure the reeds firmly in the proper po-
fition ; the top fhould be cut even afterwards.

In the better method, a frame-work of railing fhould be
prepared as above, each pannel (in. or eight feet long, and
the reeds fixed therein as before directed ; tlien, where they
are intended to be placed, pofts muft be ranged fix or eight
feet diftant to fupport the different pannels. Or fometimes
the nannels may be placed inchning againft the wall or other
fence, in time of fevere weather, when the borders are nar-
row. Thefe forts of fences are now however in much lefs
ufe in gardening than formerly.

Reed Ronds, in Rural Economy, a provincial word, figni-
fying plots or beds of reed, or the fwamps in which they
grow.

Reed, Ezellel's. See Ezekiel'j- Reed.

Reed, Calamus, likewife denotes a Jewifh meafure, other-
wife called canna.

Reed, in the Manufadory of Tapejlry. See Tapestry.

Reed Sparrow, in Ornithology. See Emberiza Schoe-
iiiculus.

Reed Point, in Geography, a cape on the W. coaft of the
ifland of Antigua. N. lat. 17"' 12'. W. long 61° 36'.

REEDHAM. See Reepham.

REEDS, in a Fire-Jloip, arc made up in fmall bundles of
about twelve inches in circumference, cut even at both ends,
and tied each with two bands. There are two kinds of
them ; the long, which are four feet ; and the fhort, which
are two feet five inches in length. Some of them are fingly

Vol. XXIX.

R E E

dipped, ;. e. at one end, the reft arc dipped at both ends, iv
a kettle of melted compofition. After being immerfcd
about feven or eight inches in this preparation, and then
drained, they are fprinkled over with pulverized fulphur
upon a tanned hide. See YiRE-Jhip.

REEDSBOROUGH, in Geography. See Readsbo-

ROUGU.

REEDSTOWN. See Strong.

REEDY Creek, a river of Nfew Jerfey, which runj into
the Atlantic, N. lat. 39° 55'. W. long. 74=^ 16'.

Reedy I/land, an ifland of America, in the Delaware
river, 50 miles below Philadelphia, and 20 miles from Bom-
bay Hook, about three miles long and not more than one-
fourth of a mile wide. This ifland was formerly banked in,
but is now under cultivation, and overflowed in high tides.
It is the rendezvous of outward-bound flrips in autumn and
fpring, waiting for a fair wind. Here is a fecure harbour
at Port Penn, where piers have been erefted by the ftate of
Pennfylvania. On each fide of the ifland is a channel ; but
veflels, efpecially of the larger kind, choofe to keep the
eaftern fide.

Reedv River. Sec Saluda.

Reedy River Shoal, a poft-town of America, in Green-
field county. South Carohna.

REEF (reef, Dutch-, in Na'vigalion, denotes a certain por-
tion of a fail, comprehended between the top or bottom,
and a row of eyelet-holes parallel to it. The intention of the
reef is to reduce the furface of the fail in proportion to the
incrcafe of the wind ; for which purpofe there are feveral
reefs parallel to each other in the fuperior fails, by which
they may be ftill farther diminilhed, in order to correfpond
with the feveral degrees of the gale. The top-fails of ftiips
are ufually furniftied with four reefs, parallel to the yard ;
and there are always three or four reefs parallel to the foot
of thofe main-fails and fore-fails which are extended upon
booms ; a circumftance common to many ef the fmall velTels.
Falconer.

A bag-reef is the fourth, or lower, reef of a top-fail.
A balance-reef croffes boom-main-fails diagonally, from the
nock to the end of the upper reef-band an the after-larch.
This is ufed to contradl the fails in a ftorm.

Reef alfo denotes a chain of rocks, lying near the furface
of the water.

REEF-Band, in Sea Language, a piece of canvas, fewed
acrofs the fail, to ftrengthen it in the place where the eyelet-
holes of the reefs are formed.

REEF-ffanis, fhort pieces of log-line or other fmall line,
faftened at certain diflances to form the reefs of boom-
fails.

REEF-Tacile, is a rope which pafl^es from the deck to a
block at the tcp-maft head, and thence to another block
at the topfail-yard-arm, where it communicates vAth another
rope, called its pendant, that runs downwards through a
hole in the yard, and is afterwards attached to a cringle, a
little below the loweft reef. It is ufed to pull the fkirts
of the reefs clofe up to the extremities of the top-fail yards,
in order to lighten the fail, the weight of which would
otherwife render it very difficult to perform this operation.
Falconer.

Reef Ifland, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the Eaft
Indian fea, about 50 miles from the W. coaft of Sumatra.
S. lat. 4°. E. long. 101° 3'.— Alfo, a fmall ifland in the
Eaft Indian fea, near the N. coaft of the ifland of Celebes.
N. lat. 0° 8'. E. long. 122° 48'.

REEFING, in Sea Language, the operation of reducing
a fail, by taking in one or more of the reefs, which is per-
formed by lines, points, or knittles. The top.lails are
4 C always

R E E

always, and the courfes generally, reefed with points,
which are flat braiikd pieces of cordage, whole lengths are
nearly double the circniiiference of the yard. 'I'hele, being
infertcd in the eyelet-holes, are fixed in the fail by means ot
two knots in the middle, one of which is before, and the
other behind the reef-band. In order to reef the top-fails
with greater facility and expedition, they are lowered down,
and made to fliiver in the wind, which confiderably relaxes
their tenfion. The extremities of the reef are then drawn
up to the yard-arms by an aflembly of pullies communicating
with the deck, termed the reef-tackle ; and they are fecurely
falkned to the yard-arms by finall cords, called earings.
The fpace of fail, comprehended in the reef, is then laid
fmoothly over the yard, in feveral folds or doubles ; and
the whole is completed by tying the points above the yard,
fo as to bind the reef clofe up to it. The courfes of large
ihips are reefed either with points or fmall cords, which
are thence called reef-lines. In the latter cafe, the line is
pafled fpirally througii the eyelet-holes of the reef, and
ever the head of the fail alternately, and afterwards Itrained
as tight as poffible. It mud be oblerved, however, tiiat the
reef-line is fometimcs paffed round the yard, and lometiiries
only round the head of the fail ; and each of thefe methods
has its advocates. But if it fliould appear edcntial to pre-
vent the fridlion by which a fail is galled between the line
and the yard, and as the rope-bands are hifficienl to lulhiin
the effort of the fail, it is better to pafs the line only round
the fail, provided that the turns are infertcd through the
roband legs ; a circumftance carefully pradtifed by every
Ikilful failor. The fame reafon may be alleged in favour of
tying the points of the courfes in the fame manner ; /'. e.
the after-end of the point Ihould be thrull forward between
the head of the fail and the yard ; and the fore -end of the
faid point fhould come aft over the head of the fail and alio
under the yard ; and thus crofled over the head of the lail,
the point fliouki be extended, and the two ends brought
over the yard ; and tied on the upper fide of it as ftraight
as poflible.

When a fail is i-eefed at the bottom, it is done by knittles,
which, being thriift through the eyelet-holes of it, are tied
firmly about the fpace of canvas of which the reef is com-
poled, and knotted on the lower fide of the bolt-rope.
Thefe knittles are accordingly removed as foon as the reef
is let out. Falconer.

REEK, in Rural Economy, a term provincially ufed for
ftack. See Stack and Rick.

^iD-.K-Stavel, a term applied to a frame of wood placed
on ftone, on whicli the mow or Itack is railed. It is fonie-
times written Reel: Slajfold.

REEL, in the I^Ianufador'us, a machine ferving for the
office of reeling.

There are various kinds of reels ; fome very fimple,
others very comple;:. Of the former kinds, thofe moll in
ufe are,

1. A little reel, held in the hand, confifting of three
pieces of wood, the biggeft and longelt whereof (which
docs not exceed a foot and a half in length, and a quarter of
an inch in diameter,) is traverfed by two other pieces dif-
pofed different ways.

2. The common reel, or windlace, which turns upon a
pivot, and has four flights, traverfed by long pins, or llicks,
on which the (kain to be reeled is put ; and which are drawn
clofer or opened wider, according to the fkain.

Other reels ufed in particular arts, are explained under
their particular articles ; as the reel ufed in milHng of filk,
under the article Milling; and that in the reeling or
winding of filks, under the article of Silk, &•:.

REE

Rekls, to reel ropes on from a fix-threaj ratline to a two-
inch rope, have four ribs fixed at each end in a flat circular
piece of wood ; and round the edges are blades, or handles,
to turn them : one of the circular pieces is called the head,
and is made to Hide off for taking the coil away. They turn
on an iron fpindle, and are from ten to thirty-fix inches long,
and from twelve to eighteen inches diameter. The Bench-
reel ufed by fail-makers is fimilar to a fpinning-wheel, and
is ufed to expedite winding the twine from the Ikains to the
twine-reel. Log-reels have feveral ribs fixed in a circular
piece of board at each end, and turn or run upon a fpindle,
having a handle at one end. (See Loo.) Tiuine-reelt,
ufed by fail-makers, are fliort cyhndrical pieces of wood,
hollowed in the middle to receive the twine, with a hole
through the middle for the fpindle. Thofe ufed by rope-
makers have four oak bars, about eighteen inches Ion",
framed together at the ends on a wooden fpindle ; one of the
bars Aides, for the convenieiicy of taking off the twine. The
Tarn-reel confills of a circular board fallened horizontally
on the middle of a piece of oak tour inches fquare, and fix-
teen long, with a hole through its middle to receive a bolt,
on which it turns as its axis, and is ufed to wind fpun-
yarn off the coil. The Hand-reel is a narrow board, witii
three or four holes at each end, in which pegs are fixed for
reeling marline and other lines.

REELFOOT, in Geography, a fmall navigable river of
America, in Tennelfee, which dilcharges itfelf into the river
Miflilippi, about 35 miles S. of the Ohio. It is 30 yards
wide feven miles from its mouth. One of its branches rifcs
on the borders of Kentucky.

REELING, in the Manvfaaor'us, the winding of thread,
filk, cotton, or the like, into a fkain, or upon a bottom, to
prevent its entangling.

It is alfo ufed for the charging or difcharging of bobbins,
or quills, to ufe them in the manufa£lure ot different ItufTs,
as thread, lilk, cotton, &c.

Reeling is performed different ways, and by different
engines.

REEM, in Zoology. See Rhinoceros Unicornis.

REEMING, a term ufed by caulkers for openfii"- the
feams of the planks with reeming-irons, that the oakum
may be more readily admitted. To make any hole larger
is alfo termed reeming.

REEMING-Zronj-, are the largefl irons ufed by caulkers in
opening the feams.

REEMSTOWN, or Reamstowx, in Geography, a
fmall poll -town of America, in Lancafter county, Pennfyl-
vania, fituated on a llreani which runs into Calico creek, a
water of Coneifoga, which falls into the Sufquehannah ;
26 miles N.E. of Lancafter.

REEN, a river of Norway, in the province of Drontheim,
which runs into the Glomme ; 20 miles N. of Opfal.

Reen' Moffa, a name ufed by fome for the mountain
coralloides, or rein-deer mofs.

REENBERG, Tiieocakus, in Biography, a celebrated
Danifli poet, was born at Viborg in 1 656. where he was
educated. In 1680 he let out on his travels into foreign
countries, after having undergone aii examination by the
theological faculty, and he returned to Denmark in 1682.
In 1703 he. was appointed fourth judge in Jutland. In
1730 he became counfellor of juftice, and he died in 1742.
His poetical works were publiih.-d at Copenhagen in 1760,
by his grandfon Tielmann, with a preface by Kofod Anker,
and annotations by Luxdorph. Gen. Biog.

REENSKLOSSER, in Geography, a town of Norway j
12 miles N-N.W. cf Drontheim.

RE-ENTER-

REE

R E-ENTERING Angle, in Forufuathn. Sre Anolk,
iud C(5N.sTitucTiON, according to M. Vmtbnn' s firjl method.

RE-ENTRY, in Law, the reluming or retaking that
poflenioii which any one had lately forgone.

As, if I make a leafe ef land or tenement, I do thereby
forego tlie poflcflion : and if 1 condition with the leflie,
that for non-payment of rent at the day, it (hall be lawful
fir me to re-enter; this is as much as if I conditioned to
take again the lands, &c. into my own hands, and to re-
cover the pod'efTion by my own aft, without the affiltance
of judge or other proceis. But words in a deed give no
re-entry, if a claul'e of re-entry be not added. (Wood's
Inlt. 140.) All perlons who would re-enter on their
tenants for non-payment of rent, are to make a demand of
the rent ; and, to prevent the re-entry, tenants are to tender
their rent, &c. (l Inft. 201.) If there is a leafe for
years, rendering rent, with condition, that if the leflee
alligns his term, the lelior may re-enter ; and the Icfl'ee
afligneth, and the lelior receivcth the rent of the alfignee,
not knewing or hearing of the aflignment, he may re-enter,
notwithltanding the acceptance of the rent. (3 Rep. 65'.
Cro. Eliz. 553.) See Rent. A feoffment may be made
upon condition, that if the feoffor pay to the feoffee, &c.
a certain fum of money at a day to come, then the feoffor
to re-enter, &c. Litt. § 322. See Entry and Use.

REEPHAM, in Geography. See Repham.

REER County. See Rire.

REERSOE, in Geography, a fmall ifland of Denmark,
m the Great Belt, near the coatt of Zealand. N. lat. 55"
32'. E. long. 1 1° 7'.

REES, Reis, or Reas, in Commerce, monies of account
in Portugal, 1000 of which make a milrcis or milree. In
the notation of accounts, the milrees are feparated from the
recs by a croffed cypher, called " Cifraon," and the
milrees from the millions by a colon ; thus Rs . 2 : 700 0
50c, means 2700 mil. and 500 rees. The crufado of ex-
change, or old crufado, is 400 rees ; the new crufado, 480
rees; the telloon, 100; tlie vintin or vintem, 20 rees.
Thus the milree is 2\ old crufados, 2Vt ""^w ditto, 10 tef-
toons, or 50 vintins. The geld pieces, coined before 1722,
are now 20 per cent, higher than their original value ; fo
that the old dobras, coined at 20,000 rees, are worth 24,000 ;
the lifbonnoines or moidores, coined at 4000 rees, are worth
4800 ; and the halves and quarters in proportion : but few
ot thefe coins are now in circulation. The gold coins,
ftruck fincc 1722, are the dobra of 12,800 rees ; the meia
dobra, Joanefe, or Portugal piece of 64CO rees ; the half
Joanefe, of 3200 ; the dezefeis teftoons, of 1600 ; the qua-
tindo, of 1200 ; the oito telloons, of 800 ; the old crufado,
of 400, now very fcarce ; and the new crufado, of 480 recs.
The filver coins are new crufados, of 480 rees ; halves,
quarters, and eighths, or pieces of 240,120, and 60 rees ;
teftoons of lOC, and halves of 50; and vintins of 20 rees.
There are alfo copper pieces of 10, 5, 3, and ji rees. The
pieces coined in Brazil, called patacas, of 600 and 640 rees,
are current only in that country, and their intrinfic value is
10 per cent, lefs than that of the Portugal coins. There is,
befides, a gold milree, itruck for the Portuguefe poffeflions
in Africa, and alfo a filver coin, of the value of 12 macutas,
or 600 rees ; the macuta being a money of account, worth
50 rees. The Spanilh patacas, or dollar, are reckoned at
Lilbon at 830 rees, more or lefs.

Portuguefe gold coins are 22 carats (the mark fine being
24 carats), wrought gold is 2o| carats, and gold dull from
2i|- to 22 carats fine. The finenefs of filver is exprefled in
dinheiros and grains, the mark fine being 12 dinheiros, and
the dinheiro fubdivided into 24 grains. Silver coins are

REE

10 dinheiros 19 grains fine, and wrought filver lol fine.
The rate of coinage of gold and filver coins is as follows :
8 dobras of 12,800 rees, 16 Joanefe<i of 6400 rees, 32 half
Joanefes of 3200 rees, 64 dezefeis teftoons, 128 oito tef-
toons, or 256 old crufados, are to weigh a Portuguefe mark
of gold, 22 carats fine. Hence (the mark being 3542f
Englifli grains) the dobra contains 442? grains ; the piece
of 6400 rees 22 1 1 grains of Englidi ftandard gold, and the
other pieces in proportion. Thefe coins, moreover, are
not, in general, exaftly 2 2 carats fine ; but there is a remedy
which amounts from Vt to -,V of a carat ; and the new
crufados are found to be only 21 ^^ carats fine. The filver
coin is 10 din. itj gr. as above ; and the mark is corned into
13; new crufados; hence the new crufado weighs 345f
Portuguefe grains, or 265? Englifli grains ; halves, quarters,
and eighths, in proportion. It, therefore, contains 258-!
grains of Englifh ftandard filver. The gold piece of 6400
recs is worth 35/. i \d. fterling ; and the old crufado,
2j. ■i.d. ; and thus the milree, valued in gold, is worth (i']\d.
fterling. The new filver crufado is worth about %s. gd.
fterling ; and, therefore, tiie milree, valued in filver, 15
worth 68|^. fterling. Gold is to filver as 16 to i.

At Bombay each quarter of a rupee is divided into 100
rees. See Rupee.

Rees, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Cleves ; 8
miles E. of Cleves. N. lat. 51=47'. E. long. 6° 20'.

Rees ul Ain, or Refaina, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the province of Diarbekir ; 80 miles S. of Diarbekir.

REETZ, a town of the New Mark of Brandenburg ;
5omiles N.E. ofCuftrin. N. lat. 53° 18'. E. long. 15° 56".
REEVE, in Ornithohigy, the name of a bird which is the
female of the avis pugnax ; the male of which, from the long
feathers round his neck, is called the riif. See Tringa
Pugnax.

Reeve o/a Church, is the guardian of it, or the church-
warden.

So Jhire-reef h the ftieriff, or guardian of a county; and
port-reeve, the warden of a port or haven.
REEVE-LAND. See Reveland.
REEVING, in the Sea Language, is the putting a rope
through any hole, as the channel of a block, &c. Hence,
to pull a rope out of a block, is called unreeving,

RE-EXCHANGE, in Commerce, a fecond payment of
the price of exchange, or rather the price of a new ex-
change, due upon a bill of exchange that comes to be
proteiled ; and to be refunded the bearer, by the drawer
or indorfer. See Exchange.

The occafion of re-exchage is, when the bearer of a bill
of exchange, after protefting it, for want either of ac-
ceptance, or of payment, borrows money on his own pro-
mife, bond, or the like ; or draws a bill of exchange in the
place where the payment was to be made, on the perfon
who furnifhed the firft for which he pays a fecond ex-
change ; which, being added to the firlt already paid, the
drawer of the firft bill is anfwerable for two exchanges,
properly called exchange and re-exchange.

The bearer of a protefted bill has a right to recover both
the one and the other on the drawer. Yet the fimple pro.
teftation which the bearer makes in the att of proteft, that
he will take up a like fum at re-exchange, for want of his
bill being accepted or paid, is not fufficient to entitle him
to demand the reimburfement of his re-exchano-e, unlefs he
make it appear, that he has aftually taken up money in the?
place on which the bill was drawn.

Otherwife the re-exchange will only amount to the refti-
tution of the firft exchange, with intereft, the expences of
protefting, and thofe of the journey, if there have been any.
4 C 2 If

R E F

r'f a- bill of cxchauge, payable to the bearer or order,
come to be proteiled, the re-exchange is only due upon the
drawer for the place where the remittance was made, not for
thofe places where it may have been negociated ; at Icail
the drawer has a right to be refunded his re-exchange for
thofe places by the indorfer.

Indeed, the re-exchange is due from the drawer upon all
places where a power of negociation is given by the bill ;
and upon all others, if the power of negociatiiig be m-
definite.

Laftly, the intereft of the re-exchange, of the cxpences
of the proteft, and the journey, are only due from the day
of the demand.

It is fuppofed to be the Gibtlnis driven out of Italy by the
faftion of the Guclphs, and fheltered at Amllcrdam, who
firlt eftabhflied the cuilom of re-exchange, on pretence of
the intereils, damages, and cxpences they underwent, when
the bills given them for the dk&s they had been obliged to
abandon, were not accepted, but came to be proteiled.

RE-EXTENT, in Laiv, a fecond extent made upon
lands or tenements, on complaint that the former extent was
partially made. See Extent.

REFAH, in Geography, a town of Egypt, on thecoaft
of the Mediterranean, anciently called " Raphia," (which
fee) ; i« miles N.E. of El Arifli.

REFECTION, ReFECTIO, among Monis and EccJe-
fiajlics, a fpare meal or repaft, juft fufficing for the fupport

of life.

Refection is alfo ufed, in /incioit Authors, for a duty or
fervice incumbent on any perfon to provide meals for eccle-
fiaftics, or even for princes.

REFECTORY, or Refectuary, RefiHorhim, a fpa-
cious hall in convents, and other communities, where the
monks, nuns, &c. take their refeftions or meals in common.

The refeftory of the Benediftines of St. George at Ve-
nice, defused by P.illadio, is one of the finell in the world.
Daviier.

REFERENCE, in Writing, i^c. a mark relative to an-
other fimilar one in the margin, or at the bottom of the page,
where fomething, omitted in the text, is added ; and which
is to be inferted either in reading or copying. A copyill
muft be very expert at taking references.

References are alfo ufed in books, where things being but
imperfeftly handled, the reader is direfted to fome other
part or place where they are more amply explained.

Diftionaries are full of references, denoted by fee or vide.
By means of thefe references the diftionary writer fettles
a correfpondence between the feveral parts of his work, and
may give his diiftionary moft of the advantages of a conti-
nued treatife.

Indices or tables are only references to the feveral parts of
thew'ork where the feveral matters are handled.

Reference, in Law, denotes the fending of any matter
by the court of chancery to a mailer ; and by the courts at
law to a prothonotary, or fecondary, to examine and report
to the court. (3 Lil. Abr. 432. ) If a matter in difference
be refen-ed to the fecondary, and one of the parties will not
attend at the time appointed, after notice given, to hear the
bufinefs referred ; the other party may proceed in the re-
ference alone, and get the fecondary to make his report
without hearing of the party not attending. (2 Lill. 342.)
if a queftion of mere law arifes in the courfe of a caufe in
chancery, as whether, by the words of a will, an ellate for
life or \n tail is created, or whether a future intereft devifed
by a teftator fnall operate as a remainder on an executory
devife ; it is the praftice of that court to refer it to the opi-
pion of the judges of the court of king's bench, or common

R E F

pleas, upon a cafe Hated for that purpofe, in wliich all the 1
material fails are admitted, and the point of law is fubmitted
to their decilioii ; who thereupon have it lolemnly argued by
rounlel on bntii lides, and certify their opinion to the chan-
cellor : and on fucli a certificate the decree is ufually founded.
It feems that tiie mailer of the rolls, fitting for the chan-
cellor, may make fuch reference ; but not when fitting at
the rolls. 2 Bro. C. C. 88.

The court of exchequer is both a court of law and of
equity ; therefore, if a queftion cf mere law arifes in the
courfe of the exercife of its equitable jurifdirSion, the
barons will decide upon it in that fuit, without referring it
to another jurifdiclion. Bl. Comm. iii.

REFERENDARY, Referendaiucs, in Aneieni Cuf-
toms, an officer who exhibited the petitions of the people to
the king, and acquainted the judges with his commands.

An officer of this kind, Spelman obferves, we had in
England, in the time of the Saxons. The like office was
afterwards difcharged by others, called mafters of requefts*

REFINING, in Mi'tallurgy and Jff'aying. In the for-
mer it fignifies the means of obtaining metals from their
ores, and from any other impurities, natural or artificial ;
for which fee the metals under their refpeftive heads.
In the latter it is employed for afcertaining the quantity
of the noble metals in the different alloys : for which fee
Cupel ; where the methods of refining in the furnace ars
fully treated. And for the humid procefs called /iar//'n^, fee
Gold.

It may be proper here to obferve, that although the pro-
cefs of parting by nitric acid is Hill pradlifed, we are in-
clined to recommend the method propofed by Bergmann,
wliich coniifts in ditlolving the alloy of gold and filver in
nitro-muriatic acid. The filver falls to the bottom in the
ftate of muriate of filver, and the gold is precipitated by the
green fulphate of iron. The gold, by this means, is obtained
perfectly pure, which is feldom the cafe in the procefs of
parting. The trouble of telling to know what filver to add to
the alloy, to make the gold equal to one-fourth of the filver,
will be faved, and, with heat, the nitro-muriatic acid dillolves
the gold quite as foon as the filver is dillblved in the common
method. The muriate of filver, which is eafily feparated by
wafhing, may be readily reduced by heating it with foda in
an iron crucible. The foda combines with the muriatic acid,
and is fublimed in white fumes.

Refining of Sugar. This operation is'begun by feveral
llrong lixiviums or leys of hme-watcr and eggs, fhells and
all, mixed and beaten together.

The firll refining is performed in the Caribbees, and other
places, where the fugar-canes are cultivated ; and only ferves
to make the brown or coarfe fugars.

When thefe are imported into Europe, the fugar-bakers
take them up, and refine them farther, by a fecond opera-
tion, or rather a repetition of the firft.

To render the fugar very fine, fit for confeftions, &c.
they give it a third refining ; in which they only ufe the
whites of eggs and their fhells beaten together, and thrown
into the melted fugar ; which is called clarifying the fugar.
See Sugar.

Refining of Salt-petre. The fait being put into an
earthen or iron veliel, as much fpring-water is poured on it
as fufBces to diflblve it. The vefTel is then put over a gen-
tle fire ; and as foon as the water begins to boil, alum pow-
der is thrown into it : the proportion is, one pound of
alum to one hundred and twenty-eight pounds of falt-petre ;
and a little vinegar is added. As it boils, the fcum is to be
taken off ; and it is to be evaporated till a pelHcle appears on
it, and then fet to fhoot.

For

R E F

Tor the refining of other matters, aa camphor, cinnabar,
fulphur, fait, borax, &c. fee Camphou, Cinnabar, Sul-
phur, Salt, &c.

REFIRTH VoE, in Geography, a bay oh the E. coall
of the inand of Yell. N. lat. 60° $8'. W. long. 1° 25'.

REFITTING, in Sea Language, denotes the repairing
of any damages which a fhip may have fullained in her fails
and rigging, by battle or tempeiluous -iVeather.

REFLECTED Rav. See Ray.

Reflected Fifion. See Reflex and Vlsion.

REFLECTING, or Reflective Dial, is a fort of

R E F

their progrela without deviating from thofe planes in which
their former paths lay, and which are perpendicular to
the furface of the mediums, but they no longer retain
the fame direction, a part of them, and fometimcs nearly
tile whole, being reflefted back from the furface, while the
remaining part is tranfmitted and refraftcd, or bent. No
inilance occurs of the abrupt change of the denllty of
a medium, without a partial refleftion of the light paffing
either into the denfer, or into tlie rarer medium ; and the
more obliquely the light falls on the furface, the greater, in
general, is the refiedled portion. No body is fo black as

dial, which fhews the hour by means of a thin piece of to reflect no light at all, and to be perfeftlv invifihl

looking-ghfs plate, duly placed to call the fun's rays to the
top of a ceiling, on which the hour-lines are drawn.
Reflecting Micro/cope. See Microscope.
Reflegtinc Level. See Level.
Reflecting Tele/cope. See Telescope.
REFLECTION, or Reflexion, in Mechan'r.s, the re-
turn, or regredive motion of a moveable, occafioned by
the refiftance of a body, which hindered its purfuiiig its

lormer airection. ^ „ ^^ .^^ g^^^^ v,,\|j»jicli lu luc du. ivieiais, m ge-

lt is controverted whether there be any moment's reft or neral, rcfledt a great proportion of the light falling on them •
interval between the incidence and the refledlion. For the and even the reflection from the common furface of glafs and
affirmative ftand the Peripatetics, and all who conceive the mercury appears to be but little weaker than the refleftion
reflefted motion to be different from the incident one of the from the furface of mercury immediately expofed to the air
fame body. The motion of incidence, according to thefe fo that the optical denfity of tiie metals muft be exceeding-ly

ilrong light ; although at the furface fepar'ating two very
rare bodies, as two kinds of gas, the refleftion is too faint to
be perceptible ; but in this cafe the feparation is feldora
perfectly abrupt. The quantity of light reflefted, when
other circumltances are equal, appears to be always greateft
when the difference of the optical or refraftive denfity of the
two fubltances is the greateft. Thus, the refleftion from
the common furface of glafs and water is much weaker than
from a furface of glafs expofed to the air. Metals, in

authors, is wholly loll, and deltroyed, by the refiftance of
the obflacle ftruck againft ; and the moveable is thus ren-
dered abfolutely quiefcent in the point of contaft, till a
new motion of refleftion is produced in it, from a contrary
caufe.

The Cartefians afTert the negative ; abfolutely denying any
reft at all between the incidence and refleftion : urging, that
if the motion were once deftroyed, though but for a moment,
there would be nothing to excite it again ; but the body
would perfevere in that new flate, as much as if it had
been at reft a thoufand years.

Accordingly Rohault, and others, define refleftion to
be no other than a change of determination ; or a continua-
tion of the former motion in a new direftion.

As, fay they, a pendulum, when arrived at its greateft
fweep, does not itop ; fo a hard body, by ftriking on another
hard one, does not reft, but purfues its motion the con-
trary way, according to the eftablifhed law of nature ;
and this from the immediate influence or impulfe of the
caufe that firft moved it. But this doftrine is now generally
fet afide.

Refleftion is conceived, by the lateft and beft authors, as
a motion peculiar to elaftic bodies, whereby, after ftriking
on others which they cannot remove, they recede, or turn
back by their elaftic power

great. It appears, alfo,' that a portion of the light fallfng
on a reflefting furface, is always tranfmitted to a certain
depth, notwitliftanding the apparent opacity of any large
maffes of the fubftance. Thus, if we cover a fmall hole of
a window-fliutter witli the tliinneft leaf-gold, we fhall find
that it tranlmits a greenifli light, which muft have paffed the
reflefting furface, but which, if the gold had been but one
ten-thoufandth of an inch in thicknefs, would have been
wholly interrupted, and probably in the fame manner as by
pairing through 700 feet of water. See Light and Re-
fraction.

The refleftion of the rays of light from' the furfaces of
bodies, is the means by which bodies become vifible.

And the difpofition of bodies torefleft this or that kind
of rays moft copioufly, is the caufe of their being of this or
that colour.

The refleftion of hght from the furfaces of mirrors,
makes the fubjeft of catoptrics ; which fee. See alfo
Mirror.

The refleftion of light, fir Ifaac Newton has fhewn, is
not eftefted by the rays ftriking on the very parts of the bo-
dies; but by fome power of the body equally diffufed
throughout its whole furface, by which it afts upon the ray,
attrafting or impelling it witiiout any immediate contaft.
This power he fhews to be the fame, by which, in other

On this principle, it is all'erted, that there may be, and circumltances, the rays are refrafted ; and by which they
is, a period of reft between the incidence and the refle(?lion ; are at firft emitted from the lucid body. See Refraction

lince the reflefted motion is not a continuation of the other,
but a new motion, arifing from a new caufe or principle,
viz. the power of elafticity.

it is one of the great laws of refleftion, that the angle a
reflefted body makes with the plane of a reflefting obftaclc,
is equal to that in which it ftruck on that oljftacle. For
the feveral laws of motion obferved in the refleftions of bo-
dies, fee Percussion

The arguments he produces to prove this are as follow :
I. Becaufe the furfaces of poliflied glaffes, which to the
eye appear imooth, are yet, in reality, very rugged and
uneven .(pohihing being nothing but the grating, fcratching,
and breaking off the coarfer protuberances, by means of
fand, glafs, putty, tripoli). If the rays of light, there-
fore, were reflefted by ftriking on the folid parts of the
glafs, the refleftions would never be fo accurate as we find

Reflection of the ra^s of light, in Optics, is amotion of they are, but the rays would even be as much fcattered by

the rays, by which, after impinging on the folid parts of bo- the moft polifhed glafs, as by the rougheft. It remains,

dies, or rather, after a very near approach to them, they therefore, a problem how glafs, poHfhcd by frettino- fub-

recede, or are driven from them. ftances, can refleft light fo regularly as it does ; which pro-

When rays of light arrive at a furface, which is the blem is fcarcely otherwife to be folvcd, than by faying, that

boundary of two mediums not homogeneous, they continue the refleftion of a ray is effefted, not by a fingle point of the

12 reflecting

REFLECTION.

refleftiiig body, V)Ut by fome power of the wliole body,
evenly difTufcd all ovlt its furface, and by which it afts on
a ray wlihoiit immediate contadt ; for that the parts ot bo-
dies do ad upon light at a diftance, is already fliewn under
' the articles Ini'LECTIon and I^ight.

2. If the colours, feparated by a prifm placed at the
entrance of a beam of light into a darkened room, be
fuccefllvely caft on a fecond prifm placed at a greater dillance
from the former, in fuch manner as that they all fall alike,
or with an equal obliquity, upon it ; the fecond prifm
may be fo inclined to the incident rays, that thofe which
are of a blue colour fliall be all reflcded by it ; and yet
thofe of a red colour pretty copioufly tranfmitted. Now,
if the rcfleftion were caufed by the parts of the air or
glafs, we wotdd alk, why, at the fame obliquity of inci-
dence, the blue (hould wholly impinge on thofe parts lo as
to be all relieved ; and yet, the red find pores enough
to be, in a great meafure, tranfmitted.

3. Where two glades touch one another, there is no fen-
fible reflcftion ; and yet we fee no reafon why the rays
fliould not impinge on the parts of the glafs, as much when
contiguous to other glafs, as when contiguous to air.

4. When the top of a water bubble, by the continual
fubfiding and exhaling of the water, grows very thin, there
is fuch a httle, and almoft. infenfible quantity of light re-
fledled from it, that it appears intenfely black ; whereas
round about that black fpot, where the water is thicker,
the reflexion is fo flrong, as to make the water feem very
wliite. Nor is it only at the lead thicknefs of thin plates or
bubbles, that there is no manifeil refleftion, but at many
other thicknefl'es, gradually greater and greater. For, in
one of our author's obfervations, the rays of the fame co-
lour were, by turns, tranfmitted at one thicknefs, and re-
fledled at another thicknefs, for an intermediate number of
fucceffions : and yet, in the fuperficies of the thinned body,
where it is of one thicknefs, there are as many other parts
for rays to impinge on, as where it is of any other thicknefs.

5. If the red and blue rays, feparated by a priim, fall
fuccefllvely on a thin plate of any pellucid matter, whofe
thicknefs increafes in contmual proportion, (fuch as a plate
of air between two glafl'es, the one plane, and the other a
little convex,) the fame plate will, in the fame part, refleft
all the rays of one colour, and tranfmit all thofe of the
other ; but, in different parts, will refleft the rays of one
and the fame colour at one thicknefs, and tranfmit them at
another ; and thus alternately, and In infinitum. Now, it
can never be imagined that at one place the rays, which, for
inllance, exhibit a blue colour, (hould happen to ftrike on
the folid parts, and thofe which exhibit a red, to hit on the
void parts of the body ; and at another place, where the
body is either a little thicker, or a little thinner, that, on
the contrary, the blue iliould hit on the pores, and the red
upon the foUd parts.

6. In the pailage of light out of glafs into air, there is 3
reflcftion as llrong as in its padage out of air into glafs, or
rather a little llronger, and by many degrees ftronger than
in its palTage out of glafs into water. Now, it feems im-
probable, that air flunild have more reflefting pjrts than
water or glafs : but if that (liould be fuppofed, yet it will
avail nothing ; for the refleftion is as ftrong, or llronger,
when the air is drawn from the glafs by the air-pump, as
when it is adjacent to it. If any fhould here objttt-, on
Defcartes's hypothefis, that, though the air be drawn away,
there is a fubtle matter remaining to fupply its place, which,
being of a denfer kind, is better fitted for the refleftion of
light than any other body ; befide? that we have elfewhere
Oiewn fuch fubtle matter to be fiftitious, and that, fuppof-

ing its exiitence, and its reflefting power, no li^ht could
ever have been propagated, but nmfl. have been all rcflefted
back to the lucid body, immediately after it was firIL
emitted, the following experiment does evidently convift it
of falfity.

7. If light, in its paffage out of glafs into air, (trikc more
obliquely than at an angle of forty or forty-one degrees, it
is then wholly reflefted : if lefs obliquely, it is in great mea-
fure tranfmitted. Now, it is not to be imagined, that light
at one degree of obliquity fhould meet with pores enough in
the air to tranfmit the greater part of it, and at another dc.
gree fhould meet with notliiiig but parts to refleft it wholly ;
efpecially confiderlng, that, in its pa'lage out of air into
glafs, how oblique foever be its incidence, it finds pores
enough in the glafs to tranfmit a great part of it. If any
fuppofe, that it is not reflefted by the air, but by the ut-
moll fupcrficial parts of the glafs, there is ilill the fame dif-
ficulty : befides, that fuch a fuppofition is unintelligible,
and will alfo appear to be falfe, by applying water behind
fome part of the glafs, inllead of air ; for fo in a convenient
obliquity of the rays, fuppofe of forty-five or forty- fix de-
grees, at which they are all reflefted, where the air is adja-
cent to the glafs, they fliall be in great meafure tranfmitted
where the water is adjacent to it ; which argues, that their
refleftion or tranfmiffion depends on the conllitution of the
air and water behind the glafs, and not on the ftriking of
the rays upon the parts of the glafs, the rays not being re-
flefted until they have reached the lafl part of the furface,
and have begun to go out. For if, in going out, they fall
upon a furface of oil and water, they proceed, the attrac-
tion of the glafs being balanced by an equal force the con-
trary way, and prevented from having its cffeft by the at-
traftion of the liquor adhering to it : but if the rays, in
pafTmg out of this lafl furface, fall into a vacuum, which
has no attraftion, or into air, which has but little, not
enough to counterbalance the efteft of the glafs in this cafe,
the attraftion of the glafs draws them back, and rePefts
them.

This will appear ftill more evident by laying two glafs
prifms, or the objeft-glafles of two telefcopes, the one plane,
and the other a little convex, upon each other, fo as they
may neither touch, nor yet be too far apart ; for that light
which falls on the hinder furface of the firfl glafs, where the
glafles are not above -rsTroTro-ijtli part of an inch apart, will
be tranfmitted through the furface, and through the air or
vacuum between the glaffes, and will pafs into the fecond
glafs ; but if the fecond glafs he taken away, then the light
palling out of the fecond furface of the firfl glafs into the air
or vacuum, will not proceed, but will return into the firft
glafs, and be reflefted.

Whence it follows, that the r.iys are drawn back agaia
by fome force in the firfl glafs, there being nothing elfe to
occafion their return. And hence too it follows, that the
refleftion is not effefted by means of any fubtle matter con-
tiguous to the hinder furface, accordmg to the principles
of Defcartes ; fince that matter ought to refleft them when
the glaffes were nearly contiguous, as well as when the fe-
cond glafs is quite removed.

Laflly, if it be afked, how fome of the rays come to be
reflefted, and others tranfmitted ; and why they are not all
alike reflefted, fuppofing the refleftion owing to the aftion
of the whole furface ? the fame great author ihews, that
there are, both in the rays of light, and in the bodies them-
felves, certain vibrations (or fome fuch property) impreffed
on the rays, by the aftion either of the luminary that emits
them, or of the bodies that refleft them ; by means of which
it happens that thofe rays, in that part of their vibration
8 which

REFLECTION.

wliicli confijires with the motior: of the parts of the body, the caiife may be this ; liz. thr.t every particle of the me-
enter the body, arc rcfiadtc-d and tranfmittcd ; but thofe in dium has a great number of equal alternate intervals of at-
a contrary part of their vibration arc reflefted. traction and rcpulfion, relatively to the particles of light ;

Add, that every ray of light, in it,, pallage through any but that thcfe intervals are of different magnitudes, accord-
refratting furface, is put into a certain tranfient conftitution ' ''■.■. -

or ilate, winch, in the progrefs of the ray, returns at equal
intervals, and difpolcs tlie ray, at eacli return, to be eafily
tranfmitted through tlic next refrafting furface ; and be-
tween each return, to be eaiily reflcfted by it.

Thefe alternate dilpolltions, which firlfaac Newton calls
/its of eafy rcjlctl'wn, and of eafy tranfm'ijjlon, he accounts for

ing as the particles of light are of different colours. Now
if the thicknefs of any tranlparent medium in which the par-
ticles of matter are uniformly placed is fuch, that the at-
trafting intervals of the extreme particles, as well as the
repelling intervals, coincide with one another, i. e. attraftincr
with attrafting, and repelling with repelling, in regard to
__ _ ^ 3"y 0"c l^hid of rays, e. g. the red ; by the united force of

by luppoling, that tliey are oocafioned by the vibrations of thefe extremes, (all the intermediate particles of the medium

a fubtle fluid, in which the ray pades, which happening to
move fafler than the rays, when a ray is in that part of the
vibration which confpires with its motion, it palTes through ;
but when in the contrary part of the vibration, it is beat
back again : whence every ray is fuccefTively difpofed to be
eafily relieved, or eafily tranfmitted, by every vibration
which overtakes it.

He alfo thought that thefe vibrations might be excited
by the mutual adtion and re -action of light, of bodies and
of this medium, at the indant of refleftion or refraftion ; fo
that, in faft, he fuppofes two caufes of this difpofition to
be refledled or tranfmitted, when rays of light arrive at any
neiv furface. One of them is the regular vibration of the
etherial medium, aficdling them through the whole of their
progrefs from the luminous body ; and the other the tre-
mulous motion, or irregular vibration of the fame medium
at the furfaces of bodies, occafioncd by the aftion and re-
aftion between light and them : for this lafl; caufe can hardly
be fuppofed to affeft the whole etherial medium equally, and
produce the reg\ilar returns of thefe fits in every ray.

M. Bofcovieh fuppofes with Newton, that the fits of
refleftion or tranfmifhon affedl the rays themfelves, in the
whole of their padage from the luminous body, but that
they arife from an alteration in their form, by means of the
elafticity of their component parts, having been originally
driven from the luminous body by a force whicli aftcd more
ilrongly on the hinder parts than on the reil of the mafs,
and thereby put them into a vibratory motion. He alfo
fuppofes, that the intervals of the fits of eafy reflection and
tranfmiffion may be different in different rays, on the three
following accoimts. i. The rays that are differently re-
frangible have different velocities, at leafl after refra£tion ;
fo that, though the fits fliould return at equal intervals, it
will affedl different rays in different parts of their progrefs.
2. The unequal aftion between the points that compoic the
fame particle of light may make a difterence in their ofcilla-
tions, at the time of changing their medium. And laflly,
rays coming in diflferent inclinations to the new furface, the
internal motions of thefe points will be in different direftions
with refpeft to the furface, and coafequently the whole
mafs of the medium will aft upon all the points differently.
Bofcov. Theoria, p. 232.

Upon the whole, fays Dr. Priefl:ley, is it not more pro-
bable that the rays of light are tranfmitted from the fun,
with an uniform difpofition to be reflected or i-efrafted, ac-
cording to the circumftances of the bodies on which they im-
pinge ; and that the tranfmiffion of fome of the rays under
the fame circumftances, apparently, with others that are Jledion.
reflefted, is owing to the minute vibrations of the fmall parts Thus

of the furfaces of the mediums through which the rays pals ;
vibrations that are independent of aftion and re-aftion be-
tween the bodies and the particles of light at the time of
their impinging, though probably excited by the aftion of
preceding rays. As to the tranfmiffion or refleftion of cer-
tain kinds of light only, producing colours in thin plates,

mutually deltroying each other's efTedls,) thefe rays will be
reflefted. But where the plate is of an intermediate thick-
nefii between this and the next thicknefs, where the attract-
ing intervals coincide, attrafting with attradting, and re-
pelling with repelling, the attradting intervals will coincide
with the repelling ones, and the repelling ones with the at-
tradting ones, and thefe mutually deflroying one another's
effedts, thefe rays will pafs on freely, and be tranfmitted.
But as the intervals of attradlion and repulfion are different
for differently coloured rays, the thicknefs of the plates at
which thefe coincidences will or will not happen, in the dif-
ferently coloured rays, will be different. So that it appears
probable, fays Dr. Prieflley, in conformity to a dodtrine
firfl: fuggefted to liim by Mr. Miehell, that the whole myf-
tery of coloured plates depends upon the attradtions and
rcpi'.lfions of the particles of the bodies that compofe them,
aftedting different rays in a different manner, according to
their thicknefs. Hifl. &c. of Light and Colours, p. 309,
&c. See Colours of thin Laminn, Sec. and Rinus cJ'
Co/ours.

Sir Ifaac Newton concludes his account of the refleftion
of light with obferving, that if light be refledted not by
impinging on the folid parts of bodies, but by fome other
principle, it is probable that as many of its rays as impinge
on the folid parts of bodies are not refledted, but flifled
and loft in the bodies. Otherwife, he fays, we muft fup-
pofe two kinds of refledtion ; for fhould all the rays be
refledted which impinge on the internal parts of clear water
or cryftal, thofe iubltances would rather have a cloudy
colour than a clear tranfparency. To make bodies look
black, it is neceflary that many rays be flopped, retained,
and loft in them ; and it does not feem probable, that any
rays can be flopped and ftifled in them, which do not im-
pinge on their parts : and hence, he fays, we may under-
fland, that bodies are much more rare and porous than is
commonly believed. However, M. Bouguer difputes the
fadt of light being ftifled or loft by impinging on the folid
parts of bodies. See ABsoiiuiNG.

For other fadts and obfervations relating to the fubjedt
of this article, fee Light. See alfo Rays of Ligl^t, and
Rays of Heat.

REri.ECTiox, in Catoptrics, is the return of a ray of
light from the pclifhed furface of a ipeculum or mirror,
as driven thence by fome power refiding in it.

The ray, thus returned, is called a reflex, or refleSed
ray, or a ray of reflection ; and the point of the fpeculum,
whence the return commences, is called the point of re-

the ray A B [Plate I. Optics, fig. 3.) proceeding
from the radiant A, and ilriking on the point of the fpecu-
lum B, being returned thence to C, B C reprefents the
rejleded ray, and B the point of reflexion ; in refpedt of
which A B reprefents the incident ray, or ray of incidence,
and B the point of incidence.

A'^gaiii, a line CG drawn from any point, as C, of the

rc8e£ted

REFLECTION.

rcflcfted ray BC, perpendicular to the fpeculiim, i:; called from each pnrt (f an oljeCI. See the doSr'me of MiRHORs,
the cathelus 'f refcHion, or cathelus of ibe eye : a?; a line &c.
A F, drawn from the radiant perpendicular to the fpccu-
lum, is called the incidence.

Of the two angles which the refleftcd ray B C makes
with the mirror, the fmalleft, C B E, is called the angle of
i-efteBion : as of the two angles the incident ray makes with

III. //■ l/ie eye C, and ihe radiant point A, c/jange places,
the point 'will continue to radiate upon the eye, in the fame courfe
'or path as before.

For if the objeft be removed from A to C, it will ftill
radiate on its former point of refleftion, B ; but there can

tfie fpcculum, the fmalleft, A B D, is called the angle of be but one right line drawn between the two points G and

incidence. D ; and tlie rays are right lines. Tiiereforc, that which

If the mirror be either concave or convex, the fmalleft was before the ray of reflcftion, will now be the ray of

angles the ray makes with the tangent to the point of re- incidence ; and fince it will be reflefted under the fame

flcftion and incidence, are the angles of reflection and in- angle as that under which it fell, that which was before

cidence. '^^^ ""^y °f incidence, will now be the ray of refleftion. So

The angle C B H, which the reflefted ray makes with a that the objeft removed to C, will radiate on the eye placed

perpendicular to the point of reflection, is called the incli- in A, by the right lines C B and B A. Q. E. D.

nation of the reficBed ray : as the angle A B H is called the
inclination of the incident ray.

Reflection, general la-ws of. — I. If a ray of light be re-
jlededfrom a fpeculum of any form, the angle of incidence is
ever equal to the angle of rejledion. This law obtains in per-
cuflions of all kinds of bodies ; and confequcntly mull do
fo in thofe of liglit. See Latus of Percussion ; fee alfo
Angle.

It might therefore be here alFumed as an axiom : but it
is of that importance, and its demonilration fo beautiful,
that we cannot omit it. Suppofe, then, D C [Plate XVII.
Optics, fig. 14.) an incident ray, propagated from the ra-
diant D : here, though the motion of the ray be fimple,
yet its determination in the line D C, being obliquf with
refpeft to the obftacle, is really compounded of two deter-
minations ; the one along D E, the other along D G.

The force along D C, therefore, is eqUal to the t\«o
forces along D G and D H. But the obftacle G F only
oppofes one of the determinations : -viz. that along D G
(for it cannot oppofe a determination parallel to itfelf, as

Hence, an objeft is fcen by the refleftcd ray A B, with
the eye placed in A, the fame as if the eye were in C, and
the objedl in A.

The truth of this theorem is fo eafily confirmed by ex-
periment, that fome, with Euclid, afllime it as a principle,
and demonftrate the great law of refleftion from it. Thus :
fuppofe the angle of incidence a little greater than the
angle of refleftion, then will the angle A B F be greater
than C B E. Wherefore, changing the places of the eye
and the objeft, the angle C B E will become the angle
of incidence ; and therefore C B E greater than A B F by
the fuppofition. So that the fame angle A B F will be
both greater and fmaller than the other, C B E ; which be-
ing abfurd, A B F cannot be greater than C B E. The
fame abfurdity will follow, if you fuppofe the angle of in-
cidence lefs than the angle of reflection. Since then the
angle of incidence can neither be greater nor lefs than
that of refleftion, it muft be equal to it.

IV. The plane of rejledion, that is, the plane in 'which
the incident and rejleded rays, and alfo the angles of incidence

i) E) : therefore, only the force along D G will be loil by and of reflection, are found, is perpendicular to the furface of

the ftroke, that along D H or G C remaining entire. But
a body perfeftly elaftic (fuch as we fuppofe the ray of
light) will recover by its elaflicity the force it loft by the
fhock.

The ray, therefore, will recover the force D G or C H :
thus, retaining both its forces, and both its former deter-
minations H C and C F, after percuffion, it will be im-
pelled along C F and C H by the fame forces as before
along D H and D G. By its compound motion, there-
fore, it will defcribe the rijrht line C E, and that in the

the fpecuium ; and in fpherical fpecula, it pajfes through the
centre.

Hence the cathetus, both of incidence and refleftion, is
in the plane of refleftion.

That the plane of rejledion is perpendicular to the fpeculum,
is alTumed by Euclid, Alhazen, and others, as a principle,
without any demonftration ; as being evident from all ob-
fervation and experiment.

V. The image of an objeS feen in a mirror is in the cathetus
of incidence. This the ancients affumed as a principle ;

fame time as D C ; and H E and D H will be equal, as be- and hence, fince the image is certainly in the reflected ray.

ing defcribed by the fame force. Now, the two triangles
D C H and CHE are equal, and confequently their fimilar
angles are equal. Since then H C A == H C F ; D C A,
the angle of incidence, is equal to E C F, the angle of re-
fleaion. Q. E. D.

This law is coiffirmed in hght by an eafy experiment.
For a ray of the fun falling on a mirror, in a dark room,
through a little hole, you will have the pleafure to fee it
rebound, fo as to make the angle of refleftion equal to that
of incidence. See Camera Obfcura.

The fame may be flievvn various other ways : thus, e. gr.
placing a f<.mitircle FiG, [Plate I. Optics, Jig. 3.) on a
mirror D £, its centre o;i B, and its limb perpendicular
to the fpeculum; and aiTuming equal aixs, Ya and G e,
place an objeft in A, and the eye in C : then will the ob-
jeft be feen by a tay refledted from the point B. And if
B be covered, the objeft will ceafe to be feen.

they inferred, it muft appear in the point of concourfe of
the reflected raj', with the cathetus of incidence ; which
indeed holds univerfally in plane and fpherical mirrors, and
ufually alfo in concave ones, a few cafes only excepted,
as is (hewn by Kepler.

For the particular laws of reflection, arifing from the
circumftances of the feveral kinds of fpecula, or mirrors,
plane, concave, convex, &c. fee them laid down under the
article Mirror.

Reflection', Caujlic by. See Cauftic Curve.

Reflection of Heat. See Heat, and Rays of Heat.

Reflection of Cold. See Cold.

Reflection of Sound. See Sound.

Reflection of the Moon, is a term ufed by fome authors
for what we othcrwife call her -variation, being the third
inequalit)- in her motion, by which her true place out of
the quadratures differs from her place twice equated. See

For the conclufions drawn from this general doftrine of Moon and Variation.
refledlion, fee the doBrine of Mirrors, &c. Reflection is alfo ufed, in the Copernican fyftem, lor

II. Each point of a fpeculum reflects rays falling on it, the diftaiice of the pole from the horizon of the ui(c ;

tvhich

R E F

R E F

vvhicli is the fame thing as the fun's cleclinaWon iu the
Ptoli?niaie fyftem.

RErLECTiON is alfo ufed figuratively for an operation of
the mind, by which, turning as it were back upon itfdf,
it makes itfclf, and its own operation, its objeft ; and con-
fiders or contemphitus the manner, order, and laws, whicli
it obferves ni perceiving, rcafoning, willing, judging, doubt-
ing, believing, &c. and frames itfelf new ideas of the re-
lations difcovered in them.

REFLECTOIRE Curve. See Cu-rve Rejleaoire.

REFLECTOR for Light-houfes, a combination of a
number of Iquare plane glafs mirrors, refembling thofe with
vvhicli Archimedes is faid to have burnt the Roman fleet at
the fiege ef Syracufe. (See BuRNiNC-G/a/r.) Each of
thefe mirrors is about an inch fquare ; and they are all ar-
ranged clofe to each other in the concave of a parabolic feg-
ment formed of Itucco, which has been found to anfwer the
purpofe beft. The idea of thus illuminating light-houfes,
inftead of ufing coal-fires, in this country, without any pre-
vious knowledge of a fimilar method praftifed in France,
was iirft fuggeited by Mr. Ezekiel Walker, of Lynn Regis,
who made, and fixed up refleftors under his diredlion, in a
light -houfe on the coaft of Norfolk, in the year 1779. Ac-
cordingly, in the year 1787, at the requeil of the truftees
appointed by aft of parliament for erefting four light-
houfes in the northern parts of Great Britain, he inilrufted
Mr. Thomas Smitli, tin-plate worker, of Edinburgh, to
whom the original invention is erroneoufly afcribed in the
fupplement to the Encyclopedia Britannica, in this mode of
conllrufting light-houfes. His parabolic moulds are from
three to five or fix feet in diameter ; and in the centre or apex
of each is placed a long fhallow lamp of tin-plate, filled
with whale-oil. In each lamp are fix cotton-wicks, almoll
contiguous to one another, fo difpofed as to burn without
trimming for fix hours. The light of thefe is reflefted from
each mirror fpread over the concave furface, and is thus mul-
tiplied, as it were, by the number of mirrors. The ttucco
moulding is covered on the back with tin-plate, from which
a tube, immediately over the lamp, proceeds to the raof of
the light-room, and ferves as a funnel, through which the
fmoke efcapes without fuUying the faces of the mirrors.
The light room is a cupola or lantern of from eight to twelve
fides, compofed entirely of glafs, fixed in call iron frames
or falhes, and roofed with copper. On circular branches
pafling round the infide of this lantern, at about 18 inches
from the glafs frames, are placed the refleftors with their
lamps, fo as that the concave lurfaces of two or three of the
refleftors front every point of the compafs, and throw a
blaze of light in all direftions. In the roof, immediately
over the centre of the room, is a hole, through which pafs
all the funnels already mentioned, and which ferves likewife
to admit frefii air to the lamps. This hght-room is firmly
fixed on the top of a round tower, fo as to be immoveable
by tlie weather ; and the number of the refleftors, and tlie
height of the tower, are lefs or greater according as it is in-
tended that the light thould be feen at a lefs or a greater dif-
tance. Experience, it is faid, has obviated feveral objeftions
to which light-houfes of this kind were thought to be
liable ; and it has been found that light-houfes, with
lamps and refleftors, are, in every point of view, pre-
ferable to thofe with fires burning in the air. They
are fupported at a much Icls expeuce ; their hght is more
brilliant, and feen at a greater diltance, whilft it can
never be obfcured by fmoke, or beaten down, on the lee-
fide, by a violent gull of wind ; and they may be fo va-
rioufly placed, that one hght-houfe cannot be miftaken for
another. Befides, the lamps do not need trimming fo often

Vol. XXIX.

as open fires require fuel, and the man who attends them ia
never cxpofed either to cold or wet in the performance of his
duly, fo that they are lef;; likely to be neglcfted in Itormy
weather than thofe with open fires.

It has been propofed to make the concave furface of the
parabola one fpcculum of metal, inllead of covering it over
with a number of plain glafs mirrors ; or to diminifli the fize
of each mirror, if it be thought beil to retain them inftead
of introducing the fpeculnm. To this propofed alteration
it has been objefted, that the brightell metal does not refleft
fuch a quantity of light as well foliated clear glafs ; and by
diminifliing the fize of the mirrors, the number of joinings
would beincreafcd, in each of which fome light is loft, not
merely in the feam, but from its being ahnolt inipoffible to
foliate glafs perfeftly at its edge.

REFLEX, Reflect, in Painting, is underftood of thofe
places in a piiSure which are fuppofed to be illuminated by
a light reflefted from fome other body reprefented in the
fame piece.

Or, reflexes may be defined thofe places which, befide
the general light that illumines the whole piece, receive fome
particular light from their fituation with refpeft to fome
more illummated polifhed body, that reflefts part of the
rays it receives upon them.

Reflexes are fcarcely fenfible, except in the fliadowcd
parts. The management of the reflexes requires great ac-
curacy and fliill. All reflefted light is fuppofed to carry
with it part of the colour of the body which reflefts it ; fo
that thofe places which receive this light, muft have their
colour mixed or tinged with that colour. But the fame
place may receive reflexes from different objefts, differently
coloured, and thofe again receive reflexes from others. The
painter, therefore, muft have a view to every circumftance
of the colour, light, and pofition of each figure ; he muft
confider what eff'eft each has on others, and purfue nature
through all the variety of mixtures. See Clair-obscure,
and Light.

Reflex Fi/ion, or Reflected vijion, is that performed
by means of rays reflefted from the pohflied furfaces of ob-
jefts to the eye.

Reflex vifion is the fubjeft of catoptrics. Under reflex
vifion come all the phenomena of fpecula or mirrors of all
kinds.

REFLEXIBILITY of the Rays of Light, is that pro-
perty by which they are difpofed to be reflefted. See Re-
flection.

Or, it is their difpofition to be turned back into the fame
medium, from any other medium on whofe furface they fall ;
hence thofe rays are laid to be more or lefs reflexible, which
are returned back more or lefs eafily under the fame inci-
dence.

Thus, if light pafs out of glafs into air, and by being in-
chned more and more to the common furface of the glafs
and air, begins at length to be totally reflefted by that fur-
face, thofe forts of rays which at like incidences are reflefted
moft copioufly, or the rays which, by being inchned,
begin fooneft to be totally reflefted, are the moft reflexible
rays.

That rays of light are of different colours, and endued
with different degrees of reflcxibility, was firft difcovered
by fir Ifaac Newton ; and is fhewn by the following experi-
ment. Applying a prifm DFE [Plate XVII. Optics,
fg. 15.), whofe angles are each 45°, to the aperture C of a
darkened room, in fuch manner as that the light is reflefted
from the bafe in G ; the violet rays are feen firft reflefted
into H G ; the other rays continuing ftill refrafted in I K.
After the violet the blue are all refrafted, the green, &c.
4 D (See

II E F

(See Colour.) Hence it appears, that the diftcrentiy co-
loured rays differ in degree of reflexibility.

From the other experiments it appears, that thofe rays
which are mod rcHcxible, are alio moft refrangible. See
Refuanoibilitv.

REFLEXION. See Rkilection.

REFLEX IT Y, a term employed by Mr. Brougham to
denote a property of light, which cauics the different rays
to be aaed upon by bodies, and to hegm to be refraaed, re-
fieaed, infleaed, anddefleaed, at different dillances. Ihis
property obferves the fame law with the other optical pro-
perties of li^ht ; the red ray having moft reflexity, and the
violet the leift. (See Phil. Tranf. for 1797, p. 360.) Mr.
Brougham has cxpreffed this property by the three words,
«' refrangity," " reflexity," and " flexity ;" but the power
being the fame, if fuch a property exift, different names
feem to be unncceffary.

REFLUX of the Sea, the ebbing of the water ; or its
return from the Ibore. It is thus called, as being the oppo-
fite motion to the flood, or flux. See Tide.

REFORM, a re-eftabli(hment, or revival of former
negkaed difciphne ; or acorreaion of fome reigning abufes

in It. • r r r ■L A ■

The term is much ufed in a monaftic fenfe, for the reducing
an order or congregation of religious to the ancient feverity
of the rule from which it had gradually fwerved ; or even
for the improving on the ancient rule and inftitution itfelf,
and voluntarily making it more fevere.

In this fenfe the order of St. Bernard is faid to be only a
reform of that of St. Benedia.

To Reform, in a Military Senfi; is, after fome evolution
or manoeuvre, to bring a line to its natural order, by aligning
it on fome given point. See Battalion.

To Reform, is alfo to reduce a company, regiment, or
other body of men, either by dilbanding the whole, or only
breaking a part, and retaining the reft ; or fometimes by in-
corporatir-g them with other regiments. Hence,

REFORMADO, or Reformed officer, one whofe troop
or company is fuppreffed in a reform, whilft he is continued
either in whole or haU'-pay, doing duty in the fegiment. A
reformed captain of foot follows the company, and affifts
the ftanding officer as a fecond ; but he ftill maintains his
degree and precedence.

REFORMATION, Reformatio, the aa of reform-
ing, or correaing an error, or abufe, in religion, difciphne,

or the like.

The reformation of religion, called, by way of eminence,
the Reformatton, was begun by the ekaor of Saxony, at the
folicitation of Luther, about the beginning of the fixteenth
century. See Luther and Lutheranism.

There were many circumftances which concurred at this
time to bring about that happy reformation in religion, which
refcued one part of Europe from the papal yoke, mitigated
its ri<TOur in the other, and produced a revolution in the fen-
timents of mankind, the greateft as well as the moft beneficial
that has happened fince the publication of Chriftianity.
How far the fale of indulgences, publiihed by Leo X., con-
tributed to this event, we have already fhewn under the
article Luther. We iliall here obferve, that the fame cor-
ruptions in the church of Rome which Luther condemned,
had been attacked long before his appearance, and the fame
opinions which he propagated had been publiihed in different
places, and fupported by the fame arguments. Waldus in
the i2thcentury, Wickliffeinthe 14th, and Hufs in the 15th,
had inveighed againil the errors of Popery with great bold-
uefs, and confuted them with more ingenuity and learning
than could have been expefted in thofe illiterate ages in which

R E F

they fiourifhcd. But all thefe premature attempts toward*
a reformation proved abortive. Many powerful caufes con-
tributed to facilitate Luther's progrefs, which either did not
exift, or did not operate witli lull force in their days : the
principal of thefe we (hall here enumerate. The long and
fcandalous fchifm which divided the church, during the latter
part of the 141!), and the beginning of the I5tli centuries,
had a great effea in diminiftiing the veneration with which
the world had been accuftomed to view the papal dignity.
The proceedings of the councils of Conftance and Baill
fpiead this difrefpea for the Romifh fee iliil wider, and by
their bold exertion of authority in depofing and ekaing
popes, taught the world that there was in the church a ju-
rifdiaion fuperior even to the papal power, which they had
long beheved to be fupreme. The wound given on that oc-
cafion to the papal authority was fcarccly healed, when the
pontificates of Alexander VI. and Julius 1 1, both able princes,
but deteftable ecclefiaftics, raifed new fcandal in Chriftendom.
Befides, many of the dignified clergy, kcular as well as
regular, negkaed the duties of their office, and indulged
themfelvcs, without referve, in all the vices to which great
wealth and idknefs naturally give birth ; and grofs ignorance
and low debauchery rendered the inferior clergy as con-
temptible as the others were odious. So that we find, long
before the i6th century, that many authors of reputation
give fuch defcription of the diflblute morals of the clergy,
as feems almoft incredible in the prefent age. The fcandal
of thofe crimes, which very generally prevailed, was greatly
increafed by the facility with which iuch as committed them
obtained pardon. The exorbitant wealth of the church,
the vaft perfonal immunities of ecclefiaftics, and their en-
croachments on the juriidiaion of the laity, and their
various devices to fecure their ufurpations, created much
diflatisfaaion among the people, and difpofed them to pay
particular attention to the inveaives of Luther. Befides
thefe caufes of his rapid progrefs, we may alfo reckon the
invention of the art of printing, about half a century before
his time, the revival of learning at the fame period, and the
bold fpirit of inquiry which it excited in Europe ; fo that
many were prepared to embrace his doarines, who did not
really wifh fuccefs to his undertaking. In the writings of
Reuchhn, Hutten, and the other revivers of learning in
Germany, the corruptions of the church of Rome are cen-
fured with an acrimony of ftyle little inferior to that of Lu-
ther himfelf. The raillery and oblique cenfures of Erafmiis
in particular, upon the errors of the church, as well as
upon the ignorance and vices of the clergy, prepared the
way for Luther's inveaives and more direa attacks. To
all which we may add, that the theological doarines cf
Popery were fo repugnant to the fpirit of Chriftianity, and
fo deftitute of any foundation in reafon, in the word of God,
or in the praaice of the church, that this circumftance com-
bined in favouring the progrefs of Luther's opinions, and in
weakening the refiftance of his adverfaries.

The rife of the reformation in Switzerland was at leaft as
early as in Germany ; for Ulric Zuingle had, in the year
1516, begun to explain the fcriptures to the people, and to
cenlure, though with great prudence and moderation, the
errors of a corrupt church. He had very noble and ex-
tenfive ideas of a general reformation, at the time when
Luther retained almoft the whole fyftem of Popery, indul-
gences excepted ; and he had aaually called in queftion the
authority and fupremacy of the pope, before the name of
Luther was known m that country. In the year 1524, Nu-
remberg, Francfort, Hamburgh, and feveral other cities in
Germany, of the firft rank, openly embraced the reformed
religion, and by the authority of their magiftrates abolifhed

the

IlEFORMATION.

•:he iiiafs, and tlie Other fuperftitious rites of Popery. The
eleftor of Brandenburgh, Saxony, tlie marquis of the land-
grave of Hefle, tlic dukes of Bninfwick and Lunenburgh,
and prince of Anhalt, became avowed patrons of Luther's
opinions, and countenanced the preaching of them among
their fubjefts. The reformers derived great advantage from
the tranfaftions of the diet at Nuremberg, which prefented
to the pope a catalogue of a hundred grievances, which the
empire imputed to the iniquitous dominion of the papal fee.
The progrels of the reformation m Germany was likcwife
promoted by the proceedings of the diet held at Spire in
the years 1526 and 1529. See Luther and Protestants.

During thefe tranfaftions in Germany, the dawn of trutii
arofe upon other nations. The light of the reformation
fpread itfelf far and wide ; and almoll all the European Hates
welcomed its falutary beams, and exulted in the profpedt of
an approaching deliverance from the yoke of fuperftition and
Ipiritual deipotifm. Some of the moil confiderable pro-
vinces of Europe had already broke their chains, and openly
withdrawn themlelves from the difciphne of Rome and the
juriidiftion of its pontiff. The reformed religion was pro-
pagated in Sweden, foon after Luther's rupture with Rome,
by Olaus Petri, one of his difciples, who was countenanced
and encouraged by the valiant and public-fpirited prince Guf-
tavus Vafa Ericfon, to whofe firmnefs and magnanimity
it was owing, that from the year 1527 the papal em-
pire in Sweden wai entirely overturned, and Guftavus
declared head of the church. The light of the reformation
was alio received in Denmark fo early as the year 1521, in
conlequence of the ardent deiire difcovered by Chriilian or
Chriftiern IL, for purpofes of mere ambition, of having his
difciples inilrafted in the doftrines of Luther. His luc-
ceiTor Frederic, duke of Holilein and Silefia, contributed
greatly to the progrels of the reformation, by his fuccefsful
attempts in favour of religious liberty, at the aflembly of
dates that was held at Odenfee, in the year 1527, when he
procured the publication of the famous edift which declared
every fubjedt of Denmark free, either to adhere to the tenets
of the church of Rome, or to embrace the doftrine of Lu-
ther ; that no perfon fliould be molelled on account of his
religion ; that a royal prote&ioii Ihould be granted to the
Lutherans ; and that ecclefialtics of every order ihould be
allowed to marry. But the honour of accomplifhing this
glorious work was referved for Chrirtiern IIL a prince
equally diftinguifhed by his piety and prudence. The reli-
gious doftrine, difcipline, and worfhip of this kingdom,
were fettled according to a plan laid down by Bugenhagius.
And the aflembly of the dates at Odenfee, in 1539, gave a
folemn fanclion to all thefe tranfaftions, and thus the work
of reformation was brought to pertefkion in Denmark.

In the fame year the reformation was eftabliihed in every
part of Saxony. Upon thedeathof George, duke of Saxony,
who was an inveterate enemy to the reformation, the fuc-
ceflion fell to his brother Henry, whofe attachment to the
Froteftant religion furpafled, if polTible, that of his prede-
celTor to Popery. Henry invited fome Protelfant divines,
and among them Luther himfelf, to Leipfic ; and by their
advice and affiltance, he learned, in a few weeks, the whole
fyftem of ancient rites, eftabhihing the full exercife of the
Proteftant religion, with the univerfal applaule of his fub-
jefts, who had long wifhed for this change, which the oblli-
nacy of their former duke had alone prevented. This revo-
lution delivered the Proteftanta from the danger to which
they were expofed by having an inveterate enemy fettled in
the middle of their territories ; and their dominions now
extended in a great and almoft unbroken line from the Shore
of the Baltic to the banks^of the Rhine

In France, the aufpicious patronage of Margaret, queen
of Navarre, filler to Francis 1., encouraged leveral pious
and learned men, whofe religious fentiments were the fame
with her own, to propagate the principles of the reforma-
tion, and even to creiit feveral Protellant churches in that
kingdom. It appears, that, in early as the year 1523,
there were many, and even pcrlons of rank, and fome of
the cpifcopal order, who had conceived the utmoll averfion
both againfl the doftrine and tyranny of Rome. But the
wavering and inconliltent condudt ol Francis I. rendered the
fituation of the Proteflants in this country always precarious,
often dilt relied. Upon the whole, we may obfcrve, that,
before the diet of Auglburg, the doflrine of Luther had
made confiderable, though perhaps a fecrct, progrefs in
Spain, Hungary, Bohemia, Britain, Poland, and the Ne-
therlands, and had, in all thefe countries, many friends,
of wiiom feveral repaired to Wittemberg to improve their
knowledge, and enlarge their views under fuch an eminent
mailer. At this diet, held in 1530, the Auglburg or
Auguftine confefTion was prefented to the emperor Charles V.
and after many debates between the friends of liberty
and the votaries of Rome, the latter prevailed ; and the
diet, in compliance with the opinion and remondrances of
Campeggio, the papal nuncio, idued a decree, condemning
mod of the pecuhar tenets held by the Protedants ; for-
bidding any perfon to proteft or tolerate thofe who taught
them ; enjoining a drift obfervance of tlie edabliflied rites ;
and prohibiting any farther innovation, under fevcre penalties.
Thofe who retufed to obey this decree were declared inca-
pable of afting as judges, or of appearing as parties in the
imperial chamber, the fupreme court of judicature in the
empire. The Protedants, alarmed at the feverity of the
decree, affembled at Smalcald, and concluded a league of
mutual defence againd all aggreflors, by which they formed
the Protedant dates of the empire into one regular body :
and they refolved to apply to the kings of England, France,
and Denmark, to implore them to affid and patronize this
new confederacy. After various negociations between the
emperor and the Protedant princes, terms of pacification
were agreed upon at Nuremberg, and ratified folemnly in
the diet of Ratifbon, in the year 1532. In this treaty it
was diputated, that univerfal peace be edablifhed in Ger-
many, until the meeting of a general council, tiie convocation
of which, within fix months, the emperor fhall endeavour
to procure ; that no perfon be moleded on account of re.
ligion ; that a ftop be put to all proceffes begun by the
imperial chamber againd Protedants ; and the fentences al-
ready paffed to their detriment be declared void. On their
part, the Protedants engaged to afTid the emperor with all
their forces in refiding the invafion of the Turks. Thus the
Protedants, by their firmnefs, unanimity, and dexterity in
availing themfelves of the emperor's fituation, obtained
terms which amounted almod to a toleration of their religion.
But neither the emperor nor the pope were difpofed to abide
by the unbiaded fenfe of a general council, affembled, as the
Protedants wifhed, within the limit of the empire, but de-
termined to decide their religious debates by the force of
arms. After many evafions and delays, it was propofed, in
the year 1545, to ad'emble a council at Trent, which was
vigoroully oppofed by the Protedants. The emperor and
the pope had mutually agreed to detlroy all who fnould dare
to oppofe this council. The meeting of that aflembly was
to ferve as a fignal for their taking arms ; and accordingly
its dehberations were fcarcely begun, in the year 1546, when
the Protedants perceived undoubted marks of a formidable
union to overwhelm and crufh them by one blow. The
father*) affemblpd in the council of Trent, promulgated
4 D 3 their

IIEFORMATION.

their decrees ; and the Piotellaut princes in the diet of Ra-
tifbon proteftod againlt their authority ; and were, in confe-
quenco of this, prol'cribed by the emperor, who railed an
army to reduce them to obedience. Thus commenced the
war of Smalcald, which was proiecutcd with various fuccefs
on both lides, till, in the year 1552, Charles was furprifcd
at Infpruck. by Main-ice of Saxony, and was conllrained to
conclude at PafTau the famous treaty of pacification, (which
fee,) with the Protelbnts, which is confidered by thofe of
Germany as the bafisof their rehgious liberty ; and to pro-
mife in fix months to afTemble a diet, in which all the tumults
and diffenfions, that had been occafioned by a variety of fen-
timents in rehgious matters, (hould be entirely removed.
This diet, though not adembled at the ilipulated time, met,
however, at Auglhurg, in the year 1555, and terminated
thofe deplorable Icenes of blooddied, defolation, and difcord,
that had fo long afflitled both church and Itate by that relt-
rioiis peace, as it is commonly called, which fecured to the
Proteftants the free excrcife of their rehgion, and eita-
blifhed this incftimable hberty upon the firmed foundations.
For, after various debates, the following memorable afts
were palled ; that the Proteftants who followed the con- ■
feffion of Augfburg, (hould for the future be confidered as
entirely exempted from the jurifdiiSlion of the Roman pon-
tiff, and from the authority and fuperintendance of the
bifhops ; that they were left at perfeft hberty to enaft laws
for themfelves, relating to their rehgious fentiments, dil-
ciphnc, and worlhii) ; that all the inhabitants of the German
empire fnould be allowed to judge for themfelves in religious
matters, and to join themfelves to that church whofe doc-
trine and worlhip they thought the pureft and moft confonant
to the fpirit of Chrilhanity ; and that all thofe, who fhould
injure or perfecute any perfon under religious pretexts, and
on account of their opinions, (hould be declared, and pro-
ceeded againft, as public enemies of the empire, invaders of
its liberty, and difturbers of its peace.

In the year 1533, Henry VIII. king of England, who,
in the beginning of thefe troubles, had oppofed the doftrine
and views of Luther with the utmoft vehemence, partly be-
caufe he had fpoken with contempt of Thomas Aquinas,
the king's favourite author, having fued for a divorce from
Catharine of Arragon, his brother's widow, at the court of
Rome, for almoft fix years, during which period Clement VII.
negociated, proniifed, retrafted, and concluded nothing, de-
termined to apply to another tribunal for that decree which
he had unfuccefsfully fohcited at Rome. Cranmer, arch-
bi(hop of Canterbury, by a fentence founded on the autho-
rity of univerfities, doftors, and rabbles, who had been
confulted with refpeft to the point, annulled the king's
marriage with Catharine ; and Anne Boleyn, whofe charms
had captivated the king, was acknowledged as queen of Eng-
land, Clement, apprehenfive left England would revolt from
the holy fee, determined to give Henry fuch fatisfaftion as
might ftill retain him within the bofom of the church. But
the violence of the cardinals precipitated him, in 1534, to
iffue a bull refcindijig Cranmer's fentence, confirming Henry's
marriage with Catharine, and declaring him excommunicated,
if, within a time fpecified, he did not abandon the wife he
had taken, and return to her whom he had deferted. En-
raged at this unexpeiRed decree, Henry kept no longer any
meafures with the court of Rome ; his fubjefis feconded his
refentment ; an aft of parliament was paffed, abolhhing the
papal power and jurifdiftion in England ; by another the
king was declared fupreme head of the church, and all the
authority of which the popes were deprived was vefted in
him ; the moriajlcrles, (which fee,) were fuppreilied, and their
revenues applied to other ptirpofes.

The people had been gradually prepared for this great
innovation. Each fucceeding feffioii of parliament had
made fomc retrenchment from the power and profits of the
Roman pontifl. Care had been taken, during lome yeara,
to teach the nation that a general council was much fuperior
to a pope. But now a bilhop preached every Sunday at
Paul's Crofs, in order to inculcate tlie doctrine, that the
pope was iutitled to no authority at all beyond his own
diocele.

The laws pafied during this feffion (1534) fufficiently
evince, that the king was determined not to (urrender any
part of his affumed prerogative. All payments made to the
apoftolic chamber : all provifions, bulls, difpenfations, were
aboliflied : monafteries were to be (ubjedtcd to the regulation
and government of the king alone : the law for punching he-
retics was moderated : the ordinary was prohibited from im-
prifoning or trying any perfon upon fulpicion alone, with-
out prelentmcnt by ten lawful witnefles : and it was declared
that to (peak againft the pope's autliority was no herefy :
biihops were to be appointed by a conge d'elire from the
crown, or, in cafe of the dean and chapter's refufal, by
letters patent ; and no recourfe was to be had to Rome for
palls, bulls, or provifions. Campeggio and Ghinucci, two
Italians, Were deprived of the bi(hoprics of Sah(bury and
Worcefter, which they had hitherto enjoyed : the law which
had been formerly made againft paying annats, or firft fruits,
but which had been left in the king's power to fufpend or
enforce, was finally eftabli(hed : and a fubmiffion which was
exacted two years before from the clergy, and which had
been obtained with great dilficulty, received this feffion the
fandtion of parliament. In this fubmiffion, the clergy ac-
knowledged that convocations ought to be aflemblcd by the
king's authority only : they promiled to enaft no new canons
without his confent : and they agreed that he (hould appoint
32 commiffioners, in order to examine the old canons, and
abrogate fuch as (hould be found prejudiciiJ to his royal
prerogative. An appeal was alfo allowed from the bifhop's
court to the king in chancery. But the molt important aft
paffed this felfion, was that which regulated the fucccffioa
to the crown : the marriage of the king with Catharine
was declared unlawful, void, and of noeffeft: the primate's
fentence annulling it was ratified ; and the marriage with
queen Anne was eftabli/hed and confirmed. The crown was
appointed to defcend to the iffue of this marriage, and fail-
ing there, to the king's heirs for ever. An oath was hke-
wife enjoined to be taken in favour of this order of fuccei-
fiou, under the penalty of imprifonment during the king's
pleafure, and forfeiture of goods and chattels : and all (lander
againft the king, queen, or their iffue, was fubjefted to the
penalty of mifprifion of treafon. Thefe feveral afts, fo con-
temptuous towards the pope, and fo deftruftive of his autho-
rity, were parted at the very time that Clement pronounced
his hafty fentence againft the king. The king found his
ecclefiaftical fubjefts as comphaiit as the laity. The convo-
cation ordered that the aft againft appeals to Rome, toge-
ther with the king's appeal from the pope to a general coun-
cil, (liould be affixed to all the doors of all the churches
in the kingdom ; and they voted that the biihop of Rome had,
by the laws of God, no more jurifdiftion in England than
any other foreign bilhop ; and that the authority which he
and his predeceffors had there exercifed, was only by ufurpa-
tion, and by the fufferance of Engli(h princes. The biftiops
went fo far in their complaifance, that they took out new
commiflions from the crown, in which all their fpiritual and
epifcopal authority was exprefsly afBrmed to be derived ul-
timately from the civil magiftrate, and to be entirely de-
pendent on his good pleafure.

I Henry,

REFORMATION.

Henry, howevei, with tlie caprice peculiar to his cha-
racter, continued to defend the doilrines of the Romifh
church as fiercely as he attacked their jurifdiftion. He al-
ternately perfecuted the Proteilants for rejefting the former,
and the Catholics for acknowledging the latter.

Nothing moi-e forwarded the firft progrcfs of the re-
formers, than the offer which they made, of fubmittiug all
religious doctrines to private judgment, and the fummons
given every one to examine the principles formerly impofed
upon them. And wliat can be more jull and reafonable ?
and yet the multitude, fays Mr. Hume, were totally un-
qualilied for this undertaking, though they were highly
pleafed with it. They fancied that they were exerciilng
their judgment, while they oppofed to the prejudices of an-
cient authority more powerful prejudices of another kind.
The novelty itfelf of the dodtriues ; the pleafure of an ima-
ginary triumph in difpute ; the fervent zeal of the reformed
preachers ; their patience, and even alacrity, in fuffering
perfecution, death, and torments ; a difgull at the reilraints
of the old religion ; an indignation againll the tyranny and
interefted fpirit of the ecclefiailics : — thefe motives, fays the
fame hiftorian, whiUl, as fome may imagine, he is depre-
ciating the principles of the reformation, were prevalent
with the people ; and by fuch coniiderations were men fo
generally induced, during that age, to throw off the religion
of their anceilors. In proportion, fays the fame author, as
the prattice of fubmittmg religion to private judgment was
acceptable to the people, it appeared, in fome refpefts, dan-
gerous to the rights of fovereigns, and feemed to deitroy
that implicit obedience on which the authority of the civil
magiitrate is chiefly founded. When fome Englifhmen,
fuch were Tindal, Joye, Conftantine, and others, retired to
Antwerp, through fear of the exertion of the king's autho-
rity, they employed themfelves in writing Enghfh books
againft the corruptions of the church of Rome ; againft
images, relics, and pilgrims ; and they excited the curioiity of
men with regard to that queftion, which is the moil import-
ant in theology, the terms of acceptance with the Supreme
Being. Thefe books, having been fccretly conveyed to Eng-
land, began to make converts every where ; but it was a tranf-
lation of the fcriptures by Tindal that was efteemed the moil
dangerous to the eil.iblifhed faith. Againll Wolfey, a fa-
vourite minifter of Henry VHL, it was one article of im-
peachment, that, by his connivance, he had encouraged the
growth of herefy, and that he had protefted and acquitted
Jome notorious offenders. Wolfey was iucceeded in the
office of chancellor by iir Thomas More, who, irritated by
polemics, became fo fuperftitioufly attached to the ancient
faith, that few inquifitors have been guilty of greater vio-
lence in their profecution of herefy. Several perfons were
not only brought into the courts for heretical oflences, fuch
as teaching their children the Lord's prayer in Enghlh, for
reading the New Teltament in that language, or for fpeak-
ing againll pilgrimages ; and others were charged with the
capital offences of harbouring perfecuted preachers, neglect-
ing the falls of the church, and declaiming againft the vices
of the clergy. Some were tried, condemned, and com-
mitted to the flames. Notwithftanding the inconfiilent con-
du£l of Henry, his fubjedls having been encouraged, by his
example, to break fome of their fetters, were fo impatient
to Ihake off all that remained, that in the following reign,
under his fon Edward VI., with the general applanfe of the
nation, a total feparation was made from the church of
. Rome in articles of dodlrine, as well as in matters of difci-
pline andjurifditlion. (See Articles.) In 1553, his death
retarded the progrcfs of the reformation ; and his i'liler
Mary, who fucceeded him, impofed a-new the arbitrary

laws and tyrannical yoke of Rome upon the people of ti.g.
land. But the execution of a great number of perfons
who were burnt for the Proteilant faith in the five years of
her perfecuting and bloody reign, fo alienated the people
from Popery, that queen Ehzabeth, her filter, found it no
hard matter to deliver her lubjefts from the bondage of
Rome, and to ellablifli that form of religious dottrine and
ecclefiaftical government, which Hill fublilts in England.

The feeds of the reformation were very early fown in
Scotland, by fcveral noblemen of that nation, who had re-
fided in Germany during the rehgious difputes that divided
the empire. The firlt and moft eminent oppofer of the Papal
jurifdiction was Joini Knox, a difciple of Calvin, who fet
out from Geneva for Scotland in 1559, and in a little while
prevailed with the grcatell .part of the Scotch nation en-
tirely to abandon the fuperftitions of Rome, and to aim at
nothing lefs than the total extirpation of Popery. In the
following year, iiiz. 1560, the parliament ratified a confef-
fion of faith, agreeable to the new doftrines, and palling a
ftatute againll the mafs, not only abolilhed it in all the
churches, but enaftcd, that whoever, any where, either
officiated in it, or was prefent at it, fhould be chaftifed, for
the firfl offence, with contifcation of goods, and corporal
punifhment, at the difcretion of the magiitrate ; for the fe-
cond, with banifliment ; and for the third, with lofs of life.
A law was alio voted for abolifhing the Papal jurifdiftion in
Scotland ; the Prefbyteriau form of difcipline was fettled,
leaving only at firlt fome fliadow of authority to certain ec-
clefiailics, whom they called fuperintendants. From that
period to the prefent times the form of doftrine, worfliip,
and difcipline, that had been eftablifhed at Geneva by the
miniflry of Calvin, has been maintained in Scotland with
invincible obilinacy and zeal ; and every attempt to intro-
duce, into that kingdom, the rites and government of the
church of England, has proved impotent and unfuccefsful.
See Pre.sbyterian.s.

The caufe of the reformation in Ireland underwent the
fame vicilhtudes that had attended it in England. When
Henry VIII., after the abohtion of the Papal authority,
was declared fupreme head of the church of England,
George Brown, a native of England, and a monk of the
Auguilin order, whom that monarch had created, in the
year 1535, archbifhop of Dublin, began to aft with the
utmoft vigour, in confequence of this change in the hie-
rarchy. He purged the churches of his diocefe from fuper-
ftition in all its forms, pulled down images, deft:royed relics,
abolilhed abfurd and idolatrous rites, and, by the influence
as well as authority he had in Ireland, caufed the king's fu-
premacy to be acknowledged in that nation. Henry Ihewed
ioon after, that this fupremacy was not a vain title ; for he
baniflied the monks out of that kingdom, confifcated their
revenues, and deilroyed their convents. In the reign of
Edward VI. farther progrefs was made in the reformation,
but the acceflion of Mary retarded it, in confequence of
which Brown and other Proteltant bifhops were deprived of
their dignities in the church. When Elizabeth afcended the
throne, the Irilh were again obliged to fubmit to the form
of worlhip and difcipline eltabhflied in England.

The reformation liad not been long ellablilhed in Britain,
when tlie Belgic provinces, united by a refpeftable confe-
deracy which ilill fubfilts, withdrew from their fpiritual al-
legiance to the Roman pontiff. The means which Philip II.
king of Spain ufed to obftruft the reformation, promoted
it : the nobility formed themfelves into an affbciation, in the
year 1566, and roufed the people ; who, under the heroic
coudutl of Wilham of Nallau, prince of Orange, feconded
by the fuccours of England and France, dehvered this Itate

from

REFORMATION.

from the SpauilTi yoke : in conlcquence of which the re-
formed n-ligion, as it was profefled in Switzerland, was
cftablifhcd in the United Provinces ; and, at the fame time,
an univerfal toleration granted to thofe whofe religious fen-
timents were of a different nature, whether they retained the
faith of Rome, or embraced the reformation in another form,
provided that they made no attempts againft the authority
of the government, or the tranquillity of the public.

Whilft Mr. Hume attributes the quick, and furprifing
progrcfs of the reformation in part to the late invention of
printing, and revival of learning, he denies that reafon had
.iny confiderable (hare in opening men's eyes with regd-d to
the impofturcs of the Romidi church ; alleging that philo-
fophy had made little progrefs, at Icall not till long after the
period of the reformation, and that no inftancc occurs in
which argument h.is ever been able to free the people from
that enormous load of abfurdity with which fuperftition has
?very where overwhelmed them : to which he adds, that the
rapid advance of the Lutheran doftrine, and the violence
with which it was embraced, prove fufhciently that it owed
not its fuccefs to reafon and refletlion. The art of printing,
and the revival of learning, he fays, forwarded its progrefs
in another manner. By means of that art, the books of
Luther and his feftaries, full of vehemence, declamation,
and a rude eloquence, were propagated more quickly, and
in greater numbers. The minds of men, fomewhat awakened
from a profound lleep of fo many centuries, were prepared
for every novelty, and fcrupkd lefs to tread in any unufual
path which was opened to them. And as copies of the
fcriptures, and other ancient monuments of the Chriftian
faith, became more common, men perceived the innovations
which were introduced after the firft century ; and though
argument and reafoning could not give conviftion, an hif-
torical faft, well fupported, was able to make impreffion on
their underflandings. As the ecclefiaftics would not agree
to poflefs their privileges, though ancient and prior to al-
moft every political eltablifliment in Europe, as matters of
civil right, which time might render valid, but appealed tUll
to a divine right, they thus tempted men to look to their
primitive charter, which, with httle difficulty, they could
perceive to be defeftive in truth and authenticity. Befides,
Luther and his followers, not fatisfied with oppofmg the
pretended divinity of the Romilh church, and difplaying the
temporal inconveniences of that eftablifhment, proceeded to
treat the religion of their anceftors as abominable, deteftable,
and damnable ; foretold by facred writ itfelf as the fource
of all wickednefs and pollution. They denominated the
pope antichrift, called his communion the fcarlet whore,
and o-ave to Rome the appellation of Babylon ; expreffions
which, however applied, were to be found in fcripture, and
which were better calculated to operate on the multitude
than the mod folid arguments. Excited by conteft and
perfecution on the one hand, by fuccefs and applaufe on the
other, many of the reformers carried to the greateft ex-
tremities their oppofition to the church of Rome ; and in
contradiftion to the multiplied fuperftitions with which that
communion was loaded, they adopted an enthufiaftic ftram
of devotion, which admitted of no obfervances, rites, or
ceremonies, but placed all merit in a myfterious fpecies of
faith, in inward vifion, rapture, and ecftacy. The new
feftaries, feized with this fpirit, were indefatigable in the
propagation of their doftrine, and fet at defiance all the
anathemas and punifhments with which the Roman pontiff
endeavoured to overwhelm them.

Thus, in terms which appear to us too difparaging, does
our hiftorian defcribe the origin and progrefs of the reforma-
tion ; nor does he pay due refpeft to the principles on which

it was founded, and to the charafter of the perfons who
were the principal agents in accompliftiing it. We are
ready to acknowledge, that the collateral circumftances above
.ecited rendered its advances more rapid and more extenfive ;
but we cannot aUow that it did not owe much of its fuccefs
to reafon and refleftion. But whatever may be our opinion
of the primary caufes that produced it, its influence on the
minds and manners of mankind, on the ftate of fociety in
general, and on the interefts of liberty, rehgion, and virtue,
has been eminently and extenfivcly beneficial. Luther had
no fooner began to attack the papal fupremacv, than the
charm, which had bound mankind for lo many ages, was
broken at once. The human mind, which had long con-
tinued as tame and padive, as if it had been taught to be-
lieve whatever was taught, and to bear whatever was iin-
pofed, roufed of a fudden, and became inquifitive, mu-
tinous, and difdainful of the yoke to which it had liitherto
fubmitted. The reformation, wherever it was received, in-
creafed that bold and innovating fpirit to which it owed its
birth. Men who had the courage to overturn a fyftem,
fupported by every thing which can command refpedt or
reverence, were not to be overawed by any authority, how
great or venerable foever. After having been accullomed
to confider themfelves as judges of the moft important doc-
trines in religion, to examine thefe freely, and to reject,
without fcruple, what appeared to them erroneous, it was
natural for them to turn the fame daring and inquifitive eye
to government, and to think of reftifying whatever dif-
orders or imperfections were difcovered there. As religious
abufes had been reformed in fevcral places, without the per-
miflion of the magillrate, it was an eafy tranfition to attempt
the redrefs of political grievances in the fame manner. But
though the fpirit of innovation, that was excited and pro-
moted by the reformation, might in fome inftances prove
the occalion of turbulence and tumult, the good that
eventually accrued from its operation far exceeded the par-
tial and temporary evil that refulted from it. The preva-
lence of this fpirit was fo general, that it muft have been
excited by caufes that were natural, and of powerful effi-
cacy ; and the confequences that flowed from them muit
have been as important and intereiling as the caufes that
produced them. The kingdemis of Denmark, Sweden,
England, and Scotland, and almoll one half of Germany,
threw off their allegiance to the pope, abolifhed his jurif-
diftion within their territories, and gave the fanftion of law
to modes of difcipline and fyltems of doftrine, which were
not only independent of his power, but hoftile to it. Nor
was this fpirit of innovation confined to thofe countries
which openly revolted from the pope ; it fpread through all
Europe, and broke out in every part of it with vanous de-
grees of violence. It penetrated early into France, and
made fuch rapid progrefs, that the number of converts to
the opinions of the reformers was lo great, their zeal fo en-
terprifing, and the abilities of their leaders fo diftinguilhed,
that they foon ventured to contend for fuperiority with the
eftabhlhed church, and were fometimes on the point of ob-
taining it. In all the provinces of Germany which con-
tinued to acknowledge the papal fupremacy, as well as in
the Low Countries, the Proteftant doftrines were fecretly
taught, and had gained fo many profelytes, that they were
ripe for revolt, and were reftrained merely by the dread of
their rulers from imitating the example of their neighbours,
and afferting their independence : hence in Spain and Italy,
fymptoms of tlie fame difpofition to fhake off the yoke ap-
peared. The pretenfions of the pope to infallible know-
ledge and fupreme power were treated by many perfons of
eminent learning and abilities with fuch fcorn, or impugned

6 with

R E F

R E F

\ritli fuch vehemence, that tlic mod vigilant attention of the
civil magiftrate, the highcft flrains of pontifical authority,
and all the rigour of the incjuifitorial jurildiftion, were re-
quifite to check or extinguilh it. The defeftion of fo many
opulent and powerful kingdoms from the papal fee was a
fatal blow to its grandeur and power, and produced a very
confiderable diminution of its revenues. It likcwife obliged
the Roman pontifls to adopt a different fyilim of conduft
towards the nations which continued to recognize their jurif-
diftion, and to govern them by new maxims, and with a
milder fpirit. They became afraid of venturing upon any
fuch exertion of their authority as might alarm or exaf-
perate their fubjefls, and excite them to a new revolt.
Hence it happens, that the popes, from the era of the re-
formation, have ruled ratiier by addrefs and management
than by authority. They have been obliged not only to
accommodate themfelves to the notions of their adherents,
but to pay lome regard to the prejudices of their enemies.
In procefs of time, and before the convulfions which have
lately agitated Europe, they iunk almoit to a level with the
other petty princes of Italy ; and they hardly retain any fha-
dow of the temporal power which they anciently pofleffed.
Neverthelefs, whilft tlie reformation has been fatal to the
pewer of the popes, it has contributed to improve the
church of Rome both in fcience and in morals. Many motives
have arifen out of the reformation, and the exiftence of two
rival churches, which have ferved to engage the Catholic
clergy to apply themfelves to the ftudy of ufeful fcience, and
to pay a flri6\ attention to the manners of their clergy. In
thofe countries where the members of the two churches
have mingled freely with each other, or have carried on any
confiderable intercourfe, either commercial or literary, an
extraordinary alteration in the ideas, as well as in the morals,
of the Popifh ecclefiaftics is manifeit. The beneficial in-
fluence of the reformation has not only been felt by the
clergy, and the inferior members of the Roman Catholic
church ; but it has extended to the fee of Rome, and to the
fovereign pontiffs themfelves, whofe charafter, at a later
period, has been very different from that of feveral of their
predeceffors. Many of them have been confpicuous for the
virtues becoming their high itation ; and by their humanity,
their love of literature, and their moderation, have made
fome atonement to mankind for the crimes of thofe who in
former times occupied their places. Thus the reformation
has eminently contributed to increafe purity of manners, to
diffufe fcience, and to infpire humanity. With the progrefs
of the reformation we may alfo conneft a variety of other
important benefits, both to individuals and to fociety ; and
as they pertain to the inveftigation of truth and the improve-
ment of fcience, to the promotion of liberty both civil and
religious, to the diffufion of knowledge and virtue, and to
the advancement of the beil intereils of mankind. But the
details of the advantages refulting from the reformation to
nations and private perfons, to religion in general, and ge-
nuine Chrillianity in particular, would far exceed the limits
to which we are confined.

See, on the fubjeft of this article, Robertfon's Hift. of
Charles V. vol. ii. p. 113, &c. vol. iii. p. 44, &c. Mo-
fheim's Eccl. Hiit. Eng. ed. Svo. vol. iii. Burnet's Hift.
of the Reformation, paffim. For a comprehenfive, and,
upon the whole, a juft llietch of the predifpofing caufes, and
beneficial confequences of the reformation, we refer the rea-
der to a work which obtained the prize propofed by the
National Inilitute of France, 15th of Germinal, in the year
X. •viz. " What has been the influence of the reformation by
Luther on the political fituation of the different ftates of
Europe, and on the progrefs of knowledge .'" The work

13 entitled " An Effay on the Spirit and Influence of the Re-
formation by Luther," by C. Villers. We have two Eng-
lifli tranflations, one by B. Lambert, and the other by
James Mill, Svo. 1805.

Reformation, Higit of, Jus reformat'ionh, is a right
which the princes of Germany claim to reform the church in
their refpeftive territories ; as being inveftcd with the fpiri-
tual as well as the temporal power.

The^';« reformatmiis is annexed to the fovereignty ; by this
they have the power of confcience, the difpofition of eccle-
fiaftical revenues, &c. as they enjoyed the fame at the treaty
of Mmltcr in 1624.

Reformation of Images, in Optics. See Anamorpho-
sis.

REFORMED Calendar and Church. See the fubftan-
tives.

Reformed OJicer. See Reformado.

REFRACTED Angle, in Optics, the angle contained
between the refrafted ray and the perpendicular.

Refracted Dials, are fuch as fhew the hour by means
of fome refrafting tranfparent fluid. See Dials, Refraaed.

Refracted Ray, or ray of refraaion. See Ray and
Refraction.

Refracted Vifwn. See Vision.

REFRACTING Telescope. See Telescope.

REFRACTION, Refractio, in ^f<r/^a«!'c.f, the devia-
tion of a moving body from its diredl courfe, by reafon of
the different denfity of the medium it moves in ; or a flexion
and change of determination, occafioned by a body's falling
obhquely out of one medium into another of a different
denfity.

Thus a ball A {Plate XXXVI. Mechanics, fg. 14.)
moving in the air in the line A B, and falling obliquely on
the furface of the water C D, does not proceed ftraight
to E, but deviates, or is inflefted, to F. Again, if the
ball, moving in water in the fame line A B, Ihould fall
obliquely on a furface of air C D ; it will not proceed ftraight
to E, nor yet defleft to F, but to G. Now the defledion in
each cafe is called the refraaion : and the two cafes are dif-
tinguifhed by means of the perpendicular M I ; that B G
being called refraaion towards the perpendicular, or to the
axis of refraaion ; and the other B F, refraaion from the per-
pendicular, or from the axis of refraaion.

Thefe refraftions are fuppofed to arife hence, that the ball .
arriving at B, in the firil cafe finds more refiitance or oppo-
fition on the one fide O, i. e. from the fide of the water, than
it did from the fide P, or that of the air ; and in the latter
more refiftance from the fide F, which is now the fide of
the water, than the fide O, which is that of the air.

The great law of refraAion, then, which holds in all bo-
dies, and all mediums, is that a body, pafiing obliquely out
of a medium which refills it more, is refrafted towards the
perpendicular ; and in paffing out of a medium which op-
pofes it lefs into another which oppofes it more, it is refrafted
from the perpendicular.

Hence the rays of light falling out of air into water are
refrafted towards the perpendicular ; whereas a ball thrown
into the water is refrafted from it ; becaufe water, which re-
fills the motion of light lefs than air, refills that of the ball
more ; or, to fpeak more juftly, becaufe water, by its greater
attradlion, accelerates the motion of the rays of light more
than air does ; for that this is the true cauie of refrattion,
at leafl in light, fhall be fliewn under Refraction of
light.

To have a body refrafted, it is neceffary that it fliould fall
obliquely on the fecond medium. In perpendicular inci-
dence there is no refraaion.

Voffius

REFRACTION.

Voflius indeed, and SncUius, imagined they had obfcrved
a perpendicular ray of light undergo a refraftion ; a perpen-
dicular oh]o&. appearing in the water nearer than in reality
it was ; but this was to attribute that to a refraftion of the
perpendicular rays, which was owing to the divergency of the
ttblique rays after refraftion, from a nearer point.

Yet there is a manifett refradtion even of perpendicular
rays found in I/land Cryhtal, which fee.

Rohault adds, that though an oblique incidence be necef-
fary in all other mediums we know of, yet the oblique muft
not exceed a certain degree ; if it do, the body will not pene-
trate the medium, but will be refleaed inaead of being
refrafted.

Thus cannon-balls, in fea-engagements, ialhng very
obliquely on the furface of the water, are obf«-ved to mount
aloft again, and frequently to fweep the men from ofT the
oppofite decks ; and the hke happens to the little ilones
with which children make their ducks and drakes.

The ancients confounded refraftion with refleftion, and
it was fir Ifaac Newton who lirft taught us the jull dilFerence
between them. He (hews likewife, that there is a good
deal of analogy between them, and particularly in the cafe
of light-

The laws of refraftion of the rays of light in mediums dif-
ferently terminated, /. e. whofe furfaces are plain, concave,
convex, &c. make the fubjeft of dioptrics ; which fee.

By refraftion it is, that convex glafles, or lenfes, col-
left the rays, magnify objefts, burn, &c. and hence the
foundation of microfcopes, telefcopes, &c.

By refraftion it is, that all remote objefts are fcen out of
their real places ; particularly, that the heavenly bodies are
apparently higher than they are in reality, &c.

The refraftion of the air has many times fo uncertain an in-
fluence on the places of celeftial objefts, very remote from the
zenith, that wherever refraftion is concerned, the conclufions
deduced from obfervations that are much affefted by it, will
always remain doubtful, and too precarious in many cafes to
be relied upon. See Dr. Bradley, in Phil. Tranf. N°485.
See Atmofpherical REFRACTlOf.

Refraction of Light, in Optics, is an infleftion or devia-
tion of the rays from their reftilinear courfe upon falling
obliquely out of one medium into another, of a different
denfity.

The term refraftion is derived from the diftortion which it
occafions in the appearance of an objeft viewed in part only
by refrafted light ; thus, an oar, partially immerfed in water,
appears to be bent, on account of the refraftion of the light,
by which its lower part is feen, in its pafl'age out of the
water into the air.

Although no fenfible light can penetrate more than
700 feet deep into the fea, and a length of feven feet of
water has been found to intercept one-half of the light
which enters into it ; yet in tranfparent fubllances (no me-
dium being, Itriftly fpeaking, abfolutely tranfparent) the
greater part of the light penetrates to all diftances with httle
interruption, and all rays, of the fame kind, thus tranf-
mitted by the fame furface, form with the perpendicular an
angle of refraftion, which is ultimately in a certain conltant
proportion to the angle of incidence ; that is, for inflance,
one-half, three-fourths, or two-thirds, according to the na-
ture of the furface. Thus, if the refraftive properties of
the fubftance were fuch, that an incident ray, making an
angle of one degree with the perpendicular, would be fo
refrafted as to make an angle of only half a degree with
the fame line, another ray, incident at an angle of two de-
grees, w-ould be refrafted, without fenfible error, into an an-
gle of one degree. But when the angles are larger, they vary

from this ratio, their fines only preferving the proportion
witii accuracy : for example, if the angle of incidence at
the fuppofed furface were increaled to 90'', the angle of re-
f aftioii would be 30'^ only, inilead of 45^.

It does not appear that, before Defcartes, any perfon at-
tempted to explain the phyfica! caufe of the refradtion, and
alio the refleftion of light, which he undertook to do by
the rcfoliition ot forces, on the principles of mechanics ;
in confequence of which lie was obliged to fuppofe that
light pafes with more cafe through a denfe medium than a
rare one : thus the ray A B (Plate XVIII. Optics, fg. 10.)
falling obliquely on a denfer medium at B, is fuppofed to be
aftcd on by two forces, one of them impelling it in the direc-
tion A C, and the other in A D, which alone can be aft'efted
by the change of medium : and iince, after the ray has entered
the denfer medium, it approaches the perpendicular B H, it is
plain that this force muft have received an increafe, whiKt
the other continued the fame ; for if B E be taken equal to
B D, or C A, the confequence of the angle I B H being
lefs than ABC will be, that B H muft be longer than B C
or AD.

The firft perfon who queftioned the truth of this explana-
tion of the caufe of refraftion was M. Fermat, who allerted,
contrary to Defcartes, that light fufTers greater refiftance in
water than in air, and greater in glafs than in water ; and he
maintained that the refiftance of different mediums, with rc-
fpeft to hght, is in proportion to their denfities. M. Leib-
nitz adopted the fame general idea ; and they reafoned upon
the fubjeft in the following manner. Nature, they fay, ac-
complilhes her ends by the (horteft methods ; light, therefore,
ought to pafs from one point to another, either by the
fhorteil road, or that in which the leaft time is required.
But it is plain that the hne in which light paffes, when it falls
obliquely upon a denier medium, is not the moft direft or the
fhorteft ; fo that it muft be that in which the leaft time is
fpent. And, whereas it is demonftrable, that light faUing
obliquely upon a denier medium (in order to take up the leaft
time poiTible, in paffing from a point in one medium to a point
in the other) muft be refrafted in fuch a manner, that the .
fines of the angles of incidence and refraftion muft be to one
another, as the different facihties with which light is tranf-
mitted in thofe mediums ; it follows that, fince light ap-
proaches the perpendicular when it paffes obliquely from air
into water (fo that the fine of the angle of refradtion is lefs
than that of the angle of incidence), the facility with which
water fuffers light to pafs through it is lefs than that of the
air ; fo that the light meets with greater refiftance in water
than in air. This method of arguing from final caufes
could not fatisfy philofophers. Dr. Smith obferves that it
agrees only to the cafe of refraction at a plain furface ; and
that the hypothefis is altogether arbitrary. If he had en-
deavoured to accommodate his principle to concave and con-
vex furfaces, as he had once propofed, he would foon have
perceived its infuificiency. Tlieeafiefl way for a ray to pafs
from a given point in any refifting medium into a vacuum, is
in a perpendicular to the refracting furface, this being the
fhorteft way, through any difficulty or refiftance whatever ;
but this being reduced to nothing at the refrafting furface, it
may then take any other courfe in vacuo, without any far-
ther difficulty ; and, on the contrary, in returning back
from the vacuum into tiie denfe medium, it muft take the
fliorteft courfe through the fame perpendicular as before.
Thus, when the fun fhines upon the atmofphere, all his rays
(liould be refrafted into lines tending to the centre of the
earth, as being the fhortefl and eafieft way through the at-
mofphere, and then we fhould fee the fun exaftly over our
heads, in all places and at all times. Such is the ftrange

confc-

REFRACTION.

that fi)l!o\vs from an liypothefis fo arbi- taiice witliout llieir lurlacc

coulfquence
trary.

Dechalcs, in order to explain tlic law of rcfradtion, fup-
pofesthat every ray of liglit is compofed of fevcral fnrialJer
rays, whicli adhere to one another ; and that they are re-
frafted towards the perpendicular, in pafiing into a dcnfer
medium, becaufe one part of the ray meets with more rc-
fiftance than another part ; fo that the former traverfes a
fraaller fpace than the latter ; in confcquence of which the
raymuft neceflarily bend a little towards the perpendicular.
This hypothefis was adopted by the famous Dr. Barrow,
■who, as fome fay, was the author of it. On this hypothefis,
it is plain that mediums of a greater refradlive power muil
give greater refiftance to the pail'age of the rays of light than
mediums of a lefs refractive power, which is contrary to

ha.

The Bernouillis, both father and fon, have attempted to
explain the caufe of refraftion on mechanical principles ;
the former on the equilibrium of forces, and the latter
• on the fame principles with the fuppofition of etherial
vortices ; but neither of thefe hypotheles have gained much
credit. M. Mairan fuppofes a fubtle fluid, filling the pores
of all bodies, and extending, like an atmofphcre, to a fmall
diftance beyond their furfacos ; and then he fuppofes that
the refraftion of light is nothing more than a neceflary and
mechanical effeft of the incidence of a fmall body in thofe cir-
cumftances. There is more, he fays, of the refrafting fluid
in water than in air, lefs in water than in glafs, and in gene-
ral lefs in a denfe medium than in one that is rarer. M. de
Maupertuis fuppofes that the courfe which every ray takes,
in pafling from one medium into another, is that which re-
quires the leail quantity of aftion, which depends upon the
velocity of the body, and the fpace it pafles over ; fo that
it is in proportion to the fum of the fpaces, multiplied by
the velocity with which bodies pafs over them. From this
principle he deduces the necefnty of the fine of the angle of
incidence being in a conitant proportion to that of refraftion :
and alfo all the other laws relating to the propagation and
, refledtion of light.

Dr. Smith (in his Optics, Remarks, p. 70.) obferves, that
all other theories for explaining the reflection and refrac-
tions of light, except fir Ifaac Newtan's, fuppofe that it
ftrikes upon bodies, and is refiftcd by them, which has never
been proved by any deduftion from experience. On the
contrary, it appears by various confideratiotis, and might be
fhewn by Mr. Molyneiix's and profeflor Bradley's obferva-
tions on the parallax of the fixed ftars, that their rays are
not at all impelled by the rapid motion of the earth's atmo-
fphcre, nor by the objeft-glafs of the telcfcope through
which they pafs. And by fir Ifaac Newton's theory of re-
fraftion, which is grounded on experience only, it appears,
that light is fo far from being refifted and retarded by re-
fraftion into any denfe medium, that it is fwifter there than
in vacuo, in the ratio of the fine of incidence in vacuo to
the fine of refraftion into the denfe medium. From fome
cafes of the produftion of colours, we are led to luppofe,
fays Dr. Young (Left. Phil. vol. i. p. 460.) that the velocity
of light muft be fmaller in a denfer than in a rarer medium ;
and fuppofing this faft to be eftablifhed, the exiftence of
fuch an attraftive force as fir Ifaac Newton fuggeits could
no longer be allowed ; nor, he fays, could the fyftem of the
emanation of light, in oppofition to that of the undulation
of an etiierial medium, be maintained by any one. Prieft-
ky's Hid. of Light, Sec. p. 102, &c. p. 333, &c.

The refraftion of light, fir Ifaac Newtcn (hews, is not
performed by the very rays falling on the furface of bodies ;
but it is done without any contaft, by the aftion of fome
power belonging to bodies, and extending to a cei'tain dif-

VoL. XXIX.'

by which fame po\\er, ading
in other circumilaiiccs, they arc alfo emitted and reflcfted.

Admitting that certain powers of attraftion and repulfion
belong to bodies, and extend to a certain dilbnce beyond
their furfaces, and fuppofing alfo that light confifts of par-
ticks emitted from luminous bodies, fir Ifaac Newton dc-
monflrates, in his " Principia," that the fine of the angle
of incidence mufl. be always to the fine of the angle of
refraftion in fome certain ratio. For, as he proves geo-
metrically, if two fimilar mediums be fcparatcd from each
other by a fpace terminated on both fides by parallel planes,
and a body, in its pallage through that fpace, be attrafted
or impelled perpendicularly towards either of thofe mediums,
and not agitated or hindered by any other force ; and if the'
attraftion be every where the fame, at equal diftanccs from
either plane, taken towards the fame hand of the plane, the
fine of incidence upon either plane will be to the fine of
emergence from the other plane in a given ratio.

In a corollary to this propofition he alfo (hews, that if,
infteadof one parallel fpace, bodies be furrounded with feve-
ral, or an infinite number of them, the attraftive power of
each of which difi'ers from the next, increafing or decreafing,
Hill, the ratio refpefting any two contiguous ones being
given, the ratio of the extremes will be given. He alfo de-
monftrates, that, if the caufe of refraftion be the attrac-
tion of the refrafting medium, the velocity of light before
its incidence will be to its velocity afterwards, as the fine of
the angle of refraftion is to the fine of the angle of inci-
dence ; fo that light, in paflfing from a rarer medium into a
dcnfer, receives an increafe of velocity. The fame things
being fuppofed, he (bews, that if the velocity before inci-
dence be greater than afterwards, fo that the angle of
emergence muft always increafe, in confequence of the re-
pulfive power prevailing over the attraftive one, the body
will at length be reflefted ; and that, in this cafe, the angle
of refleftion muil neceflarily be equal to the angle of
incidence.

That light does not confiit of any mode of aftion upon a
fluid medium, he concludes from having demonftrated that
preflurc cannot be propagated through a fluid in reftilinear
direftions, unlefs where the particles of the fluid lie in a
right line, but muft diverge into the unmoved fpaces ; and
that every tremulous body, in an elaftic medium, propagates
the motion of the pulfes on every fide ftraight forwards.
Admitting this, there is hardly any hypothefis that will
agree with the phenomena of light, but that of particles
emitted from the luminous body, affefted by the attradtiona
and repulfions of other bodies.

The fame arguments by which we have proved, that re-
Jtettion (which fee) is performed without immediate contaft,
will go a great way towards demonftrating the fame of re-
fraftion : to which may be added the following ones.

1. Becaufe, if when light falls out of glafs into air with
the utmoft obliquity it will be tranfmitted at, it be then
made to fall a little more obliquely, it becomes wholly re-
flefted : for the power of the glafs, after it has refrafted
light emerging as obliquely as poflible, fuppofing the rays
to fall ftill more obliquely, will be too ftrong to let any of
the rays pafs ; confequently, inftead of being refrafted, they
will all be reflefted.

2. Becaufe in thin laniellx, or plates of glafs, light is re-
flefted and tranfmitted feveral times alternately, as the thick-
nefs of the lamellae increafes in arithmetical progrefllon ; for
here it depends on the thicknefs of the lamina which of the
two the glafs ftiall do, whether refleft it, or let it be tranf-
mitted.

3. Becaufe, whereas the power of other bodies both to
refleft and rcfraft light are ver^' nearly proportional to their

4 E dcnfities ;

UEFRACTION.

ileiilities ; yel uiittuoub and lulpluucoub bodks are lound to
refled more Itroiigly than accoidiug to llieir mere denfi-
ties ; for as the rays aft more ilrongly on thofc Ixidies to
kindle them than on others, ib do they again, by their
mutual attraflion, aft more (Irongly on the rays to refraft
them.

Laftly ; Bccaufe not only tliofe rays tranfmittcd througli
glafs are found to be refrafted, but alfo thofe palling in the
air, or in a vacuum near its extremities, or even near the
extremes of many opaque bodies, e. gr. the edge of a knife,
undergo a fimilar infleftion, from the attraction of the body.
See Light, and alfo Inflection.

The manner in which refraftion is performed by mere at-
traftion, without contadt, may be thus accounted for : iup-
pofe H 1 {Plate XVIII. Optics, fig. ii.) tlie boundary t>f
two mediums, N and O ; the firll the rarer, c. gr. air ; the
fecond the denfer, c. gr. glafs ; the attradtions of the me-
diums here will be as their denfities. Suppofe /> S to be the
dillance to which tlic altradUng force of the denfer mediums
exerts itfelf within the rarer. Let now a ray of light A a
fall obliquel)- on the fu-rface which feparales the mediums,
or rather on the furface/> S, where the adlion of the fecond
and more refilling medium commences. All attradtion being
performed in lines perpendicular to the atlradtive body, as
the ray arrives at a, it will begin to be turned out of its rec-
tilinear courfe by a fuperior force, with which it is attradted
by the medium O, more than by the medium N, i. e. by a
force with which it is driven towards it in a diredtion perpen-
dicular to its furface : hence the ray is bent out of its right
line in every point of its paflage between p S and R T,
within which diilance the attradlion adls. Between thofe
lines, therefore, it defcribes a curve ah6 ; but beyond R T,
being out of the fphere of attradiion of the medium N, it
will proceed uniformly in a right hue, according to the di-
redtion of the curve in the point b.

Again, fuppofe N the denfer and more refilling medium,
O the rarer, and H I the boundary, as before ; and let R T
be the dillance to which the denfer medium exerts its attrac-
tive force within the rarer : even when the ray has palled the
point B, it will be within the fphere of fuperior attradlion
of the denfer medium ; but that attradtion adling in lines
perpendicular to its furface, the ray will be continually
drawn from its ftraight courfe B M perpendicularly towards
H I : thus, having two forces or diredtions, it will have a
compound motion, by which, inilead of B M, it will de-
fcribe B m, which B m will in ftridlnefs be a curve.

Laftly, after it has arrived in m, being out of the in-
fluence of the medium N, it will perfift uniformly in a right
line, in the diredtion in which the extreme of the curve
leaves it.

Thus we fee how refradlion is performed, both towards
the perpendicular, 3.nd from it.

But note, the attradtion of die denfer medium, e.gr. N,
is continually diminifhing, as the ray proceeds from B, to-
wards the Hmit of attradtion R T ; becaufe fewer and fewer
parts ftill come to adt ; at 1 H, e. gr. all the parts between
that and p S attradt ; but at R T, none but thofe in the line
H I. Note, alfo, that the diftance between /iS and RT
being fmall, when we confider refradtions, no notice is taken
of the curve part of the ray, but we confider it as confifting
of two ftraight lines, C B, A B, or m B, A B.

Sir Ifaac Newton, not content with afcribing the reflec-
tion, refradtion, and infledtion of light to powers of attrac-
tion and repulfion, extending beyond the furfaces of bodies
and producing effedt in the manner above explained, propofes
a conjedture concerning the phyfical caufe of this attrac-
tion and repulfion ; but his hypothefis is no lefs liable to
difficulties and objeftions than the hypothefis of the me-

chanical production of the motion of light without attrac-
tion or repulfion. Does not the refradtion of light, he fays,
arife from the different deufity of an etiierial medium in dif-
ferent places, the light always receding from the denfer
parts of the medium ? And is not the denfity of it greater
in free and open fpaccs void of air, and other grofs bodies,
than within the pores of water, glafs, cryftal, gems, and
other compadt bodies ? For when light pafles through gUfs
or cryllal, and falling very obliquely upon the farther fur-
face, is all refledted, the total refledtion ought to ariCe rather
from the denfity and vigour of the medium without and be-
yond the glafs, than from the rarity and.weaknefs of it. —
Does not the etherial medium, in paffing out of water, glafs,
cryllal, and other compadt and denfe bodies, into empty
(paces, grow denfer and denfer by degrees, .-ind by that
means rcfradt the rays of light, not in a point, but by bend-
ing them gradually in curve lines ? And does not the
gradual condenfation of this medium extend to fome dif-
tance from the bodies, and thereby caufe the infledtions of
the rays of light, which pafs by the edges of the denfe
bodies, at fome diftance from the bodies ?

Refraction, in Dioptrics, is the infledtion or bending of
the rays of light, in paffing the furfaces of glafl'es, lenfes,
and other tranlparent bodies of different denfities.

Thus a ray, as A B (Plate XVf II. Optics, Jig. 1 1.) falhng
obliquely from the radiant A, upon a point B, in a dia-
phanous furface, H I, rarer or denfer than the medium
along which it was propagated from the radiant ; has its di-
redtion there altered by the adtion of the new medium ; and
inttead of proceeding to M, it deviates, e.gr. to C.

This deviation is called the refra3ion of the ray / B C the
refrnSkd ray,- or line of refratlion ; and B the point of re-
fraSion.

The line A B is called the line of incidence, or ray of in-
cidence ; and, in refpedt of it, B is alfo called the point of
incidence.

The plane in which both the incident and refradted rays
are found, is called the plane of refraction ; a right line B E,
drawn in the refradting medium perpendicular to the refradl-
ing furface, in the point of refradtion B, is called the axis of
ref radian : and a right line D B, drawn perpendicular to the
rafradting furface, in the point of incidence B, along the
medium through which the ray fell, is called the axis of
incidence.

The angle A B I, included between the incident ray and
the refradting furface, is called the angle of incidence; and
the angle A B D, included between the incident ray and the
axis of incidence, is called the angle of inclination. The
angle M B C, which the refradted ray makes with the inci-
dent, is called the angle of refaction : and the angle C B E,
which the refradted ray makes with the axis of refradtion, is
called the refraSed angle.

Refraction, general laws of l. yi ray of light in its
parage out of a rarer into a dtnfer medium, e. gr. out of air
into glafs, is refraSed towards the perpendicular, i.e. towards
the axis of refra8ion.

Hence, the refradted angle is lefs than the angle of in-
clination ; and the angle of refradlion lefs than that of in-
cidence ; as they would be equal were the ray to proceed
ftraight from A to M. Hence, alfo, a ray perpendicular
to the refradting furface, will pafs llirougii without being
refradted, as it cannot be refradted to the perpendicular.
The phyfical caufe of which is, that the attradtion of the
denfer medium, wliich, in an incidence oblique to its fur-
face adts perpendicularly to that furface, draws the ray
out of its courfe : this attradtion, we fay, ia a perpendi-
cular incidence, adts in the diredtion of the ray.

2. The ratio of the fine of the angle of inclination, to the
lo fne

REFRACTION.

fine of the refralled angle, is fixed and conflant ; viz. if the
reflation be out of air into glafs, it is found greater than
as 1 14 to 76, but lefs than 115 to 76; that is, nearly as
3 tr, 2.

This ratio, afligned by Huygens, agrees with another of
fir Kaac Newton, who makes the fine of the angle of in-
clination to the fine of the refrafted angle, as 3 1 to io ;
whicli is, likewife, nearly as 3 to 2. Indeed, there is fonic
diifereuce in the quantity of refradlion, in different kinds
of glafs; but in phyfical matters, precifenefs is not nccefl'ary.
In rain-water, Defcartcs found the ratio of the fine of
the angle of inclination, to the fine of the refrafted angle,
as 250 to 187, that is nearly as 4 to 3 ; which agrees with
fir Ifaac Newton's obfervation, who makes it as 529 to 396.
In fpirit of wine, the fame great author makes the ratio
as ICX3 to 75 ; which is not far from the fefquitertian ratio.
In air he makes it as 3201 to 3200; and as to air, he
{hews, that a ray of light, in traverfing quite through the
atmofphere, is rafrafted the fame as it would be, were it to
pafs with the fame obliquity out of a vacuum into air of equal
denfity with that in the lowefl; part of the atmofphere.

See the following table, in which the proportion of the
fines which mcafure the refraftions of feveral bodies ; the
denfities of the bodies, eftimated by their fpecific gravity ;
and their refraftive power, in refpeft of their denfities, are
fet down in fcparate columns.

Ij

Tl.e re-

The den-

(raclive

The proi)C»rtion

fity and

powert'I

The refi'a<5liiifr botJie:^.

of the fines of

fpecilic

ihebody

t^

iueidrnce

aim

gravity

in re-

refi-afliot

lof

of the

fpea ol

'ycll'iiv light.

body.

iis den-

I

fity.

A pfeudo-topaz, being a"j

natural, pellucid, brittle, (

hairy ftone, of a yellow j

23 to

14

4.27

3979

colour - . )

Air -

3201 to

3200

0.0012

5208

Glafs of antimony

17 to

9

5.28

4864

A felenites

61 to

41

2.252

5386

Glafs vulgar
Cryftal of the rock

31 to

20

2.58

5436

25 to

16

2.65

5450

Ifland cryftal -

5 to

3

2.72

6536

Sal gemmas

17 to

II

2.143

6477

Alum

35 t"

24

I.714

6570

Borax

22 to

15

1-714

6716

Nitre

32 to

21

1.9

7079

Dantzick vitriol

303 to

200

1-715

7551

Oil of vitriol -

10 to

7

1-7

6124

Rain-water

529 to

396

I.

7845

Gum arable

31 to

21

1-375

8574

Spirit of wine well reflified

100 to

73

0.866

10121

Camphor

3 to

2

0.996

12551

Olive oil

22 to

15

0.913

12607

Linfeed oil -

40 to

27

0.932

12819

Spirit of turpentine

25 to

17

0.874

13222

Amber

14 to

9

1.04

13654

A diamond

100 to

4'

3-4

14556

Newton's Optics, edit. 3. p. 247.

M. Euler the younger, purfuing a fcheme fuggeftcd by
his father for afcertaining the refratftive powers of tranf-
parent liquors, made ufe of two Mcnifcus glades, which
he put together when they were plunged in the fluid, the
refrafkive power of which he wanted to determine : the

edges of thefe glaffes being ground flat, they immcdiitsly
cohered, fo that none of the fluid could efcape ; and then
they might both together be wiped, and ufcd as one objedt-
glafs in a long tube, which he could lengthen or (horten at
pleafure ; and applying an eye-glafs to it, the whole ob-
fervation he had to make was to meafure the exa6t length
of his tube, when he could fee through it moft diftinftly a
turret, whicli was at a confiderable diftance from him.
Or, when the focal diftance was lefs than a foot, he only
obfcrved, at what diftance from a wall the image of an op-
pofite window was the moft diftintft. Ac. Berlin. 1762,

P-^302-

The refratftive power of the fluids which he examined in
this manner, he exprefled in the following tables.

A ray of light palling from air into

Diftilled water ...

Rain-water - . . .

Well-water -

French wine - - . .

French brandy ...

Ditto a ftronger kind - - -

Reftified fpirit of wine

Ditto more highly re&ificd

The white of an egg

Diftilled vinegar - - .

A folution of gum arable

A folution of two fcruples of white fugarl

in an ounce of water - - j

A folution of two fcruples of rock-falt, )

in ditto - - J

A folution of tv.'o fci'uples of fait of )

urine, in ditto - - ^

Oil of Provence ...
Oil of turpentine - - -

The fine of the an-
gle of incidence
will be to that of
refraflion as

I-33581

1-3358

1.3366

1-3453
1.3603
1.3646
1.3685
1.3706
1.3685
1.3442
»-34<57

o

J-3457
1-3477

1.3400

1.4651
1.4822

N. B. The rock-falt and the fait of urine were purified
by a double cryllallization.

The fine of the an-
gle of incidence
will be to that of
refratftion as

1-33581

1-3358

1-3362

1-3458

1.3600

1.3618

1.3683

1-3705
1-3376

1.3600

By a fecond pair of Menifcufes.

Diftilled water - . .

Rain-water - - -

Well-water . . -

French wine - - -

French brandy

Ditto a ftronger kind - - -

Spirit of wine reftified

Ditto more highly reftified

Tea ....

Mineral alkali faturated ( I fuppofe with |

water) ... J

Spirit of nitre ...

A folution of two fcruples of Glauber's \

fait in an ounce of water - \

A folution of two fcruples of digeftivel

fait of Sylvius in ditto - J

A folution of two fcruples of fal am- 1

moniac in ditto ' " 3

A folution of two fcruples of copperas 7

in ditto - - - J

Oil of tartar per deliquium
Oil of Provence , - - .

Oil of turpentine ...
4E 2

4-1
1.4025 f> g

'•343° ""

'•3454

1.3488

«'3395

1-3917
1.4648
1.4822J

The

REFRACT>ON.

The refraftivc power of fome other fl
fecond pair of Menifcufes, i8tli AugiiR,
tlierniometer being 31 degrees above the fn

uitls found by the
1761, Reaumur's

ez'ing point.

The fine of tlie an-
ple uf incidence
- of

A ray of light paffing from air into

Well-water

Four different folutions of nitre, viz..

Twelve grains of depurated nitre to an

ounce of water
Twenty-four grains of di-purated nitre to

an ounce of water
Thirty-eight grains of depurated nitre to

an ounce of water
Thirty-eight grains of depurated nitre to

two ounces of water
Four different infufions

of parfley

of nutfhclls

of faffron

of fifh-fcales

of Zeltzer water

of Eger water

will be to t)ii
rcTrai^ioii as

'•335O

'•33'^o
'•3398
'•3450

1.3540 .v.

'•3355
'•3359
1-3363
'•3353
'•3353
'•3358
1.3650

1-3757
1.4088

o

A ray of light palling from air into

"Water - -

Spirit of honey

Spirit of fal ammoniac

Oil of amber - -

Spirit of liartlhorn

Human urine

'White of an egg

Jelly of hartftiorn

French brandy

Spirit of wine

Diftilled vinegar

Gum ammoniac

Aqua regla

Ditto from aqua fortis and fal ammoniac

Aqua fortis - -

Spirit of nitre

The cryftalline humour of an ox's eye

Butter of antimony

Oil of vitriol

Oil of wax

Oil of lavender

Oil of rofemary

Oil of origanum

Oil of ginger

Oil of oranges

Oil of turpentine .

Oil of favine

1-3359
1-3359

1-3377
1-3377
1.3390

1-3419
1-35"
1-3541
1.3626

1.3721
1.3721

1.3898
1.3964 i>
1.4044
1.4076

1-4635
3.6831
1.4262
1.4524
1.4960
1.4.719
J.4770
1.4799

'-4833

S-4S33
'•4857 J

The fincof ilie an-
gle of incidence
will be 10 iliat o(
riffra^ion as

1.4878"
I.491I
1. 5010
1.5088
I.5114
1. 5136

1.5340

'•5443 J

Tiic refraftivc powers of fome Iranfpareiit liquors accord-
ing to the obfcrvalions of fir Ifaac Newton. .See Optics,
1'- 247-

Oil of flowers ot miiil<

Oil of mint

Oil of amber

Oil of cummin

Oil of fennel

Oil of cloves

Oil of anife

Oil of cinnamon

Oil of faffafra-J

s
o

Anodyne liquor
Spirit of camphor
Spirit of Saxon fope

That the refraftive power of thefe fluids, thus determined
by M. Euler, may be more eafily compared with Mr.
Haufltbee's and fir Ifaac Newton's experiments, he reduced
the refult of their obfervations into the following tables,
exadlly fimilar to his own.

The refradlive .power of certain fluids found by Mr.
Haukfbee, fee his Experiments, p. 292.

The fine of the an-
gle of InciHcnc-
will be to that of
refra{5^ion as

The fuic of the

an-

gl'

of incidence

vvi

il be to that of

A ray of light paffiii

ff from air

into

rcfrafliou as

A yellow pfeudo-topaz

-

-

1.6429"

Air - -

-

-

-

0.9997

Glafs of antimony

-

-

-

1.8889

A felenites

.

-

.

1.4878

Glafs

.

.

-

1.5500

Cryllal of the rock

-

-

-

r.5620

Ifland cryftal -

-

.

.

1.6666

Sa! gem -

-

-

-

'•5455

Alum

-

-

-

1-4577

Borax

-

-

-

1.4667

;^,

Nitre

-

-

-

1.5238

^ "a

Dantzick vitriol

-

-

-

1.5000

Oil of vitriol

-

-

-

1.4285

0

Rain-water

-

-

.

'-3358

Gum arabic

-

-

.

1.4771

Spirit of wine well reftified

-

-

1.3698

Camphor

-

-

-

1.50C0

Olive nil

-

-

-

1.4666

Linfecd oil

-

-

-

1.4814

Spirit of turpentine

-

-

-

r.5625

Amber

-

-

-

1.5556

A diamond

-

-

-

2.4390 J

See Prieftley's Hift. of Light, &c. p. 479, &c.

V/hence the different refractive power in different fluids
arifes, is not- determined. Sir Ifaac Newton fliews, that in
many bodies, e. gr. glafs cryftal, a felenites, pfeudo-topaz,
&c. the refractive power is proportionable to their denfities ;
only in fulphureous bodies, as camphor, linfeed oil, olive,
amber, fpirit of turpentine &c. the power is two or three
times greater than in other bodies of equal denfity ; yet
even thefe have the refraiftive power with refpect to each
other nearly as their denfities.

Water ha; a refradti\e power in a middle degree be-
tween thofe t-A-'O kinds of fubftances, and is, probably, of •
a middle nature. Salts and vitriols have refractive powers
in a middle degree between thofe of earthy fubftances and
water, and accordingly are compofed of thofe two forts of,
fubftances. Spirit of wine has a refraftive power in a
middle degree between thofe of water and oily fubftances ;
and accordingly feems to be compofed of both, united by
fermentation. It appears, therefore, that all bodies feem.
to have their refractive powers proportional to their den-
fities, or very nearly, excepting fo far as they partake of
more or lefs fulphureous oily particles, and there'by have
their refraftive powers made greater or lefs. Whence it
feenis reafonable to attribute the refraftive power of all

bodies

REFRACTION.

todies ctiiefiy, if Mul wlioUy, to tlie fulphureous purts with
which they abound.

From the obfcrvations of M. Euler it appears, that there
is no fluid, and probably no tranfparent fubftance of any
kind, the refraitive power of which is lefs than that of rain-
water, or dillilled water ; and betwixt air and rain-water
there is no fubftance that has an intermediate refraftive
power.

After rain-water immediately follows well-water ; but
there are probably as many varieties in its refraftive power
as there are different wells. We may, however, con/jludc,
that the ratio of refraftion from air into well-water is con-
tained between the limits of 1.336 to i, and 1.337 to i.

Spirituous liquors have a greater refraftive power in
pi-oportion to their ftrength : but the ratio of refraftion
from air into any fpirituous liquor is never lefs than 1.34,
nor greater than 1.37.

There is, probably, no kind of fait, but what, being dif-
folved in water, increafes its refraftive power.

The folutions of fait of urine and of vitriol have the lead
refratlive powers, and thofe of rock-falt and fal ammoniac
the greateil ; but the ratio of refraftion from air into any
faline folution, prcfcrving the proportion of one ounce of
fait to twelve of water, will be contained between the limits
of 1.34 to I- and 1.35 to i.

Dillilled vinegar, and the folution of gum arable, have
nearly the fame refraftive power with common French
wine ; and the refraftive power of white of egg is the fame
as that of reftilied fpirit of wine.

Mineral alkali (aturated, fcems to have the fame re-
fraftive power with very fti-ong brandy.

Spirit of nitre and oil of tartar per deliquium have a
medium refraftivc power between fpirituous liquors and
oils.

The rcfraftive powers of oils approach the nearefl to
that of glafs, cfpccially oil of turpentine, which had the
greateil refraftive power of all the fluids on which he had
made experiments.

Sir Ifaac Newton fufpcfted that different degrees of heat
might have fome effeft on the refraftive power of bodies,
but his method of determining the general refraftion was
not fuffieiently accurate to afcertain this circumftance ;
but happily this method of M. Euler's proved to be well
adapted to this purpofe.

From his experiments made for this purpofe, he infers,
that the focal diftance of a fingle lens of glafs diminifhes
with the heat communicated to it ; and this diminution of
the focil diftance is not owing to the increafe of bulk in
the glafs by heat ; for the effeft of this change is both in-
oonllderable, and of 1 contrarv nature. There can be no
doubt, therefore, but that this alteration in the focal diftance
is owing to a change in the refraftive power of the glafs
itfelf, which, as well as, probably, that of all other tranf-
parent fubftances, is increafed by heat, and diminifhed by
:cld.

It may feem furprifing that the focal diftance of a fingle
kns fhould decreafe with heat, and yet that of the menif-
oufes filled with any fluid, fhould increafe with heat ; but
M. Euler obferves, that it by no means follows from hence,
that thefe fluids are affefted by heat in a manner different
from glafs ; and, after computing the effeft of every cir-
cumilance of this complex experiment, of the two glaffes,
and the fluid combined, he concludes, that heat increafes the
refraftive power of water, and of other fluids, as well as
that of glafs.

He farther obferves, that as 66 degrees of heat diminifhed
i',i€ i©cal diilarce j'^lh part, 33 degrees ought to have dimi-

nifhed it -rjo'l'putj wiitreas kIic diminution in tiiii. cafe
was V? t.h. From hence, fays he, one may perhaps conclude,
that when it is very cold, tlie fame change in the ther-
mometer has a greater effixt on the refraftive power of the
glafs than when it is very hot. But he acknowledges that
experiments of this kind are not capable of fo much pre-
cifion as one could wifh, and that, perhaps in reality, the
66 degrees made a change of ^'oth, and the 33 degrees o;
-r^cth ; but he imagined that a great number of experiments,
made in different timperatures of the air, mi^ht decide this
quefUon, cfpecially if objeft-glafles of a very great focal
diftance were made ufe of. Ac. Berl. 1762.

The duke de Chaulnes, not fatisfied with the methods
ufed by Newton and others for determining the refraftivc
power of glafs, propofed another mode of doing it, which is
very ingenious, and, when well condufted, promifing fuc-
cefs. He formed the glafs into plates, the furfaces of
which were truly plane and parallel, and having placed
fmall o!)jefts on each of them, he found, by means of a
compound microfcope, to which he applied the molt ex-
quifite micrometer, the different diltances at which they were
diftinftly vifible, and compared them with the thicknefs of
the glafs. This, he fays, gives the proportion of the fines
of the angles of incidence and refraftion in that kind of
glafs direftly. In this method he afcertained the mean re-
fraftive power of 15 kinds of glafs. Ac. Par. 1767. See
Priettley's Hift. of Light, &c. p. 483, &c.

Dr. W. H. WoUafton has propoled a new method of ex-
amining refraftivc as well as difperfive powers, by prifmatic
refleftion. This method was fuggefted by a conllderatioii
of fir Ifaac Newton's prifmatic eye-glafs, the principle of
which depends on the refleftion of light at the inner furface
of a deiife refrafting medium.

Since the range of inclination, within which total reflec-
tion takes place, depends not only on the denfity of the re-
flefting prifm, but alfo on the rarity of the medium adjacent
to it, the extent of that range varies with the difference of
the denfities of the two media. When, therefore, the re-
fraftive power of one medium is known, that of any rarer
medium may be learned, by examining at what angle a ray
of light will be reflefted from it.

For inftance, when any objeft is laid under a prifm of
flint-glaft, with air alone interpofed, the internal angle of
incidence at which the vifual ray begins to be totally re-
flefted, and at which the objeft ceafes to be feen by refnic-
tion, is about 39° 10' ; but when the objeft has been dipped
in water, and brought into contaft with the glafsj -it con-
tinues vifible, by means of the higher refraftive power of
the water, as far as 57^" of incidence. When any kind of
oil, or any refinous cement, is interpofed, this angle is ftiU
greater, according to the refraftive power of the medium
employed ; and, by cements that refraft more flrongly than
the glafs, the objeft may be feen through the prifm^ at
whatever angle of incidence it is viewed.

In examining the refraftive powers of fluids, or of fufible
fubftances, the requifite contaft is eafily obtained ; but,
with folids, which can in few inftances be made to touch to
any great extent, this cannot be effefted without the inter-
pofition of fome fluid, or cement, of higher refraftive power
than the medium under examination. Since the furfaces of
a ftratum fo interpofed are parallel, it will not effeft the
total deviation of a ray paffing through it, and may there-
fore be employed without rifk of any error in confequence.

Thus, refin, or oil of faiTafras, interpofpd between plate-
glafs and any other prifm, will not alter t'he refult.

If, on the fame prifm, a piece of felenite and another ,of

platc-glafs be cemented near each other, their povrers may

12 bs

REFRACTION.

be compared with the fame accuracy as if they were both in
abfoliite contaft with it.

For fuch a mere comparifon of any two bodies, a com-
mon triangular prifm is befl. adapted ; but, for the purpofe
of aftual meafurement of refraftive powers. Dr. WoUalton
has preferred the ufe of a fquare priim, becaufe, with a very
fimple apparatus, it ftiews the fine of rt-fraftive power fought,
without the need of any calculation.

Let A {Pl"t': XVITT. Optics, fig. 12.) be a fquare or rec-
tangular prifm, to which any fubllance is applied at b, and
let any ray of light parallel to c h be refraded through the
prifm, in the direftion bde.

Then, if f /■ and edhfi taken proportional to the fines
that reprefent the refraftive powers of the prifm and of air,
fg, which is intercepted between / and the perpendicular
eg, will be the correfponding fine to reprefent the refractive
power of the medium b. For fince edg (oppofite to cf)
is the angle of refraftion, efg (oppofite to e d) nnift be
equal to the angle of incidence bdh; and ej : fg - b d :
dh :: fine al cbi : fine of h b d.

All, therefore, that is reqiiifite for determining the rc-
fraftivc power of h, is to find the means of m.eafuring the
line fg. On this principle, the inflrument in fg. 13 is
conltrufted. On a board, ab, is fixed a piece of flat deal
cd, to which, by a hinge at d, is jointed a fecond piece
de, 10 inches long, carrying two plane fights at its ex-
tremities. At e is a fecond hinge, connefting ef, IJ.83
inches long; and a third at the other extremity of e f,
by which fg is conneAcd with it. At i alfo is a hinge,
uniting the radius ig to the middle of ef; and then, fince
g moves in a femicirclc cgf, a line joining e and g would be
perpendicular to fg.

The piece cd has a cavity in the middle of it, fo that,
when any fubftance is applied to the middle of the prifm P,
it may continue to reft horizontally on its extremities.
When ed has been fo elevated, that the yellow rays in the
fringe of colours (obfervable where perfeft refleftion ter-
minates) ai-e feen through the fights, the point g, by means
of a vernier which it carries, fhews by infpcftiou the length
of the fign of refraflion fought.

The advantages which this method pofleffes above the
ufual mode of examining refraftive powers, are greater than
they may at firft fight appear. The ufual praftice has
been, to form two furfaces of the fubftance under examina-
tion, fo inclined to each other that the deviation occafioned
by them might be meafured. The inclination of thefe fur-
faces to each other muft alfo be known ; and thence the re-
fraftivc power might be computed. But, in the method
here propofed, it is fufficient to have only one furface, and
the refult is obtained at once, without computation.

The facility of deterniining refraftive powers is confe-
quently fuch as to render this property of bodies a very
convenient teft in many philofophical inquiries.

The following table exhibits a feries of fubftances, ar-
ranged according to their refraftive powers.

Diamond - -

Plumbago . . .

Native fulphur (double)

Glafs, confifting of lead 6 and fand 1

Glafs of antimony

Jargon . . .

Spinelle ruby

Arfenic

Muriate of antimony, variable.

White fapphire

Gum dragon

2.44

2.04
1.987
1.98
1.95
1. 812
1. 811

1.768

Iceland fpar, ftrongeft
Sulphate of barytes (double)
Balfam of Tolu ....

Guaiacum ...

Benzoin - - . -

Flint glafs - ...

Ditto ....

Horn - - .

Phofphoruf - - -

Mica ....

Opium - . - -

Amber - . -

Rock cryftal (double)

Old plate-glafs - - -

Colophony - - .

Box-wood - - -

Bees-wax . . -

Ofi of fali'afras . - .

Red fealing-wax - -

Spermaceti, cold

Sugar, after fufion - -

Arfeniate of potafh
Maftic

Elemi ....

White wax (cold) - - -

Oil of cloves ...

Copal ....

Anime ...

Radcliffe crown-glafs ...

Pitch ....

Centre of cryftalline of fifti, and dry cryftalline 1
of an ox - . -J

Can?.da balfam . - -

Crown glafs, common
Selenite . .

Caoutchouc . - .

Gum lac . - .

Dutch plate-glafs ...

Human cuticle . .

Gum arabic - -

Balfam of capivi ...

Oil of amber ...

Enghfli plate-glafs . . .

French plate-glafs ...

Oil of nutmeg ...

Sulphate of potafti - - .

Tallow, cold ...

Iceland fpar, weakeft

Camphor ...

Linfeed oil - - .

Butter, cold - -

Effence of lemon ...

Ou of turpentine, common
Oil of turpentine, reftified
Oil of almonds . .

Oil of ohves . . -

Oil of peppermint - - -

Oil of lavender . . -

Tallow, melted
Alum

Spermaceti, melted - - .

Cryftalhne lens of an ox

to . . -

Computed average of ditto

Sulphuric acid - . -

Fluor fpar . ...

Nitric acid (fp. gr. 1.48)

1.657
1.646
1.60
1.596

1.586
1.583

'•579

'•547
'•547
'•545
1-543

1.542
'•536

'•535
'•535
'•535
'•533

•53c>

.528
.525
.525
.524

•517

.514

.507

.505

.504

.500

•497

•495

•49

.488

1.487

.485

1.480

i.476

1.476

.470

i.469
.468

1.467
.460

•457
.446

•447
1.380

•430
•435
•433
.410
Alcohol

REFRACTION.

Alcohol

White of an egg

jEther

Vitreous humour of an eye

Water

Atmofpheric air (Haukfbee)

1.36
'•358

'•336
1.00032

See Phil. Tranf. vol. xcii. for 1802. art. 12. See Dis-
persion of Light.

From the law kid down in the beginning of this article, it
follows, that one angle of inclination, and its correfponding
refrafted angle, being found by obfervation, the refratted
angles, correfponding to the feveral other angles of in-
clination, are eafdy computed. Now, Zahnius and Kir-
cher have found, that if the angle of inclination be 70°,
the refrafted angle will be 38° 50'; on which principle
Zahnius has conftrudVed a table of refraftions out of air
into glafs, for the feveral degrees of the angle of inclination ;
a fpecimen of which follows :

Angle of

Refra^ed

Angle of

Incliiiauun.

An^^le,

R^-IVativiioij.

0

0 / n

0 ( II

I

0 40 5

0 19 ss

2

I 20 6

0 39 54

3

203

0 59 56

4

2 40 5

' 19 SS

5

3 20 3

I 39 57

10

6 39 16

3 20 44

20

'3 >• 35

6 48 25

30

19 29 29

10 30 31

45

28 9 19

16 50 41

90

41 51 40

48 8 20

Hence it appears, that if the angle of inclination be lefs
than 20'', the angle of refraftion out of air into glafs is al-
moft one-third of the angle of inclination ; and, therefore, a
ray is refradled to the axis ol refraftion, by almolt a third
part of the quantity of its angle of inclination. And on
this principle it is that Kepler, and raoit other dioptrical
writers, demonftrate the refraftions in glafles ; though in
eftimating the law of thefe refractions, he followed the
example of Alhazen and Vitellio, and lought to difcover
it in the proportion of the angles, and not in that of the
tines.

The true law of refraftion was firft difcovered by Wille-
brord Snellius, profeflbr of mathematics at Leyden ; sn\\o
found by experiment that the fecants of the complements,
or co-fecants, of the angles of incidence and refraftion, are
always in the f^me ratio. It is vulgarly attributed, how-
ever, to Defcartes ; who having feen it in Snellius's MS.,
firft publifhed it in his Dioptrics, without naming Snellius ;
as we are informed by Huygens. The form in which
Defcartes gives this law is different from that of Snellius,
and in general more commodious ; but it might have been
eafdy deduced from it. According to him, the fine of the
angle of refraftion always bears the fame proportion to the
line of the angle of incidence. Indeed, as the rays of light
are not all of the fame degree of refrangibility, this conilant
ratio mull be different in different kinds. The ratio, there-
fore, obferved by authors, is to be underllood of rays of the
mean refrangibility, i. e. of green rays. The difference of
refraftion betv/een the Icaft and moft refrangible rays, that
is, between violet and red rays, fir Ifaac Ne\yton (hews is
abo>at the 27^th part of the whole refraftion of the mean

refrangible ; which ditfercnce he owns is fo fraail, that there
leldom needs to be any regard paid to it.

3. When a ray paps out of a denfer into a rarer medium,
e.gr. out of glafs into air, it is refraded from the perpen-
dicular, or from the axis of ref radian. And hence the angle
ot refraftion is greater than the angle of inclination.

lience, alfo, if the angle of inclination be lefs than «o°,
MiiC (Pto^ XVIII. Optics, fig. II.) is nearly equal to
onc-lhird oi M B E ; therefore MBC is one-half of C B E;
confoquently, if the refraftion be out of glafs into air, and the
angle of inclination lefs than 30°, the ray isrefrafted from the
axis of refraftion by almolt one-half part of the angle of in-
clination. And this is the other dioptrical principle ufed bv
moll authors after Kepler, to demonftrate the refraftion o'f
glafles.

If the refraftion be out of air into glafs, the ratio of tlic
fine of inclination to tiic fine of the refrafted angle is as
3 to 2, or, more accurately, as 17 to 11 ; if out of air
into water, as 4 to 3 : therefore, if the refraftion be the
contrary way, r«. out of glafs or water into air, the ratio
of the fines, in the former cafe, will be as 2 to 3, or 11 to
1 7, and in tlie latter as 3 to 4.

Hence, if the refraftion be from water or glafs into air,
and the angle of incidence or inclination be greater than
about 481° in water, or greater than about 40"^ in glafs, the .
ray will not be refrafted into air, but will be reflcfted into
a line, which makes the angle of refleftion equal to the angle
of incidence ; becaufe the fines of 485° and 40° are to the
radius as 3 to 4, and as ii to 1 7 nearly, and therefore when
the fine has a greater proportion to the radius than as above,
the ray will not be refrafted.

4. A ray falling on a curve furf ace, -whether concave Or con-
vex, is refraded after the fame manner as if it fell on apian:
which is a tangent to the curve in the point of incidence.

For tlie curve and plane furface touching it, have an infi-
nitely fmall part common to them both (each being originally
generated by the flux of a point). But a ray isrefrafted
m fuch a little part ; therefore it is the fame as if it were re-
frafted in fuch a plane.

5. If a right line EF {Plate XVIII. Optics, fg. 14.)
cut a nf raffing furface, G H, at right angles ; and if from
any point in the denfer medium, as D, he draiun D C parallel
to the incident ray A B : this luill meet the refraded ray in C ;
and "Mill be to it as the fine of the refraded angle to the fine of
the angle of inclination.

For 0 = X ; but if B C pifs out of a denfer medium into
a rarer, y > x; and out of a rarer into a denfer, y Kx;
therefore, in the former cafe, y > 0, in the latter _y < o ;
confequently, in the former, 0 -\- u < y + u ; in the latter
y -\- u <. 0 + u. But in the one cafe 0 + u, and in the
other y f u, are equal to two right angles ; therefore,
0 -r u m this, a.ndiy 4- u in the other, are lefs than two
right angles, and_ confequently D C will meet B C. But
fince 0 = X, or the angle of inclination, and_>r is the re-
frafted angle, it is evident that C B is to C D as the fine
of the angle 0 to the fine of the angle y, or in the ratio of
the fine of the angle of inclination to the fine of the re-
frafted angle.

Hence, if B C pafs out of glafs into air, it is in a fub-
feiquialterate ratio to G D ; if, on the other hand, it
paffe;-, out of air into glafs, it is in a fefquialterate ratio to
CD.

Hence, alfo, if light pafs out of water into airi C B is in
a fubfefquitertian ratio to C D ; if out of air into water,
in a fefquitertian. &csf.gs. 14 and 15.

Rls.FR\criON in plane fmfaces, laivs of . I. If parallel rays
be refrafted out of one traiifparent medium into another of

a dif-

REFRACTION.

a diflc'reiit denfity, tlicy will coiiiiime parallel after refiaftion.
The pliyfical reafon is, that, being parallel, their obliqiiity,
or angle of incidence, is the fame ; but, at equal obliquities,
we have (hewn the refradlion is equal ; confequently the
])arallclifm, which they had before the refraftion, will be
retained after it.

But this may be alfo demonflrated geometrically : thus,
if tlic rays be perpendicular to the refrnfting furface, they will
pafs without any refraftion ; confequently being parallel be-
fore their paffage, they will be lo after it. If they fall
obliquely, as A B and C D (/i'. 1 6.), the angles of incidence
0 and u, and, confequently, alfo the angles of inclination
X and J', will be equal. But the fines of the angles of in-
clination s and y have the fame ratio to the fines of the re-
fracted angles m and » ; therefore the refrafted angles m and
«, and alfo the angles s and r, are equal ; confequently the
refrafted rays are parallel.

Hence a glafs, plane on both fide, bein^ turned direftly
to the fun, the light paffing through it will be propagated
after the fame manner as if the glafs were av\'ay ; for the rays
being perpendicular, will pafs without rcfraclion. If the
glafs be turned obliquely to the fun, the light, after refrac-
tion, will be of the fame intenfity as before, the intenfity
depending on the fpiifitude or clofeiiefs of the rays, and on
the angle with which they llrike the objeft, or the eye ; both
which are here unvaried.

2. If two rays D C and C P [Jig. 17.) proceeding from
the fame radiant C, and falling on a plane furface of a dif-
ferent dcnfity, fo that the points of refrattion D and P are
equally diftant from the cathetus of incidence G K, the re-
fraftcd rays D F and P Q have the fame virtual focus, or
the fame point of difperfion G.

Hence, i. Since, in rays very near each other, the diitance
from the cathetus is the fame as to fenfe, very near rayi
will diverge from the fame point G, i. e. tkey will have the
fame virtual focus G.

And hence, 2. When refrafted rays, falling on the eye
placed out of the cathetus of incidence, are either equally
diftant from the cathetus, or very near each other, they will
flow upon the eye, as if they came to it from the point G ;
confequently the point C will be feen by the refradled rays
as in G.

3. If a ray C D fall obliquely out of a thinner into a
dcnfer medium, having a plane furface, the diitance of the
radiant point C K will have a lefs ratio to the diftance of the
point of difperfion, or virtual focus, K G, than the fine of
the refradted angle to the fine of the angle of inclination.
But if the diftance of the point of refraftion, from the
cathetus of incidence K D, be lefs than the eleventh or
nineteenth part of the diftance of the radiant point C K ;
and if in the former cafe the tenth, and in the latter the
hundredth, part of it be fo fmall, that it cannot be
afligiied, or need not be minded, then will C K be to K G,
as to fenfe, in the ratio of the fine of the refrafted angle,
to the fine of the angle of inclination.

Hence, i. If the refraftion be out of air into glafs, the
diftance of the point of difperfion of rays near the cathetus
is fcfquialteratc of the radiant point ; of more remote rays
greater than fefquialterate. But if the refraftion be out of
air into water, the diftance of the fame point will be fefqui-
tertian, when the rays arc near the cathetus ; and when more
remote, greater than fefquitertian.

Hence, 2. If the eye be placed in a denfe medium, objefts
in a rarer will appear more remote than they arc ; and the
place of the image, in any given cafe, may be determined
from the ratio of the ref:aftion. Thus, iojifius J'-wimmlng under

nuater, ohjeHs out of the nualtr muJI appear farther diftant than
in reality they are.

4. If a ray D G fall obliquely out of a denfcr into a rarer
medium A B, the diftance of the radiant point G K has a
greater ratio to the diftance of the point of difperfion K C,
than the fine of the refradted angle has to the fine of the
angle of inclination. In the other cafe of the preceding
theorem, K G will be to K C, as to fenfe, in the ratio of
the fine of the refrafted angle, to the fine of the angle
of inclination.

Hence, i. If the refraftion be out of glafs into air, the
diftance of the point of difperfion of the rays near the cathetus
of incidence ij; fubfcfquialtcrate of the diitance of the ra-
diant point ; that of the more remote rays is lefs than fubfef-
quialterate.

But, 2. If the refraftion be out of water into air, the
diftance of the point of difperfion of rays near the cathetus
is fubfefquitertian ; of thofe more remote, lefs than fubfef-
quitertian.

And, 3. The eye, therefore, being placed in a rarer me-
dium, objefts, placed in a denfer, appear nearer thai) they
are ; and the place of the image may be determined in anv
given cafe by the ratio of refraftion. Hence, the bottom
of a veftel full of water is raifed by refraftion to a third part
of its height, with refpeft to an eve perpendicularly over
the refracting furface ; and hence fi/hes, and other todies under
water, appear nearer than they really are.

5. If the eye be placed in a rarer medium, an objeft
feen in a denfer medium, by a ray refrafted in a plane fur-
face, will appear larger than it really is. If the objeft be
in a rarer, and the eye in a denfer medium, the objeft will
appear lefs than it is. And, in each cafe, the apparent
magnitude is to the real one in a ratio compounded of the
diftance of the point to which the rays tend before refrac-
tion, from the refrafting furface D £ (jfj . 18.) lo the
diftance of the eye G L from the fame, and of the diftance
G M of the objeft A B from the eye, to its diftance F M
from a point F, to which the rays tend before refraftion.

Hence, i. If the objeft A B be very remote, F M will
be phyfically equal to G M ; and, therefore, the real mag-
nitude M B is to its apparent one M H, as G L to F L,
or the diftance of the eye G from the refrafting plane to
the diftance of the point of convergence F from the fame
plane.

Hence, 2. Objecls und^r ivalcr, to an eye in the air, appcir
larger than they are ; and tojtjhes under •water, ohjeSs in the
air appear lefs than they are,

Refraction, Latvs of, in fpherical furfaces, both concave
and convex. I. A ray ot light DE {Jig. 19.) parallel
to the axis of a denfer fphere, after a fingle refraftion
in E, falls in with the axis in the point F, beyond the
centre C.

For the femidiameter C E, drawn to the point of refrac-
tion E, is perpendicular to the furface K L, and is there-
fore the axis of refraftion ; but a ray out of a rarer into a
denfer medium, we have (hewn, is refrafted towards the per-
pendicular, or the axis of refraftion ; therefore the ray D E
will converge to the axis of the fphere A F ; and will, there-
fore, at length concur with it, and that beyond the centre C,
in F ; becaufe the angle of refraftion F E H is lefs than the
angle of inclination C E H.

2. If a ray D E fall on a fpherically convex furface of a
denfer medium, parallel to its axis A F ; the femidiameter
C E will be to the refrafted ray E F in the ratio of the fine
of the angle of refraftion, to the fine of the angle of incli-
nation ; but the diitance of the focus, or point of concur-
rence from the centre C F, is to the refrafted ray F E, in the

ratio

REFRACTION.

ratio of the fine of the refraftedanglL', to tlie fine of the an-
gle of inclination.

3. If a ray D E fall on a donfer fphcrical convex fur-
face K L, parallel to the axis A F, the didance of the fo-
cus from the refracting furface F B mult be to its dillance
from the centre F C, in a ratio greater than that of tlie
fine of the angle of inclination, to the fine of the refradted
angle. But if the rays be very near the axis, and the angle
of inclination B C E be only of a few degrees, the diilaiices
of the focus from the furface, and the centre, F B and F C,
will be nearly in the ratio of the fine of tlie angle of incli-
nation, to the fine of the refrafted angle.

Hence, i. If the refraftion be out of air into glafs ; in
th? cafe of rays near the axis, BF : FC :: 3 : 2. And
in the cafe of rays remote from the axis, B F : F C > 3 : 2.
Confequently, in the former cafe, B C : B F :: i 13; and
w the latter, B C : B F < 1:3,

And, 2. If the refraftion be out of air into water ; in the
former cafe, B F : F € :: 4 : 3 ; and in the latter, B F :
FC > 4 : 3. Confequently, in the former, B C : B F ::
1:4; and in the latter, B C : B F < i : 4.

Hence, 3. Since the fun's rays are parallel as to fenfe, if
they fall on the furface of a folid glafs fphere, or of a
fphere full of water, tliey will not concur with the axis
within the fphere ; fo that Vitcllio was millaken, when he
imagined, that the fun's rays, falling on the furface of a
cryilalline fphere, were refrafted to the centre.

4. If a ray D E {fg. 20.), parallel to the axis FA, fall
out of a denfer into a rarer fpherical medium, after refraction,
it will diverge from the axis ; and the diilance of the point of
difperfion, or the virtual focus from the centre of the fphere
F C, will be to its femi-diameter C E in the ratio of the
fine of the refrafted angle, to the fine of the angle of re-
fradlion ; but to the portion of the refradfed ray drawn
back, F E, it will be in the ratio of the fine of the re-
frafted angle, to the fine of the angle of inclination.

5. If a ray E D fall parallel to the axis A F on the
fpherically convex furface K L of a rarer medium, out of a
deafer, the dillance of the point of difperfion from the cen-
tre F C, is to its diftance from the furface F B, in a ratio
greater than that of the fine of the refrafted angle to the
fine of the angle of inclination. But if the rays D E be
very near the axis F A, the ratio will be very nearly the
fame with that of the line of the refrafted angle to the fine
of the angle of inclination.

Hence, I. If the refraftion be out of glafs into air, in
the cafe of rays near the axis, F C : F B :: 3 : 2. Confe-
quently B C : F B :: I : 2. Therefore, in the cafe of rays
more remote from the axis, F C : F B > 3 : 2.

2. If the refraftion be out of water into air ; in the for-
mer cafe FC : F B :: 4 : 3. Confequently, B C : F B ::
I : 3 ; in the latter cafe therefore, F C : F B > 4 : 3.

3. Since then the point of difperfion F is more remote
from the refrafting furface K L, if the rays proceed out of
water, than if they pafs out of glafs into air ; parallel
rays are lefs difperfed in the former cafe than in the
latter.

6. If a ray H E {fg. 19.) fall parallel to the axis F A,
out of a rarer, on the furface of a fpherically concave denfer
medium ; the refrafted ray E N will be driven from the
point of the axis F ; fo that F E will be to F C in the ra-
tio of the fine of tlie angle of inclination, to the fine of the
refrafted angle.

7. If a ray E H fall parallel to the axis F B on the con-
cave furface K L of a fpherical denfer medium, from a
rarer ; the diilance of the point of difperfion from the re-
frafting furface F B, is to its diftance from the centre F C,

Vol. XXIX.

in a ratio greater than that of the fine of the angle of incli-
nation, to the fine of the refrafted angle. But if the rays
be very near the axis, and the angle B C E be very fmall,
B F will be to C F very nearly in the ratio of the fine
of the angle of inclination, to the fine of the refrafted
angle.

Hence, i. If the refraftion be out of air into glafs ; in
the cafe of rays near the axis, F B : F C :: 3 : 2 ; in the
cafe ot rays more remote from the axis, F B : F C > 3 :
2 ; confequently, in the former, B C : F C :: i : 2. And
hence, in the latter, B C : F C < 1 : 2.

Hence alfo, 2. If the refraftion be out of air into water;
in the cafe of rays near the axis, F B : F C :: 4 : 3. In
the cale of rays more remote from the axis, F B : F C > 4
:3; confequently, in the firft cafe, BC:FC::i:3.
And hence, in the latter, B C : F C > i : 3.

And iience, 3. Since the point of difperfion F is farther
from the centre C, if the refraftion be in water than in air ;
rays will be lefs difperfed in the latter cafe than in the
former.

8. If the ray H E {fg. 20. ) fall parallel to the axis A F,
from a denfer upon the furface of a fphcrical concave rarer
medium, the refrafted ray will concur with the axis A F,
in the point F ; fo that the diilance of the point of con-
courfe from the centre C F, may be to the refrafted ray
F E, in the ratio of the fine of the refrafted angle, to the
fine of the angle of inclination.

9. If a ray H E fall parallel to the axis A F on the con-
cave lurface of a rarer medium out of a denfer, the diftance
of the tocus from the centre F C will be to its diftance from
the refrafting furface F B in a greater proportion than the
fine of the refrafted angle, to the fine of the angle of incli-
nation. But if the rays be very near the axis, F C will be
to F B in the proportion of thefe fines.

Hence, \. If the refraftion be out of glafs into air ; ia
the cafe of rays near the axis, FC:FB:;3:2; in the
cafe of rays more remote from the axis, F C : F B > 3 : 2.
Whence, in the former cafe, B C : F B :: I : 2.

2. If the refraftion be out of water into air ; in the cafe
of rays near the axis, FC:FB::4:3; in the cafe of
rays more remote, F C ; F B > 4 : 3. Whence, in the for-
mer cafe, B C : F B :: I : 3. For the demonftration of
thefe feveral laws of refraftion, we refer to Wolfius's Ekm.
Mathef. &c. torn. iii. p. 179, &c. See alfo Lens.

Refraction in a glafs prifm. If a ray of light D E
(;ff . 21.) fall obliquely out of air on a prifm ABC; being
refrafted towards the perpendicular, inftead of proceeding to
F, it will decHne to G, /. e. towards a line H I, drawn per-
pendicular to the furface A B in the point of refraftion E.
Again, fince the ray E G, pafiing out of the glafs into air,
fails obliquely on C B, it will be refrafted to M, fo as to re-
cede from the perpendicular N G O. And hence arife the va-
rious phenomena of the prifm. See Colour and Refrangi-

BILn V.

Refraction in a convex lens. If parallel rays, A B, C D,
and E F {Jig. zz.) fall on the furface of a lens 2 B 3 K, the
perpendicular ray A B will pafs unrefrafted to K, where
emerging into air perpendicular, as before, it will proceed
ftraight to G. But the rays C D and E F, falling obhquely
out of air into glafs, in D and F, will be refrafted towards
the axis of refraftion ( i. e. towards lines H I and L M, drawn
perpendicular to the refrafting furface in the points of .re-
fraftion D and F) and dechne to Q and P. Again, emerg-
ing obliquely out of the glafs into the furface of the air,
they will be refrafted from the perpendicular, and, therefore,
D Q will not proceed to X, but to G ; and F P, not to V,
but to G ; thus, likewife, might all the other rays, falling on
4F the

REFRACTION.

ihe lurfacc of tlie glafs, be fhewii to be refr.ifted fo as to
meet the if(l about the point G. See Focus and Lf.ns.

Hence the great property of convex glafles ; viz. that they
Lulletl parallel rnys, or miiin thtm converge into a point.

Refkaction in a concave lens. Parallel rays A B, CD,
and EF (^g. 23.) falling on a concave lens G B H I M K,
the ray A B, falling peqieudicular on the glafs at B, will
pafs unrefradted to M ; where being ftiU perpendicular, it
will pafs into the air without refraftion, to I^. But the
ray C D, falling obliquely on the furface of the glafs, will be
refrafted towards the perpendicular N D O, and proceed to
Q ; and the ray D Q, again falling obliquely out of the
glafs upon the furface of air, will be refrafted from the
perpendicular R O S, and proceed to V. After the fame
maaner might the ray E F be fhewn to be refraftcd to Y,
and thence to Z.

Hence the great property of concave glaffes ; vif^. that they
difperfe parallel rays, or make them diverge. See Lens and

MiKROR.

Refraction in a plane vhifi. If parallel rays E F, G H,
1 L {Jig. 24.) fall obliquely on a plane glafs A B C D, the
obliquity being the fame in all, by reafon of their parallelifm,
they will be all equally refrafted towards the perpendicular ;
and accordingly, being Hill parallel at M, O, and Q, they
■will pafs out into the air equally refracted again from the
perpendicular, and ftill parallel.

Thus will the rays E F, G H, and I L, at their entering
the glafs, be inflefted towards the right ; and in their going
out as much inflefted to the left ; fo that the firft; refradlion
is here undone by the fecond ; though not fo as that the ob-
jeft is feen in its trueplace. For the ray B Q, being produced
back again, will net coincide with the ray L I, but will fall
to the right of it ; and this the more as the glafs is thicker ;
however, as to matter of colour, the fecond refraftion does
really undo the firft. See Colour.

Refraction of Heat. See Heat, Light, and Rays of
Heat.

Refraction in Iceland or IJland cryjlal. See Iceland
Crystal. Dr. Young, who maintains that radiant light
confifts in undulations of the luminiferous ether, takes oc-
cafion to make fome remarks on fir Ifaac Newton's theory
of the peculiar refraction in Iceland cryftal. Newton, he
fays, has advanced the fingular refraftion of the Iceland
cryftal, as an argument that the particles of light mull be
projefted corpufcles ; fince he thinks it probable that the
different fides of thefe particles are differently attrafted by
the cryftal, and fince Huygens has confefied his inability to
account, in a fatisfaftory manner, for all the phenomena.
But contrarily to what might have been expefted from New-
ton's ufual accuracy and candour, he has laid down a new
law for the refraftion, without giving a reafon for rejefting
that of Huygens, which Mr. Haiiy has found to be more
accurate than Newton's ; and, without attempting to deduce
from his own fyftem any explanation of the more univerfal
and ftriking eifefts of doubling fpars, he has omitted to ob-
ferve, that Huygens's moft elegant and ingenious theory 'per-
feftly accords with thefe general effects, in all particulars,
and of courfe derives from them additional pretenfions to
truth ; this he omits, in order to point out a difficulty for
which only a verbal folution can be found in his own theory,
and which will probably long remain unexplained by any
other.

Dr. Wollafton, in his paper on the oblique refraftion
•of Iceland cryftal, confirms the experiments of Huygens on
this fubftance, with additional evidence, deduced from the
-fuperiority of his mode of examining the powers of re-
fraction. He obferves that Dr. Young has already apphed

the Huygenian theory v/ith confiderable fucccfs to the ex-
planation of feveral other optical phenomena, and that it
appears to be ftrongiy Supported by lucii a coincidence of
"■he calculations deduced from it, with the refnlts of thefe ex-
periments, as could hav' Icarcely liappened to a falfe theory.

In ordinary cafes, the incipient undulations are of a fphe-
rical form ; but in the Iceland cryftal light appeared to Huy-
gens to proceed as if the undulations were portions of an ob-
late fpheroid, of which the axis is parallel to the ftiort dia-
gonal of an equilateral piece of the cryftal, and its centre
the point of incidence of its ray. From this fpheroidat
form of the undulations, he deduces the obhquity of refrac-
tion ; and lays down a law obfervable in all refraftions, at
any furface of the fpar, whether natural or artificial, which
bears the clofeft analogy to that which obtaiss, univerfaUy,
at other refraftory furfaces ; for as, in other cafes, the ratio
is given between the fine of incidence and fine of refraftion,
(or ordinate of thej^/;f/-/ra/ undulation propagated,) fo lu
the Iceland cryftal, the ratio between the fine of incidence
and ordinate of refraftion ^in any one feftion of the fphe-
r&«/(tW undulation) in a given ratio, but diflerent in different
planes.

Dr. Wollafton obferves, that though we do not fully
undcrftand the exiftence of a double refraftion, and are
utterly at a lofs to account for the phenomena occumng
upon a fecond refraftion, by another piece of the fpar, yet
that the obhque refraftion, when confidered alone, is nearly
as well explained as any other optical phenomenon. Phil.
Tranf. for 180 1 and for 1802.

Refraction, Particular laws of, in different kinds of
lenfes ; fee Lens.

Refraction, Atmofpherical, is generally confidered under
two diftinft heads ; viz. aftronoinical refraftion, which is
that relating to the refraftion of the moon, ftars, and other
celcftial bodies ; and tcrreftrial refraftion, or that which
takes place in terreftrial obfervations.

It appears, from the article Refraction, that a ray of
light is refrafted in paffmg obhquely out of one medium into
another of different denfity ; and as the atmofphere may be
confidered as corapofed of an infinitude of ftrata, whofe
denfity increafe as they are pofited nearer the earth, the lu-
minous rays which pafs through it are afted on as if they
pafled fucceffively through media of increafing denfity, and
are therefore inflefted more and more towards the earth, as
the denfity augments, that is, as they approach the eye of
the obferver. In confequence of this it is, that rays from
objefts, whether celeftial or terreftrial, proceed in curves
which are concave towards the earth ; and fince the mind al-
ways refers the place of objefts to the direftion in which
the rays reach the eye, that is, to the direftion of the tan-
gent to the curve at that point, Jt follows, that the apparent
or obferved elevation of objefts is always greater than the
true one, at leaft with the exception of fome few remark-
able anomalies which fometimes, in terreftrial obfervations,
produce a contrary effeft, and of which we have ftated a
few particular inftances under the article Mirage, and on
which fubjeft fome other curious fafts are recorded in a me-
moir of profedor Vince's, in the Phil. Tranf. ; in Nicholfon's
Philofophical Journal, 4to. ; and more particularly by
M. Monge, in vol. i. of the " Decade Egyptienne." Re-
ferring the reader therefore to thofe works, to which we
ought alfo to add the memoir by M. Biot, in vol. x. of the
National Inftitute, for an account and explanation of thofe
phenomena, we ftiall confine ourprefent obfervations to thofe
cafes only, in which an uniform law is fuppofed to have place,
and which, as we have fecn, has a conftant tendency to aug-
ment the obferved altitude of both tcrreitrial and cileftiai

objefts.

REFRACTION.

objedle. In order to fubtnit the phenomena of rcfraftion to
ftridl mathematical invclligation, it mull be obfervcd that,
in confequence of the inconfKlerable height of the at-
mofphere, and its fpherical form, a himinous ray impinging
upon it, even in the mod unfavourable cafe, that is directly
in the horizon, traverfos only a fmall quantity of this me-
dium ; and in this fpace, if the atmofphere is calm, the den-
fity of the air at equal heights above the level of the fea is
every where the fame. Therefore, in fuppofmg the earth
fpherical, a fuppofition whicli may be admitted, in the prelent
cafe, without any fenfible error, we may coniider the at-
mofphere as compofed of fucceflive fpherical concentric
(hells, or ttrata, of which the denfity diminiflies from the
furface of the earth upwards.

L.et us conceive, now, a luminous ray, coming from a
diftance, to penetrate into one of the fuppofed fpherical
(hells ; then, if through the common centre of thcfe fliells,
which is the fame as the centre of the earth, we fuppofe a
plane to pafs ih the direftion of the luminous ray, the fphe-
rical beds of the atmofphere will be found divided into two
equal portions, which afting equally upon the ray, tan pro-
duce no deviation of it from that plane; whence it follows,
that the effeft of refraftion is entirely produced in a vertical
direftion, and in fuch a manner as to augment the apparent
altitudes of the heavenly bodies, and confequently to diini-
ni(h their zenith diilances.

But the intenfity of thefe effefts will not be the fame at
all heights, for we know that in all cafes the quantity of re-
fraftion depends upon the obliquity of incidence, and there-
fore the refraftion in the zenith is equal to zero, and iu-
creafes from that poffit to the horizon, where it is the
greatefU

If, now, we knew the law by which the denfity ol the
air is diminifhed in afcending from the earth, that is, if we
knew the difference in the denlity of any two confeculive
Itrata, it would be comparatively a direft and eafy problem
to find the whole amount of refraftion for any given angle
of obfervatioii ; but unfortunately the uniformity of de-
creafe in the denfity of the atmofphere, which, according
to theory, is in geometrical progreffion, is fo much inter-
rupted by the multitude of caufes which may tend to pro-
duce this effedt, that it is found that the quantity of refrac-
tion computed on this principle, will by no means agree
with that deduced from aftual obfervation. It has been,
' however, demonftrated, that the quantity of refraftion, in
all cafes exceeding to or 12 degrees of elevation, isnotlen-
fibly affefted by any irregularity in the law of denfity, in
the ftrata of which we have fuppofed the atmofphere to be
• compofed, but that it depends fimply upon its pretlure and
temperature at the time and place of obfervation, which are
indicated ,at the time by the barometer and thermometer.
It, was formerly thought, alfo, that refraftion was influenced
by the degree of humidity and drynefs of the air ; but from
a great variety of interefling and accurate experiments,
carried on by- M. M. Biot and Arrago, it appears indif-
putably eftablifhed, that no fenfible efFett is thence pro-
duced. See a memoir on this fubjeft by the former author,
in vol, X. of the National Inftitute.

But before we proceed farther on this interefling fubjeft,
it will be proper to give a flcetch of the feveral improvements
which the theory has experienced in the hands of different
celebrated aflionomers ; in doing which we (liall avail our-
felves of a memoir, publilhed by Dr. T. S. Evans in the
Philofophical Magazine, which contains a minute and cir-
cumftantial detail of many important particulars connefted
with this fubjeft. There appears to be but little doubt

that the aflronomic refraftion was known to the ancients,
fince it is exprefsly mentioned by Ptolemy, although not
made ufe of in his calculations. He fays, near the end of
the 8tli book of the Almageft, that in the rifing and fetting
of the heavenly bodies, there arc changes which depend
upon the atmofphere, and he mentions it more at length in
a work on optics, which, unfortunately, has not been
handed down to us. Alhazen, an Arabian writer, who is
generally fuppofed to have lived about the year iioo, and
to have taken the greater part of his optics from the works
of Ptolemy, fpeaks alio decidedly of it, and fhews the man-
ner of convincing ourfelves of it by experiment. " Take,"
fays he, " an armiilary, which turns round its poles, and
meafure the diflance of a flar from the pole of the world
when it pailes near the zenith in the meridian, and when it
is rifing or fetting near the horizon, and you will find the
diflance ir«m the pole lefsin the latter cafe." He then de-
monflrates that this muft arife from refraftion, but he does
not ftate its quantity.

In the colleftion of obfervations made by Bernard
Walter, and publifhed by Willebrode Snell in 161 8, it
is ilated, that the obfervations were fo exaft, that they
pointed out to Walter the quantities by which the alti-
tudes of the ftars and planets ivere increafed on account of
the refraftion.

Tycho Brahe, however, appears to be the firfl who
afferted, with any degree of accuracy, that the refraftion
elevates the heavenly bodies rather more than half a degree
when on the horizon. (See Progymn. p. ij.) But either
his inftruments or his obfervations were not fufficiently cor-
reft to determine it with certainty for all degrees from the
zenith to the horizon ; and, accordingly, where thefe failed,
the refl were fupplied by conjefture. He believed that
the fun's refraftion was 34' in the horizon, and that it be-
came infenfible at 45° of altitude. For the flars, however,
he afTumed an entirely different quantity, -viz. 30' in the
horizon ; but this, according to him, terminated at only
20° of altitude.

The following is the manner in which it is related
(Encly. Method.) that Tycho made this difcovery. He
had determined, with one or two inftruments extremely
well made, tlie latitude of the place by obfervations of
Polaris above and below the pole. He determined it alfo
by the fun's altitude in both folflices, and found it four
minutes lefs in the latter. At firfl he doubted the good-
nefs of his inilruments, and therefore conflrufted, with the
utmoft care, as many as ten others, of different fizes and
forms, but they all gave nearly the fame refults. He
could, therefore, no longer attribute this difference in the
two determinations of the latitude to any defeft in the
obfervations, but endeavoured, by an attentive confidera-
tion of the fubjeft, to find out the caufe of this'fingular
phenomenon. At length he fuppofed it could only arife
from the refraftion which elevated the fun at the winter
folflice, having then only ii° of elevation above the horizon.
This refult agreed very well with the principles of optics ;
but ilill Tycho Brahe could fearccly perfuade himfelf that
the refraftion was fufficiently large to produce fo great a
difference. On this account, lie made other inftruments of
ten feet diameter, vvhofe axes correfponded exattly with the
pole of the world, and with thefe he nieafured the declina-
tion of the ftars out of the meridian. He then found, that
even in fummer the refraftion, although infenfible at the
meridian altitude of the fun, was very confiderable near the
horizon, and amounted to half a degree in the horizon. See
Progymn. p. •;(/ — 104. Street's Aftr. Carol, p. i uj.

4F 2 Tycho

REFRACTION.

Tycho Brahe's table of refraftion is as follows ;

Alt.

Rcfraftion,

Alt.

1
Refraftioti.

o°

30' 0"

0

1 II

I

21 30

1 1

5 00

2

•5 30

12

4 30

3

12 30

13

4 00

4

II 00

14

3 30

5

10 00

15

3 00

6

9 00

16

2 30

7

8 15

17

2 00

8

6 45

18

• 15 :

9

6 00

19

0 30 .

10

! 5 30

20

0 00

In this iUte the rcfraftion remained for many years.
Even Riccioli, in 1665, fiippofed it nothing at about 26^ of
altitude ; but he tliought the moon had only 79' of liori-
zoiital refradlion in fummer, the fun 30', and the Itars
30' 37". It was not till after the year 1672, that a tole-
rably near table of refraftion made its appearance, vvlien
the tldcr Caffini took the fubject into confideration. ( Mem.
de I'Acad. torn. v. p. 81.) What led to this was the
voyage of Richer to Cayenne in that year, upon the utility
of whiclv fome very excellent remarks were made by Caffini,
fliewing how far obfervations made in a fituation fo near
tlie equator tended to confirm or difprove certain theories
derived from obfervations made in Europe. Several very
ufeful deductions were drawn from a comparifon of thole
made both at Paris and Cayenne ; among others, the re-
fraftiou was fettled upon more accurate elements than herc-
tofore, and a new table computed, for the tirll time, of its
quantity, for all degrees, up to the zenith ; an abridgment
of which is given below :

Alt.

Uefraiftion.

Alt.

Rtfriiflion.

0°

32' 20"

0

1 II

I

27 56

30

1 42

2

21 04

40

I 10

3

1 6 06

45

0 59

4

12 48

5°

0 50

5

10 32

60

0 34

10

5 28

70

0 21

15

3 S^

80

0 10

20

2 39

From the relation of his grandfon it appears, however,
that Caffini had at one time computed three tables of re-
fraftion for all altitudes ; one for winter, another for fum-
mer, and a third for fpring and autumn ; but fcveral
doubts having been fuggeiled to him refpefting this arrange-
ment, although in appearance conformable to nature, and
prmcipally the obfervations of Richer at Cayenne, where
the refraftion was found little different from that at Paris,
he changed his opinion ; and judging, that fince the great
difference of heat of the torrid zone from that of the
temperate zone, which we inhabit, does not caufe fenlible
differences in the refraftion ; therefore the greateft heat or
cold of our cHmate could not change it much ; and he then
fixed upon one table, which was that \ifed by the aflro-
nomers of the Royal Obfervatory of Paris up to the year
'745- 5

It was always thought, before the tiir.t of Caffini, that
the refraction did not extend its influence higher tlian 45°
of altitude : and he is generally confidered as the firtl who
proved that it reached all the way to the zenith. He alfo
inppofed that near the equator the horizontal rtfraftion was
Icfs than in our climate by about one-tliird ; that this dif-
ference decreafcd as far up as 60", after which it waa the
fame nearly for both climates.

From this difcovery it followed, as a natural confequence,
that the refraftion mult be greater near the pole than at
Paris : and this was fhortly afterwards proved to the
Academy by the publication of a work cxprefsiy on that
fubjeCt. (Refraftio folis inoccidui, &c. Holmise, 4to.
1695.) The king of Sweden, being, in 1694, at Toniea,
in Weil Bothnia, near the latitude of 65° 45', and obferving
that the fun did not fet there in the fummer folftice, fenl
the following year fome mathematicians to make more cer-
tam and exaft obfervations of this curious phenomenon.
Tiiey are contained in this book, andMefirs. Caffini and De
la Hire concluded from them, that in the latitude of 65° 45'
the horizontal refraftion mutt be 58', or nearly double of
that at Paris.

According to an obfervation made by fome Dutchmen
who pafTed the winter of 1596 — 7, in Nova Zambia, in
latitude 76^ north, the fun, v/hich had entirely difappeared
the 14th of November, began to rife again the 24th of
.January, viz. fix days fooner than was expected, according
to aftronomical calculations. If fo, when the fun has been
two or three months under the horizon, as the Dutchmen
obferved in 1 597, the cold becomes dreadful, and perhaps
the refradtion increafes prodigioufly. M. le Monnier af-
fures us, that he found by the obfervations printed in 1599,
tliat on the 24th ai.d 27th of January 1597, there were more
than 4-1 degrees of refraction : that he could neither ex-
plain thefe obfervations, rejeft them as doubtful, nor fup-
pofe any error, as was done by molt of the other aftronomers,
Kepler, Caffini, Scote, and, laltly, M. le Gentil, in hi.s
Voy. dans les Mers des Indes, torn. i. p. 395. tom. ii.
p. 832, who maintained that there were errors in the ob-
fervations, and accordingly read a memoir on the fubjeft.
If it were not fo difiicult a taflc to winter in thefe high
latitudes, we might expedt fuch obfervations as would
remove all doubt on the fubjeft ; and, perhaps, bring others
to lij^rht of as great or greater importance.

The refraftion of the north being fo confiderable, is very
ufeful to the inhabitants, who are deprived of the fun's
light during many months ; as it makes the fun rife much
earlier, and fet much later to them, than it otherwife would.
About the year 1725, Mr. Flamfteed, the Englifh aitro-
nomer royal, publilhed his table computed from his own
obfervations : and this was the one commonly ufed in
England for many years afterwards.

Sir Ifaac Newton alfo conltrufted one from theory,
which was firft publifhed by Dr. Halley in the Philofophical
Tranfaftions, N° 368, for 1721. He made the horizontal
refraction 33' 45" ; whereas Mr. Flamiteed's was only 33' o".
But ahhough the refradion might be determined within
a few feconds at all altitudes by obfervation ; yet, the law
of its increafe from the zenith to the horizon was a fubjeft
that occupied the principal mathematicians and aftronomers
for more than a century. Newton having difcovered the
general principles of attra-ftion, found that the refraflion
was a confequence of this law of nature ; and that it arofe
from the attraftion of the atmofphere on the particles of
hght. On this principle the curve which a ray of light
defcribes might be determined ; fince it is fuccelljvely at-

traded

REFRACTION.

{rafted by different layers of the atmofphcre, increafing in
denfity as they approach the earth, and, confequeiitly, bend-
ing the ray more and more from the right Hue which it
delcribed in the vacuum previous to its reaching the atmo-
fphere. There are many autliors vvlio have endeavoured to
find from theory the curve defcribed by this ray in its
courfc, by the affumptiou of various hypothefes ; but pcr-
feftion, and our attempts to arrive at it, as is well obfervcd
by the elder Caflini in difcourfing on this fubjcft, are like
the progrefs of certani curves and their afymptotes. The
principal of thefe writers on the fubjeft are Bernouilli
(Hydrodyn. 1738, p. 221.) ; Bofcovich (Oper. tom. ii.) ;
Bougucr (Prix de 1729. Mcmoires, 1739, p- 407 ; 1749,
p. 75.) ; Caflini (Epilh ad Montanari, 1665. Retraffioni
e Parallofi'e, &c. 1671. Mem. for 1714, and his Aftr. vol. i.
p. II. Paris, 1740, in 2 vols. 4to.) ; Defcartes (Diop-
trique, 4to. Paris, 1637) ; De la Grange (Nouveaux Mc-
moires de Berlin, vol. iii.) ; Euler (Mem. de Berlin, 1754,
tom. X.) ; Gregory (Aitronomy, vol. i. p. 358. edit, of
1715, iu 8vo.) ; Hodgfon (Mathematics, vol. i. p. 367.
Fluxions, p. 133.) ; Huygens (Traite de la Lumiere, p. 44.
Dioptrica, 4to. 1703) ; Kramp (Analyfedes Refracl. Allr.
ct Terres, 410. Strafburg, 1799) ; Lambert (Les Pro-
prietcs Remarquables de la Route de la Lumiere. A la
Haye, 1759. Another edition in German, 1773) ; La
Place (Mecanique Cclelte, vol. iv. p. 231.) ; Mayer (Tables,
1770) ; Newton (Principia, b.i. fec't. 14.) ; Oriani (Ephem.
de Milan. 1788) ; Thomas Simpfon (Mathematical Differta-
tions, 1743) ; Brook Taylor (Methodus Incrementorum,
4to. Lond. 1715. PropoC. 27. p. 108.); Heinfius (Difl'er-
tatio dc Computo refraftionum Aftron. 410. Leipfig, 1749) ;
Tobias Mayer (De Retrattionibus Aftronomicis, 410. Al-
torf. 1781); La Hire (Mem. de I'Acad. pour 1702,
p. 52.) ; d'Alembert (Opulcules Mathematiques, tom. viii.
p. 297.)

It was conjeftured by many of tlie early writers, that tlie
rcfraftion was fubjeft to variations depending upon the
weather : but it then amounted to little more than a con-
jefture, on account of the indifferent manner in which
allronomic inilruments were divided. Picard found by
meridian altitudes of the fun in 1669, that it was greatc" in
v.icter than in fummer. He found alfo that it was lefs by
day than by night. In the obfervations given at the end
of his journey to Uraniburg, to fettle the latitude of that
place, and its difference of longitude from Paris, for the
purpofe of comparing the obfervations of Tycho Brahe
with thofe made at the Royal Obferv'atory of Paris, he
found the horizontal refraftion for the firll limb of the fun
that made its appearance above the horizon there 33' 2",
and for the fecond 32' 37". So that in the fmall interval of
time that the fun was in rifmg, the refraftion was diminilhed
25 feconds by the warmth arifing from the fun's prefence.

A quadrant being alio direfted by him from the top of
Mount Valerian towards the fummit of the church of Notre
Dame at Paris, he found the deprcffion 20' ; but the fun
had fcarcely rifen, when it was increafed to 22'; exhala-
tions being raifed by the fun's pnefence, and the medium
between Paris and Mount Valerian become more equal ;
whereas, before the fun rofe, the air of Paris was more denfe
than that of Mount Valerian.

The denfity of the atmofphere being the immediate caufe
of the refraftion, it was very natural to fuppofe that it mull
decreafe as this denfity became lefs ; whether by caufes
which diminifhed its weight, or by the expanfion produced
by heat : and, indeed, aftronomers were not long after this,
before they difcovered that very fenfible differences were oc-
cafioned by thefe circumftances.

But all the honour of introducing corredlions on account

of the variation of denfity in the atmofphere, as indicated
by the barometer and thermometer, is due to Meffrs. Low-
thorpe and Haukfbee ; the former of whom, in 1698,
proved by a very limple experiment, in the prefence of the
Royal Society, that the refraftive power of air is direftly
proportional to its denfity : and tlie latter, by repeating and
extending the fame courfc of experiments in the year 1708,
with the- machinery pointed out by the former, found that
tlie variations ot reiradtion, depending on the barometer, are
proportional to the alteration of height of the mercury in the
tube : and by a feries of thefe experiments, he furnifhed us
with a table of the correftions which it is necefi'ary to make
on account of the changes of heat indicated by the ther-
mometer. Thefe experiments, although not quite conclufive
on the fubjeft, were yet made with as much accuracy and care
as the nature of the machinery, and the ftate of experimental
philofophy of that time, would admit. An example is alfo
given, towards the end of his paper, on the mode of apply-
ing them to correft the refraftion. By thefe, Haukfbee
found that a volume of air exprefied by unity, when the
thermometer was at 1 80*^ above zero, became, at 50° be-
low, one-eighth more denfe : or, which is the fame thing,
that the air loit one-eighth of its denfity, for an elevation
of 180'' of Fahrenheit's thermometer ; which is exaftly the
difference of heat between melting ice and boiling water.
But although tliis one-eighth, as will be fhewn hereafter,
was too fmall ; yet it laid the foundation for other experi-
ments, fince made by fevcral philofophers, by which the
quantity of expanfion has been determined more accurately.

We have already flievvn that the refraftion near the pole
is greater than in our climate ; the degree of cold being
more intenfe. It was alfo found to be lefs in the torrid zone,
.where the heat is greater than in Europe. Bouguer made a
variety of obfervations at Peru, the refult of which he has
given us. In 1740, he came down into an ifland fituated
in the river of Emeralds, called ifle of Inca, where he de-
termined the refraftion from 1° to 7° of altitude; and the
table which he afterwards computed fliews the refraftion to
be about one-feventh lefs than in Europe. The horizontal
refraftion he found to be 27' : but at 6° of altitude it is 7' 4" ;
and at 45°, it is 44". Bouguer then gives a table for Quito,
which is more elevated above the level of the fea. M. le
Gentil found it greater at Pondicherry in India, although
in the torrid zone.

The refraftion diminifhes when we are elevated above the
level of the fea. Bouguer obferved the quantity of it at
Chimboraco, 23SS toifes above the level of the fea, and
found it ill the horizon only 19^'. At the crofs of Pit-
chinca, 2044 toifes above the fea, he found it 20' 48" ; at
Quito, 1479 toifes above the fea, 22' 50": but at the level
ot the fea 27'. Thefe obfervations, when joined with the
tlieory, produced the following rule ; -viz. if we take the
excefs of 5158 toifes above the elevation of the place, with
regard to the level of the fea, the refraftion will be as the
fquare root of this excefs. Thus the fquare root of 5158
toifes is 27', for the horizontal refraftion, at the level of
the fea, in the torrid zone : and the fquare root of the excefs
of 5158 above the elevation of the place will be its horizon-
tal refraftion. The quantity 5158 is the height above which
the refraftive matter no longer produces any fenfible effeft,
at leail in the torrid zone.

But although by this time confiderable attention had been
paid to the fubjeft, yet great differences were to be found in
the tables then moil in ufe. Thus at the altitude of 30°,
according to Flamfteed, the refraftion was i'23"; New-
ton, i'3o"; Caffini, i'42''; and de la Hire, i' 55'' ; leaving
an uncertainty of more than half a minute : and it mufl have
been very mortifying to an obferver, after having taken the

utmoll

REFRACTION.

utmod pains to avoid errors of two or three fceoiids, to
find hii reduced obfervationj liable to fo great an error, ac.
cording to the choice of his table of refraftioii.

Il is indeed rather extraordinary, that in a memoir pub-
liflied by CalTini de Thury, among thofe of tlie Acaaemy
for 1 745, he attempted to reconcile a number of obfervations
with each other, by conlidering the Hate of the thermometer
only, without at all noticing that of the barometer ; al-
though at that time Hauklhee's experiments had been
publiftied about 37 years.

He concludeo his paper, as is very natural to fuppofe,
without being able to make the obfervations agree : nor
does it clearly appear that the French noticed the above-
mentioned experiments made by Hauklbee till about the
year 1749. It is alfo worthy of remark, that although the
ncceflity of ii-.troducing correftions on account of the alte-
rations of the barometer and thermometer were likewife
fliewn to be abfolutely neceflary by Dr. Hallcy (Phil. Tranf.
N°364), and the circumftance mentioned, and in fome de-
gree admitted by Le Monnier (Hift. Ccleil.), yet it does
not appear that he followed the advice of hts illutlrious con-
temporary, but merely endeavoured, as CafTini did, to re-
concile his obfervations with the ftate of the tliermometer
at the time of making thefe obfervations, without taking the
barometer into account.

It would be endlefs to notice the different opinions re-
fpefting both the terreftrial and the aftronomic refraction
which are to be met with in the writings of various authors
on the fubjeft : and it would be equally ufelefs to notice all
the tables of its quantity given by them, fome of which dif-
fer very much from others. It will be fufficient to mention
thofe only who made fome confiderable advances towards
obtaining it with greater accuracy.

The next of thefe in order was La Caillc( Mem. del'Ac. de

Sc. 17551 p- 547-)> who in determining it certainly bcltowed

very great pains, by makmg and reducing an immenfe number

of obfervations, and afterwards comparing them with others

made at Greenwich by Dr. Bradley, at Gottingen by

Mayer, at Bologna by Zanotti, and by La Lande, who was

then at Berlin. From thefe it appeared that the refradtiou

at 45^ of altitude was i' 65" ; but this, as will hereafter be

feen, was too great by fome feconds. In his paper on the

fubjeft, which is divided into four parts, he proves, firft,

that the mean refratlions are very nearly the fame for the

fame apparent altitudes tliroughout the whole extent of the

temperate zone ; fince thofe which were obferved at Paris

did not exceed thofe obferved at the Cape of Good Hope

but by ^V at molL In the fecond he determines the abfo-

lute quantity of the mean refi-aftion for the apparent height

of the pole at Paris, and gives the refult of his obfervations

with regard to the latitude of Paris and of the Cape of

Good Hope. In the third he gives his table of mean re-

fraftion, and another of corrcftions depending upon the

ilate of tiie barometer and thermometer ; concluding with

fome refleftions on its conilrudiion and ufe. In the fourth

he compares his new table with the moll celebrated of thofe

that had before that time been in ufe among aftronomers ;

and he then ihews how it agrees with the obfervations of

Bradley, Zanotti, and Mayer.

But bv La Caille's memoir it appears, that previous to
this time M. Mayer had formed and communicated to him a
table of aftronomic refradions which he computed by means
of an algel)raic formula, the co-efficients of which he de-
duced from his own obiervations, and took into account the
variations relative to thofe of the barometer and thermome-
ter. He found the alteration of refraftion for a depreflion
of 15 lines in the barometer, the fame as for a rife of 10°
in the thermometer, and the variation for each degree of

the latter, according to his table, ^'^ of the whole mean
refraftion, wliich lie adapted for 28 inches of the barometer,
and o" of tlic thermometer. This proportion takes place
down to 80" of zenith diftatice. Mayer confidered alfo •
that the mean refraction is the fame for all parts of the earth ;
3nd that the only variation which takes place depends
on the changes of tfec weight and temperature of the
atmofphere.

I^a Caille, in comparing Mayer's table with obfervations',
found that his corredtion for the thermometer was a little
over-rated ; and accordingly, for his new table, altered it
to tV ^o"" '^''ch degree. And here it may be obferved that
La Caille did not correct his altitudes above 36' at Paris,
and 30° at the Cape ; firit, becaufe he only noted the barome-
ter and thermometer in the night, when he obferved ftar^
below 30° of altitude. Secondly, becaufe, that at 36" of
altitude, where tlse mean refraction is about linrinute, the
variation which belongs to 10° of tlie thermometer oiily
amounts to ^^ feconds ; a quantity about equal to tiie
limits of the errors of obfervations made willi an inltrument
of fix feet.

The formula given by Euler (Mem. de l'.\c. de Berlin,
1754, p. 1 3 {.), appeared alfo about this time. It took into
account tlie variation of the refraction depending upon the
thermometer and barometer, but was certainly too com-
plicated to be generally adopted. He (hews, however,
that in very different hypothefes the refraftion will be fufii-
ciently exact, if taken in the inverfe ratio of the degrees
of heat, when the liar or planet is not too near the ho-
rizon, but the precife quantity of this ratio was unknown
to him.

In this ftate the refraction ftood w!)en Dr. Bradley took
the fubjcct into confideration, and began to find its quantity
from his own obfervations. The rule which he adopted,
although a very elegant one, he neither lived to complete
nor to prefent to the world ; but it was pubhfhed after hi-^
death by Dr. Malkelyne, (Pref. to iftvol. of Obf. 1765.
Phil. Tranf. i764and 1787, p. 157. Req. Tables, &c.),
and has commonly been ufed in England up to the prefent
time. He found the mean rcfradtion at 45° of altitude
57", and, that at all other altitudes, it was equal to 57"
multiplied by the tangent of the zenith diftance, diminifhed
by three times the refradtion. Then fuppofing the mean
ftate of the atmofphere to be at 2g.6 inches of the baro-
meter, and 50° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, he made the
true or corrected refradtion equal to 57" x t, (Z. D. — 3 r)

barom. 400 ... ,

X ;^ X ; — , where it is to be underllood

29.6 350 -1- ther.

that the mafs of air is fuppofed to increafe in bulk ^j_ for
each degree of Fahrenheit's fcale.

A variety of experiments has been made at various
times to afcertain the increafe in bulk of a quantity of air
reprefented by unity for a certain number of degrees of rife
of the thermometer. The following is a lift of lome of them ;

for 1°

M. Bonne ...

Bradley - . . .

Dalton . . . .

De Luc . - . .

Fahrenheit - . - .

Gay Liifiac . . .

Groombridoe . . .

o

Hauklbee . . . .

La Caille . . -

Mayer . . . .

Shuckburg . . .
Mean of all except Hauklhee's

i.oo 25777

1. 00 2 J 000

i.co 207C1
1.00 20888

1.00 25777

1.00 2086S

1.00 2 1000

1 .00 0693 ^

1.00 22222

I.OO 20444

I.OO 22222
1.00 22490

The

REFRACTION.

The refraftion deduced from Bradley's very neat and
finiple formula was, in a few years, adopted by nearly all
the aftronomers of enunence tln-ongliout Europe. Tlie ex-
treme facility with- which it nii^lit be computed, and the
correftioris applied, whether from the formula illtlf, or from
tables ready calculated for that purpofe, was a powerful
recommendation in its favour ; but its near agreement with
obfervation foon cllablifhed it.

We muft now, without entering farther into detail of
minor improvements, proceed at once to the chapter given
by La Place on this fubjeft, in his " Mecanique Celefte,"
vol. iv. p. 231, where he has drawn, from an inveligation
which we cannot undertake to exhibit In this place, the fol-
lowing general formula, for expreiling the refraftion for all
angles of elevation above I2 decimal, or 10.8 fexagefimal
degrees, viz.

a p

tan. z

+

0.76(1 +/. 0.00375)

ap tan. 2

' ^ . 0.0012C2C.' ■ —

0.76

(1 + 2 cof.-z) tan. 3

fi

cof.=

[0.76(1 + /.O.O0375)]-

where all the quantities are known except r and a ; wliich
latter rcprefents a conftant co-efficient ; w'z. z is the ob-
ferved zenith diftance under the barometric preffure p, in
metres, and t the temperature of the centigrade thermo-
meter, r being the refraftion : all, therefore, that is re-
quired for determining r, is the value of the unknown co-
efficient a ; which is to be drawn from obfervations on the
circumpolar ftars, in the following manner.

Let Z be the dillance of one of tliefe ftars from the
zenith, in its fuperior meridian paflage ; Z', this diftance at
the inferior meridian palfage, obferved from the fame point
of the terreltrial furface ; r and r', the correfponding re-
fraftions. Now all the other quantities, except a, being
knovs'n, we may, for the fake of fimplicity, put the above
formula for both paffages under this form,

r = Aa -f Ba', ;■' = h!'a -f- B'a' ;

where A, B, A', B', are all known quantities. Writing
aUo Z, Z', for the obferved zenith diilances, the true zenith
diftance, D, correfted for refraftion, will be

Z -f A« -t- B(z% and Z' + A's + Y>'a,

which are, therefore, now equal to each other ; confequently,
by addition, we have

Z + Z' -I- (A + A') « + (B + B') a-=2V>;

in which all the quantities are known, except a and D.
But by repeating fimilar obfervations on fome other ftar,
and denoting by Z", Z'", A", A'", B", and B"', the fimilar
quantities before reprefentcd by Z, Z', A, A', &:c. alfo a
and D remaining the fame for all ftars obferved in the fame
place, we lb all have thtfe two equations ;

Z + Z' + (A + A') a + (B + B') a' = 2 D,

Z" + Z'" -h (A" + A'") a + (B" H- B'") a-^lV);

from which it is obvious, the conftant co-efficient a may be
obtained by the ufu.il methods of elimination.

In the above operation, however, we have fuppofed the
polar diilances of the fame ftar to be the fame for its fu-
penor and inferior paffiige; whereas we know that, in con-
sequence of the effect of preceffion, nutation, and aberra-
tion, this diftance is conftantly varying ; and >ve ought,
therefore, to introduce thefe variations into the above equa-
tion. But our objeft being merely to give a general view
of the principles made ufe of for the determination of the

co-efficient a, we liave not thought it neccfTary to enter fo
Itnttly into the mnuitia of the computation. It appea-s
from the above, that the conftant co-efficient a may be dc.
termined by means of four obfervations on two different
circumpolar ftars; and confequently, that every fuch fet of
obfervations ought to produce the f.me refult, or the fame
value of a. Confidering, however, the extreme accuracy
required in fuch cafes, both in the inftruments and the ap-
plication of them, fome little difagreement is to be expeftcd ■
.and indeed one is furprifcd to fee it fo fiv.all, as it has beer!
found to be in various obfervations undertaken for this pur-
pofe, and the mean of which we have every reafon to coii-
/ider as perfeftly corred ; and which is ftated by M. Biot,
who has interefted himfelf very much on this fubjed, at
iS7".24 for the decimal divilion, or 6o''.666 for the fexa-
gefimal.

But now, in order to Amplify our firft formula, by taking
/ = 0.76 metres, and / = o, this may be put under the
form.

r = fl tan. Z (i
tan. Z ;

0.00125254
cof.'K

')

-t- i«'fin. 1"

I -f- 2 Cof.' Z

cof.^ z

in which, fubftituting for cof.' z, its value ^ , and

I -h tan.^a
the proper numerical value of a, as above found, as alfo of
lin. i", the whole is reduced to the following form, wz.

r= 0.99918761 . atan. Z — O.ooi 105823 . a tan.^Z ;
which latter form M. Biot has fhewn to be equivalent to
/•= l87".24.tan. (Z - 3.25 r) for the decimal divifion;
r = 6o".666 . t.an. (Z - 3.25r) for the fexagefimal diviiion.
But the reduftion of it to this form would occupy more
fpace tlian can be allowed for this article. This laft form
IS as fimple as can be defired, from which the following rule
in words may be deduced, -uhz.. The vefradion under the fame
barometric prejfure, and the fame degree of temperature, is pro-
portional to the tangent of the apparent zenith dijiance of the
ftar, dinuni/Ioed by -3,^ times the refraHion.

It muft be remarked, however, that the formula r = A
tan. (Z - 3.25/-), though it exhibits the law of refradion
in as fimple a form as can be defired, is not well adapted
for calculation, in confequence of /- entering on both fides
of the equation ; and aftronomers have, therefore, o-iven
dift'erent methods of rendering the above formula more
commodious. In order to which, it is firft put under the
form.,

tan. n r = tan,- n R tan. (Z — nr)\

R reprefcnting the refraaion, anfwering to Z = 90°. Let
us now add fucceffively to both fides of this equation, the
quantities -f tan. n r tan.^ n R - tan. « r tan.^ n R, and we
ihall have,

tan. nr (I + tan.-nR) = tan.' n R [tan. (Z-n»-)-f tan. nr],
tan. « A- (I — tan.-- n R) = tan.' n R [tan. (Z -nr)- tan. nr].

Now, dividing thefe equations, member by member, n r will
be ehminated, and we obtain

I -h tan.'^/zR ^ tan. (Z — nr) -f tan.nz-
l-tan.'nR "" tan, (Z —nr)— tan. nr'
I fin. Z

cof. 2 ?! R ~
whence we draw

fin. {"L — znr)

fin.(Z-2nR)'
= cof. 2 « R . fin. Z.

Now

REFRACTION.

Now Z aiid « R being known, we may compute the feconj
iide of this equation ; whence tlie arc Z — 2 n ;• is known,
and coiifequeiitly 2 n r ; whicli, divldi-d by 2 7;, will give r,
as required. But it iray bo found itill more limply by the
formula,

tan. «r = tan. n R tan. A n ;
tan. « being- found by means of the auxiliary equation,

tan. a =: fin." n R . tan. Z.

On the principle above explained, the following table of
vefraClions has been computed, agreeing with the tempera-
ture of + 14^ on the centigrade thermometer, and under a
preflure of 0.76 metres of the barometer ; which is the fame
as 57°.2 Fahrenheit, and 29.922 Englifh inches. And for
auv other temperature and preilure, the correfponding cor-
reftions muft be made as indicated in Tables II. and III. ;
which tables are computed by means of the general formula
given in the preceding part of this article.

We had intended to give here a (hort abflraft of a very
interefting paper on this fubjedl, publifhed by Mr. Groom-
bridge, in the Philofophical Tranfaclions for i8io; but
having already exceeded our ufual limits, we can only refer
the reader to the volume itfelf, where he will find feveral
neat and ufeful fonuula:.

Having thus given a fketch of the method of determining
the quantity of altronomical refraftion for all angles of ele-
vation, and under various degrees of temperature and baro-
metric preflure, let us add a few words on the fubjeft of
terreflrial or horizontal refraflion ; for the determination of
which, the following method has been fuccefsfully pradlifed
in the Englifh Trigonometrical Survey.

Let A, A', ( Plate XIX. AJlroiwmy,fg. 1 1 .) be two elevated
places on the furface of the earth ; B D, the intercepted arc
of the earth's furface ; C, the centre of the earth ; A H',
A' H, the horizontal lines at A, A', produced to meet the
oppofite vertical lines C H', C H. Let a, a', reprefent the
apparent places of the objedls A, A' ; then is a' A A' the
refraftion obferved at A, and a A' A the refraftion ob-
ferved at A' ; and half the fum of thefe angles will be
the horizontal refraftion, if we affume it equal at each
ftation.

Now an inftrument being placed at each of thefe ftations
A, A', the reciprocal obfervations are made at tiie fame in-
ftant of time, which is determined by means of fignals or
watches previoufly regulated for that purpofc ; that is, the
obferver at A takes the apparent depreffion of A', at the

fame moment that the other obferver taker> tie apparent de-
prellion of A. Tiien, in the quadrilateral A C A I, the two
angles A, A', are right angles, and confequently the angles
T and C are together equal to two right angles ; but the three
angles of the triangle I A A', are together equal to two right
angles ; and confequently the angles A and A' arc together
equal to the angle C, which is meafured by the arc B D. If,
therefore, the fum of the two deprefTions li A' a, H' A a, be
taken from the fum of the angles H A' A, and H' A A', or,
which is equivalent, from the angle C, (which ib known, be-
caufe its meafure B D is known,) the remainder is the fum of
the two refraftions. Hence this rule, " take the fum of
the two deprefr.ons from the meafure of the intercepted ter-
reflrial arc, half the remainder is tlie refraction. " If, by reafon
of the minutenefs of the contained arc B D, one of the ob-
jefts, inllead of being deprefled below the tangent A H', ap-
pears elevated, as fuppofe A to a", then the fum of the
angles fl" A A', and a A' A, will be greater than the fum
I A A' + I A' A, or than C,' by the angle of elevation
a" A A' ; but if from the former fum there be taken the de-
preffion HA' A, there will remain the fum of the two re-
fraftions, fo that in this cafe the rule becomes as follows :
" Take the depreffion from the fum of the contained arc and
elevation, and half the remainder is the refraftion."

The quantity of this terreflrial refraftion is eilimated by
Dr. Maflcelyne at one-tenth of the diftancc of the objcft ob-
ferved, expreffed in degrees of a great circle. Whence, if
the diftauce be 10,000 fathoms, its loth part, 1000 fa-
thoms, is the 60th part of a degree, or one minute, which,
therefore, is the refraftion in altitude of the objeft at
that diftance. But Le Gendre is induced, by feveral experi-
ments, to allow only one-fourteenth part of the diftance for
the refraftion in the altitude, fo that on the diftance of
10,000 fathoms, the 14th part of which is 714 fathoms, he
allows only 44" of terreflrial refraftion, fo many being con-
tained in 714 fathoms. (See his Memoir on the Trigonome-
trical Operations.) Again, Delambre makes the quantity
of terreflrial refraftion to be one-eleventh part of the arc of
diftance. And the Englifh mealurers, from many very exaft
obfervations, determine the quanfity of the medium refrac-
tion to be a twelfth part of the faid diftance. The mean of
all thefe is about .085 of the intercepted arc, which is pro-
bably not very far from the truth : this quantity, however,
it muft be obferved, is found to vary very confiderably with
the different flates of the weather and atmofphere, from
one-feventh to one-eighteenth of the contained arc.

Table-

REFRACTION.

Table I. Of Refraaion.
Baromclcv 29.922 Inclie'. — o.'jCi Metre; Thermometer Centigrade, 14°; Fahrenheit's, Sl^-2; Reaumur's, xi'-'-z.

A]>p3ren

minus pa-

Refraflion

DifFer-

Apjrarent

Refracfl.
minus

Refraa.

Diff.r

Appa
rent

Refraa.
minus

Refraa.
of the Dlff"

Appa
rent

Refraa.
minu^

Refraa.

Dlff.

allitude.

rallax ol

oltheftars

cnces.

aUitudc.

parallax

flars.

alti-

parallax

ftars. '

alti-

parallax

flats.

tlie 0

of the 0

tude.

of the Q

tude.

of th? G

4

0 /

1 11

J II

II

°^ '

/ II

1 II

II

0

1 II

/ //

II

0

1 II

1 II

0 0

33 7

33 1*5

1 10

6 0

« 13

8 22

11

21

2 20

2 28

7

56

0 34

0 39

1

10

31 17

3' 25

103
96

88

10

8 2

8 II

1 1

22

2 13

2 21

57

0 33

0 37

20

29 33

29 42

20

7 Ji

7 59

1 1

23

2 6

2 H ^

J8

0 31

0 36

30

27 57

28 6

30

7 40

7 48

1 1

24

2 0

2 8 J

59

0 30

0 35

40

26 29

26 38

82

40

7 29

7 3«

10

2J

' 55

60

0 29

0 33

50

25 7

25 15

.76

50

7 19

7 28

— 10—

26

I 49

' 57

61

0 28

0 32

I 0

23 JO

23 59

70

65
61

7 0

7 9

7 18

9

9
9

8

27

I 44

I 52

4
4
4
4

62

0 26

0 3!

"'"

10

22 40

22 49

10

7 0

7 9

28

I 40

I 48

63

0 25

0 29

20

21 35

21 44

20

651

7 0

29

, 36

I 43

64

0 24

0 28

SO

20 34

20 43

56
53

J.8-

30

6 43

651

30

I i2

> 39

65

0 23

0 27

40

19 38

19 47

40

6 35

6 44

8

31

I 28

I 35

66

0 22

0 26

so

18 45

18 54

50

6 27

6 36

32

I 24

I 32

4

-3-

3

67

0 21

0 24

2 0

17 57

18 6

45
43
39
37
35
■ 1 2

8 0

6 20

6 28

7
7
7
6

33

1 21

I 28

68

0 20

0 23

10

17 12

17 20

10

6 13

6 21

34

I IS

I 25

69

0 19

0 22

20

16 29

16 38

20

6 J

6 14

35

' «5

I 22

3
3
3
3

70

0 18

0 2!

30

40

ij 50
15 '3

'J 59
15 22

30

40

J 58
5 52

6 7
6 I

3f>
37

I 12

I 9

I 19
I 16

71

72

0 17
0 16

0 20
0 19

JO

'4 39

14 47

50

5 46

5 54

6

38

I 6

I 13

73

0 15

0 18

3 0

14 6

14 15

3^

30
29
27

2J

24

9 0

5 39

J 48

rt

39

' 4

I u

-J

74

0 14

0 17

10

20

IS 3'5
13 7

'3 45
13 16

10
20

5 33
5 28

5 42'
5 36

6
6

40
41

I 2
0 59

I 8
t 6

2
2

75
76

0 13
0 12

0 15
0 14

30

12 41

12 49

30

5 22

5 3'

5

5

42

0 57

I 4

-7

77

0 II

0 13

40

12 15

12 24

40

J '7

J 25

43

0 55

I 2

78

0 10

© 12

JO

II 51

12 0

50

J 12

5 20

44

0 53

0 59

79

0 10

0 II

4 0

It 29

II 38

22

lO 0

5 6

5 '5

5

?8

45

0 51

0 57

80

0 9

0 10

10
20

11 7
10 47

II 16
10 56

20
18

11 0

12 0

4 39
4 15

4 47
4 24

23
20

4b
47

0 49
0 48

0 55
0 54

I

81
82

0 8
0 7

0 9
0 8

30

10 28

10 37

13 0

3 55

4 4

18

48

0 46

G 52

83

0 6

0 7

40

10 10

10 19

17
16

14 0

3 3«

3 46

'5

-14-

12

49

0 44

0 50

84

0 5

0 6

50

9 53

10 2

ij 0

3 23

3 3'

50

0 43

0 48

85

0 4

0 5

5 0

9 37

9 45

15
15
14
14
13
12

16 0

3 9

3 18

51

0 41

0 46

86

0 3

0 4

10

9 21

9 30

17 0

2 57

3 b

1 1

52

0 39

0 45

87

0 3

0 3

20
30

9 6
852

9 15
9 I

18 0

19 0

2 47
2 37

2 55

2 45

10

9
8

53

54

0 38

0 37

0 43
0 42

2

88
89

0 2
0 X

0 2
0 I

40

8 38

8 47

20 0

2 28

2 36

55

0 35

0 40

90

0 0

0 0

50

8 26

8 34

21 0

2 20

2 28

50

0 34

0 39 i '

6 0

8 13

8 22

1

1

Vol. XXIX.

4G

TaB1,£

REFRACTION.

Table II. Of Correaion-! to the preceding Table of Refraclions for diflerent Degrees of Temperature. An Increafe of
Coid augments Refriiftion ; tlicrefore, the Corredtion is Additive for a Temperature Mi than 14^ of the Centigradi-,
and Siibtradive for tliofe above it.

Correction Addirive.

Correction Subirait

ve.

CenU'^iddr

-2°

0°

+ 2°

+ 4°

+ 6°

+ 8°

+ 10°

+ 12^

+ 14°

+ 16°

+ 18°

+ 20°

+ 22°

24°

26°

28°

30°

Fahrenhcii

28.4

32

35.6

39.2

42.8

46.4

50

53.6

57.2

60.8

64.4

68

71.6

75.2

78.8

82.4

86

Reaumur

-l.G

0°

+ 1.6

+ a.2

+ 4.8

+ 6.4

+ s

+ 9.6

+ 11.2

+ 12.8

+ 14.4

+ 16

+ 17.6

+ 19.2

+ 20.8

22.4

+ 24

Apparent

.\hiiude.

.

II

II

/(

II

//

It

//

//

II

//

//

M

II

II

"

//

5

^7

^2

28

23

18

14

9

5

0

4

9

13

17

21

■^5

29

33

■fi

^S

^0

26

21

17

13

8

4

0

4

8

12

16

20

23

27

31

6

7,2

28

24

20

16

12

8

4

0

4

7

II

14

18

22

25

28

7

28

24

21

17

14

10

7

3

0

3

6

10

13

16

19

22

25

8

2?

22

18

15

12

9

6

3

0

3

6

9

II

14

17

21

22

1 9

22

iq

16

14

II

8

5

3

0

3

5

8

10

13

15

17

20

10

20

17

IT

12

16

7

T

3

0

2

5

7

9

II

14

16

iS

12

'7

IT

12

10

8

6

4

2

0

2

4

6

8

10

II

13

15

14

14

M

TI

9

7

5

4

2

0

2

3

5

7

8

10

II

13

i6

i.^

II

9

8

6

5

3

2

0

3

4

6

7

9

10

II

18

1 1

10

8

7

T

4

3

0

3

4

5

6

8

9

.0

20

lO

9

7

6

T

4

2

0

2

3

5

6

7

8

9

25

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

0

2

3

4

5

5

6

7

30

6

6

T

4

3

2

2

0

2

2

3

4

4

5

6

40

4

4

3

3

2

2

I

0

I

2

2

3

3

3

4

1 50

^

^

2

2

2

I

I

0

0

0

I

I

I

2

2

2

3

60

2

2

2

I

I

I

I

0

0

0

I

I

I

I

I

2

2

70

I

I

I

I

1

I

0

0

0

0

0

I

I

I

I

I

I

80

I

I

I

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

I

I

90

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Table III. Of Correftions to the Table of
Atmofpheric Preflure augments Refraftion ;
Inches, but Subtraftive when lefs.

Rcfraftions relative to the Weight of the Atmofphere. An Increafe of
the Correction is Additive when the Barometer is more than 29.922

Correflion Additive.

1

CorreiSion Subii-aiTtive.

Metres.

0.795

0.790

0.-85

0.780

0.775

30.159

0.770

30.080

0.765

0.760

0.755

0.750

0.745

0.740

0.735

0.730

0.725

Inches.

31.301

31.104

3o.yo7

30.710

30.51a

30.316

30.119

29.9ia

29.7^5

29.528

29.331

29.134

23.937

28.740

|28.543

1

Apparent

1

Altitudes.

t

0

II

II

tl

II

II

II

II

//

II

II

II II

1

II

//

' ''

s

27

23

19

16

12

8

4

0

4

8

12 16

20

24

27

5t

2?

22

18

14

I I

7

4

0

4

7

II IJ

18

22

25

6

24

20

17

13

10

7

3

0

3

7

10 14

17

20

24

7

21

18

15

12

9

6

3

0

3

6

9 12

15

18

21

8

18

16

13 ,

10

8

5

3

0

3

5

8 II

14

16

18

9

16

14

12

9

/

T

2

0

2

S

7 i 10

12

14

16

10

IT

12

II

8

6

4

2

0

2

4

6 1 9

II

13

15

[2

12

II

9

7

5

4

2

0

2

4

5

7

9

11

12

1 ' +

10

9

8

6

5

3

2

0

2

3

5

6

8

9

11

1 16

9

8

7

5

4

2

I

■ 0

I

3

4

5

7
6

8

9

i8

8

7

6

5

4

2

0

2

4

5

7

8

20

7

6

T

4

3

2

0

2

3 4

J

6

7

25

6

5

4

3

3

2

0

2

2 ! 3

4

5

6

30

5

4

3

3

2

1

0

I

I

2 1 3

3

4

5

40

3

3

2

2

I

1

0

0

I

I

2

2

3

3

50

2

2

2

I

I

1

0

0

0

I

I

I

2

2

2

60

2

I

I

1

I

1

0

0

0

0

I

I

I

I

2

70

I

I

I

I

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

I

1

I

I

80

0

0

0

0

c

c

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

I

90

0

0

0 ' 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

To

R E F

I 'J ohfervc the RefraBkn of a Star, Sic. I. Obfervetlie
:aoridiaii altitude of a flar near the zenith ; whence the lati-
tude of the place being known, the true declination of the
liar iseafily had, the itar being now void of any fenliblc re-
fra£lion. 2. Obferve the altitude of the lame liar in any
other degree, and note the time by a pendulum. 3. For
the given time of obiervation, from the declination of the
ftar compute its true altitude.

This being thus found lefs than the altitude obferved, fub-
tra<ft the one from the other ; and the remainder is the refrac-
tion for li]at moment, in that degree.

Refkaction of Altitude, is an arc of a vertical circle, by
which the altitude of a ftar is increafed by the refraftion.

Rekr 'VCTioN cf Declination, is an arc of a circle of declina-
tion, by which the declination of a ftar is increafed or dimi-
niftied by the refraftion.

Refraction' cf AfcenfiDtiand Defcenfion,\% an arc of the
equator, by which the afceniion and delcenfion of a ftar, whe-
ther right or obliq.ue, is increafed or diminiftied by means of
the refraftion.

Refraction of Longitude, is an arc of the ecliptic, by
which the longitude of a ftar is increafed or diminiftied by
means of the rtfradtion.

Refraction of Latitude, is an arc of a circle of latitude,
by which the latitude of a ftar is increafed or diminiftied by
means of refraftion.

Refrac:'ion, in Commerce, is a term fometimes ufed by
merchants, where there has been an overSght in an ac-
count, to the prejudice of a perfon ; who thereupon demands
reftitution of fo much, added or omitted by miftake.

You muft make me a refraftion of live pounds forgot in
your account. I will deduft or make you a refraftion of
30J. charged inadvertently in my bill.

REFRACTORY, in Chemiftry. See an explication of
the term under Apyrous.

REFRAIN, Fr., in Mupc, the termination of every
verfe or ftanza of a fong, by the fame words and the fame
melody. (See Burden.) The word, according to Me-
nage (Dift. Etym.) is derived from the Spanifti lefran.

REFRAN, Span., a proverb ; the burden of a fong in that
language, being ufually fententious, and including fome
moral precept.

REFRANGIBLE, whatever is capable of being re.
frafted. See Refrangibility.

REFRANGlBILITYo/ /,;>/./, the difpofition of the
rays to be refracted.

A greater or lefs refrangibility is a difpofition to be more
or lefs refrafted, in palling at equal angles of incidence, into
the fame medium.

That the rays of light are differently refrangible, is the
foundation of fir Ifaac Newton's whole theory of light and
coleurs. The truth of the principle, which was inveltigated
and ellablifhed by our great philofopher in the year 1616,
will appear from the following experiments.

I. Let EG {Plate XIX. Optics, fg. I.) reprefent the
window-fhutter of a darkroom, and Fa hole in it, through
which the light is tranfmitted to the prifm ABC, which
refrafts it towards P T, where it appears in an oblong
form ; its length being about five times greater than its
breadth, and exhibiting the various colours of the rainbow.
In Jig. 1. ag b reprefents a fecond prifm, which refrafts the
light back again to Q, where the image is round ; whereas,
without the interpofition of this fecond prifm, the light
would have proceeded to P T, and, confequently, have been
oblong, as before. In this experiment fir Ifaac Newton took
care that the plane a g was placed exatlly parallel to B C,
ind alfo ^^ to A C, that the rays might be equally refrafted,

li K F

though in contrary wayb, by 1>oth prifuis. He alfo ob-
lerved, that both prifms muft be placed very near to one an-
other ; for if tiicir dillaucc bo fo great, that colours begin
to appear in the light, before its incidence on tlie fecond
prifm, thofe colours will not be dcftroycd by the refraftion
of that prifm.

2. Having placed one of two boards behind the prifm at
the window, fo that the light might pafs through a fraall hole
made in it for the purpofe, and fall on the other board at the
dillance of about twelve feet, a hole being made in it to admit
the palfage of the incident light, he then placed another prifm
behind the fecond board, fo that the light which was tranimit-
ed through both the boards might pafs through that alfo,
and be again refradtcd before it arrived at the wall. This
being done, he took the firft prifm in his hand, and turned it
about its axis fo much, as to make the fevcral parts of the
image, call on the fecond board, fuccefiively to pafs through
the hole in it, that he might obferve to what places on the
wall the fecond prifm would refradt them ; and he faw, by
the change of thofe places, that the light tending to that
end of the image, towards which the refraftion of the firll
prifm was made, did, in the fecond prifm, fuffer a refrattioii
confiderably greater than the light which tended to the other
end. The true caufe, therefore, of the length of that
image was difcovered to be no other, than that light is not
fimilar or homogeneal, but that it confilts of rays, fome of
which are more refrangible than others ; fo that without
any difference in their incidence on the fame medium, iome
of them fhall be more refratled than others ; and therefore,
that according to their particular degrees of refrangibility,
they will be tranfmitted through the prifm to different parts
of the oppofite wall.

To make this capital experiment, which fir Ifaac Newton
himfelf juftly calls the experimcntum cruets, let S F {Jig. 3.)
reprefent a ray of the fun, which, after palling through a
hole in the window-ftiutter F, is received by the prifm in
ABC, clofe behind which is placed a board D E, with a
hole in it at G, to admit any of the rays after they have
been feparated by the prifm ; then d e will reprefent the
other board, placed at a confiderable diftance from the
former, with a hole in it, g, to receive any part of the light
tranfmitted through the other board. Behind this fecond
board is placed another prifm, a be, through which different
rays of light, falling upon it in the very fame place, and with
precifely the fame angle of incidence, will be refrafted
higher or lower, on the oppofite wall M N. This experi-
ment was condufted with the utmoft circumfpeftion and
accuracy ; and it is obferved, that neither the different
magnitude of the hole in the window-ftiutter, nor the dif-
ferent thicknefies of the prifm, at the place where the rays
pafted through it, nor the different inclinations of the prifm
to the horizon, nor the different matter of the prifms, made
any fenfible change in the length of the image.

3. In order farther to eftablifit this famous hypothefis of
the different refrangibihty of the rays of light, he held a
prifm in a beam of the fun, which was tranfmitted into the
room through a hole in the window-ftiutter, fo that its axis
might be perpendicular to that beam ; and having turned the
prifm about its axis to make the image afcend and defcend,
and when it feeraed to be ftationary between thefe contrary
motions, he fixed the prifm fo that the refrattions of both
fides might be equal to each other. In this utuation he
looked at the hole through the prifm, and obferved the length
of its refrafted image to be many times greater than its
breadth : the moft refrafted part of it was violet, the leaft re.
frafted red, the middle parts blue, green, and yellow, in
order. The fame thing happened when he removed the prifm
4 G 2 out

REFRANGIBILITY.

out of tlie fun's liglit, and looked through it upon the hole
ftiining by the liglit of the clouds beyond it.

4. Cbnfidering that if the image of the fun fhould be
drawn into an oblong form, citlur by a dilatation ol every ray,
or by any other cafual inequality of the rcfracitions, the fame
oblong image would, by a fccond rcfrattiou, made fideways,
be drawn out as much in breadth, he plated a fecond prifm
immediately after the firll, in an oblique pofition with refpeft
to it, that it might again refrai't llie light of the beam of the
fun's light, which came to it through the lirfl prifm ; fo that
in the firil prifm, the beam would be refrafted upwards, and
in the fecond fideways. But he found that the breadth of
the image was not incrcafed by the refraction of the fecond
prifm, but only its upper part, which in the firfl prifm fuf-
fered the greatelt refradion, and appeared violet and blue,
did again, in the fecond prifm, fufler a greater refraftion,
than the lower part of it, which was red and yellow, and
this without any dilatation of the breadth of the image.
Thus let S {fg. 4.) reprefont the fun, F the hole in
the window, ABC the firll prifm, and D H the fe-
cond. If Y reprefcnt the round image of the fun, made
by a diredt beam of light, when the prifms are taken
away, P T will be the oblong image of the fun, made
by the fame beam pafling through the firit prifm only, and
p t will be the image made by the crofs refraftions of both
prifms together. Sometimes he placed a third prifm after
the fecond, and fonietimes a fourth after the third ; by
all which the image might be often refrafted fideways, but
the rays which were more refrafted than the reil in the firlt
prifm, were alfo more refrafted in all the others, and that
without any dilatation of the image fideways ; and, there-
fore, thofe rays, on account of their conftancy of a greater
refraftion, he called the more refrangible ones. He obferves,
in order to render the meaning of this experiment more evi-
dent, that all the rays, which are equally refrangible, fall
upon a circle anfwering to the fun's difc. Let, therefore,
A G {Jig. 5.) reprefentthe circle which all the inoft refran-
gible rays, tranfmitted from the whole difc of the fun, would
illuminate, and paint upon the oppofite wall, if they were
alone. Let E L be the circle which all the leaft refrangible
rays would, in like manner, illuminate, and paint, if they
were alone, and let B H, C .1, and D K, be the circles
which fo many intermediate kinds of rays would fucceflively
paint upon the wall, if they were fingly propagated from
the fun, the reft being always intercepted, and conceive that
there are other intermediate circles without number, which
other innumerable intermediate kinds of rays would fuccef-
fively paint upon the wall, if the fun fliould fucceflively
emit every kind by itfelf. Now fmce the fun emits rays of
all thefe kinds at once, they muft altogether illuminate and
paint innumerable equal circles, of all which, being ranged
according to their different degrees of refrangibihty, the
oblong image P T before defcribed is compofed.

Now if the fun's circular image, Y, which is made by an
unrefrafted beam of light, was by any dilatation of the fiii-
gle rays, or by any other irregularity in the refraftion of the
firft prifm, converted into the oblong image P T, then
ought every circle in the image to be in like manner drawn
out into a fimilar oblong figure, contrary to the refult of
this experiment.

He confidered farther, that by the breadth of the hole
through which the light enters into the dark chamber, there
is a penumbra made in the circumference of the image Y,
which is alfo vifible at the fides of the oblong images P T
and p t. He, therefore, placed at tiiat hole a lens, or ob-
jcft-glafs of a telefcopc, which might call the image of the
fun diftinftly on Y, without any penumbra at all ; and he

found that the penumbra of the rcftilinear fides of the ob-
long images P T and p I was alfo thereby taken away, fo
that they were as diftinftly defined as the circumference of
-he firft image Y.

There are fonie other circumftances attending this experi-
ment, by which the conclufion drawn from it is made ftill
more plain and convincing.

Let the fecond prifm, D H, {Jig. 6.) be placed not im-
mediately after the ^rll, but at fome diftance from it, fo
that the light from the firft prifm may fall upon it in the
form of an oblong fpeftrum qr, parallel to this fecond
prifm, and may be refracled fideways, to form the oblong
image, pt, upon the wall, and it will be found that this
image, p t, is inclined to the image P T, which the firft
prifm would have formed without the fecond ; the blue
ends, P and p, being farther diftant from one another than
the red ones, T and t ; and, confequently, the rays which
go to the blue end, q, of the image q r, and which, there-
fore, fuffer the greatcft rcfraAion in the firft prifm, are
again, in the fecond prifm, more refradted than the reft.

At two holes made near one another in his window-
ftiutter, he placed two prifms, one at each, which might
call upon the oppofite wall two oblong coloured images of
the fun ; and at a little diftance from the wall he placed a
long flender paper, with ftraight and parallel edges ; and he
placed the prifms and papers, fo that the red colour of one
image, at T, (^g. 7.) might fall directly upon one half of
the paper, and the violet colour, M, of the other image,
upon the other half of the fame paper. Then with a black
cloth he covered the wall behind the paper, that no light
might be reflefted from it to difturb the experiment ; and
viewing the paper through a third prifm, held parallel to it,
he faw that half of it which was illuminated by t4ie violet
light to be divided from the other half, by a greater refrac-
tion, efpecially when he retired to a confiderable diftsnce
from the paper.

He farther caufed the two images, P T and M N l^g. 8.)
to coincide, in an inverted order of their colours, the red
end of each falling on the violet end of the other ; and- then
viewing them through a prifm D H, held parallel to their
length, they no longer appeared coincident, as when they
were viewed with the naked eye, but in the form of two
diftinft images, pt and mn, crofling one another in the
middle ; which fhews that the red of the one image, and the
violet of the other, which were coincident at P N and M T,
being parted from one anotlier by a greater refraftion of the
violet to p m, than that of the red to n and /, differ in de-
gree of refrangibihty.

Having placed a prifm, whofe two angles at its bafe were
equal to one another, and half right ones, and the third a
right one, in a beam of the fun's light, admitted into the
room as before, he turned it flowly about its axis, till all
the light which went through one of its angles, and was re-
frafted by it, began to be reflefted by its bafe, (at which,
till then, it went out of the glafs,) and then he obferved
that thofe rays which had fuffered the greateft refraftion
were fooner reflefted than the reft. He imagined, therefore,
that thofe rays of the reflefted hght, which were moft re-
frangible, did firft of all, by a total refleftion, become more
copious in that light than the reft ; and that afterwards the
reft, alfo, by a total refleftion, became as copious as the^fe.
To try this, he made the reflefted liglit pafs through another
prifm, and, being refrafted by it, to fall afterwards upon a
ftieet of white paper, at fome diftance behind it, and there
to paint the ufual colours of the prifm. Then caufing the
firft prifm to be turned about its axis, he obferved, that
when thofe rays which, in this prifm, liad fuffered the

greateft

REFRANGIBIHTY.

greateft rcfraAion, and were of a blue and violet colour,
began to be wholly rcfledled, the blue and violet lifrlit on
the paper, which received the rays from the fecond prifm,
was fenlil)ly increafed, above that of the red and yellow,
which was leaft refrafted ; and afterwards, when the reft of
the light, which was green, yellow, and red, began to be
wholly reflefted in the iirfl: prifm, the light of thofe colours
on the paper received as great an increaie as the violet and
blue had done before. From this it is manifeil, that the
beam reflefted by the bafe of the prifm, being augmented
firft, by the more refrangible rays, and afterwards by the
lefs refrangible ones, is compounded of rays difTerently re-
frangible. Tliis experiment is illuflrated by^yf;. 9, in wliich
ABC reprefents the firfl prifm, on the bale of wliich tlie
light falls, at M. When tliis prifm is turned about its axis,
according to the order of the letters ABC, the more re-
frangible rays, M H, emerge more and more obliquely ;
and at length, after their moll oblique emergence, are re-
flefted towards N, and going on to p, increafe the number
of rays N/>. By continuing the motion of the firft prifm,
the lefs refrangible rays, M G, are reflefted to N, and in-
creafe the number of rays N t.

Since it appears from fir Tfaac Newton's experiments,
that different rays of light have different degrees of refrangi-
bility, it neceffarily follows that the rules laid down by pre-
ceding philofophers, concerning tlie refractive power of wa-
ter, glafs, &c. muff be limited to the middle kind of rays,
as it may be fuppofed that Kepler, Snellius, and others
would attend to them principally. Sir Ifaac, however,
proves that the fine of the incidence of every kind of light,
confidered apart, is to its fine of refraflion in a given ratio.
This he deduces both by experiment, and alfo geometri-
cally, from the fuppofition that bodies refraft the light
by afting upon its rays in lines perpendicular to their fur-
faces.

Upon the whole it appears, that the blue rays are more
refratled than the red ones, and that there is, likewife, un-
equal refraction in the intermediate rays ; and upon the
whole it appears, that the fun's rays have not all the fame
refrangibility, and, confequently, are not of the fame ma-
ture. It is alfo obferved, that thofe rays which are moft
refrangible ai-e alfo moft reflexible. See the proof of this
under REFLEXlBlLiry. Newton's Optics, p. 22, &c.

The difference between refrangibility and rcflexibility was
•irft difcovered by fir Ifaac Newton, in 167 1-2, and com-
municated in a letter to the Roval Society, dated Fe-
bruary 6, 1671-2, and publillied in the Philofophical Tranf-
atlions, N° 80, p. 3075, and from that time vindicated by
him from the objeftions of feveral authors ; particularly F.
Pardies, M. Mariotte, Fr. Linus, or Lin, and other
gentlemen at the Englifli college at Liege ; and at length
it was more fully laid down, illuftrated, aud confirmed, by
a great variety of experiments, in his excellent treatife of
Optics.

But farther, as not only thofe colours of light produced
by refraftion in a prifm, but alfo thofe reflected from
opaque bodies, have their different degrees ef refrangibility
and reflexibility ; and as a white hght arifes from a mixture
of the feveral coloured rays, the fame great author con-
cluded all homogeneous light to have its proper colour, cor-
refponding to its degree of refrangibility, and not capable
of being changed by any refleflions, or any refraftions ; that
the fun's light is compofed of all the primary colours ; and
that all compound colours arife from a mixture of the pri-
mary ones, &c.

The different degrees of refrangibility he conjeftures to

arife from the different magnitude of the particles of which
the different rays confift. Thus the moft refrangible rays,
/. c. the red ones, he fuppofes to confift of the largeft par-
ticles ; tlie leaft refrangible, i. c. the violet rays, of the
fmalleft particles ; and the intermediate rays, yellow, green,
and blue, of particles of intermediate fizes.

Having given a general view of the Newtonian theory of
colours, as they depend upon tlie refradlion of light, under
the article CoLOuit, we ftiall here add forne farther parti-
culars on this fubjefl. From si review of that article, and
of what has been above dehvered, we may infer that, as the
rays of light differ in refrangibility, they alfo differ in their
difpofition to exhibit this or that particular colour ; fo that
colours are not modifications of light, derived from refrac-
tions or refleftions of natural bodies, but original and con-
nate properties, which are different in different rays. More-
over, to the fame degree of refrangibility always belongs
the fame co^ur, and to the fame colour the fame degree of
refrangibility ; nor are the fame fpecies of colour, and degree
of refrangibility, that are proper to any particular kind of
rays, fufceptible of change by refrattion and by refleftion
of natural bodies, nor by any other caufe which fir Ifaac
Newton could obferve. Although a feeming tranfmutatioii
of colours may be made by a mixture of different kinds of
rays, yet, in fuch mixtures, the component colours them-
felves do not appear ; but, by their mutually allaying each
other, conttitute a middle colour : and, therefore, if, by
refraftion, the different rays be feparated, colours will
emerge different from that of the compofition. Thus blue
and yellow powders, finely mixed, appear green to the naked
eye ; and yet the colours of the component particles are not
thereby really changed, but only blended : for when they
are viewed with a microfcope, they ftill appear blue and
yellow. It appears that there are alfo two forts of colours :
the one original and fimple ; the other compounded of thefe.
The original and primary colours are red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo, and a violet purple, and an indefinite
variety of intermediate gradations. The fame colours in
fpecie with thofe primary ones may be alfo produced by a
compofition : thus a mixture of yellow and blue makes
green ; of red and yellow, orange ; and of orange and yel-
lowifh-green, yellow. In general, if any two colours are
mixed, which, in the feries of thofe that are produced by
the prifm, are not too far diftant from one another, they,
by their mutual alloy, compofe that colour which appears
in the midway between them ; but thofe which are fituated
at too great diftance have not this effedl : e. gr. orange and
indigo do not produce the intermediate green, nor fcarlet
and green the intermediate yellow.

The moft wonderful compofition is that of whitenefs,
which no one fort of rays alone can exhibit, but which is
always compounded ; fo that all the aforefaid primary co-
lours, mixed in a certain proportion, are neceflary to form
it. See Colour.

Having ftiewn, in the preceding part of this article, the
extremes of the different degrees of refrangibility in the dif-
ferent kinds of hght, we fhaU now proceed to give the refult
of Newton's inveftigation, concerning the different degrees
of refrangibility of all the different kinds of light, according
to their feveral colours ; particularizing this part of the
fnbjeft with an explanation of the method which he made
life of to define the boundaries of each colour, in the ob-
long image of the lun above defcribed. In that image,
though there was a manifett difference of colour, not only
between the two extremes, but alfo in the intermediate
parts, yet the exatl place at which any one colour ended,
and another began, was far from being fuiSciently diftin-

guiftiable.

REFllANGIBILITY.

guifliable. Tlie reafon of this indiftinftnefs is, that rays of
every kind oomiiig from all parts of tlic fun's difc, an entire
image of the- fun is projeftcd on the paper, coiiiillincr of a
circle of each particular colour ; and as the rays differ in
kind by infinitefimal degrees, from the extreme red to the
extreme violet, there mull, in faiS, be thoufands of thefe
circles in tlie fame oblong image, the centres of which are
infinitely near to one another ; io that the ligiit is intimately
mixed, efpecially in the middle of the image, where it is the
brighteft.

If thefe circles, as he obfervcs, whilft their centres keep
their diftances and pofitions, conld be made lefs in diameter,
their interfering one with another, and confequently the
mixture of heterogeneous rays, would be proportionably
diminifhed. Thus, in PT, (fig. lo.) the circles of which
the folar image confifts, expand into one another ; but in
the fame figure, / /, being compofcd of Icfs circles, but
having their centres at the fame diilance as the- former, do
not extend into one another, the mixture being diminifhed
in proportion to the diameters of the cu'cles.

Now thefe circles woidd be diminifhed, if, without the-
room, at a great diftance from the prifm, towards the fun,
fome opaque body was placed, having a round hole in the
middle of it, to intercept all the fun's light, excepting fo
much as, coming from the middle of its difc, could pafs
through that hole to the prifm ; for fo the feparate circles
would no longer anfwer to the whole difc of the iun, but
only to that part of it wliich can be feen from the prifm,
through tliat hole. But that thefe circles may anfwer more
diftinftly to the hole, a lens is to be placed by the prifm,
to caft. the image of the hole, that is, of each feparate circle,
diilinftly upon the paper ; and if this be done, it will not
be neccdary to place that hole very far off, not even beyond
the window. Inftead, therefore, of that hole, he made
ufe of the hole in his window-fhuttcr, in the following
manner.

At about IO or 12 feet from the window, he placed a
lens, by which the image of the hole might be dillinttly
caft upon a fheot of white paper, at the diftance of 6, 8, 10,
or 12 feet from the lens. Then, immediately after the
lens, he placed a prifm, by which the refraftcd light might
be thrown upwards, or fideways ; and he moved the paper
that received it, either towards the prifm, or from it, till
he found the exaft diftance at which the fides oi the image
appeared moil diiHnft. By this means the circular images
of the hole were terminated moft diftinftly, without any
penumbra, and therefore extended into one another the lealt
that they could ; and confequently the mixture of the he-
terogeneous rays was the leaft of all. And by ufing a
greater or lefs hole in the window-fhutter, he made the cir-
cular images greater or lefs at pleafure, and thereby the
mixture of rays in the oblong image was as much or as little
as he chofe. He fometimes made the breadth of the image
40 times, and fometimes 60 or 70 times lels than its length.
In this manner, he fays, light is made fufficicntly fimple,
and homogeneal, for trying any of his experiments about
fimple light ; for that the heterogeneous rays in this light
are fo few, as hardly to be perceived, excepting, perhaps,
in the indigo and violet, which, being dark colours, do eafily
fuffer a fenfible allay by that httle fcattering light, which
ufed to be refrafted irregularly by the inequalities of the
prifm. The whole procefs of this experiment is fo evident,
by infpcftion oi Jig. 1 1, that it needs no particular illuilra-
tion.

Inftead of a cjircular hole, our author recommends a hole
fliaped like a long parallelogram, v.'ith its length parallel to
fhe priftn. For if this hole be an inch or two long, and

8

but a loth or 20th part of an inch broad, or narrower, tl/
light of the image will be as fimple as before, or more
fimple, and the image will become much broader, and
therefore more fit for thefe experiments.

Or, inftead of this hole, another may be formed of a tri-
angle of equal fides, whofe bafe may be about the loth
part of an inch, and its height an inch or more. For, by
this means, if the axis of the prifm be parallel to the per-
pendicular of the triangle, the image ^/ {f'S- ■^•) ^'"'^ "''^'
be formed of equicrural triangles, ag, bk, ci, dk, el, fm,
&c. and innumerable other intermediate ones, anfwering to
the triangular hole in (hape and bignefs, and lying one after
another in a continual leries, between two parallel lines, af,
g m. Thefe triangles are a little intermingled at their bafes,
but not at their vertices ; and therefore the light on thc-
brighter fide, af, of the image, where the bafcs of the tri-
angles are, is a little compounded, but on the darker fidi-,
g m, it is altogether uncompounded ; and in all places be-
tween the fides, the compofition is proportionable to the
diftances of the places from that obfcurtr fide gm; and
having an image of fuch a compofition, we may try experi-
ments either in its ftronger and lefs fimple light, near the
fide af; or in its weaker and more fimple light, near the
other fide g m, ar. fliall feem moft convenient.

In making thefe experiments, he advites, that the cham-
ber be made very dark, that the lens be very good, being
made of glafs free from bubbles and veins, the fides ef the
prifm truly plane, and its polifti elaborate, with an angle of
about 65 or 70 degrees ; and the edges of the prifm and
lens, as far as they make any irregular refraftion, fliould be
covered with black paper glued on them. He alfo ob-
ferves, that all the ufelefs light fliould be intercepted with
black paper, or other black obftacles. It being difficult
to get glafs prifms fit for thefe nice experiments, he fome-
times ufed prifmatic veffeb made with pieces of broken
looking-glailcs, and filled with rain-water ; and to increafe
the rcfradlion, he fometimes ftrongly impregnated the water
with faccharum faturni.

When he had, by this means, got the fides of the co-
loured image, as A F, G M, [Jig. 13.) diftinftly defined,
he delineated on paper the outlines of it F A P G M T, and
held the paper fo that the image might fall on this figure,
and coincide v;ith it exaftly ; whilit an afTillant, whofe eyes
could diflinguifh colours better than his own, did, by right
lines drawn crofs the image, mark the confines of each co-
lour ; and this operation being frequently repeated, both on
the fame and on different papers, he found that the ob-
fervations agreed well enough with one another, and that
the fides, M G and F A, were by this means divided like a
mufical chord; fo that if GM were produced to X, mak-
ing M X equal to G M, and if G X, IX, iX, iX, eX,
gX, aX, MX, were in proportion to one another, as the
numbers i, 4, ^, 4, -2, -f, -pV, and -i, and fo reprefented
the chords of the key, and of a tone, a third minor, a
fourth, a fifth, a fixth major, a feventh, and an eighth
above that key. And the intervals M a, ag, g e, eh, hi,
i I, and / G, were the fpaces which the feveral colours, red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet, took up.

Now thefe intervals or fpaces, fubtending the differences
of the refraftions of the rays, going to the limit of thofe
colours, that is to the points M, a, g, e, h, i, I, G, may,
without any fenfible error, be accounted proportional to the
differences of the fines of refrailion of thofe rays, having
one common fine of incidence ; and, therefore, fince tfte
common fine of incidence of the moil and leail refrangible
rays, out of glafs into air, was found in proportion to their
fines of refraftion as 50 to 77 and y&j if the difference be-
tween

REFRANGIBILITY.

twoen 77 and 78 be divided, as tlic line GM h divided by
thofe intervals, there will be 77, 771, 77r!> 77!> 774> 77?)
77-J, 78, for the fines of refraflion of thofe rays out of
glafs into air, their common fine of incidence being 50. So
then the fines ot the incidences r,f all the red-making rays
out of glafs into air were to the fines of their refraftions not
greater than 50 to 77, nor lefs than 50 to 77; ; but they
varied from one another according to all their intermediate
proportions, and fo of the other colours.

Having demon llrated that the light of the fun confifts of
a certain proportion of differently coloured light, our author
proves, by another feries of experiments, what has been al-
ready demon llraled by a fingle one mentioned above, that
when a beam of light has been divided into its component
parts, if they be again mixed, they will produce white ; or
if any one of them be intercepted, the image will appear
tinged, and in a difterent manner, according to the different
colours that are thereby prevented from mixing with the
reft : and to complete the whole, he obfcrves, that inter-
cepting all the colours that compofe the white image except
one, and thereby making it to exhibit the appearance of all
the colours in order ; yet, if he made this lucceifion of all
the colours very quick, the appearance was always white,
though it was demonftrable that only one colour took place
at any one time ; and he juilly obfcrves, that if each of thefe
colours in fuccefiion give the idea of whitcnefs, much more
will they produce that effeft, when they are fo intimately
mixed as they are in a natural fun-beam.

Not content with compofing whitenefs from the fepa-
rately coloured rays of the fun, he attempted, and fucceeded
in his attempt, to do the fame with natural coloured bodies,
obfcrving the fame proportions of the refpedtive colours
that he had found in the folar image. The coloured pow-
ders which he made ufe of at firll produced only a kind of
grey ; but this was in faft a dull white, or whitenefs mixed
with fhade : for when he contrived to throw a very ftrong
light upon it, it became intenfely white, fo that a friend of
his, who happened to call upon him while he was bufy
about thefe curious experiments, and who knew nothing of
what he had been doing, pronounced that the powders he
had been mixing, when thus illuminated, made a better
white than fome very fine white paper, with which he was
comparing it.

As the preceding proportion of all the prifmatic colours
makes a white, it is evident that when they are mixed in
different proportions, or when only a few of them are ufed,
they will make different colours j and our philofopher has
given us the following ingenious method of knowing, in a
mixture of primary colours, the quantity and quality of each
being given, the colour of the compound. With the centre
O, [Jig. 14.) and the radius O D, defcribe a circle A D F,
and divide the circumference into feven parts, proportional
to the feven mufical tones or intervals contained in an oc-
tave, that is in proportion to the numbers 4, -;-•;, -,\;, 4,
^, -j^, ^, Let the firft, D E, reprefent a red colour, the
fecond, E F, orange, and fo of the reft ; and let all thefe
■colours be fuppofed to pafs gradually into one another.
Let p be the centre of gravity of the arc D E, and g, 1; s,
t, u, x, be the centres of gravity of the other arcs ; and
about thofe centres let circles, proportional to the number
of rays of each colour in the given mixture, be defcribed.
Then find a common centre of gravity of all thofe circles ;
and if a line be drawn from the centre of the circle O,
through this point, as iuppofe at z, the point Y, in which
it terminates at the circumference, will ikew the colour that
arifes from the mixture ; and the hue O Z will be propor-
tioned to the fuUnefs or intenfencfs of the colour, the centre

O reprcfenting ptrfett white. But if only two of the pri^
mary colours, which in this circle are oppofite to one
another, be mixed in an equal proportion, tlie point Z will
fall upon the centre O, and yet the colour compounded of
thofe two will not be perfectly white, but fome faint anony-
mous colour ; for he could never, by mixing only two pri-
mary colours, produce a perfeft white. Whether it might
be the refult of three taken at equal diftances in the circum-
ference he could not tell ; but he did not much qucftion,
but that four or five of them would be fufiieient. Thefe,
however, as he obferves, are curiolities of little or no mo-
ment to the underftanding of the phenomena of nature,
fince, in all natural whites, there is a mixture of all kinds
of rays. Newton's Optics. Prieftley's Hift. of Light and
Colours.

^For the method of correcting the effect of the different
refrangibility of the rays of light in glaffes, fee Aniiiu'.A-
Tio.v and Telescope ; fee alfo Dispeksion 0/ Light.

Refrangibility 0/ Radiant Heat. See Rays of Heat.
Radiant heat, as well as light, is not only refrangible, but
it is alfo fubjeft to the laws of the difperfion, arifing from
its different refrangibility. The prifm refrafts radiant heat,
fo as to feparate that which is lefs efficacious from that which
is more fo. The whole quantity of radiant heat contained
in a fun beam, if this different refrangibility did not exift,
muft inevitably fall uniformly on a fpace equal to the area of
the prifm ; and if radiant heat were not refrangible at all, it
would fall upon an equal fpace, in the place where the
I'hadow of the prifm, when covered, may be feen. But
neither of thefe events taking place, it is evident tiiat the
radiant heat is fubjeft to the laws of refraftion, and alfo to
thofe of the different refrangibility of light. Whence Dr.
Herfchel is led to furmife, that radiant heat con fids of
particles of light of a certain range of momenta, which
range may extend a little farther, on eacl^fide of refrangi-
bility, than that of light. ( See Rays of Heat. ) Dr. Herf-
chel having found that two degrees of heat were obtained
from that part of the prifmatic fpeftrum which contained the
violet rays, while the full red colour, on the oppofite fide,
gave no lefs than feven degrees, infers from thefe fafls the
different refrangibility of the rays which occafion heat, as
clearly and certainly as it is concluded that the refrangibility
of light is afcertained by the difperfion and variety of the
colours. But he proceeds farther, and obferves, that the
rays of heat are of a much more extenfive refrangibility than
thofe of light. In order to make this appear, he deli-
neates a fpeftrum of light, by affuming a line of a certain
length ; and, dividing it into feven parts, according to the
dimenfions affigned to the feven colours by fir Ifaac Newton,
in the fourth figure of the fecond part of his Optics,
reprefents the illuminating power of which each colour
is poffefled, by an ordinate drawn to that line. And here,
as the abfolute length of the ordinates is arbitrary, provided
they be proportional to each other, he affumes the length
of that which is to exprefs the maximum, equal to -^4 of the
whole line.

Thus, let G Q {fg. 15.) reprefent the line that contains the
arrangement of the colours, from the red to the violet.
Then,ereftingon the confines of the yellow and green the line
L R ;:z 4-J of G Q, it will reprefent the power of illumi-
nation of the rays in that place. For, by experiments al-
ready delivered, we have ihewn that the maximum of illumi-
nation is in the brighteft yellow or paleft green rays. From
the fame experiments we colleft, that the illuminations' of
yellow and green arc equal to each other, and not much in-
ferior to the maximum ;"thi3 gives us the ordinates K and M.
Then, by the reft of the fame experiments, we obtain alfo

the

R E F

RET

the ordiiiaLcs H, I, N, O, P, witli fufficicnt accuracy for
the purpofc here intended. All thefe being applied to the
middle of the fpaces whicli belong to their rei'pedlive co-
lours, we have the figure G R Q G, reprefcnting what may
be called the fpeftrum of illumination.

We are now, in the fame manner, to find a figure to ex-
prcfs the heating power of the refrafted prifmatic rays, or
what may be called the fpeftrum of heat. In order to de-
termine the length of the bafe, Dr. Herfchel examined the ex-
tent of the invifible rays, and found, that at a diftancc of two
inches beyond vifiblc red, his thermometer, in a few minutes,
acquired I^ degree of heat. The extent of the coloured
fpettrum at that time, or the line which anfwered to G Q in
his figure, meafured 2.997 inches. If two inches had been
the whole of the extent of the invifible part, it might be
itated to be in proportion to the viiible one as 2 to 3 ; but
■we are to make fome allowance for a fmall fpace required
beyond the laft ordinate, that the curve of the heating power
drawn through it may reach the bafe ; and indeed, at 25inchcs
beyond vifible red. Dr. Herfchel could Itill find i degree
of heat. It appears therefore fufficiently fafe, to admit
the bafe of the fpcftrum of heat A Q, to be to that of the
fpeftrum of light G Q, as 5^ to 3 ; or, conforming to the
Newtonian figure before mentioned, the bafe of which is
3.3 inches, as jyf to 33. Now, if we aflame for the
maximum of heat, an ordinate of an equal length with that
which was fixed upon for the maximum of light, it will give
us a method of comparing the two fpeclra together. Accord-
ingly, Dr. Herfchel has drawn the feveral ordinates B, C, D,
E, F, G, H, 1, K, L, M, N, O, P, of fuch lengths as,
from experiments made on purpofe, it appeared they fhould
be, in order to exprefs the heat indicated by the thermo-
meter, when placed on the bafe, at the feveral ftations
pointed out by the letters.

A mere iufpeftion of the two figures, which have been
drawn as lying upon one another, will enable us now to fee
how very differently the prilm difperfes the heat-making
rays, and thofe which occafion illumination, over the areas
A S Q A, and G R Q G, of our two fpeClra ! Thefe
rays neither agree in their mean refrangibility, nor in tlie
fituation pf their maxima. At R, where we have moll
light, there is but little heat ; and at S, where we have
moft. heat, we find no fight at all !

REFRESHMENT, Quarters of. See Quarters.
REFRET, Fr. the burden of a fong. This word is
only to be found in the fecond folio edition of Bailey's
DiAionary, 1736. In no French diftionary is there au-
thority for it. Cotgrave, Dift. du Vieux Langage ; Tre-
voux, Ditt. de 1' Academic ; and Gloflaries, have been con-
fulted in vain.

REFRIGERANT, Refrigerative, in Medicine, or
cooling! irom frigus, cold, an appellation given to fuch re-
medies as were iuppofed to poifefs a power of cooling the
internal parts. Hence all diluents, fuch as ptifan, gruel,
and other thin drinks, vegetable and mineral acids, neutral
falts, and other fubltances, which are deftitute of ftimu-
lating qualities, and communicate a lenfation of coolnefs to
the tongue and throat, have been confidered as refrigei"ant.
As they have no aftual power of generating cold in the
animal body, the term is fomewhat incorrecfl ; but as it ex-
preffes the oppofite quality to that of ftimulating, which is
ufed alfo as fynonimous with heating, it is liill retained, and
applied to diet, drink, and medicine of a non-ftimulant qua-
lity. In this fenfe, the term is nearly fynonimous withy?-
dative.

Whatever, in faft, increafes the circulation, increafes the
heat of the body, and -vice iierfd; potentially, therefore,

all fed.itive medicines may be faid to be refrigerant. The
ufe of refrigerants will thence be inferred to be proper 111
all thofe cafer, in which there i£ an ovcr-excitemcnl of tli'-
circulation, cither locally or generally ; fuch as local inflam-
mations, febrile difeafes, hemorrhages, and the like. In
the cafe of external inflammations, indeed, aftual refrige-
ration may be produced, by the application of cold fub-
ftances, water or ice, or by the abftraclion of heat by
means of evaporation ; both of which afford the means tf
direftly diminifhing the aftivity of the veffc-ls of the parf.
Thus, in burns and fcalds, the pain is inftantly relieved,
and the inflammation effectually reduced, by the iinmerfion
of the part in cold water, if fufficiently perfevered in. But
in refpeft to internal refrigerants, their operation is ot a
negative kind, and confills rather in the removal of uneafy
fenfations, and in the exclufion of llimulant fubftances, than
in the ac\ual iuppreffion of increafed aftion. See Se-
dative.

REFRIGERATION, denotes the aft of cooling, or
the abftraftion of heat from various fubltances. This is
effefted in a variety of ways, and for various purpofes of
domeiUc ufe and of ai"t ; and the dcg. ie of cold that is
produced is eftimated by an inftrument called the thermo-
meter, which fee. Under this head it is needlefs to repeat
the principles of refrigeration, and the different proceffes
that are ufed for this purpofe, which are amply ftated and
defcribed under the articles Cold, Congelation, Cooling,
Freezis(;, Heat, Ice, IcK-houfes, &c.

REFRIGERATORY, Refrigeratorilm, in Che-
m'lflry, a copper veffel filled with cold water, foldered round
the capital of an alembic, to cool and condenfe the vapours
raifed thither by^ the fire, and to convert them into a liquor,
to be difcharged thence through the beak. See Alembic.
The water in the refrigeratory is to be changed from time
to time, as it begins to grow warm.

Sometimes they content themfelves with wrapping.a wet
cloth about the head of the alembic, iiiftead of a refrige-
ratory ; but the more ufual method now is, to fupply the
place of the refrigeratory by a worm, or fpiral pipe, run-
ning through a tub of cold water.

Diftillation chiefly confills in evaporation and refrige-
ration. See Distillation.

REFUGE, Refugium, in our Old Cujioms, a fanc-
tuary, or ajylum ; which fee refpeftively.

At Paris there is an hofpital called the Refuge, in whicli
diffolute women are fhut up.

Refuge, Cities of, in Scripture Hi/lory, fix cities felefted
from the 48 appropriated to the relidcnce of the Levites,
which were appointed for the protection of perfons from the
rigour of the law, who were chargeable wth involuntary
homicide. Some have fuppofed that all the cities of the
Levites were afyla ; but it appears from Numb. xxxv. 6.
that only fix of them were appointed to this ufe. Thefe
afyla were intended not only for .lews, but for Gentiles, or
for itrangers who dwelt among them. (Numb. xxxv. 15.)
They were not defigned as fandtuaries for wilful murderers
and all forts of atrocious villains among the Jews, as they
were among the Greeks and Romans, and as fuch places
have fiiyre been in Roman Cathohc countries, but merely
for fecuring thofe who had been guilty of involuntary homi-
cide (Deut. xix. 4 — ic.) from the effeds of private re-
venge, until they were cleared by a legal procefs. It is ob-
fervable, that the Ifraelites are commanded to " prepare the
way," that is, to make the road good, " that every flayer
may flee thither," without impediment, and with all expe-
dition. (Deut. xix. 3.) By having good roads to them,
at leall 32 cubits, or about 48 feet in breadth, and bridges

wherever

R E G

R E G

vrlierevor tliey were necell'ary, thefc cities were to be cafy of
neccfs ; and at crofs roads polls were crefted vvitli iiifcrip-
tions, dircdling tlie way to the " city of refuge." Ujion
this Hottiiif^fcr remarks, that it was probably in allufion to
this culloni, that .John the Baptilt is delcribed as " tlie voice
of one crying in tiic wildernels, prepare ye the way of the
Lord, make his paths ilraight." (Luke, iii. 4 — 6.) He
was the Mefliah's forerunner, and in that charadlcr was to
remove tlic obftaclos to men's flying to him as their alylum,
and obtaining triltiiicj rb- Ssy, tlic falvation of God. Every
year, on the 15th of Adar, (February,) the magillratcs
were to infpedt tiie roads, and afcertain their good condi-
tion. Thefe cities were to be fupplied witli water and pro-
vifions ; but they were not to be the refidence of any artilts
who made weapons, by the ufe of whicii the relations of the
deceafed might gratify their revenge. It was necedary that
thofe who took refuge in thefe places fliould underftand fomc
occupation, that might prevent their being chargeable,
whilll they were waiting for their trial. In order to excite
and maintain the greater horror even of involuntary blood-
fhed, the law punifhed it by a kind of banifhment, for the
accufed perfon was to remain in this city, without departing
from it, till the death of the high-prieli, but after the high
priefl's death, he might fafely go wherever he plcafcd.

REFUGEES, French Protefl;ants, who, by the revoca-
tion of theedift of Nantes, in 1685, have been conftrained
to quit their country, and retire for refuge into Holland,
Germany, England, &c. to fave themfelves from the ne-
cefliiy of abandoning their religion.

REFUGIO, El, in Geography, a harbour in one of the
iflands of Mayorga, where Maurelle was fupplied with water
in 1781, and which, he fays, affords (helter from the mod
furious winds. S. lat. 18° 36'. E. long. 177° 32'.

REFVINGE, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Halland ; nine miles N.N.W. of Helmflad.

REFUSAL, in Law, is where one hath by law a right
and power of having or doing fomething of advantage to
him, and he declines it. An executor may refufe an exe-
cutorlhip : but the refufal ought to be before the ordinary ;
jf an executor be fummoned to accept or refufe the executor-
ihip, and he doth not appear upon the fummons and prove
the will, the court may grant adminiitration, &c. which fliall
be good in law till fuch executor hath proved the will ; but
no man can be compelled to take upon him the executorfliip,
unlefs he hath intermeddled with the ellate. ( i Leon. 154.
Cro. EHz. 858.) Where there are feveral executors, and
they all refufe, none of them Ihall adminifter afterwards ;
but if there is a refufal by one, and the other proves the
will, the refufmg executor may adminifter when he will,
during the life of his co-executor, (i Rep. 28.) If there
is but one executor, and he adminiiters, he cannot refufe
afterwards, and if once he refufe, he cannot adminifter after-
wards.

There is a refufal of a clerk prefented to a church, for
want of literature, &c. and if a bifhop once refufes a clerk
for infufficiency, he cannot accept of him afterward, if a
new clerk is prefented. (5 Rep. 58. Cro. EUz. 27.) In
attion of trover and converfion, a demand of the goods,
and refufal to dehver them muft be proved, &c. 10 Rep. 56.

REFUTATION, Refutatio, in Rhetoric, that part
of the anfwer made to an opponent, which difproves what
had been advanced by him.

REGA, in Geography, a river of Pomerania, which rifes
•three miles N.W. of Dramburg, pafTes by Regenwalde,
Plate, Grieffenberg, Treptow, &c., and thq^i runs into the
fea, 1 2 miles S. W. of Colberg.

Vol. XXIX.

REGAH, a town of Egypt, on the left bank of the
Nile ; fix miles N. of Atfieli.

PEGAL, Rkcius, ot Regalis, fomething belonging to
a king. Regal is of the fame import with royal ; the former
being formed of the Latin rex ; the other of the French
roy, king.

Regal, Fr., a mufical term, which the Encyclopedic de-
fines, "Jirjl, an ancient inftrumei:t compofed of many fticks
of fonorous wood of different lengths, forming a fcale,
played upon by an ivory ball faftened to the end oi a ftick."
This is exaftly the defcription of the fticcado, faid to
be invented by the brother of Bremner, the late mufic-
ieller in the Strand, who pubhftied a book of inftruftions
for playing upon it.

" Regal \s,,fecondly, a fpinet organized, or rather a fmall
organ of two or three ftops placed under a keyed inftru-
ment, very common in Spain and Italy. In France this
kind of inftrument is called 3. pofitif." Craing, an organ-
builder in London about the middle of the laft century,
furnifhed organs of this kind to many harpfichords and
fpinets in a virginal form. Sftetzler, when he firft came
hither from Strafburg, was employed by Shudi to organize
his harpfichord.

But regal in all Roman Catholic countries is a portable
organ ufed in proceflions, carried by one perfon and played
by another. We have feen that ufe made of this kind of
organ at Naples. The pipes are of reeds, for the lightnefs
of carriage.

In the lift of Edward VI. and queen Elizabeth's muKcal
eftabhftiments in the Sloane MSS. at the Britifh Mufeum,
among the initrument-makers, the regal-maker is allowed
20/. yearly. And in our own memory there was an office
in the chapel royal under the title of " tuner of the re-
gals;" but it was abohflied, and united to forae more
ufeful officer in the chapel.

In the fupplement to the folio Encyclopedie, we are told
that the regal is a portable organ, which has no pipes, or
at moft fuch as are very {hort, the tones being produced by
reeds. This we believe to be the truth. The inftrument
is fometimes fo fmall as to be fet o» a table.
Regal Fijh. See Royal Fi/h.
Regal Suit. See Suit.

REGALE, in the French Jurifpnidence, is a right be-
longing to the king over all benefices in that kingdom.

The regale confifts in enjoying the revenues of biftiop-
rics, during the vacancy of their fees, and of prefenting
to the benefices dependent on them, which become vacant
during that time, and till fuch a fucceffbr have taken the
oath of fidelity, and have procured letters patent, to fecure
him from the regale.

The enjoyment of the fruits of the fee is called the tem-
poral regale ; that of prefenting the benefices, the fpiritual
regale.

Some refer the origin of the regale to the time of Clovis ;
and fay, the clergy granted this privilege to the king upon
his defeating the Vifigoths ; others allege, that pope
Hadrian 1. gratified Charlemagne with it, in a council
held at Rome. It is obferved by others, that the regale
was originally no more than a ward, or adminiftration ; and
that the kings were only depofitaries of the fruits of the
vacant bifhoprics ; and appointed osconomi to look to them
during the vacancy.

It is added, that the kings of the firft and fecond race
never enjoyed any fuch privilege ; and that it was only
introduced in the twelfth century, in favour of invefti-
tures.

Whatever was the origin of the regale> it occafioned a
4 H very

R E (I

very iinporuuit iirnl vvain» debate between Lewis XIV. uiid
pope Innocent XI. which began about the year 1678, and
was carried on with great animofity and contention for
feveral years after. Lewis was defirous, that nil the churches
in his dominion fhould be fubjedt to the regale. Innocent
pretended, on the contrary, that his claim could not be
granted with fuch univerfality ; nor would he confent to
any augmentation of the prerogatives of tiiis nature that
had formerly been enjoyed by the kings of France. Lewis
fummoned, for fettling this difputc, the famous aflembly of
thirty-five bilhops, and as many deputies of the fccond
order, which met at Paris in the year 1682, and which ex-
tended the regale to all the churches in France, without
exception. In this convocation the ancient doftrine of the
Galilean church, that declares the pov/er of the pope to
be merely fpiritual, and alfo inferior to that of a general
council, was drawn up in four propolitions, which were
folemnly adopted by the whole aflembly, and were pro-
pofed to the whole body of the clergy, and to all the uni-
verfities through the kingdom, as a facred and inviolable
rule of faith.

Regale, Regalia, a magnificent treat, or entertainment,
given to ambaffadors, or other perfons of diftinftion, to en-
tertain or do them honour.

In Italy it is ufual at the arrival of any traveller of emi-
nence, to fend him a regale, that is, a prefent of fruits,
fweetmeats, &c. by way of refrefhment.

REGALIA, in Law, the royal rights or prerogatives
of a king.

Thefe are reckoned by civilians to be fix. i. Power of
judicature. 2. Power of life and death. 3. Power of
war and peace. 4. Maderlefs goods, as waifs, eftraye, Sec.
5. Affefl'ments. 6. Minting of money.

Regalia is alfo ufed for the feveral parts of the appa-
ratus of a coronation : as the crown, the fceptre with the
crofs, fceptre with the dove, St. Edward's itaff, four feveral
fwords, the globe, and the orb with the crofs, &c. ufed at
the coronation of our kings.

Regalia of the Church, are thofe rights and privileges
which cathedrals, &c. enjoy by grants, and other concef-
fions of kings.

Regalia is fometimes alfo ufed for the patrimony of a
church ; as, regalia Sanili Petri. And more particularly,
for fuch lands and hereditaments as have been given by
kings to tke church.

" Csepimus in manure noftram baroniam et regaha quae
archiepifcopus Eborum de nobis tenet." Pryn. Lib. Ang.
Thefe regalia, while in pofleiTion of the church, were
fubjeft to the fame fervices as all other temporal inherit-
ances ; and after the death of the bi(hop they reverted to
the king, till he mvefted another with them ; which, in the
reigns of William the Conqueror, and fome of his imme-
diate fueceflqrs, was frequently delayed, and as oft did
the bifhops make complaint of it, as appears from Malmf-
bury, Neubrigenfis, &c.

This lafl author fays, that great complaint was made
againft Henry II. " Quod epifcopatus vacantes, et pro-
renientia perciperet commoda, diu vacare voluit, et eccle-
fiafticis potius ufibus applicanda in fifcum redegit."

Regalia Facere is ufed for the bifhop's doing homage,
or fealty, to the king, when he is inveiled with the regaha.
Thus Malmftury, in Anfelm : " Regalia pro more iltius
temporis faciens principi vii. kalend. Oftobris Cantuaris
affedit."

REGALITIES. See Royalties.
REGAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Kerraaiij and diftrid of Nurmanlheer, on the

10

w i: c,

frcjnlier of KeiiiiiiM to the eall, whicli chili ici ib about 90
miles in length, and in breadth from 30 to 80. Thit dif
u'iGl is bonnded on the N. and S. by a range of mountains,
thofe to the S. being covered with fuow during the greater
part of the year. The foil is fertile, the diflrift populouo,
and well watered by llreams from the mountains, and the
climate hot in the plain, but cold on the mountains. The
Afghans were lately expelled from this dillriA by the Per-
fians, who invited diffeiient tribes of Balouches to occupy
the deferted villages.

Regan is a neat little town, furrounded by a mud wall,
within which the cattle of the inhabitants are driven every
night for pioteftion. The fort is quadrangular, the walk
high and in good repair, and flanked with baftions; with
one gate, conltantly guarded for preventing the entrance of
ftrangers. The capital of Nurmanfiieer is Krook, which is
the refidence of the governor, and built in the. fame ftyle
as Regan, but larger, and furrounded by a deep ditch.
Before the expulfion of the Afghans, a city, called Bumm,
was confidered as tlie frontier town of Perfia in this quarter.
This city is ilrongly fortified by a high mud wall, flanked
with towers, furrounded by a deep and broad dry ditch,
with one gate ; and it has a bazar tolerably fupphed with
dates, milk, and fruit. The ruins of Bumm teflify that
it was formerly of much greater extent than it is at prefent.
The fountains are faid to have thrown water to an amazing
height, and the gardens, which appear to have been walled
in, and adorned with elegant fummer-houfes, produce the
moft delicious pomegranates. Kinneir's Geog. Memoir of
the Perfian Empire, 18 13.

REGARD of the Forefl, the overfight, or infpeftion,
of it ; or the office and province of the regarder ; which
is, to go through the whole foreft, and every bailiwick
of It, before the holding of the feflions of the foreft, or
juftice-feat, to fee and enquire of the trefpafles in it, and
for the furvey of dogs. A court for this purpofe is to
be holden every third year. See Expeditation, and
Forest.

" Ad vivendum, ad inquirendum, ad certificandum, &c."
See Regarder.

Regard is alfo ufed for the extent of the regarder's
charge, i. e. for the whole foreft ; or all the ground that
is parcel of it.

REGARDANT, in Heraldry, is underftood of a lion,
or other beaft of prey, borne in a pofture of looking be-
hind him, with his face towards his tail.

Others apply it to a beaft, which only fhews the head,
and fome part of the neck, as moving from out of fome
divifion of the coat into another. He bears azure, three
bends, or, in a chief, argent, charged with a lion regardant,
gules.

Regardant Villain, or Regardant to the Manor, de-
notes an ancient fervant or retainer to the lord ; thus called,
becaufe charged to do all bafe fervices within the manor,
to fee the fame freed of all filthy and loathfome tilings
that might annoy it, &c. Coke upon Littleton, fol. 1 20.

REGARDER o/"a Forefl, Regardator Forefltt, an ancient
officer of the king's foreft, whofe bufinefs was every year,
upon oath, to make a regard, i. e. to take a view of the
forell limits ; alfo to enquire of all offences and defaults
committed by the forefters within the foreft, and of all
the concealments of them ; and whether all the other officers
did execute their refpecftive duties or not.

Manwood refers this inftitution to king Henry IL but
Spelman thinks the name, at leaft, was given fince ; and
that they were the fame with thofe officers called cuftodes
venation'ts.

REGATTA

R E (}

REGATTA i^ a name gives at Venice to a kind of
exhibition on the water, in which the gondohers conteit
for fuperiority in the art of rowing their gondolas.

A fplendid entertainment, under this appellation, was
exliibited on the Thames in 1775.

REGAU, in Geography, a town of Auftria ; 12 miles
W. of Steyr.

REGE Inconsulto, in Law, is a writ iducd from
the king to the judges, not to proceed in a caufe which
may prejudice the king, until he is advifed. A rege incon-
fuho may be awarded, not only for the party to the plea,
but upon fuggeilioM of a llranger, on caule Ihewa that the
king may be prejudiced by the procaeding, &c.
Reoe Quirela Coram. See Qukkkla.
REGEL, or Rigel, in AJhonomy, a lixed ilar of the
firft magnitude, in Orion's left foot.

REGELSBRUN, in Geography, a town of Auitria ;
fcven miles N. of Brugg.

REGEN, a river which rifes on the borders of Bohemia,
and runs into the Danube, near Racilbon. — Alfo, a town
of Bavaria, on the above-named river ; 40 miles E. of
Ratifbon.

REGENERATED Tartar. See Tartar, Regene-
rated.

REGENERATION, in Theology, the aft of being
born again by a fpiritual birth, or becoming a child of
God : or it is that change of heart and life experienced
by a pcrfon, who farfakes a courfe of vice, and fincerely
embraces a life of piety and virtue.

When an infidel is converted, baptifm is always ad-
miniftered as a fign of regeneration.

The term is alfo ufed to fignify the change of Itate that
takes place at the refun-eftion. Matt. xix. 28.

REGENSBERG, in Geography, a town of Switzer-
land, in the canton of Zurich, fituated on a mountain, and
furrounded with walls in the year 1687 ; it is the principal
place of a bailiwick formerly fubjedl to the dukes of Aulbina ;
6 miles E. of Baden.

REGENSBURG. See Ratisbon.
REGENSTAUF, a town of Bavaria, in the princi-
pality of Neubnrg ; leven miles N. of Ratifljon.

REGENSTEIN, a town of Wellphalia, in the bifhop-
ric of Halberftadt ; feven miles W. of Quedlinburg.

REGENSTORF, or Old Rcgenjberg, a bailiwick of
Switzerland, in the canton of Zurich, which derives its
name from that of an ancient caille, deftroyed in 1443.

REGENT, Rege.vs, a perfon who governs a kingdom
during the minority or abfence or incapacity of a king.

In France, the queen-mother has the regency of the
kingdom, under the title of queen-regent, while the king is a
minor. Some have urged, that women, being incapable of
fucceeding to that crown, were incapable of the regency ;
but cuilom has declared in their favour.

Regent is alfo ufed for a profelTor of arts and fciences,
who holds a clafs, or fet of pupils, in a college.

The foreign univerfities are generally compofed of doftors,
profellors, and regents. Regent and fcholar are relative
terms. See Tutok.

Regent is generally reftrained to the lower clafles, as regent
of rhetoric, regent of logic, &c. ; thofe of philofophy are
rather called profeflbrs.

REGENWALDE, in Geography, a town of Hinder
Pomerania, on the Rega ; 30 miles N.N.E. of Stargard.
N. lat. 53° 49'. E. long. 15'' 24'.

REGERENDARIUS, among the Romans, an officer
who fubfcribed and kept a regifter of all petitions prefented
to the prxfecl. Pitifcl in voc.

REG

REGESTOLA, in Ornithology, a name ufed by fome
authors for the mattageis, or larger butcher-bird, a very
Imall hawk, not exceeding the fize of a common tiirufh, but
very fierce and voracious. See Laniu.s Excubilor.

REGETZ, in Geography, a town of Hungary ; 18 miles
S. of Cafchau.

REGGE, a river of Holland, which rifes near Enfchede,
and after paffing by Ghoer, Ryfen, &c. joins the Vecht
near Ommens.

REGGIO, PiETUo, in Biography, a native of Genoa, who
feems to have been the firit Italian who gave our country a
taile for the vocal refinements of his country. Before his
arrival here, he had been in Spain, Germany, Sweden, and
France. Befidcs refinements in florid fong, he was much
admired for his exquifite manner of accompanying himfelf
on the lute. His firll refidence in England was at Oxford,
where he pubHfhed, in 1677,3 fmall tract, entitled " A Trea-
tife to ling well any fong whatever." In 1684 his book of
fongs, in folio, the words chiefly from Cowley, appeared.
We know not what were the tafte and expreffion which
rendered his vocal powers fo captivating ; but his airs are
very dry and monotonous, and in as old an Italian tafte as
thofe of Lulli.

Reggio, in Geography, a city of Italy, capital of the
department of the CroHolo, and formerly of the duchy of
Modena, the fee of a bifliop, fuffragan of Bologna. It
was founded by the Tufcans, and became a Roman colony
under Lepidus the triumvir. It was dellroyed by Alaric,
and rebuilt by Charlemagne. Its number of convents is 16,
and of inhabitants about 18,000. The cathedral contains
many capital pidlures and fculptures. The inhabitants of
this city were the firft of all the Italians, who in 1794
renounced their allegiance to their own fovereign, Her-
cules III., who fled to Venice, afterwards took up arms^
and folicited the protedion of Bonaparte. He took poffef-
fion of the city, proclaimed the hberty of the inhabitants,
and inltituted a legiflativc committee, who took the oath of
allegiance to the Freuch republic. Reggio is the native
place of the poet Ariofto ; 14 miles W.N. W. of Modena.
N. lat. 44° 41'. E. long. io° 38'.

Reggio, a fea-port town of Naples, in Calabria Ultra,
fituated on the ftraits of Meffina. The inhabitants carry
on manufaftures of ftockings, gloves, and waiftcoats of
thread or filk. This place is the fee of an archbilhop,
founded by the patriarch of Conftantinople, and contains
two colleges and feven convents. The environs abound in
oranges, citrons, mulberries, and grapes, with fome fugar-
canes. This town was called by the Greeks Rhegion, de-
rived according to Diodorus from the Greek word piyiuju.,
to break or tear, becaufe Sicily was torn from Italy, either
by the fea or an earthquake. It is vefy ancient, founded
as fome fay by Jocaftrus, fon of jEolus, king of Lipari,
who entertained Ulyfles ; or, according tu others, by the
Clialcidians, who came hither from Eubcea. The territory
of the Rhegini was free and powerful, though fometimes
governed by tyrants. In the Peloponuefian war they fufFered
much from their neighbours the Epizephyrian Locri, and
were diftrafted by intenud coatei.tions. In the time of
Dionyfius the elder they were very powerful and aflerted their
hberty, refufing an alliance with that tyrant, who demanded
a daughter of the city. When Pyrnius waged war againit
tlic Romans, the latter fint a legion for the proteftion of
Rliegium ; but the foldiers murdered the citizens and feized
on the city. After the war the infurgents were taken by
the Romans, and put to death for their treachery and cru-
elty. St. Paul, on his journey to Rome, pafled through
this city. In 'he yenr rySjk wa- almoil totally deftroyed
4 H 2 by

REG

by an eariliquake ; lo miles S.E. of MefTwfl. N. lat. 3'8-' 6'.
£. long. r6°53'.

REGGIOLO, a town of Italy, in the department ot
the Mincio ; fix miles E. of Guallalla.

R.EGHABILLE, a town of Africa, in the country of
Wangara, fituated on a lake. N. lat. 12^47'. E. long.
18° 19'.

REGIA A(juA. See Aqua.

Regia Flu. See Via.

Regia Villa. See Vflla.

REGICIDE, RiiGiciDA, a iing-iiller. The term is
alfo ufed for the aft itfeif of murdering a king ; of rex, king,
and ciido, I Jlay.

Regicide is chiefly ufed with us in fpeaking of the perfons
concerned in the trial, condemnation, and execution, of king
Charles I.

REGIFUGE, Regifugium, a feaft held m ancient
Rome on the fixtli of the calends of March, i. e. on our
24th of February, in memory of the expulfion of their
kings, particularly of Tarquin's flying out of Rome on that
day. Some will have the feaft to bear this name from the
rexfacrorum, ting of the facrifices, flying out of the comitia,
or place of afft- mbly, as foon as the facrifice was over, in
imitation of the flight of Tarquin the Proud.

Some critics and antiquaries will have Regifugium the
fame with Fugalia ; others hold them to be different.

REGIMEN, in Medicine, from rego, I rule or govern,
a rule or courfe of living, with regard to eating, drinking,
clothing, and the like, accommodated to fome dileafe, or
particular courfe of medicine which the patient is under,
or intended as a prevention of fome threatening malady.

In many difeafes, efpecially thofe of the acute or febrile
clai's, the regimen is often of equal, and fometimes of more im-
portance than medicine : and there can be no doubt that the
humoral phyficians, by the introduftioH of a hot regimen in
the treatment of febrile complaints, contributed to render
thefe difeafes more fevere and fatal ; and that the fubilitu^
tion of a cool regimen has of late years very materially
diminifhed the danger and mortality of thefe maladies. This
change in medical practice has been, in fatt, but a return
to nature, and to Hippocrates, who taught this fimple, but
clear and rational principle, " contrari.icontrariis medentur;"
remedies fliould be of an oppofite nature to difeafes : that
is to fay, if the body is morbidly hot, cold is the remedy ; if
it is cold, the application of heat is neceffary ; if there is
over-diftention, inflammation, or plethora, evacuation muft
be reforted to : if depletion, we muft fupply nourifliment :
if there is thirft, the remedy is the free uleof drink, and fo
forth. The clear inftinfts of nature (where they can be
diftinguifhed) are commonly infallible guides, as to the re-
gimen to be purfued : but let not morbid habits and preju-
dices be miftaken for them. Thus in all fevers, fniall-pox,
meafles, fcarlet-fever, catarrh, typhus, and the plague
itfeif, the natural bias is for frefti air, coolnefs, light bed-
clothes, clean linen, cold drink, light and merely liquid
nourifliment, in fmall quantities, or abfolute abftinence,
quietnefs of mind and body, relief from noife, ftrong light,
and every fpecies of excitement ; and this is precifely the
regimen, which experience has proved to be moll beneficial
in fuch difeafes. Under the influence of fuch a regimen,
where proper medicines are alfo employed, every fymptom
is rendered comparatively mild ; the diftrefs of the fick is
diminiflied, by the foothing of every morbid fenfation ; and
the derangements, which would otherwife enfue, or be ag-
gravated, in the more vital organs, as in the brain, lungs,
and alimentary canal, are frequently altogether pre-
vented.

R E G

It is fuflicient to contrail the eiTeds of the hot regirnei,,
m lebrile difeafes, to be convinced of the truth of^ thefe
oblervations. When a perfon afllitled with any fpecies ol
fever, is confined in a clofe and heated apartment, in which
liie free circulation of air is prevented by doled doors and
windows, curtains, &c. and is kept at the fame time under a
load of bed-clothes, and fupplied with hot drinks, or even
cordials of vinous and fermented liquors, with the view of
inducing perfpiration, the confequences are as follow. The
whole train of fymptoms is aggravated. The heat of the
patient is raifed confiderably above the natural ftandard,
notvvithllanding the profufe perfpirations that are conilantly
bathing him ; the pulfe is excited to the higheft febrile ftand-
ard ; the thirft becomes inceflant to fupply the unnatural
wafte of fluids ; the mouth and lips become parched and
furred ; the head is in conftant pain, with confufian of ideas,
preventing all found fleep, and occafioning diftrefiing dreams,
and at length delirium ; the whole powers of the frame be-
come proftrate, with difpofition to fainting, on being moved,
or on palling an evacuation by ftool ; and from this fituation
the recovery is extremely precarious. In cafes of contagious
fever. Inch as fmall-pox, meafles, fcarlet-fever, &c., the
eruption is always greatly multiplied by this hot regimen,
and all the fymptoms are changed to what has been called a
putrid tvpe ; the tongue, teeth, and lips, become coated
with a black, clammy, and immoveable fur ; purple fpots
appear on the (kin ; and the whole difeafe afiumes the cha-
rafter of malignancy. There is one difeafe, indeed, which
is folely the refult of this iiot regimen, which has made a con-
fiderable figure in the writings of phyficians, who never
dreamt that it was of their own creation ; we allude to the
miliary fever. See Miliaria.

The above may perhaps be confidered as the extreme of
the pifture, which is fcarcely ever to be feen in the prefent
day. But the greateft difficulty which a phyfician has even
now to overcome, in the majority of cafes of feverifh difeafes,
is to counteraft the tendency of nurfes and parents to the
adoption of more or lefs of this pernicious fyftem. The fa-
lutary chill muft be taken away from all liquids, whether
ufed internally or externally ; the cheering breeze is deemed
a death-bringing draught ; and though the patient may die
from the feverity of a malignant fever, he muft on no account
run the flighteft rilk of catching cold ; that is to fay, the
poflible occurrence of a flight fore-throat, or a running at
the nofe, is to be avoided rehgioufly, at the expence of ag-
gravating both the fufferings and the danger, under a more
formidable difeafe. The ufe of wine and cordials, in thefe
dileafes, is now confined to the poor and ignorant, and it is
to be hoped, that the other parts of the hot regimen will
not long be reforted to, at leait among the more intelligent
clades of fociety. See Cold as a remedy.

REGiiMF.N, in Chemijlry and Alchemy, is the method of
ordering and conducing any thing, that it may anfwer its
intention.

Thus, regimen of fire is the method of making and order.
ing fire, and the degrees of it.

Regimen of the Work, that is, of the philofopher's ftone,
called the luorh of patience, is the rule and condudl to be ob-
ferved to obtain protedlion.

There are three things, they fay, to be chiefly regarded
in the regimen of the work. The firil, to adminifter a gentle
eafy heat at the beginning of the coftion.

The fecond, to continue this external heat according to the
feafon of the work, always obferving fourfeafons, as in the
common and aftronomical year ; the beginning being the
winter, the progrefs the fpring, then fnmmer, and laftly
autumn, which is the time of maturity and pcrfedlion of the

ftone;

REGIMEN.

Hoi.c ; in all wliicli Uip heat is to be augmented in proportion
to the augmentation obfcrvod in nature.

It is to be added, that the work may not be begun in
any feafon ; but regard is to be had to the fealons ot"
nature, lell the winter of the work be found in the
fummer of the year, &c. Which, however, is to be un-
derttood of the day in which the mercury is put in the
ovum philoi'ophicum, not of that when it is begun to be
fet at liberty from the prifons which nature had inclofed
it in.

The third is, that in augmenting the fire, the augmenta-
tion be not of a whole degree at once, the fpirits being un-
able to bear fuch violence ; but a degree is to be divided into
four parts, and one part is to be taken at a time.

All the operations of the firtt regimen are occult and in-
vifible : in the fecond regimen comes putrefadtion, whicii,
they fay, is the firft fenfible change, fliewing itfelf by its
black colour.

Regimen, or Government, in Grammar, is that part of
fyntax or conftruftion, which regulates the mutual depend-
ency of words, and the alterations which one part of fpeech
occafiona in another, with regard to its mood, tenfe; or
cafe, and thus it differs from concord, or the agreement
which one word has with another, in gender, number, cafe,
or perfon. See CoNCOUD.

The regimen, or government, is entirely arbitrary, and
differs in all languages ; one language forming its regimen
by cafes, as the Latins and Greeks ; others by particles in
lieu of them, as the Englilh by of, to, &c. the French,
Spaniards, and Italians, by de, a, da, &c.

There are, however, fome general maxims which hold
good in all' languages; as, l. That there is no nominative
cafe in any fontence but has a reference to fome verb, either
cxpreliedor underllood. Sometimes, indeed, the infinitive
mood, or part of a fcntence, is put as the nominative cafe
to the verb ; as in Englilh, " to fee the fun is pleafant."
Thefe fentences, or claufes, thus conftituting the fubjeft of an
affirmation, maybe termed "nominative cafes."

2. That there is no verb, except in the infinitive mood,
or the participle, but has its nominative cafe, either expretled
or underllood. Indeed^ in languages which have proper ac-
cufatives, as the Latin, before infinitives there is an accufa-
tive, not a nominative cafe ; as Scio Petrum effe dodum. The
nominative cafe is commonly placed before the verb ; but
fometimes it is put after the verb, if it is a fimple tenfe ;
and between the auxiliary and the verb, or participle, if a
compound tenfe.

3. Two or more nouns, &c. in the Angular number,
jomed together by one or more copulative conjunftions, ex-
preiTed or underllood, muft have verbs, nouns, and pronouns,
agreeing with them in the plural number. The conjunftion
disjunftive, however, has an effect contrary to that of the
conjunftion copulative ; for as the verb, noun, or pronoun,
is referred to the preceding terms, taken leparately, it muft
be in the fingular.

4. A noun of multitude, or fignifying many, may have
a verb or pronoun agreeing with it, either of the fingular or
plural Lumber ; but not without regard to the import of the
word, as conveying unity or plurality of idea. In the appli-
cation of this rule, we ought to confider whether the term
immediately fuggefts the idea of the number it reprefents, or
whether it exhibits to the mind the idea of the whole as one
thing. In the former cafe, the verb ought to be plural ; in
the latter, it ought to be fingular.

5. Pronouns muft always agree with their antecedents,
and the nouns for which they ftand, in gender and number.

6. The relative is the nominative cafe to the verb, when

no nominative comes between it and the verb ; but when i
nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the re-
lative is governed by fome word in its own member of th?
ientcnce ; e.gr. " he wlo preferves me, to whum I owe my
being, luho/e 1 am, and ivhom 1 lerve, is eternal."

7. When the relative is preceded by two nominative.s of
different perfons, the relative and verb may agree in perfon
with either, according to the fenfe.

8. Every adjective, and every adjeftive pronoun, belongs
to a fubftantive, expreded or underllood. Adjcttive pro-
nouns muft agree in number with their fubftantives ; never-
thelcls this rule admits of exceptions ; e. gr. the word means
in the fingular number, and the phrafes "fcy this means,"
" by that means," are ufed by our beft and moft corredt
writers, i'l%. Bacon, Tillotfon, Atterbury, Addifon, Steele,
Pope, &c. Campbell, in liis " Philofopliy of Rhetoric,"
has this remark on the fubjeCt before us : " No perfons of
tafte will, I prefumc, venture fo far to violate the prefent
ufage, and confequently to ftiock the ears of the generality
of readers, as to fay < by this mean,' ' by that mean.' " Lowth
and Johnfon feem alfo to be againll the ufe of means in
the fingular number. The diftributive adjective pronouns,
each, every, either, agree with the nouns, pronouns, and
verbs of the fingular number only. AdjecT;ives are fome-
times improperly applied as adverbs. An adjeClive pronoun,
in the plural number, will fometimes properly affociate with
a fingular noun. Although the adjeftive always relates to a
fubftantive, it is, in many inftances, put as if it were abfo-
lute, efpecially where the noun has been mentioned before,
or is eafily underftood, though not expreffed. Subitantives
are often ufed as adjectives : in this cafe, the word fo ufed is
fometimes unconneded with the fubftantive to which it re-
lates ; fometimes- connefted with it by a hyphen ; and fome-
times joined to it, fo as to make the two words coalefce.
Sometimes the adjective becomes a fubftantive, and has an-
other adjeftive joined to it. When an adjcdive has a prepo-
fition before it, the fubftantive being underftood, it takes the
nature of an adverb, and is confidered as an adverb.

9. One fubftantive governs another, fignifying a different
thing, in the pofi'effive or genitive cafe ; inafmuch as that
cafe always exprcffes the polleffbr, which muft be governed
by the poffefied : as, " my father's houfe," " virtue's re-
ward," &c. When the annexed fubftantive fignifies the
fame thing as the firft, and ferves merely to explain or de-
fcribeit, there is no variation of cafe ; as " George, king ©f
Great Britain, elector of Hanover, &c." Nouns thus cir-
cumftanced are faid to be in appofition to each other : and
nouns are not unfrequently fet in appofition to fentences, or
claufes of fentences. This rule does not hold fo apparently
in the modern as it does in the ancient languages; becaufe
the particles of, de, &c. which are the proper figns of the
genitive cafe, are frequently ufed as prepofitions. (See Ge-
nitive.) Subftantives govern pronouns as well as nouns in
the polleffive cafe ; as " every tree is known by its fruit."
Sometimes a fubftantive in the genitive or poffeflive cafe
Hands alone, the latter one by which it is governed being
underftood. The Englifh genitive has often an unpleafant
found, fo that we make more ufe of the particle of to exprefs
the fame relation : and in fome cafes, we ufe both the geni-
tive termination and the prepofition o/"; as " it is a difcovery
of fir Ifaac Newton's :" but when this double genitive, as
fome grammarians call it, is not necefiary to diftinguilh the
fenfe, and efpecially in a grave ftyle, it is generally omitted.
Except to prevent ambiguity, it feems to be allowable only
in cafes which fuppofe the exiftence of a plurality of fub-
jefts of the fame kind, as " a fubjedt of the emperor's."
But after all that can be faid for the double genitive, as it is

termed,

REGIMEN.

tonncd, it is the opinion ot foaie giammarians, tlir.t it would
be better to avoid the iifc ot" it altogether, and to give the
ieuiiraent another form ot expieiiion.

io. Ailive verbs govern the objeftive (or accufative) cal'e,
as " Virtue rewards lier followers." In Englifli, the
nominative cafe, denoting the fubject, ufiially goes be-
fore the verb ; and the objedive cafe, denoting the objeft,
follows the verb attive ; and it is this order that determines
the cafe in nouns ; as, " Alexander conquered the Periians :"
but the pronoun having a proper form for each of thofe cafes,
is fometimes, when it is in the objeaive cafe, placed before
the verb ; and when it is in the nominative cafe, follows the
objed and verb ; as " -whom ye ignorantly worlhip, /jim de-
clare I unto you." Verbs neuter do not act upon, or go-
vern, nouns and pronouns. Part of a fentence, as well as a
noun or pronoun, may be faid to be in the objedtive cafe,
or to be put objectively, governed by the aftive verb ; and
fentenccs or phrafes under this circumftance may be termed
" objedive fentences or phrafes." The verb to be, through
all its variations, has the fame cafe after it as that which
next precedes it ; fo that this fubllantive verb has no govern-
ment, or cafe, but ferves, in all its forms, as a condudor to
the two cafes, infomuch that the two cafes which, in the
conftrudion of the fentence, are the next before and after it,
nmfl always be alike. Pafiive verbs which fignify naming,
and others of a funilar nature, have the fame cafe before and
after tht-m ; as " he was called Cafiir." It is evident alfo,
tliat certain other neuter verbs, befides the verb to he, require
the fame cafe, whether it be the nominative or the objedive,
before and after them ; fuch verbs are, to become, to wan-
der, to go, to return, to appear, to die, to live, to look, to
grow, to feem, to roam, and feveral others. The auxiliary
let governs the objedive cafe ; as " let him beware."

11. One verb governs another that follows it, or depends
upon it, in the infinitive mood ; as, " ceafe to do evil,"
" learn to do well ;" and the prepofition to, though generally
ufed before the latter verb, is fometimes properly omitted ;
as " I heard him fay it," inllead of " to fay it." This irre-
gularity extends only to adive or neuter verbs : for many
other verbs, when made pafTive, require the prepofition to
before the following verb ; as " He was feeu to go." The
infinitive is frequently governed by adjedives, fubftan-
tives, and participles ; and this mood has much of the
nature of a fubllantive, exprefhng the. adion itfelf which
the verb fignifies, as the participle has the nature of an
•adjedivc, fo that the infinitive mood does the ofhce of a
fubftantivc, in different cafes, as in the nominative, " to
flay is plcafant," and in the objedive, " boys love to
play." The infinitive mood is often made abfolute, or ufed
independently on the reft of the fentence, fupplying the
place of the conjundion that witli the potential mood, as
" to confefs the truth, I was in fault ." The prepofition to,
iiguifying in order to, was anciently preceded by for, as
" what went ye out for to fee ;" but the word for before
the infinitive, is now, in almoll every cafe, obfolete.

12. In the ufe of words and phrafes which, with re-
fped to time, relate to each other, a due regard to that rela-
tion fhould be obfcrved. Thus, inilead of faying, " the
Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away," we fhould
fay, " the Lord ga-vc, and the Lord hath taken away." To
preferve confiflency in the time of verbs, and alfo of v.'ords
and phrafes, fays Mr. L. Murray, in his excellent treatifc
on Grammar, we inuit. recoiled that, in the lubjundive

' mood, the prefent and the imperfed tenfes often cr.rry with
them a future feiife ; and that the auxiliaries jljtdd ar.d
luould, in the imperfed time, are ufed to exprefs the pre-
fent and future, as well as the palL With rcgavcj to verbs

in the infinitive mood, fays the fame popular author, thr
pradice of many writers, among whom are foine of the moll
refpcdable, appears to be erroneous. They feem not to
advert to tlie true principles which influence the dif-
ferent tenfes of this mood. The following rules will,
according to our author's judgment, be found pcrfpicuous
and accurate. " Ail verbs exprellive of hope, defire, in-
tention, or command, mull invariably be followed by the
prefent, and not the perfect of the infinitive." Inllead of
the phrafe, " the lafl week I intended to have -written,"
though common, the infinitive being in the pafl time, as well
as the verb whicli it follows, it ought to be, "the laft week
I intended to write :" for how long foever it now ie fince I
thought of writing, " to WTite" was then prefent to me, and
mult flill be confidered as prefent, when I bring back that time,
and the thoughts of it. Some writers on grammar, however,
maintain that the former fentence is corredt and gramma-
tical, becaufc, as they aflert, it fimj)ly denotes the (peaker's
intention to be hereafter in poffeflion of the finifhed
adion of writing ; but this reafoning admits of the fol-
lowing anfwcrs, according to the flatement of Mr. Mur.
ray. The phrafe " to have written" is, in Englifh gram-
mars, the eflablifhed pafl tenfe of the infinitive mood, and
as incontrovertibly the pafl tenfe of the infinitive in Eng-
lifli, as feripfiffe is the paft tenfe of the infinitive in
Latin ; nor can any writers be warranted in taking fuch
liberties with the language, as to contradid its plainefl
rules, for the fake of fupporting an liypothefis. Moreover,
thefe writers might, on their own principles, and with equal
propriety, contend, that the phrafe " I intended having
ivritteti," is proper and grammatical ; but by admitting fucfi
violations of eflablifhed grammatical diflindlions, coiifufion
would be introduced, the language would be diforganized,
and the mofl eccentric fyflems of grammar might be ad-
vanced, and plaufibly fupported. In fhort, fays our author,
the phrafe " I intended to have written," appears to involve
the following abfurdity ; " I intended to produce hereafter
an adion or event, which has been already completed." Some
may haflily infer from the rule above ftated, and from the
near relation between the verbs to defire, and to iiiifh, that
the latter verb, like the former, muft invariably be followed
by the prefent of the infinitive. But when any one confi-
ders, that the ad of dejiring always refers to the future, and
that the ad of ivijliing refers fometimes to the pafl, as well
as fometimes to the future, he will perceive the diflindion
between them, and that, confequently, the following modes
of exprefiion are flridly juflifiable : " I wifhed that I had
written fooner," " I wifhed to kaxe ivritlen fooner ;" and he
will be perfeftly fatisfied, that the following phrafes muft
be improper : " I defired that I had written fooner," " I
defired to have written fooner." Mr. Murray, having con-
fidered ar.d explained the fpecial rule, refpeding the govern-
ment of verbs, expreffivc ot hope, defire, intention, or com-
n-.and, proceeds to flate and elucidate the general rule, on
the fubjed of verbs in the infinitive mood. " This rule," he
fays, " is founded on the authority of Harris, Lowth, Camp-
bell, Pickbourr, &c.; and we think, too, on the authority
of rcafcn and common feiife. " When the adion or event,
fignified by a verb in the infinitive mood, is contemporary or
future, with refped to the verb to which it is chiefly related,
the prefent of the infinitive is required ; when it is not con-
temporary, nor future, the perfedt of the infinitive is necef-
fary." To comprehend and apply this rule, the fludent has
only to confider, whether the infinitive verb refers to a tim.e
antecedent, contemporary, or future, with regard to the go-
verning or related verb. When this fimple point is alcer-
tained, there will be no doubt in his mind, rc(peding the

form

REGJMEN.

;urm wlncli llic iiiliuilivc vtib (lioulil have. A lew examples
may illultiatt thcle polilioiis. If I widi to fignify, that I
rejoiced at a particular time, in recollefting tlie fight of a
friend, fome time having intervened between the fcnng and
the rejoicing., I ftiould exprefs inyfelf thus : " I rejoiced to
have Jeen my friend." 'Y\\t feeing, in this cafe, was evidently
antecedent to the rejoicing ; and therefore the verb which cx-
prefles the former, mull be in the perfect of the infinitive
mood. The fame meaning may be cxprefFed in a different
form: " I rejoiced that I hail fcen my friend;" or, " in
having fcen my Iricnd :" and the lludent may, in general, try
the propriety of x doubtful point of this nature, by con-
verting the phrafe into thefe two correfpondent forms of ex-
preffion. When it is convertible into both thefe equivalent
phrafes, its legitimacy mud be admitted. — If, on the con-
trary, I widi to fignify, that I rejoiced at the fight of my
friend, that my joy and his prefciice were contemporary, I
Ihould fay, " I rejoiced to fee my friend ;" or, in other
words, •' I rejoiced in feeing nij .nend." The correftnefs
of this form of the infinitive may alfo, in moft cafes, be
tried, by converting the phrafe into other phrafes of a fimi-
lar import.

The fubjeft may be Itill further illuflrated, by additional
examples. In the fentcnce which follows, the verb is with
propriety put in the perfeft tenfe of the infinitive mood :
" It would have afforded me great pleafure, as often as I re-
flefted upon it, to have been the mefTenger of fuch intelli-
gence." As the meffage, in this inflance, was antecedent
to the pleafure, and not contemporary with it, the verb ex-
prefiive of the meflage muft denote that antecedence, by
being in the perfeft of the infinitive. If, on the contrary,
the meffage and the pleafure were referred to as contempo-
rary, the fubfequent verb would, with equal propriety, have
been put in the prefent of the infinitive : as, " it would
have afforded me great pleafure, to be the mefTenger of fuch
intelligence." In the former inltance, the phrafe in quef-
tion is equivalent to thefe words ; "■ if I had been the mef-
ienger ;" in the latter inftance, to this exprefiion ; " being
the mefTenger."

To affert, as fome writers do, that verbs in the infinitive
mood have no tenfes, no relative diftinftions of prefent, pafl,
and future, is inconfiftent with jull grammatical views of the
fubjeft. That thefe verbs afTociate with verbs in all the
tenfes, is no proof of their having no peculiar time of their
own. Whatever period the governing verb affumes, whether
prefent, paft, or future, the governed verb in the infinitive
always refpefls that period, and its time is calculated from
it. Thus, the time of the infinitive may be before, after,
or the fame as, the time of the governing verb, according
as the thing fignified by the infinitive, is fuppofed to be be-
fore, after, or prefent with, the thing denoted by the go-
verning verb. It if, therefore, with great propriety, that
tenfes are affigned to verbs of the infinitive mood. The point
of time from which they are computed is of no confequence ;
fince prefent, paft, and future, are completely applicable to
them.

It may not be improper to obfcrve, that though it is often
correft to ufe the perfeft of the infinitive after the govern-
ing verb, yet there are particular cafes, in which it would
be better to give the expreffion a different form. Thus, in-
ftead of faying, " I wifli to have written to him fooner,"
" I then wifhed to have written to him fooner," " He will
one day wifh to have written fooner;" it would be more
perfpicuous and forcible, as well as more agreeable to the
praAice of good \vriters, to fay ; " I wifh that I had writ-
ten to him fooner," " I then wiflied that 1 had written to

him fooner," " He will oi.e day wifli that lie had written
fooner."

13. Participles have the fame government as the verbs
from which they are derived ; as, " I am weary with hearing
him," &c. It fhould be confidercd, however, that partt
ciples arc fometimes governed by the article ; for the prefent
participle, with the definite article the before it, becomes a
lubflantive, and muft have the prepofition of,ihi:r it. This
rule arifes from the nature and idiom of our language, and
from as plain a principle as any on wliich it is founded ;
namely, that a word which has the article before it, and tlie
poflefTiye prepofition t/aftcrit, muft be a noun ; and, if a
noun, it ought to follow the conltruflion of a noun, and not
to have the regimen of a verb. It is the participial termi-
nation of this fort of words that is apt to deceive us, and
make us treat them as if they were of an amphibious fpecies,
partly nouns and partly verbs.

The fame obfcrvations, which have been made refpefting
the cffeil of the article and participle, appear to be appli-
cable to the pronoun and participle, when they are fimilarly
affociated. When a fubflantive is put abfolutely, and does
not agree with tEe following verb, it remains independent
on the participle, and is called the " cafe abfolute," or the
" nominative abfolute ;" but when the fubftantive preceding
the participle agrees with tlie fubfequent verb, it lofes its
abfolutenefs, and is hke every other nominative.

14. Adverbs, though they have no government of cafe,
tenfe, &c. require an appropriate fituation in the fentence,
viz. for the moft part, before adjeftives, after verbs aftive
or neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary and the verb.

15. Prepofitions govern the objeftive cafe. Under this
rule we may remark, that the prepofitions to and for are
often underftood, chiefly before the pronouns, as " give
me the book," for to me. Sec. The prepofition is often fepa-
rated from the relative which it governs ; as " whom will
you give it to ?" for " to whom will you give it ?" Some
writers feparate the prepofition from the noun or pronoun
which it governs, in order to conneft different prepofitions
with the fame word ; but this kind of conftruflion is always
inelegant, and fhould generally be avoided. Different re-
lations, and different fenfes, muft be expreffed by difTerent
prepofitions, though in conjunAion with the fame verb or
adjeiSive. Thus we fay, " to converfe nvith a perfon, upon
a fubjedl, in a iioufe. Sec." When prepofitions are fubjoined
to nouns, they are generally the fame that are fubjoined to
the verbs from which the nouns are derived. Many writers,
as Dr. Prieftley has obferved, affeft to fubjoin to any word
the prepofition with which it is compounded, or the idea
of which it implies, in order to point out the relation of the
words, in a more diftinft and definite manner, and to avoid
the more indeterminate prepofitions of and to .* but general
pra£lice, and the idiom of the Enghlh tongue, feem to op-
pofe the innovation. Thus many writers fay, " zverie from
a thing ;" but others ufe " averfe to it," which is more truly
Englifh : " Averfe to any advice," Swift. " The words
averfe aad aver/ion," fays Dr. Campbell, " are more pro-
perly conftrued with to than withyrom. The examples in
favour of the latter prepofition are beyond comparifon out-
numbered by thofe in favour of the former. The argument
from etymology is here of no value, being taken from the
ufe of another language. If, by the fame rule, we were to
regulate all nouns and verbs of Latin original, our prefent
fyntax would be overturned. It is more conformable to
Englifh analogy with to ; the words liifiiie and hatred, nearly
fynonimous, are thus conftrued."

16. Conjuiiftions conneft the fame moods and tenfes of

verbs.

REG

R E G

verbs, and cafes of nouns and pronouns, as " Candour is to
li.apjx'ovej and praiHfetl."

17. Some conjunftions require the indicative, fomc the
fubjunftive mood, after them. Thofe that are of a pofitive
and abfohitc nature belong to the former clafs ; e. g. " As
virtue advances, fu vice recedes." When fomething con-
tingent or doubtful is implied, the fubjunftive ought to be
ufcd, as " //" / "Mere to write, he would not regard it." See
Subjunctive.

18. When the qualities of different things are compared,
the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunc-
tion than or as, but agrees with the verb, or is governed by . . - .
the verb or the prepofition, cxpreffed or underltood ; as count of the Hate of regimen is made in the geverning noun,

lofe one of their letters, or undergo a change of one into
another ; but thefc latter admit of excepted cafes ; e. gr.
lingular mafculine nouns undergo no change in regimine
V"^^ "l'7*3> l^'ng of the land, and plurals tlirow oif the'
,mal letter, as I'lK 'D^'^> kings of the earth, for
v-\}^ DO'^O- This is alfo the cafe with participles, as
J IX "^yS' working iniquity, and l")}^ ^"^VD' workers
of iniquity. Singular feminine nouns ending in J-f change
the pj in rcgimine into J^, as plH' miri' t'*'-' '^w
of the Lord; others, and clpecially plural nouns, undergo
no change CS'Sty HD'^t^' ''"-' kingdom of heaven. We
fliall here obferve, that the change whicli takes place on ac-

" Thou art wiferthan I," that is, "than I am."

19. For the purpofe of avoiding difagreeable repetitions,
and of exprefling our ideas in few words, an eUipfis, or
omiffion of fome words, is frequently admitted ; e. g. in-
ftead of faying " He was a learned man, he was a wife man,
and he was a good man," we fay, availing ourfelves of the
cUipfis, « He was a learned, wife, and good man."

20. All the parts of a fcutence (hould correfpond to each
other ; fo that a regular and dependent conftruftion may,
throughout, be carefully preferved. The following fen-
tence' is inaccurate ; " He was more beloved, but not fo
much admired, as Cinthio," it (hould be, " He was more
beloved than Cinthio, but not fo much admired."

2 1 . The regimen of verbs is frequently laid on different
kinds of relations, according to cuftom or ufage ; which
yet does not ehange the fpecific relation of each cafe, but
only fhews, that cuftom has made choice of this or that, ac-
cording to fancy. Thus the Latins {■j.y,juvare aliquem, and
opitulari altcui, to help one. So the French fay, fervir quel-
qu'tin, and fervir ci quelqu'un, to ferve one. Tlius the
Englilh fay, Jight one, or fghl with one. And tlius, in
Spanifh, moft of the verbs attive govern indifferently either
a dative or an accufative. Sometimes, alfo, the verb admits
of feveral regimens ; as prxjlare aliquem, or alicui ; tripere
morti aliquem, or aliquem a morte.

Indeed, the different regimen fometimes makes an alteration
in the fenfe ; in which, particular regard is to be had to the
ufage of the language. Thus, the Latin cavere alicui fig-
nifies to ivatch, or be careful of the prefervation of any one ;
eavere aliquem fignifies to beware of him.

There is one very common fault in regimen, which our
accurate writers Ihould be careful to avoid ; viz. the ufing
of two verbs that require different cafes together, as only
governing one cafe ; as in this example ; after embracing and
giving Ms hUJfing to his fan ; where embracing requiring an ac-
cufative, and giving a dative cafe, the regimen or con-
ftruftion of the firll verb with the noun is irregular ; em-
brace to afon.

The fame may be obferved in nouns ; as, / conjured him
hy the memory and the friendjl:ip he bore my father ; where nu-
mory does not agree with he bore.

For an ample illuftration of thefe rules by appropriate
examples, and alfo of the exceptions which pertain to each
refpeftively, we refer to Mr. Murray's Englifh Grammar,
vol. i. ch. 12. See Concord and Syntax.

Regimen, or ConflruBion, State of. Status regiminis, a
phrafe ufed by Hebrew grammarians in contradiftinftion to
the abfolute Jlate, or flatus abfolutus. A noun in flatu abfo-
luto is that which does not govern either a genitive or any
oblique cafe ; and it is faid to be in regimine or in confiruciione,
when it does govern fuch cafe. Nouns of the former kind
feldom undergo any change in the letters that form them, as
D'pn^ OO'PJJj jiift tings, whereas the latter either

and not in that which is governed, contrary to the praftice
in other languages. For other pa ticulars referring to re-
gimen in Hebrew, as well as in Latin, Greek, and other
learned languages, we refer to the article Syntax.

REGIMENT, derived from the Fr. regie, of regere, to
govern, or from the Fr. regime, denoting fyftem or admi-
niftration, in IVar, a body confiding of feveral tioops of
horfe, or companies of foot, commanded by a colonel, lieu-
tenant-colonel, and major ; or, as fir James Turner defines
it, a certain number of companies joined in one body, under
one head. A regiment of cavalry confifts of one or more
fquadrons ; and a regiment of infantry of one or more bat-
talions.

The number of men in a regiment is as undetermined as
that of the men in a troop, or company ; in a fquadron or
battalion.

A battalion in each regiment of foot is divided into com-
panies, but the number of companies is various ; though,
in England, our regiments are generally ten companies ; two
of which are called the flanks ; one on the right, confifting
of grenadiers, and another on the left, formed of light
troops. The fquadrons in cavalry, or in regiments of horfe,
are divided, fometimes into fix, and fometimes into nine
troops. Each regiment has a chaplain, qiiarter-mafter, ad-
jutant, and furgeon. It has been fuggefted, that every re-
giment of foot fhould confift of 2400 men, making three
battalions of 800 each.

Some German regiments confift of 2000 foot ; and the
regiment of Pieardy in France confifted of 120 companies,
or 6000 men.

The French have diftmguilhed between the commanding
officer of a regiment of cavah-y, and the commanding officer
of a regiment of infantry ; the former having been called
" maitre de camp," and the latter " colonel," as with us.
According to the prefent eftablifhment of the French army,
the term " regiment" is confined to the cavalry and artil-
lery, and the name of half brigade is given to the infantry,
fo that "chef de brigade," chief of brigade, correfponds
with our colonel of a regiment of infantry. In the French
cavalry the term colonel is ftill retained-

Some obferve, that there were no regiments of horfe be-
fore the year 1 637. Till then the troops were loofe and in-
dependent ef each other, and not incorporated into a body
or regiment.

Regiments, it is faid, were firft; formed in France, under
the reign of Charles IX. though F. Daniel refers them to
the time of Henry II. and in England to the year 1660.
Grofe obferves, that we may, without being very much
miftaken, place the introduftion of regiments and colonels
about the reign of king Henry VIII.

We Ihall here annex a brief account of fome of the prin-
cipal regiments of the old corps. The iirft and fecond
regiments of life-guards claim priority of notice. The life-

6 guards

REGIMENT.

guards fucceeded that body under the fame denomination
which was raifed by Charles II., foon after the relloration,
tlie privates of whom were taken from the cavalier gentle-
men, who had adopted the profeflion of arms, and followed
the fortunes of his father during the civil wars. As they
were for the molt part men of family, they pollelTed certain
privileges, fimilar to thofe of the houfhold troops in France,
after whom they were modelled ; and thefe privileges were
continued long after the time when they ceafed to be coni-
pofed of the lame clafs of men; It was, therefore, found
neceflary to reduce the privates, and to form a new corps,
compofed almoll entirely of recruits under the old officers,
and to place them nearly on the fame footing with the relt
of the cavalry ; referving for them, however, the advantages
arifing out of a higher pay, and an exemption from flop-
pages on the part of the privates, whofe clothing is fur-
nifhed by government. The life-guards claim the privilege,
that their officers are not liable to be tried by any court-
martial, unlefs the members are compofed of their own
regiment, or of officers of the other houfliold troops. The
firlt regiment of lite-guards, confilling of very line men,
about 6 feet high at an average, was formed in 1788. The
uniform is fcarlet, faced with blue, and gold lace. The
commiflioned officers are a colonel, one lieutenant-colonel,
one fupernumerary lieutenant-colonel, two majors, five cap-
tains, fix lieutenants, one adjutant and lieutenant, five cor-
nets, one furgeon, and one veterinary furgeon. The non-
commiffioned officers confiit of quarter-mafters and corporals.
The privates are about 260 in number. Their quarters are
permanent at Knightfbndge barracks. The fecond regi-
ment is on the fame footing with the firft, and of the fame
eftablifliment. The average height of the men is 5 feet
lly inches ; the horfes are from l6 to 18 hands high, of a
black colour, with long tails. In this regiment, as well as
the other, there are five troops';- each troop confifling of
one captain, one lieutenant, one cornet, one quarter-mailer,
three corporals, 49 privates, including a farrier, and one
trumpeter. Each regiment has one kettle drummer. The
officers ufually ride bay-horfes ; the kettle drununers and
trumpeters, grey. There are two " gold-flicks," one ap-
pertaining to each regiment : their duty is to attend alter-
nately every month on his majelty. See I.if.-GvARDH.

A body of foot-guards was not regularly organized on
the prefent plan till after the refioratior.. The regiment of
general Monk, created duke of Albemarle, was, in com-
pliment to him, retained on the ellablifnment, when moll of
the other troops were difbanded. This regiment had been
» raifed about ten years before the period alluded to, at Cold-
flream, in Scotland ; and from this circumflance it affunied
the name, which it has borne ever fince. The year 1660
ntay thus be confidered as the era of the formation of the
foot-guards ; and though other regiments were added, the
Coldfiream had the priority. The guards pofl'ei's many pe-
culiar honours and privileges : they have precedency of all
others ; their officers poflefs a higher rank in the army ; and
without expence to themfelves, when o". guard at St.
James, they have a plentiful table kept for them by the
public, and voted annually in the extraordinaries of the
army. The king's perfon, the royal family, the Tower,
and, in times of danger, the bank of England, are in a par-
ticular manner under their proteftion. Their uniforms are
royal, with blue facings, and their pay fuperior to that of
the marching regiments. See Fool-GvARDS.

The corps, denominated the royal regiment of horfe-

guards, blue, commonly called Oxford blues, derives its

appellatisn from the noble family of Oxford, who was its

firft colonel in i66i. This regiment has diftinguifhed itfclf

Vol. XXIX.

on a variety of occafions. The follov/iiig circnmflancci ar
peculiar to this corps. It is the only regiment, denominated
" horfe," at prefent on the Britifh eilablifhment. Tlie prcj-
motions, that of colonel excepted, are reflricted to the regi-
ment. The quarter-mailers' commillions are (igncd by the
king, fo that they are properly termed commillion-oflicers ;
whereas in all the other cavalry, or dragoon regiments,
quarter-mafters are only warrant-officers. The average
height of the men is 5 feet 105 inches. Tiic uniform of the
officers is blue, faced with fcarlet, gold lace, aud biitl
lining ; of the privates, blue, with plain red lappets, very
broad buff crofs-belts, and gloves of the fame colour. The
troopers' horfes are black, with long tails. The torp:,
confifls of nine troops ; and to each troop belong four com-
miffioned officers, five non-commiffioncd officers, and 54 prl-
vate men : there are, befides, the colonel, one lieutenani-
colonel, pne major, an adjutant, a regimental furgeon and
affiilant, and a veterinary furgeon. See Horfi-GvAiiDH.

The eilablifhment of a royal regiment of artillery took
place early in the Jail century ; the firft commifTion of co-
lonel having been ill'ued, as it is faid, in the firft year of the
reign of George II. In a Ihort time, the number of com-
panies was augmented from four to eight. The uniform
was blue, turned up with red ; and waiftcoats and breeches
of the colour of the facings were then worn by the officers.
The artillery take the right of foot on all parades, and like-
wife of dragoons, when difmounted. Each battalion coii-
fifts of one colonel commandant, one ditto en-fecond, one
firft heutenant-colonel, two fecond lieutenant-colonels, one
major, ten captains, ten captain-lieutenants, thirty lieu-
tenants, one adjutant, one quarter-matter, one furgeon, and
one alfiflant furgeon. The eftablifhment of each company
is 120 rank and file. The ftandard height of the men is
5 feet 9 inches, and upwards. The uniform of the officers
is blue, faced with fcarlet, gold epaulets, no lace, white
waillcoat and breeches, boots, yellow breaflplate on a white
buff fhoulder-belt. The uniform of the privates is blue,
with red cuffs and collar, no facings, yellow lace, and but-
tons impreflcd with the ordnance arms. The ferjeants wear
frogged gold lace. The arms of the officers and ferjeants
arc yellow-hilted fwords ; of the corporals, bombardiers,
and privates, carbine and bayonet. The horfe artillery have
fwords and piftols. The officers rife in a regular gradation
by feniority. See Artillery.

The firfl or royal regiment of foot claims a high degree
of antiquity. It is undoubtedly the oldeft regiment in the
fervice. It is faid to have been the body-guard of the
Scottifli kings, whence it has derived its name of the royal
Scots, and to have been put upon the Englifh eftabUfhment
in i6'?3. The fii-ft colonel was nominated during the reign
of Charles I. ; but on the fatal ifTue of the civil wars to that
monarch, this corps feems to have been difbanded. At the
reftoration of Charles II., this regiment was re-eftablifhed.
It confifts of two battalions, both commanded by the fame
colonel : in every other rcfpedl they are confidered as fepa-
rate corps. The uniform of the officers is fcarlet, faced
with blue, gold lace embroidered ; that of the private fol-
diers red, faced with blue and white lace.

The fecond, or queen's royal regiment of foot, was raifed
in the year 1661. The regiment being royal, the facings
for the whole are blue ; the lace for the privates v/hite, \vith
a blue ftripe.

The third regiment of foot, called the " Buffs," was put
upon the regular eftablifhment of the army in the year 1665.
It was denominated the " Buffs," from being the firft whofe
accoutrements were made of leather prepared from the buf-
falo, after the manner of fhamois. The waiftcoats, breeches,
4 I and

REfilMEKT.

and facincfs oflhc coat, were aflci waido diredk'd to bo made diers, who were cafdy ditlmmiillii-ij by their caj);. (Jiy a

of a corrcfpondiiig colour. When other regiments allumed regiJation in 1800, all the regiments of the line, as well Ji

this part of their appointment, the third acquired tlie name the guards, are to wear a kind of caps,) Tl)c officers ir

of the " Old Buffs." This regiment has the exclufive pri- thefe regiments never carried fpontoons, 23 the otlicrs did,

i; of marcliing through the city of London by heal of till the late change, but had fufils, like the officers of the

I. Its uniform is red, with buff facings ; buff waifl- (lank companies throughout the army. The other regi-

vitcg

drum

coats and breeches. The jifl regiment, which lias the fame

uniform, is commonly called the " Young BufTs."

The fourth, or king's own regiment of foot, was raifed
in the year 1680, by Thomas earl of Plymouth. This
regiment was the firll that joined king William, on his land-
at Torbay ; on which occafion his majelly honoured it

ing

dircftid it

witli tlie title of the king's own regiment ; am
to bear in its colours the lion of England, which Hill con-
tinues the badge of the regiment, and is worn 011 the breall-
platc, buttons"; cap, and pouch. The uniform of the regi-
ment, at the beginning of the lalt century, was red, faced
with blue velvet, and large velvet cuffs, richly embroidered

witli Told. The prefent uniform is red, with plain blue captain, one lieutenant, one cornet, one qnarter-maiker, fou
facings, filver buttons and epaulet, white waiflcoat and ferjeants, four corporals, one trumpeter, and feventy-one rank

mcnts of fulilecrs have fi-cond lieutenants, inftcad of enfign..
This regiment is peculiar In having none but llril lieutenantt,
under the field-officers and captains. The uniform is royal
blue facings, willi white lace, and a blue flripe. Tiie 8tii,
l8th, 2 ill, 23d, 42d, and 60th regiments have alfo blue
or royal facings, but different lace.

The lirll, or king's regiment of dragoon-guards, v.a:
railed and entered on the > flablifllment on tlie 6th of June
1 68 J. The cflabliflimcnt of this regiment, called, during il^
ferviees in Germany in the courfe of the feven years' war,
" Bland's dragoons," trom the name of the officer who was
tlien at the lieadof it, is ten troops, each confiiling of one

breeclies. On the epaulet, buttons, and breafl-plate, are
ihc crown and garter, and round the latter " The King's
own Infantry." In the centre is the lion of England, and
under it the number iv in fmall Roman figures.

The fifth regiment of foot was raifed by James II. ; but
it followed the" fortunes of the prince of Orange. Wiien
the 4th, 5th, and 6th regiments were firfl raifed, they

and file. The average height of the men is 5 feet 10 inches ;
of tlie horfes, 15 hands li incli. The uniform of the officers
is fcarlet and gold lace, blue cuffs and collar ; no facings
on the ordinary uniform. The uniform of the troopers, X'ed
jacket, faced half-lappel, blue, white lace, buttons marked
K. D. G. The ferjcants wear gold lace. The fecond, or
queen's dragoon-guards, is one of the eight cavalry regi-

were not placed upon the Britifh cllablifhment, but fent by ments raifed in 1685, the fecond year after the acceflion of

James 11. for the fervice of the ilatcs-general. On the ab- king James II. to tlie throne. Five of thefe remain on the

dication of that monarch, and the fubfequent eleftion of Englifh ellablifhment, and three on the Irifh : of the former

William, prince of Orange, they were numbered and taken five, three are diff inguifhed as " Dragoon-guards," the other

into the Une, according to the periods at which they landed two as " Dragoons ;" the firfl of which is denominated " the

from Holland. Thus the 4th, which had originally been king's own regiment." The uniform of the officers red,

raifed after the 5th, arrived in England before it, and took faced witli black velvet and filver lace ; and that of the

precedence. The 6th, which had been levied before the troopers red jacket, black collar and cuffs, royal lace, white

cth, returned at a later period than either, and was confe- buttons, marked Q. D. G. The ferjeants wear filver lace,

quently placed according to that date. The 5th regiment The third, or prince of Wales's dragoon-guards, is the laft

has been augmented to two battalions, by drafts from the of the three regiments dillinguiflied as dragoon- guards upon

militia ; its uniform gofling green facings. The 24th, the Britifli efiablifhment. The uniform is fcarlet, faced

c.ith, and 69th regiments arc alfo faced with light green. with white, and yellow buttons. The fourth, or royal Irifh

The fixth reo-iment of foot derives its origin from the regiment of dragoon-guards, was raifed, with feven others of

but it had previoufly ferved under the three firfl princes of upon the lame eflabhfliment, it was, in the year 1788,
Orant;e. "This was one of the three regiments intended, on upon a new one, and called "Dragoon-guards," nun
their Kirmation, to fervc in Holland ; and, therefore, it was

paid by the Dutch republic. It came over to this country
with king William, at the revolution in 1688, and was in-
corporated in our military eftablifliment, being numbered as
the 6th in the Britifh line. Its uniform is deep yellow
facings, white lace, with yellow and red ftripes. The 9th,
loth, I2th, 13th, 15th, 16th, 20th, 25th, 26th, 28th

pat
mber-
ing on to feven ; fo that the fourth of horfe, formerly fo
called, is now the feventh dragoon-guards. The uni-
forin is royal, with filver lace. The fifth regiment of dragoon-
guards, commonly called the " Green Horfe," was origi-
nally the fecond of horfe, and raifed in England in the reign
of icing James II., in the month of July 1685. It was at
that time put upon the regular Britifh cflablilliment. It

29th, 30th, 34th, 35th, 37th, 38th, 44th, 46th, 57th, went over with king William to Ireland in 1689, and re

62d, and 67th regiments have alfo yellow facings and white
lace ; and are diftinguiflied from each other by the variations
of the llripes, the tinge of the colour, &c.

Tfie feventh regiment of foot, or " Royal Fufileers,"
was raifed, with nine others of infantry, and eight of ca^

innined more than 100 years upon the Irifh eftablifhment. It
is now on the Englifh efiablifhment ; and confifts of nine
troops, of the fame Itrength with thofe of the fourth regiment
of dragoon-guards ; each troop confifting of one quarter-
mailer, four ferjeants, four corporals, one trumpeter, and

valry, undei- James II., in the year 1685, three years before feventy-one privates. The unifo-m of the regiment is green

bis abdication. As a fufileer regiment, the men wear caps, " ' /- . /^

fimilar to thofe of the grenadiers, but fomcwhat fliorter.
In all other refpe(Ss they are drcffcd and appointed as the
foldiers of other battalions. Three years after this, another
regiment was raifed, iindcr tlie denomination of " Royal
Welfh Fufileers." This partiality for cap regiments is faid
to have been caufcd by the celebrity of tlic Britifli grena-

facings with gold lace for the officers, and yellow for the
private men. The height of thefe men is in general from 5
feet 8 inches to 6 feet. The firft, or royal regiment of dra-
goons, was raifed for the fervice of Charles II. in 1683.
Their badge is a horfe-flioe, inclofing ift d., encircled with
a wreath of laurels ; the regiment confifts of nine troops, of
the ufual number. The colour of the liorfes is black. The
I fecond,

Ti E G

fecond, or royal North Britifli drugoon?', called the " Scots
Groys," were raifi'd in Scotland during the reign of
.'air.os II. The luiiform is red, with gold lace, no facings, bnt
blue collar and cuff. The horles are of an iron-grey colour,
except thofe of the officers and trumpeters, which are of a
light grey, approaching to white. The fittli, or royal Irifli
regiment of dragoons, was raifed in or about the year 1688.
In confequehce of the good behaviour of this regiment at the
battle of Hochftet, in Augull 1 704, three additional troops
were put upon the eitablifliment, making its ftrength to con-
fift of nine troops. Again this regiment, affifted by the

R E Cr

thofe who had places near enough to hear his liftramcnti,
was exquilite; but the imperfedtions of his voice and figure
dilgnlled thofe at a dilbnce, to whofe ears only the word
part of his performance arrived.

ItEGINO, a celebrated German ecclefiallical writer and
chronicler, who ilourifhed in the nintli and tenth centuries
He embraced the monallic life at the Uenedidine abbey of
Prum, in the diocefe of Treves, and by his conduft gained
fuch general relpedt among the fraternity, that in the year
892 he was made abbot, which office, however, from the
jealoufy of his rivals, he was obliged to reiign in 899. After

Scots greys,' diftingui(hed itfelf at tlie battle of Ramillies in this he probably retired and fpeiit the remainder of his day

1706; and both corps were diiliiiguiflied from other ca-
valry regiments, by being permitted to wear grenadier caps.
The permanency of the nine troops was fecured by an order,
dated in 179S. At this time there was an infurreftion of the
rebels in the difaffefted parts of Ireland, and this regiment
was ordered to refill and fuppref-i it. In order to fupply
the lofs it fuftained in feveral conflifts with the rebels, its
officers were inftrufted to receive eligible recruits. Many
were enliited, who, as the event afterwards proved, were
rebel-partifans, who entered into a defperate plot for ieizing
the garrifon at Lehaunftoun and mallacring every officer and
loyal foldier. The confpirators were feized, and fuffered
according to their deferts. Tlie regiment, however, had the
mortification to find it announced in the public papers, that
feveral privates belonging to the fifth or royal Irifh dragoons,
had been found guilty by a general court-martial of joining

in the abbey of St. Maximin at Treves. He died about the
year 908. He was author of " A Chronicon," extending
from the birth of Clirill to the year 907, which is faid to be
very ufeful in illuilrating the hiftory of his time, and par-
ticularly that of the Franks and Germans. Tiiij chronicoa
was publifhed at Frankfort in 1583, with an appendix by
another liand, continuing it from the year 907 to 972, and it
is to be found in Piilorius's colleftion, entitled, " Scriptores
de Rebus Germanicis." Regino was author likewife oi
" De Difciplinis Ecclefiailicis et Rehgione Chriltiana," in
two book;., of which the firll contains thofe canons which
relate to ecclefiallical perfons, and the fecond, thofe which
regard the laity. This work was undertaken by him about
the year 906, at the defire of the arclibilliop of Treves, for
the fpccial benefit of his diocefe. It was firfl publiflicd, with
an appendix, by Joachim Hildebrand, at Hclmlladt, in 1659,

the rebels. In confequence of this the regiment was, on the from a manufcript of Flacius Illyricns ; and afterwards by
lOth of April following, dilbanded by an order from his M. Balufe, with additions, and a learned preface and notes,
majefty, dated April 8th, 1799. See Grofc's Mil. Ant. vol.ii.
appendix.

REGIMENTAL Court-maytial. See Covrt ■MartlaL

RiiGiMENTAL Staff". See Staff.

REGIMENTALS, the uniform clothing of the army,
confiding of a hat, coat, waillcoat, breeches, fhirts, ftocks,
fhoes, dockings, fpats, fpatterdafhes, &c.

REGINA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Citra ; 12 miles N. of Cofenza.

Regina Aurarum, in Ornithology, a name given by Nic-
remberg to a bird called by the Mexicans co%eacoauhtli. It
has obtained its name from its being able to fly againft the

M. Balufe, with additions, and a learned preface and notes,
in 1 67 1. Trithcniius pronounces Regino to have been the
belt German writer of his age.

RKGiNO, in Geography, a town of Golo, or the ifland of
Corfica, in the department of Calvi ; the canton of which
contains 3913 inhabitants.

REGIO AssENsf, in La'w, is 3 writ by which the king
gives his royal adent to the elcdlion of a bifhop.

REGIOMONTANUS, in Biography. Sec MuLLKli.

REGION, in Anatomy, denotes a divifion of the hu-
man body. Some anatomiils have divided the body into
three regions, or venters.

The upper region is that of the head, reaching as low as

flrongeft winds. It is of the bignefs of an eagle, and its the firft vertebra, and comprehending the animal organs, the
ihole body is of a blackifh purple, variegated with a brown- brain, &c. See Head, &c.

idi-yellow and deep black ; its wings are variegated with
black, yellow, and grey ; its legs are rrd ; its claws very
ftrong and diarp ; and its beak like that of a parrot ; it has
fome rugofc fkin on the forehead, and about the beak ; and
its tail is black above, and grey underneath. It feeds on
fnakes, rats, and other vermin, but will alfo eat human dung ;
it flies very high ; it is a native of Mexico, and breeds in
fpring ; its feathers are faid to be a remedy for many dif-
eafes ; but the truth of this account is much to be doubted.
Ray.

Rkgina, Sahe. See Salve.

The middle region is that of the thorax or bread, which
Hippocrates calls the upper venter, and which reaches from
the clavicles to the diaphragm : in this are contained the
vital parts, as the heart, lungs, &c. See Heart, Lungs,
&c.

The third, or lower region, is the abdomen or belly, 5cc.
containing the natural parts, dcdined for digeftion, purga-
tion, and generation. See Abdomen.

Region, epicolic, cpigajlric, and umbilical. See the ad-
jeftives.

Region, Regio, in Geography, a country, or particular

REGINELLI, Nicola, in 5;oj'r^//iv, an Italian opera divifion of the earth ; or a tradt of land inhabited by people
finger, renowned for his knowledge and the purity of his tade. of the fame nation.

He arrived in London in the autumn of 1 746, an old but The modern adrologers divide the moon Into feveral rc-

great finger, whofe voice as well as perfon were in ruin. He gions, or provinces, to each of which they give its proper
firll appeared on our dage in a padiccio, called " Annibale
in Capua." This performer was now turned of fifty ; his
voice a foprano, but cracked, and in tot.d decay ; his figure
tall, raw-boned, and gawky ; but there were fine remains
of an excellent fchool m his tade and manner of finging ;
indeed, he had fome refinements in his embelhfhments and
cxpreffion, that cannot be defcribed, and which we have not
ijncc heard in any other finger. In a cantabile, his tade, to

name. See Moon.

Region, in Phy/iology. Authors divide the atmofpliere
into three dages, called the upper, middle, and loiver regions.
See Atmosphere.

The lowefl region is that in which we breathe, and is
bounded by the reflexion of the fun's rays, that is, by the
heiglit to which they rebound from the earth.

The middle rcgio.n is that in which the clouds refide, where
4 I 2 meteors

R E G

meteors arc formed, &c. extending from the extremity of
the loweft to tlie tops of the higheft mountains.

The upper region commences from the tops of the moun-
tains, and reaches to the utmoft limits of the atmofphere.
In this reigns a perpetual, equable calmnefs, clearnefs, and
fcrenity.

Rkgion, FAemenlary. Sec Elemf.ntary. .
Region, Etberuil, is ufed for the whole extent of the uni-
verfe, including the orb of the fixed ftars, &c.

RECiioNB of the Sea. As feme naturalifts, in their de-
fcriptions of the fubterraneous parts of the globe, diftinguifh
the earth into tlirec regions of diflcrent depths, in which
different temperatures are obferved ; fo in defcribing the lea,
they allow it two regions ; the one extending from the furface
of tlie water, down io low as the rays of tiie fun can pierce,
and extend their influence ; and the other, from the loweft
bounds of that to the bottom. It is eafy to fee that thefe
regions rather regard quality than fpace, ard that tlieir
boundaries are far from being regular, or equal in all places,
and at all times. The places expofed to the hottetl hmftiine
will have the largelt upper region ; thofe where the fun has
Icaft power will have the fmalleft ; and the fame part of the
fea will have its upper region more or lefs deep, according to
the feafon of the yew. This upper region of the fea is al-
ways more or lefs hot ; the lower region, except in fome
few particular places, is every where cold ; and the water,
where the upper region is large, is always remarkably Hill
and quiet in the lower. Boyle of Cofmical Ouahties.

Region, Subterranean. The earth is not only divided on
its furface into regions and countries, but philofophers, who
have had occafion to difcourfe of its inner parts, have alfo
divided them into three dilhnft regions, according to their
different depths from the furface. The temperature of the
fubterranean parts of the globe is diftinguifhed according to
the divifion of thefe regions, but is not fo regular and pre-
cife as fonie have fuppofed. The firfl region of the earth is
very variable, both as to bounds and temperature. The fe-
cond region feems for the mod part cold, in comparifon of
the other two ; but in feveral places, which, by reafon of
their diftance from the furface of the earth, it would be na-
tural to call the middle region, the temperature of the air is
very different at the fame feafons of the year, which fhews that
it depends on fomething more than bare depth from the fur-
face. The third region of the earth is univerfally obferved
to be warm, but by no means regularly or uniformly : the
fame depth in fome places, giving only a moderate warmth,
while in others it gives a very confiderable heat.

Borrichius tells us of a certain abbe, fond of chemiftry,
and particularly curious in the matter of long digeftions by
regular heat, who found a way of making a furnace perpe-
tually warm, by piercing the earth to a certain depth, and
ufing the heat of this third region of it. His method, we are
told, was to bore a hole with a pike twenty feet deep, and
pour into it ten or twelve pounds of quickfilver ; this made
its way into the ftrata, and through them in a body into the
chambers of heat in this third region, where the heat, having
a vent upwards, made by this opening, never failed to afcend
in a perpetual and regular ftream, and gave that regular and
digelling heat that no artificial fire could equal. But this is
an alchemical llory. Boyle of Cofmical Qualities. Borrich.
de Ortu Chem.

Region, in ancient Rome, a part or divifion of the city.
Romulus divided his little city into three tribes, and Servius
Tullius added a fourth ; which divifion continued till Au-
guilus's time, who firfl divided the city into fourteen re-
gions, over each of which he fettled two furveyors, called
curatorcs viarum, who were made annually, and took their

R K (;

divifions by lot. Thefe fourteen regions contained 424
Itreets, 3 1 of which were called great or royal ftreets, which
begun at the gilt pillar that ilood at the entry into the open
place in the middle of the city. '

The extent of tl;efe divifions varied greatly, fome being
from 12,000 or 13,000 to 33,000 feet and upwards in cir-
cumference. Authors, however, are not agreed as to the
exaft limits of each.

According to Kennet, who formed his divifion on the
authority of the accurate Panvinius, the different regfions
were as follow : The ^r/i region, called " Porta Capena,"
contained 9 ftreets, 3 luci, or confecratcd groves, 4 temples,
6 sedes, or facrcd buildings, 6 pubhc baths, 4 arches, 14
granaries, 12 mills for grinding corn, and 121 domi, or
great houfes. The whole compafs of this region, or ward,
was 13,223 feet. The fecontJ region, denominated " Coeh-
montium," included 12 (Ireets, 2 luci, 5 temples, the public
baths of the city, 80 private baths, the great (humbles, «3
granaries, 23 mills, and 133 great houfes. Its compafc was
13,200 feet. The t/jird region, or Ifis and Serapis, con-
tained 8 ftreets, 2 temples, the amphitheatre of VefpaCan,
the baths of Titus, Trajan, and Philip, 19, or, as Came
fay, 29 granaries, 23 mills, 160 great houfes. Its compafs
was 12,450 feet. The fourth region. Via Sacra, or Tem-
plum Pacis, comprehended 8 ftreets, 10 temples, the co-
loflus of the fun, 1 20 feet high, the arches of Titus, Severus,
and Conftantine, 75 private baths, 18 granaries, 24 mills,
and 138 great houfes. Its compafs, according to fome,
was only 8000, but, according to others, 14,000 feet.
The fifth region, or Efquilina, included 15 ftreets, 8 luci,
6 temples, 5 sedes, 75 public baths, 18 granaries, 22 mills,
and 1 80 great houfes. Its compafs was 15,950 feet. The
fixth region, Afta Semita, contained 12 or 13 ftreets, 15
temples, 2 porticos, 2 circi, 2 fora, 75 private baths, 19
granaries, 23 mills, 155 great houfes. Its compafs was
15,600 feet. The f event h region. Via lata, included 40
ftreets, 4 temples, 75 private baths, 3 arches, 17 mills,
25 granaries, and 120 great houfes. Its compafs was
23,700 feet. The eighth region, Forum Romanum, in-
cluded 12 ftreets, 21 temples, 66 private baths, 10 aedes,
9 porticos, 4 arches, 7 fora, 4 curise, 7 bafiUcje, 6 co-
lumns, 18 granaries, 30 mills, and 150 great houfes. Its
compafs was 14,876 feet. The ninth region, Circus Fla-
mininus, comprehended 20 ftreets, 8 temples, 20 sedes, 12
porticos, 2 circi, 4 theatres, 3 baClicae, 2 curiae, 5 baths,
2 arches, 2 columns, 32 mills, 32 granaries, and 189 great
houfes. Its compafs was 30,560 feet. The tenth region,
Palatium, contained 7 ftreets, 10 temples, 9 zdes, i theatre,
4 curias, 15 private baths, 12 mills, 16 granaries, and IC9
great houfes. Its compafs was 11,600 leet. The eleventh
region. Circus Maximus, included 8 streets, 22 xdes, 15
private baths, 16 granaries, 12 mills, and 189 great houfes.
Its compafs was 11,600 feet. The twelfth region, Pifcina
Pubhca, contained 12 ilreets, 2 aedes, 68 private baths, 28
granaries, 25 mills, and 128 great houfes. Its compafs was
1 2,000 feet. The thirteenth region, or Aventinus, included
17 ftreets, 6 luci, 6 temples, 74 private baths, 36 granaries,
30 mills, and 155 great houfes. Its compafs was 16,300
feet. The fourteenth region, Tranftiberina, contained 23
ftreets, 6 xdes, 136 private baths, 20 granaries, 32
mills, and 150 great houfes. Its compafs was 33,409
feet.

REGIONARY, Regionarius, in Ecckfqjikal Hiflory,
a title given, from the fifth century,- to perfons who had the
charge and adminiftration of the church affairs within a cer-
tain diftriift or region.

At Rome there were anciently feven regionary deacons,

who

REG

REG

v/no piefiilct] over a kind of hofpitals, and looked to tlie dif-
tribution of alms.

Thsre were alfo regionary fubdcacons, and regionary no-
taries, as alto regionary bifliops, &c.

A regionary biiliop was properly a miflionary invefted
with an epifcopal charaftcr, but without being attached to
any particular fee, that he might be at liberty to go to
preach, and perform other fuiiftions of his miniflry, whither-
foever tlie Spirit of God and the wants of the people fliould
call him.

REGIS, Peter-Sylvan, in Biography, a celebrated
French philofopher, was born at Salvetat de Blanquefort,
in the Agenois, in tiie year 1632. After havmg been in-
ftrufted iii clailical learning and the belles lettres, by the
Jcfuits, at Cahors, he entered himfelf a ttudent of divinity
at the univerfity of that city, intending to qualify himfelf
for the clerical profeffion. This, however, he abandoned,
in order to devote iiimfelf to the ftudy of the Cartefian phi-
lofophy, which at that time was taught with great fuccefs
by Rohault. With this view he went to Touloufe in 1605,
and read a courfe of leftures upon the principles of Def-
cartcs, and was attended by pe'fons of all ranks and charac-
ters, who inlifted themfelves in the number of his difciples.
Among thcfe were to be found the magiltrates, clergy, and
even the women of Touloufe, who affected to be the zealous
converts to the new philofophy, in oppofition to the old.
To exprefs their gratitude to the man who had been the in-
ftrument of diffufnig thi^ light over their city, the inha-
bitants granted him a perJion ; a circumllance which, it has
been obferved, correfponded more with the fpirit and ufages
of ancient Greece, than of irodern times. In 1680 he came
to Paris, confidering that as the moll proper fcene for the
exhibition of his talents. Here he was extremely popular,
and tlie friends to the Ariftotelian fyllem began to be
alarmed at his fuccefs, and complained againft him to the
archbifhop of Paris, who prohibited him from continuing
his left'vres, and they were accordingly fufpended. But
after a fliort time, the prelate withdrew his iuterdidl, and
Regis devoted the remainder of his life to the propagation of
the Cartefian philofophv, as well by his writings as his lec-
tures. In 1699 he was admitted a member of the Academy
of Sciences, but his infirmities prevented him from attending
its meetings. He died in the year 1707, at the age of 75,
highly efteemed by perfons of the firil dilHnftion for talents
and rank. He was author of a great number of works, of
which the following ma)' be mentioned : " A Syftem of
Philofophy, containing Logic, Metaphyfics, and Morals ;"
"An Anfwer to the Book of M. Huet, entitled ' Cenfura
Philofophiae Cartefiana;,"' which is mentioned by Bayle as
a model for every writer on the fame fide of the queilion ;
" An Anfwer to the Critical Reflexions of Du Hamel on
the Syllem of Philofophy."

Regis, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in the bilhopric
of Nureniburg ; 14 miles S. of Leipfic.

Regis, St., a village of Upper Canada, on the St. Law-
rence, half a mile N. from the N. line of the United States.
It is feated on a beautiful elevated plain, in the angle be-
tween the mouth of St, Regis river a^d the St. Lawrence,
it confilts of about 80 houfes of hewn logs, inhabited by
about 100 Indian families, of the Caghnowaya tribe, who
have lived here more than half a century. TUey are peace-
able, honeft, and induilrious. Their diverfions are foot-
-loes, playing at ball, and dancing. They are Roman
Catholics, and have a handfome Hone church, with a fpire,
did generally a minilter. Thefe Indians have 30,000 acres
A laud referved to them S. of the village. They keep a
,ieat number of horfes and cattle, aud raife plenty of corn

on the fertile iflands in St. I^avvrence. From St. Regis
there is a good road to Plattlburg, on Champlain ; the dif-
tance being 72 miles. — Alfo, a river of Canada, which rifes
from lakes near Racket river, and enters the St. Lawrence
at the village abow-mentinned.
REt;i.s Pntulus. See Ponih;s.
Re(;is Filla. See Vll.l.A.

REG 1 STAN, or Sandy Defat of Agimere, in Geography,
a fandy defert, forming the wellern bound;:ry of Hindoof-
tnn, between the country of Aginii-re and tlie Indus. The
northern extreme of this defert bounds the dominions of
tlie Seiks on the foutli.

REGISTER, Registrum, a public book ferving to
enter and record memoirs, acts, and minutes, to be had re-
coLirfe to occafionally, for the julUfyiug of matters of faft.

Menage derives the word, by corruption, from regejlum,
a book containing extrafts of feveral books, &c. collettcd
together : " Dicitur regeltum qiiafi iterum geltum."
Otl'.ers derive it from the old French gijln', lo Ik elown in a
k(f, &c.

Tlie law of Scotland is rendered very eaty and regular,
by means of the great number of regifters, for recording the
conveyances of lands, &c. of private perfons. Of thefe
there are two kinds : the one general, fixed at Edinburgh,
under the diretlion of the lord regilter, who, before tlie
Union, was the fittli officer of the ftatc, and, befides the
regiltry, was clerk of the parliament, trealury, exchequer,
and feffiou.

The other is particularly kept in the feveral (hires, llcw-
arties, and regalities. The clerks of it are obliged to tranf-
mit the regifters of their refpeftive courts to the general re-
gifter ; and the notaries their protocols : and here they are
fo difpofed, that, on demand, the lieges can have a view of
any writs which the law requires to be regiftered, or which
parties, for their feciirity, have thought lit to record.

The regifters were firft fet on foot by aft of parliament,
under king James VI., to the unfpeakable advant.ige of the
fubjeft.

No man can have a right to any eftate, but it muft be
regiftered within forty day;, of his becoming feifed of it,
otherwife it is null ; and by this means all fecret conveyances
are cut off.

By a law in 1704, it was enafted, that a memorial of all
deeds and conveyances, and of all wills and devifes in \vriting,
by which any honours, manors, &c. in tlie Weft Riding of
Yorkihire, might be any way affefted in law or equity,
may, at the election of the party or parties concerned, be
regiftered : aud that, after Inch regilfer, every fubfequent
deed or conveyance of the faid honours, manors, &c. fo
regiftered, or any part of it, ftiall be adjudged fraudulent
and void, unlefs a memorial of it ftiall be alfo regiftered :
and the like of wills, &c. But this act did not extend to
copyhold eftates, nor to leafes at rack-rent, nor to any leafe
not exceeding twenty-one years.

Ill the year 1708, a fimilar ftatute was patfed for the re-
gittering of deeds, conveyances, wills, devifes, mortgages,
&c. in the Eaft Riding of Yorkfhire : and aU the provifions
and claufes in this act were hereby extended to the honours,
manors, lands, and tenements, in the Weft Riding of the
fame county.

In 1709, a law was made for the public regiftering of
deeds, conveyances, wills, &c. in the county of Middlefex ;
which may be done for the fee of one Ihilling : and every
deed or conveyance, which fhall hereafter be executed, ihall
be adjudged fraudulent and void, againil any fubfequent
pmchaier or mortgagee for valuable confideration, unlefs
iuch memorial of it be regiftered according to the dire£Uon

of

REG

of tills aft, before ilie rcgidering of the memoiial of the
(lead 01' conveyance, undev which fuch fvibfeqacnl purchafcr
or nioi-LgagcL' (hall tluim ; and the like as to iiicinoriuls of
wills not regiftci-ed.

Ill 1735, a fimilar rcgifter of mortgages, &c. was legally
cnafted for the North Riding of the county of York ;
whence York and Middlefex are regifler counties. (2 &
3 Ann. cap. 4. 6 Ann. cap. 35. 7 Ann. cap. 20. 8
Geo. II. cap. 6.) Thefe ftatutcs do not extend to copy-
hold ellates, leafes at a rack-rent, or to any Icafes not ex-
ceeding 21 years, where the pofTeflion goes with the leafe ;
r.or to any chambers in the inns of court.

Many have wiflied that the fame regulation was extendi-d
to all the counties of England and Wales ; but judge Blatk-
ilone obferves, that, however plaufible thefe provifions may
appear in theory, it hath been doubted, by very competent
judges, whether more difputes have not arifen in thofe
counties, by the inattention and oraiffion of parties, than
' prevented by the ufe of regifters.

Register, more correftly Regi/lrer, Regijlrarius, is alfo
ufed for the clerk, or keeper of a regifter, or regillry.

Of thefe we have fevcral, denominated from the regifters
they keep ; as regifter of the high court of delegates, re-
gifters of the arches court of Canterbury, regifter of the
court of admiralty, regifter of the prerogative court, re-
gifters of the province of Canterbury, regifter of the arch-
deaconry of Middlefex, &c. regifter of the faculty office,
and regifter of the garter, who is always dean of Windfor,
and deputy regifters.

There are alfo, in the court of chancery, tiic principal
regifter, the lord chancellor's regifters, the regifters of the
mafter of the rolls, entering regifters, and regifter of the af-
fidavits.

The appellation of regifter or regiftrarius is alfo given to
a notary. See Notary, and Notary, Public.
Register, City. See Towx-C/<?ri.
Register of a parifli church, is a book in which the
yearly baptifms, marriages, and burials, of each parifti, are
orderly regiftered. See Marriage.

This praftice was laudably inftituted by that great but
unfortunate perfon Thomas Cromwell, earl of Effex, anno
153R, while he was vicar -general to king Henry VIII. ;
and it was continued in the reigns of king Edward VI. and
of queen Elizabeth.

Thefe parilh regifters are to be kept in a coff'er, provided
by the churchwardens, with three locks and keys, one of
wliich is to remain with the minifter, and the other two
with the churchwardens feverally, fo that neither the mi-
nifter without the two church warden?, near the church,
wardens without the minifter, lliall at any time take that
book out of the faid coff'er. Tiiefe pariih regifters are to
be fubfcribed by the minifter and churchwardens ; and
the names of the perfons ftiall be tranfmitted yearly to the
biftiop ; and it has been enforced by canon 70, and by
ftatute, &c.

By 26 Geo. II. c. 33. to make a falfe entry in a
marriage regifter, to alter it when made, to forge or coun-
terfeit fuch entry or a man-iage licence, or aid and abet
fuch forgery, to utter the fame as true knowing it to be
counterfeit, or to deftroy or procure the deftruftion of
any regifter, in order to vacate any marriage, or fubject
any perfon to the penalties of this aft ; all thefe offences,
knowingly and wilfully committed, fiibjeft the party to
the guilt of felony, without benefit of clergy.

By the 30 C. il. c. 5. for burying in woollen, it is
enafted, that the minifter of every parifti fliall keep a re-
gifter in a book to be provided at the charge of the parifti,

R K Q

and make a true entry of all burials wiiliin his parifti, ir.'-
of all affidavits of pcrfono being buried in woollen brougl/
unto him according to tlie faid aft ; and where no fuel
affidavit ffiall be brought to him within the time therein
hnited, he fliall enter a memorial thereof in the faid re-
giftry, againft the name of the parly interred, and of ihi
time wlien he notified the fame to the churchwardens or
overfeers of the poor according to the faid act.

An approved regifter of births, confifting of certificate;
figned by two perfons who were prefent at tlie faid births,
and entered in a book figned by the regifter or fecretan/.
is kept with great accuracy, and authenticated by a cor;.-
mittcc, for the benefit of Proteftant diifentcrs and other.-.
This book is depofited and carefully preferved at Dr. Wil-
liams's library, Rcd-crofs Street, Cripplegate, to which
any perfon may have free accefs at the ftated hours, under
the direftion of the fecretary of the faid library, whofe at-
tention to his office entitles him to public refpeft.

Register is alfo a title of a book, containing the
forms of moft of the writs, original and judicial, uTed i:.
common law. This is c:dled the regijlcr of •writs, or rt-
giftrum omnium brcvium. This rcgifter. Coke on Littlelo:.
obferves, is one of flie moft ancici.t books of the common
law. And judge Blackftone obferves concerning it, that
it is the moft ancient and higlily venerable coUeftion of legal
forms, upon which Fitzherbert's Natura Brevium is a com-
ment, and in which every man, who is injured, will be Uirc
to find a method of relief, exaftly adapted to his own cafe,
deicribcd in the compafs of a few lines, and yet without
the omifiion of any material circuinftancc.

Register, in Antiquity, a book or table at Athens, be-
longing to each particular ?pa:1fi5r, or ward, in which all
fathers were obliged to enrol their fons, niakmg oath, at
the fame time, that every fon, {o regiftered, was either boru
to them in lawful wedlock, or lawfully adopted. The
adopted fons were regiftered in the feilival Thargeliaj the
natural, upon the third day of the feftival ApaturL^.

At what age children were thus regiftered is not agreed.
Some are of opinion, that at every return of the Apaturia
it was cuftomary to regifter all the children that had been
born that year. Others affirm, that they were commonly
three or four years old before they were regiftered.

There were two other feafons when young Athenians
were enrolled in a public regifter : one, when they arrived
at the age of eighteen years, and were admitted into the
number of the (ZrS'A, and was performed on the third day of
the feftival Apaturia ; and the other, before the feftival Pana-
thenaea, when thofe who were twenty years old were en-
tered in a rcgifter, called 't.r^^i-j-^x.w, ; ly^u/xxi^Kv, in which
the names of all perfons of that borougli, who were of age
to fucceed in the ?.v,Ji-, or inheritance of their fathers, were
entered. This was termed t9 be regijlercd among the men :
and the perfons, thus enrolled, became their own mafters,
and free from the government of their guardians. Potter's
Arch. GrEEC. vol. i. p. 48.

Registers of Ejlates, the accounts of particular thincrs
which belong to them, as thofe of rentals, valuations of
fields, names, admealurements, different portions of land,
cottages, and other buildings diftinft from the farms, and
any other feparate parts. In thefe regifters the valuations
are to be inferted in columns, as they arife from furveys or
other ways, and afford the means of fixing the real valu'.s
in re-letting the lands or for other purpofes.

Alfo, a general regifter of the timber trees which are
growing on the feveral divifions of the eftates, fhculd always
be kept ; in which the number contained in each feparate
wood, grove, hedge-row, or any other part, muft be en-
tered.

U E G

tercd, with tlieir kinds and the admcafurempnt of each, for
the ufe of the proprietor and wood managers.

A great many other forts of particulars regarding the
eftatcs may likevvife be ufefully and conveniently put down
in thefe regilters.

REGlSTlcn ijf Seamau See Manmxo the Fleet.
Rf.gistkh Ships, or Ships of Regijlcr, in Commerce, were
velfcls to which the king of Spain, or the council of the
Indies, granted permifiion to go and trallic in the ports of
Spanifh America.

They were thus called, bccaufe the fliips were to be rc-
giRered before they fit fail from Cadiz, which was the
place where they ufiially loaded for Bueuos Ayres.

Thefe vefllls, by the tenor of the cedula or permit,
wore not to exceed three liundrcd tons ; but there fubfifled
tliat sjood underftandinK between the merchants and the
council of the Indies, that (liips of five or fix hundred tons
frequently pafied unnoted.

Thefe regifter (hips, which were firfl introduced in order
to furnifh America with a regular and timely fupply, and
thus to prevent a contraband trade With the Englifh, French,
and Dutch ifiands, were fitted out, during tiie intervals be-
tween the dated fealons, when the galleons and flota failed,
by merchants in Seville or Cadiz, upon obtaining a licence
from the council of the Indies, for which they paid a very
high premium, and were deflined for thofe ports where any
extraordinary demand was forefeen or cxpefted. In pro-
portion as experience manifefted the advantages of carrying
on trade in this mode, the number of regifter lliips incieafed,
and at length, in the year 1748, the galleons, after having
been employed upwards of two centuries, were finally laid
afide. From that period there has been no intercourfe with
Chili and Peru, but by fingle fliips difpatched from time
to time, as occafion requires, and when ihe merchants ex-
pe£l a market will open. Thefe fail round Cape Horn,
and convey direftly to the ports in the South fea the pro-
duftions and manufaftures of Europe, for which the people
fettled in thofe countries were formerly obliged to repair to
Porto Bello or Panama.

But as all the regifter ftiips Jeftined for the South feas
were obliged to take their departure from Cadiz, and were
under a nceefiity of returning thither, this branch of the
American commerce, even in its new and improved form,
continued fubjeft to the reftraints of a fpecies of monopoly,
and felt its pernicious effefts.

The intercourfe between Spain and her colonies has in
later times been much improved and facilitated. In the
year 1764, Charles III. appointed packet-boats to be dif-
patched on the firft day of each month from Corunna to
the Havanna or Porto Rico. From thence letters are con-
veyed in fmaller veilels to Vera Cruz and Porto Bello,
and tranfmitted by poft through the kingdom of Tierra
I'lrme, Granada, Peru, and New Spain. Packet-boats
alfo fail with the fame regularity, once in two months, to
Rio de la Plata, for the accommodation of the provinces
to the eaft of the Andes.

With this new arrangement for facilitating intercourfe
a fcheme of extending commerce has been more immediately
connefted. Each of the packet-boats, which are veffels of
fome confiderable burden, is allowed to take in a loading
of filch commodities as are the produft of Spain, and moft
in demand in the ports whither they are bound. In return
for thefe, they may bring home to Corunna an equal quan-
tity of American productions. This regulation may be
confidered as the firll relaxation of thofe rigid laws, which
confined the trade with the new world to a fingle port,
and the firft. attempt to admit the reft of the kingdom to

II JO Ci

fome fharc in it. This meafure of relaxation was foou fol-
lowed by another more decifive. In the year 1765,
Charles III. laid open the trade to the windward iflands,
Cuba, liifpaniola, Porto Rico, Margarita, and Trinidad,
to his fubjed^s ill every province of Spain. This ample
privilege was fiion after extended to Louifiana, and to the
provinces of Yucatan and Campeachy. As foon as this
general liberty was permitted, it produced the moft bene-
ficial effedls : and it has been computed, that fuch a num-
ber of fliips was foon employed in the free trade, tliat the
tonnage of them far exceeded that of the galleons and flota,
at the moft flourifliing era of their commerce. This ar-
rangement extended its good effefts through every province
of the kingdom ; and by opening a new market for their
various productions and manufadtures, encouraged and added
avidity to the induftry of the farmer and artificer. Spain
has alfo permitted a free trade between the colonies them-
felves. In the year 1774 Charles III. publifhed an edift,
granting to Peru, New Spain, Guatimala, and Granada,
the privilege of a free trade with each other. See Robert-
Ion's Hift. of America, vol. iii.

Register, among Letter Founders, is one of the inner
parts of the mould in which the printing types are caft.
Its ufe is to direft the joining of them Juftly together again,
after opening them to take out the new-caft letter.

Rkgister, in Printing, the difpofing of the forms of the
prels, fo as that the lines and pages printed on one fide of
the fheet meet exaftly againft thofe on the other ; which
is done by means of two points in the greater or outward
tynipan.

Register, in Organ-luilding, is another word for a ftop
in that inftrument ; but is in faft only a lath pierced with
holes, correfponding with thofe in the found-board, which
by drawing out the ftops opens the holes, and putting them
in (huts them. By thefe Aiders each ftop fpeaks or is filent.
Regifter is figuratively ufed by muficians in fpeaking of a
voice, in which real and falfet notes are not well united.
Mr. Braham's high notes, for example, are faid to be of a
different regifter from the lotv.

Registeiis, in Chemijlry, are holes, or chinks, with ftop-
ples to tliem, contrived in the fides of furnaces, to regu-
late the fire ; i. e. to make the heat immediately more in.
tenfe, or remifs, by opening them to let in the air, or
keeping them clofe to exclude it. See Fmr-piaces and
Furnace.

REGISTRY, Registrum, comprehends the office,
books, and rolls, in which the proceedings of chancery, or
any fpiritual court, are rcgiftered or recorded.

REGISTRY of Shipping, in Commerce. Theregifteringof
(hips appears to have been firft introduced into this country
by the Navigation Aa, 12 Car. II. c. 18. ^ 10. By this
ftatute, however, foreign ftiips only, " Britiftr owned,"
were required to be regirtered. By ftat. 7 & 8 W. III.
c. 22. § 17, Britilli or plantation built fliips, Britifti owned,
if intended to be employed in the plantation trade, and alfo
all "prize ftiips," were required to be regiftered ; and in
confequence of a regulation at the admiralty, ftiips for
which Mediterranean paffcs were wanted, were alfo to be
regiftered. The provilions in the afts requiring regirtry are
founded upon the wifeft policy, and are not lefs calculated
to prevent the commiftion of private fraud upon individuals,
than to advance the public policy of the ftate. By ftat.
26 Geo. III. c. 60. (lord Hawkeft)ury's aft), no (hip
or velfel foreign built (except fuch as have been condemned
as lawful prize in any court of admiralty), nor any ftiips or
veffels built or rebuilt upon any foreign made keel or
bottom, although owned by Britifti fubjedts, and navigated

according:

REGISTRY.

according to hnv, lliall lie enlitleJ to tlic privileges of a
Britifli built (hip, or of a (liip owned by Britifli fubjefts ;
and all tiie privileges and advantages allowed fliall be con-
fined to fucii (liipi; only as are wholly of the built of Great
Britain or Ireland, Giurnfe^s Jerfey, and the Ifle of Man,
or fome of the plantations in Alia, Africa, or America,
now belonginp;, or which may hereafter belong to his ma-
jolly, except fuch foreign built veilels a6 before the ill of
May 178C) did truly and wholly belong to Britirti fubjecls,
navigated according to lav/, and duly regillered, which
fliall continue to enjoy tiic privileges to which fuch (hip
or vefTel is by law entitled ; nor fliall this a£t prevent any
fuch vefl'el which may have been begun to be repaired or
rebuilt before the ift of May 1786 from being regillered,
provided it fliall appear upon oath, to the fatisfadtion of the
comniiflioners of the cutloms, that fuch vefiel was ilranded
by the adl of Providence, and was at the time of being fo
Ilranded the folc property of fome foreigner, or a droit of
the admiralty ; aud if it ihall appear that fuch veil'el, from
the damage received, was rendered unfit to proceed to fea
without undergoing a thorough repair in this kingdom, and
that (he was ueeclfarily fold for tlie benefit of the foreign
owners, or under an (u'dcr or commiffiou from the court of
admiralty, aud that flie was fairly and openly purchafed by
a Britifli fubjeft, and being liie folc and entire property of
fuch Britifli (ubjeft, that ihc had been fo much repaired, that
two-thirds of her at leail are of Britifli built, flie may be
regillered. f. i.

No vcffel fliall be deemed Britifli built, or enjoy the privi-
leges belonging to Britifli built veilels, wiiicli Oiall be- rebuilt
or repaired in any foreign port, if lucli repairs fliall exceed
Ijj. for every ton, unlefs fuch repairs fliall be rendered
neceffary by extraordinary damage, and abfolutely necelfary
to enable her to perform the voyage, and to return in fafety
to fome place or port within his majelly's dominions ; and be-
fore fuch velfcl fliall be fo repaired, the mafter fliall report her
(late and condition upon oath to the Britifli eoiilul or other
chief officer at the port where (uch repairs may be necelfary,
and caufe the fame to be furvcycd by two pcrfons to be
approved of by fuch conful or cliief Britifli officer, and
(liall deliver to fuch conful or officer, in writing, the par-
ticulars of the damage fuilained, and verify upon oath the
particulars and amount of tlie repairs, aud that the fame
were become neceffary in confeqiience of damage fuilained
during her voyage, to enable the fame veflel to profecute
her intended voyage, and to return to fome port within
his majelly's dominions, which nuift be certified under the hand
and feal of the chief conful or other officer ; or if no fuch
conful, &c. (hall be there refident, the furvey ihall be made
by two perfons to be approved of by two known Britifli
merchants refiding at or near fuch port. And the mailer
of fuch fliip (hall produce to hich merchants vouchers of
the particulars and amount of the repairs, and their cer-
tificate ftiall be of the fame cfi^e£t as that of the Britifli
conful or chief officer. And the mailers of veffels repaired
ill any foreign port (hall make oath before the colletlor
and comptroller, or other principal officer of the cuiloras
in the firll port of arrival (if required fo to do), defcribing
the nature and amount of fuch repairs ; and if fuch expence
(hall exceed 15^. per ton, and the mafter or commander of
fuch (hip fliall negleft or refufe to debver to fuch coUeftor
or comptroller, or other principal officer of the cuftoms,
the certificate by this aft required to be produced, fuch
veifels (hall to all intents and purpofes be deemed foreign
built, f. 2.

Ships above 15; tons Britifli owned (hall be regillered
ill the manner hereinafter mentioned, and the perlons claim-
6

ing property therein fliall caufe the fame to be regillered,
and obtain a certificate of fuch regillry from the collector
or comptroller of the cuftoms of Great Britain, or the Ifle
of Man, or from the governor, lieutenant-governor, or com-
mander in-chief and principal officer of the cufl^oms refident
in the iflands of Guerniey or Jerfey, or in any of the faid
colonies, plantations, or iflands refpeftively.

By ^ 4, no regillry is to be made except in the port to
which the veilcl belongs.

The port to which any fliip or velTel (hall hereafter be
deemed to belong, (hall be the port from or to which the
fame fliall ufually trade, or being a new fliip, fliall intend
fo to trade, and at or near which the hulband or acting
owners ufually refide.

No American veflel fliall be entitled to be regiftered, or
to any of the privileges of a Britifn built fliip or velfel,
unlefs fuch (hip fliall have been taken and condemned as
lawful prize, or having been ftrauded, (hall have been built
or rebuilt, and regiftered in the manner before pradlifed
and allowed, f. 7.

No regiftry fliall be made or certificate granted until oath
be taken and fubfcribed before the perlons herein before
authorifcd to make fuch regillry and grant fuch certificate,
by the owner of fucli Ihip or veflel, if the fame belong
to one perfon onl^ ; or, in cafe there fliall be two joint-owners,
then by both of them, if both be refident within 20 miles
of the port where fuch regiftry required, or by one of fuch
owners, if one or both be refident at a greater diftance ; or
if the number of fuch owners fliall exceed two, then by the
greater number of them, if the greater number ihall be re-
fident within 20 mdes of fuch port, not exceeding three of
fuch owners, or by one of fuch owners, if all fliall be refi-
dent at a greater diilancc. f. 9 and 10.

In cafe the owners (hall amount to three or more, and
three of fuch owners ffiall not perfonally attend to take and
fubfcribe the oath directed, then fuch owner or owners as
Ihall attend and take and fubfcribe the oath, (hall further
make oath that the part-owner or part-owners abfent, is or
are not refident within 20 miles, and hath or have not, to
his or their knowledge or belief, wilfully abfented himfelf
or tliemfelves to avoid taking the faid oath, or is or are
prevented by illnefs. 1. 11.

By way of identifying the velfel to which a certificate of
regiftry is alleged to be granted, the furveying officer (hall
go on board fuch ihip or veffel as is to be regiftered, and
llriclly admeafure the fame in the prefence of the mafter,
or any other perfon appointed for that purpofe on the part
of the owners, or by the faid mafter, and fliall deliver a
true account in writing of all fuch particulars of the built,
defcription, and admeafurement of fuch Ihip or velfel as are
fpecified in the certificate, to the perfon authorifcd to make
fuch regiftry ; and the faid mafter or fuch perfon as (hall
attend on the part of the owners, is to fign his name to the
certificate of fuch furveying officer, provided fuch mafter
or other perfon fliall confent and agree to the feveral parti-
culars fet forth in the faid certificate, f. 12.

Surveying officers making or granting falfe certificates to
forfeit 100/., and be for ever incapable of holding any
office under his majeity. f. 13.

The tonnage of any veflel when aijoat is to be afcertained
by the following method, -vit,. drop a plumb line over the
fteru of the (hip, and meafure the diilunce between fuch
line and the after part of the ftern poft at the load water
mark ; then meafure from the top of the faid plumb line,
in a parallel direction with the water, to a perpendicular
point immediately over the load water mark, at the fore part
of the main item ; fubtraftiug tlie above diftance from fuch

admeafure-

REGISTRY.

adrnpafuremcnt, the remainder will be the fhip's extreme
length, from which arc to be dedufted three inches for
every fooL of the load draught of water for the rake abaft,
and alfo three-fifths of the fliip's breadth for the rake for-
ward ; the remainder fliall be elleemed the juil length of
the keel to find the tonnage ; and the breadth fliall be taken
from outllde to ontfide of the plank in the broadelt part
of the fliip, either above or below the main-wales, exclufive of
ill manner of (heathing or doubling, that may be wrought
upon the fide of the ihip ; then multiplying the length of
the keel for tonnage by the breadth fo taken, and that
produft by half the breadth, and dividing by 94, the quo-
tient fliall be deemed the true contents of the tonnage.
Nothing in this aft to be conflrued to alter tlie manner of
admeafuriiig the tonnage of any rtiip which has heretofore
been praftifed for the purpofe of afcertaining t'.ie light duties,
or any other duties or impofts payable according to the
tonnage of any veffel. f. 14.

At the time of obtaining the certificate of regillry, bonds
fliall be given to his majefty by the mafter, and fuch of the
owners who fltall attend, in the following penalties :

If a decked veflel, or from 15 to 50 tons, 100/. ; 50 to
5 00 tons, 300/. ; too to 200 tons, 500/. ; 200 to 300 tons,
800/. ; 300 and upwards, 1000/.

The condition of every bond given upon regiflry fhall be,
that fuch certificate fliall not be fold, lent, or otherwife dif-
pofed of to any perfon or perfons whomfoever, and that
the fame fliall be folely ufed for the ferviee of the fliip or
veflel for which it was granted ; and that in cafe fuch veflel
fliall be taken by the enemy, burned or broken up, or
otherwife prevented from returning to the port to which
fhe belongs, the certificate, if preferved, fliall be delivered
up within one month after the arrival of the mafter in any
port or place in his majeily's dominions, to the colleftor or
comptroller of fomc port in Great Britain, or the Ifle of
Man, or of the Britifli plantations, or to the governor,
lieutenant-governor, or commander-in-chief for the time
being, of the iflands of Guernfcy or Jerfey ; and that if any
foreigner, or any perfon or perlons for his ufe and benefit,
fliall purchafe, or otherwife become entitled to the whole or
any part or fliare of, or any intcreit in fuch veflel, and the
fame fliall be within the limits of any port in Great Britain,
Guernfey, Jerfey, Man, or the Britifli colonies, plantations,
iflands, oi- territories aforefaid, then in fuch caie the certi-
ficate of regiftry fliall, ivithin [even days after fuch purchafe
or transfer of property in fuch Ihip or veflel, be delivered up
to the perfon or perfons authorifed by this aft to make
regiftry and grant certificates thereof at fucli port and place
refpedlively ; and if fuch fliip or veflel fliall be in any
foreign port when fuch purchafe or transfer fliall take place,
then that the fame ftiall be delivered up to the Britifli conful
or other chief Britifli officer refident at or neareft to fuch
foreign port ;■ or if fuch veffel fliall be at fea, at the time
of fuch transfer of intereft and property, then the faid cer-
tificate of regiftry fliall be delivered up to the Britifli conful
or other chief Britifli officer at the foreign port or place in
or at which the mafter or other perfon having or taking the
command of fuch fliip or veflel fliall firft arrive after iuch
purchafe or transfer of property at fea, immediately after
his arrival at fuch foreign port ; but if fuch mailer above-
mentioned in the cafe above-mentioned fliall not arrive at a
foreign port, but fliall arrive at fome port of Great Britain,
Guernfey, Jerfey, Man, or his majefty's faid colonies, plan-
tations, iflands, or territories, then the faid certificate fliall
be delivered up in manner above-mentioned, within^ 14
days after the arrival of fuch fliip or veflel, or of the perfon
who had the command thereof, in any port of Guernfey,

Vol. XXIX.

Jerfey, Man, or any of his majetty'a faid colonies, plantations,
iflands, or territories. And if any pafs, called a Mediter-
ranean pafs, fliall have been obtained and procured by ary
fuch fliip or vefli;l, then and in fuch cafe the fame fliall be-
delivered up at the fame time, and in like manner with the.
certificate of regiftry, to the perfons hereir.before authorized
to receive fuch certificate of reg;iftry : and fuch certificates
fo delivered up, fliall be tranfmitted forthwith to the com-
miffioners of the cuftoms in England and Scotland refpec-
tively ; and fuch Mediterranean paflis fliall alfo be tranf-
mitted to the admiralty of Great Britain, by the perfon or
perfons authorized to receive fuch certificate andpafl'es, that
the fame may be cancelled, f. i j.

In cafe of any alteration of property in the fame port by
the lale of any fliare or ftiares in any fliip or veflel after re-
giftering tiiereof, fuch fale or transfer of property ftial)
always be acknowledged by indorfemcnt in the certificate
of regiftry, before two witnefl'es, in order to prove that the
entire property in fuch fliip is vcfted in fome of the fuhjefts
of Great Britain. In cafe any difpute fliould arifc concern-
ing the fame, the above indorfement to be figned by the
perfon transferring the property in fuch fhip or veflel, or
by fome perfon legally authorifed for that purpofe.
7 & 8 W. III. c. 22. f. 21. 34 Geo. III. c. 68. f. I J,
and by ftat. 26 Geo. III. c. 60. f. 16.

In addition to the above indorfement there fliall alfo be
indorfed on the certificate of regiftry, before two witnefl'es,
the town, place, or parifli, where all perfons to whom the
property in any fliip or veflel fliall be transferred (hall refide ;
or if fuch perfons ufually refide abroad, but in fome Britifli
faftory, then the name of fuch fattory of which fuch per-
fons are members ; or if fuch perfons refide in any foreign
town or city, the name of fuch foreign town or city, and
alfo the names of the houfe or copartnerfhip in Great
Britain or Ireland for or with whom fuch are agents or
partners ; and the perfon to whom the property of fuch
fliip or veflel fliall be fo transferred, or his agent, (hall de-
liver a copy of fuch indorfement to the perfon authorifed
to make the regiflry, who is to caufe an entry to be in-
dorfed on the oath or affidavit upon which the original cer-
tificate of regiftry of fuch fliip or veflel was obtained ; and
alfo to make a memorandum in the book of regifters, and
forthwith give notice to the commiffioners of the cuftoms in
England or Scotland, under whom they refpeftively act:.

Tlic certificate of regiftry of fuch veffel fhall be recited
in words at length in the bill or inftrunient of fale thereof,
otherwife fuch bill of fale fhall be utterly void. f. 17.

As often as the mafter or commander of any regiftered
veflel fliall be changed, the mafter or owner thereof ftiall
deliver to the perfon authorifed to make fuch regiftry at
the port where iuch change ftiall take place, the certificate
of regiftry belonging to fuch fliip or veflel, who fhall in-
dorfe and fubfcribe a memorandum of fuch change, and
fhall give notice to the proper officer of the port where
fuch fhip or veflel was laft regiftered ; who fhall likewife
make a memorandum of the fame in the regifter book, and
give notice to the commiffioners of the cuftoms in England
and Scotland, f. iS.

No owner of any fhip or vefliel fliall be permitted to give
any other name thereto than that by which flie was firft
regiftered. And all owners of regiftered vefTels (hall, within
one month from the regiftry, paint in white or yellow let-
ters, of a length not lefs than four inches, upon a black
ground, on fome confpicuous part of the ftern (provided
there fhall be fufficient fpace, but if not, then in letters as
large as fuch fpace will admit), the name by which fuch
fhip or veflel ihall have been regiftered, ar.d the port to
4 K whieh

REGISTRY.

which (he belongs, and fo keep and prtferve the fame.
And if fuch owner, or mailer or commander of fuch (hip or
vefl'cl (hall wilfully alter, erafe, or conceal, or permit the
fame to be done, unlets in the cafe of fquare rij^gcd veflels
in time of war, or fliall in any written or printed paper
defcribe fuch (liip by any other name than that by which
(lie was firll rcgillered, or ihall verbally defcribe fuch (liip
or veiiel by any other name to any officer of the revenue
in the due execution of his duty, fuch owner or commander
thereof (hall forfeit the fum of lOo/. f. 19.

By flat. 26 Geo. III. c. 60, all perfons who (hall ap-
ply for a certificate of regillry in Great Britain, Guernfey,
Jcrfcy, or the Ifle of Man, for any (liip which (liall be built,
or whofe building ihall be completed after the ill of
Augull 1786, (hall produce to the perfon authorifed to
grant fuch certificate a true account under the hand of the
builder of the fame, of the proper denomination, the time
when, and the place where fuch (hip or vefTel was built, and
an exaft account of the tonnage, together with the name
of the firft purchafer; and alfo make oath before the
perfon authorifed to grant fuch certificate, that the (hip or
vell'el for which fuch certificate is required is the fame with
that fo defcribed by the builder. And every perfon apply-
ing for a hke certificate in any of his majefly's colonies,
plantations, or territories, (hall, before fuch certificate is
granted, produce the like account, under the builder's
hand, and take the like oath as is required to be pro-
duced and taken by perfons applying in Great Britain,
f. 20, 2 1 .

If any certificate of regiftry fhall have been loft, a re-
gifler and certificate de novo, in the form herein directed,
ihall be granted for fuch vefl'el, according to 15 Geo. II.
c. 3 1 ; but in all fuch cafes fuch fecurity (liall be given as
is diredled in this act, and in lieu of the oath prefcribed by
15 Geo. II. the like oatii (hall be taken and fubfcribed as
hereinbefore diredled, by the owner or owners of fuch (hips
and veffels as are required to be regiftered by this aft. f. 22,

-?<■

If any (liip or vefl'el (hall, after regillry, be altered, cither

in form or burthen, or in any manner whatfoever, fuch fliip
or vefl'el fiiall be regiftered de novo as foon as (he returns to
her port, or to any other port in which Ihe may be regif-
tered by virtue of this aft ; on failure whereof fuch (liip or
vefl'el (liall be confidered as a foreign veflel. f. 24.

The owners of all fuch (hips as (hall be condemned as
lawful prize, (hall, upon regillry thereof, before any certi-
ficate of regiftrv (hall be obtained, produce to the proper
officer of the cuftoms a certificate of the condemnation of
fuch vellel, and alfo a true account in writing of all the
particulars contained in the certificate herein-before fet forth,
to be made and fubfcribed by one or more ikilful perfons to
be appointed by the court to furvey fuch (hip or veflel ; and
fhall alfo mak'? oath before the faid officer, that fuch (liip
or veffel is the fame (hip or vefl'el mentioned in the certifi-
cate, f. 25.

No fhip condemned as prize (liall be regillered in the
iflands of Guernfey, Jerfey, or the Ifle of Man, although
.belongirig to his majefly's lubjcfts rcfident in thofe iilands ;
hut the fame fjiall be regiitered either at Southampton,
Weymouth, Exeter, Plymouth, Falmouth, Liverpool, or
Whitehaven, by the colleftor and comptroller at fuch port
refpeftively. 26 G. III. c. 60. f. 26.

In all cafes where any fliip or veiiel taken and condemned
in any of his majefly's colonies, plantations, or iflands afore-
faid, fhall be regiftered, and obtain a certificate, an exaft
account fhall be fubjoined thereto of the fum for which
fuch lliip or veffel fliall have been fold, verified upon the

•fio

oath of the perfon applying for fuch certificate of regiitry.
f. 27.

All certificates, hereafter to be granted in purfuance of
this aft, fliall diflinguifli whether fuch (hips or velfels be
of the built of Great Britain, Guernfey, Jerfey, or the I(le
of Man, or of the colonies, plantations, idands, or terri-
tories afbrefaid, or of any foreign country ; and fhall, if
Britifli built, be entitled " Certificate of Britifli plantation
regiftry," and if foreign built, Ihall be entitled " Certificate
of foreign (hip's regillry for the European trade, Britifh
property," as the cafe may be. f. 28.

No fhip or veffel, direfted by this aft to be regiftered,
(hall be permitted, after the firll arrival at the port to which
(lie belongs, at the expiration of the notice by this aft
direfted, to clear outwards for foreign parts, or coaflwife,
or to proceed to fea for the purpofe of fifhing on the coails,
or for any other purpofe, as a Britifh (hip or veffel, unlefs
the owners thereof (liall have obtained a certificate ; and in
cafe fuch (hip or velfel depart from fuch port without being
regiftered, and without having obtained a certificate, every
fuch ftiip or veffel, with all her guns, furniture, ammuni-
tion, tackle, and apparel, fhall be fubjeft to forfeiture, f. 32.

If, after the expiration of the before-mentioned notice,
any fhip or veffel (being fquare rigged) fliall be found in
any port within 20 leagues by water from the port to which
fhe belongs, or if any veffel, not fquare rigged, be found
within any port other than that to which fhe belongs, with-
out having a certificate of regillry hereinbefore direfted, it
(hall be lawful for the principal officer of fuch port, and
he is hereby required to detain fuch until the mafter or com-
mander fhall, if fuch fliip or veflel be under 50 tons, give
fecurity by bond in 50/. in manner hereinafter direfted ; and
if the fame (hall exceed 50 and not exceed 1 00 tons, ftiall
give fecurity by bond in 100/. ; and if the fame (hall exceed
100 tons, then until the mafter or commander (hall with one
fecurity give bond in 200/., with condition that fuch mailer
or commander fliall forthwith repair with her to the port to
which (he belongs, and there caufe her to be regiftered,
procure a certificate, and deliver to fuch officer fuch certi-
ficate within the time limited in the condition of fuch bond ;
which time is to be fixed according to the diftance of the
veffel from the port to which fhe belongs, and the nature of
the voyage in which fhe may be engaged ; and on failure of
producing fuch certificate, fuch bond fhall be forfeited ; but
if the certificate be produced within the time fo limited, fuch
bond fhall be void. And in cafe any fquare rigged veffel
fhall be found in port, after the expiration of the aforefaid
notice, more than 20 leagues diftant by water from the port
to which (he belongs, or that the water at the entrance of
the port to which (he belongs (hall be fo fliallow as not to
admit her entrance, the mailer or commander (hall, within
48 hours after his arrival at fuch port, make known his
arrival to the colleftor and comptroller of the cuftoms, or
other principal officer of fuch port ; and (hall require fuch
colleftor and comptroller to caufe his (hip or veflel to be fur-
veyed by the proper officer, who (hall accordingly make a
perfeft furvey, and certify the feveral particulars thereof;
and fuch colleftor and comptroller (hall immediately tranfmit
the faid certificate of furvey to the perfon authorized to re-
gifler (hips and veffels at the port to which fuch veffel be-
longs, who (hall regifter fuch veffel, and grant certificate of
regiftry ; and it (hall be lawful for the colleftor and comp-
troller, or other principal officer of the cuftoms, in the port
where fuch fhip or veffel fhall be fo found, to detain her
until a perfeft and accurate furvey, in the manner herein-
before direfted, can be made.

The remaining feftions of this aft relate to penalties upon

the

REGISTRY.

the mifconduft of officers, forging or altering certificates
of regiltry, mode of recovering pen;Jties, &c.

By 27 G. III. c. 19. f. 4, no oath taken for the fole
purpofe of acquiring the rights of a citizen or burgher in
any foreign city or town in Europe, to be enjoyed during
the time tliat fnch perfon taking fuch oath fhall refide in
fuch city or town, and for a limited time after fuch refidcnce
ihall have expired, fliall be deemed an oath of allegiance to
a foreign ftate, nor inconfillent with the form of the oath
upon regiltry prefcribed by 7 & 8 W. III.

Ships belonging to the Eail India company, or any other
body corporate, are to be regiftered upon the oath fub-
fcribcd by the fecretary of the faid company or other body
corporate, or by any other officer properly authorized.

f- 7- .

No veflel whatfoever, not exceeding the burthen of 30

tons, and not having a whole or fixed deck, and being em-
ployed folely in the Newfoundland fifliery, or on the banks
or fnores of the provinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia, or
New Brunfwick, adjacent to tlie gulf of St. Lawrence,

two joint owners, then by both of fuch joint owners, if both
be refident withm 20 miles of the place where fuch regiltry
IS r- qn;.co or by one of fuch owners, if one or bolh of
then> fiiall be refident at a greater diftance ; or if the number
of fuch owners fhall exceed two, then by the greater part
ol them, if the greater number of them fhall be refident
withm 30 miles, not in any cafe exceeding three of fuch
owners, or by one of fuch owners, if all (hall be refident at
a greater diltance. Provided that fuch regiftry (hall, for
the ifland of St. Domingo, be made at the port of Kingfton
in the dland of Jamaica, and for any of the French Leeward
iflands, in the port of Rofeau in the ifland of Dominica •
le faid ports of Kingfbon and Rofeau fhall refpeaively'
le purpofe of fuch regiftry, be deemed to be the port

port

and thef
for the ■
to which fuch fhip belongs, f. i.

His majefty, by the advice of his privy council, may at
any time, on the arrival of any fuch (hip in Great Britain,
upon application made to him, authorife any fuch fliip'
(without payment of any duty whatever for the faid fhip,
or the fails and other neceflary tackle, apparel, and furniture

and to the north of cape Canfo, or of the iflands within the thereof) to be regiflered, as in the cafe of a prize-fhip ii
fame, or in trading coaftwife within the faid limits, fhall be any port of Great Britain, f. 4 "'

fubjedl to be regiflered in purfuance of the faid aft. f. 8

Ships built in Newfoundland, and thofe parts of the pro-
vinces of Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunfwick, ad-
jacent to the gulf of St. Lawrence, and to the north of
cape Canfo, or in the iflands within the faid limits, on ac-
count of owners refiding in his majefty's European domi-
^ iiions, fhall be regiftered in the above places, upon the huf-
bands or principal agents of the faid lliips taking the oath
required ; and fuch certificates fhall be of the lame eftedl as
if granted upon the oath of the owners, until fuch time as
they fhall arrive in port in any of his majefty's European do-
minions, where they may be refpettively regiflered upon the
oath of the refpettive owners, but no longer. And when-
ever fuch fhip fhall arrive at any fuch port in bis majefty's
European dominions, the certificates of regiftry, granted in
purfuance of this aft, fhall be null and void, and fhall be de-
livered up to be cancelled ; and fuch fhips are hereby re-
quired to be refpeftively regiftered de novo conformably to
the requifitions of the preceding aft. f. 9.

By 27 G. III. c. 19. f. 13, all fliips not regiftered ac-
cording to the direftions and regulations of the faid aft, al-
though fuch fhips may be owned by his majefty's fubjefts,
fhall be held and deemed as alien fhips, and fhall in all cafes
be liable to fuch and the fame penalties and forfeitures as
alien fhips are by law liable to in fimilar cafes.

By 34 G. III. c. 42, foreign fhips and veflels heretofore
owned by fubjefts of the late French king, which in confe-
quence of any caphulation may be put under his majefty's
proteftion at the time of, or in confequence of the furrender
of any foreign colony, may be regiftered as fhips condemned
as lawful prize, and ihall become entitled to the privileges
ef Britifli fhips, under the regulations and reftriftions here-
after mentioned. Provided always, that no fhip fhall be fo
regiftered but upon producing a certificate under the hand
and feal of the perfon vvho commanded in chief, by fea or
land, at the time when fuch foreign colony was furrendered
( or in cafe of the death or departure of any fuch officer be-
fore fuch certificate fhall have been fo given, then upon a
like certificate under the hand and feal of the perfon who
fhall command in chief, by fea or land, at fuch colony), tef-
tifying that fuch fhip or vefTel was put under the proteftion
of his majefty at the faid time ; and upon oath, hereinafter
direfted, being taken and fubfcribed before the perfon au-
thorifed to make fuch regiftry, by the owner of fuch fhip,
if fhe belong to one perfon only ; or in cafe there fhall be

No perfon tieretofore a fubjeft of the late French king,
being a white perfon, a mulatto, or free negro, ftiall be em-
ployed to navigate any veflel bound from fuch foreign
colony, to any part of his majefty's dominions, or be con-
veyed as a paffenger on board thereof, unlefs fuch perfon
fhall produce a certificate under the hand and feal of the
perfon who commands in chief in fuch foreign colony, or at
the place therein whence fuch fliip fhall fail, teftifying that
fuch perfon has taken the oath of fidelity and allegiance to
iiis majefty ; and no negro-flave belonging to any perfou
whatfoever, heretofore a fubjeft of the late French king,'
ftiall be fo conveyed or employed, but upon a certificate un.
der the hand and feal of his matter (which mafter fhall have
taken the oath cf fidelity and allegiance as aforefaid), certi-
fying the good charafter of fuch negro-llave, and teftifying
that his conduft has been fuch that he may be fafely ad-
mitted into the ports of his majefty's dominions ; which cer-
tificate fhall be indorfed by the perfon who commands in chief
his majefty's troops or veflels at the place from whence fuch
fhip fhall fail, fignifying that he has no reafon to doubt of
the truth thereof ; upon pain that the mafter or commander
of fuch ftiip fhall forfeit jo/. for every perfon refpeftively
employed or conveyed in fuch ftiip without having fuch cer-
tificate, f. 5.

^y 34 G. III. c. 68, no goods, wares, or merchandizes
whatever ftiall, from the expiration of fix months after the
conclufion of the prefent war, be imported into, or exported
from, any port or place in Great Britain, or Guernfey,
Jerfey, Alderney, Sark, or Man, to any other port or
place of the fame, on board any fhip or vefTel which, by
law, is or fliall be required to be regiftered as a Britifli ftiip
or veflel, unlefs fuch fhip or veflel 'hall be navigated by a
mafter and three-fourths at leaft of the mariners Britifli fub-
jefts. Nor, from the expiration of fix months from the
conclufion of the prefent war, ftiall any fhip or veflel, which
by law is or fhall be required to be regiftered as a Britifh
fliip or veflel, be navigated but by a mafter and three-fourths
of the mariners at leaft Britifh fubjefts, except as hereinafter
provided, f. i, 2, 3.

No goods, wares, or merchandizes whatever fliall be car.
ried from any port in Great Britain, or Guernfey, Jerfey,
Alderney, Sark, or Man, to any other port or place of the
fame, nor fhall any fliip be permitted to fail in ballaft from
or to any of the aforefaid ports, nor be employed in fifhing
on the faid coafts, unlefs fuch fhip ftiall be wholly and folely
4 K 2 manned

REGISTRY.

maniiccl with and navigated by a mafter and mariners all
Britifh fuhitdls. The commiffioners of the culloms may,
however, by licence under their hands, authorifc any fuch
fhip or veli'el employed in fifhing on the coail of Great
Britain, or of the iflands of Guernfey, Jerfey, Aldcrney,
Sark, or Man, to have on board any foreign mariners for
the purpofe of inltrufting the Britiili mariners thereof in
the art of li(hing ; fuch foreign mariners not exceeding one-
fourth of the number of mariners on board fuch veflcl, ex-
cept in cafes of ficknefs, death, defertion, or capture, f. 5.

By ilat. 34 G. III. c. 68, no perfon fhall hereafter be
deemed to be qualified to be the mafter of a Britifh (hip, or
to be a Britidi failor, feaman, or mariner, except the na-
tural-born fubjetts of his majelly, or perfons naturalized
by any aft of parhament, or made denizens by letters of de-
nization ; or except perfons who have become his majefty's
fubjefts by virtue of conqueft or ceffion of fome newly ac-
quired country, and who (hall have taken the oath of alle-
giance to his majelly, or the oath of (idelity required by the
treaty of capitulation, by which fuch newly acquired country
came into his majefty's pofleffion, except as is hereinafter
provided, f. 6.

But every foreign feaman ferving on board any of his ma-
jefty's (hips in time of war, for the fpacc ot three years, who
/hall alfo take the oath of allegiance, (hall be entitled to be
employed as a mailer of a Britifli fhip or veffel, or as a
Britifli mariner on board any Britidi fhip, upon delivering
certificates from the captains under whom he ferved, of the
time he (hall have ferved, and of his faithful fervice and good
behaviour, and a certificate of his having taken the oath of
allegiance, f. 7.

No perfon who has taken an oath of allegiance to any fo-
reign flate (liall be deemed qualified to be the mafter of a
Britifti (hip or veflel, or a Britifli failor, unlefs fuch perfon
fhall have taken fuch oath of allegiance before he became fo
qualified ; and any perfon who fhall, after having become
difqualified by taking fuch oath of allegiance, take the
charge or command of any Britifh fliip or veffel, (hall for
every fuch offence forfeit one hundred pounds ; and if fuch
perfon fhall engage to ferve as a Britifh feaman or mariner
on board any fuch fliip, he fhall forfeit ten pounds, unlefs
the owners fhall fhcw that fuch difqualifications were un-
known to them or their agents at the time of engaging fuch
mafter or failor to ferve on board fuch (hip or veflel. Ex-
cept in the navigation on the feas of America and the Weft
Indies, any negroes belonging to his majefty's fubjefts, and
in the feas to the eaftward of the Cape of Good Hope,
Lafcars and other natives of any of the countries to the eaft-
ward of the Cape of Good Hope, may be employed as
Britifh failors, feamen, or mariners, in m.anner heretofore
praftifcd. Provided neverthelefs, that no negro belonging
to any perfon vi'ho has become a fubjeft of his majefty, in
manner before defcribed, in any of the iflands or colonies
late under the dominion of the French, fhall be entitled to
be employed in manner before mentioned as a Britifh failor,
feaman, or mariner, imlefs all the conditions required by the
34th G. III. c. 42, fhall have been comphed with during
the continuance of the faid aft.

By the 13th G. II. c. 3, his majefty in time of war may
permit merchant iliips to be navigated by foreigners, pro-
vided one-fourth of the crew be Britidi fubjefts.

If any goods, wares, or merchandize whatever diall be
imported or exported, or carried coaflwife, contrary to the
provifions of this aft, or any of them, all fuch goods,
wares, and merchandize, and alfo the (hip or veflel, wath all
her guns, furiiiture, ammunition, tackle, and apparel, diall
be forfeited ; and if ?.ny Ihip ftiall fail in ballaft, or ftiall fail

to be employed in fifhing along the coaft in manner herein
before mentioned, or, being required to be maimed and na-
vigated with a mafter and a certain proportion of Britifli
mariners, in manner herein before directed, fiiall not be
manned and navigated accordingly, fuch fhip or veflcl, with
all her guns, furniture, ammunition, tackle, and apparel,
and all the goods, wares, and merchandize on board, fhall
be forfeited, f. 10.

All goods, wares, and merchandize, and all veflels, for-
feited by this aft, may be feized by the commander of any
of his majefty's fhips of war, or any ommiflioned, war-
rant, or petty officer fpccially appointed, or by any officer
or officers of his majefty's cuftoms or excife.

If any Britifh fhip fhall be found at fea, having onboard
a greater number of foreign mariners than is allowed by this
aft, or any law in force or hereafter to be made, and the
mafter of fuch urefTel fliall produce a certificate of the aftual
neceflity of engaging fuch foreign mariners in fome foreign
port, by occafion of the ficknefs, death, or defertion of
the like number of Britifli mariners, or of the fame having
been taken prifoners during his voyage, and that Britifli
mariners could not be engaged at fuch foreign port to fupply
their place, and that for the fafe navigation of fuch (hip or
veflel, it became necefl'ary to engage and employ fuch fo-
reign mariners, under the hand of his majefty's conful at tlte
foreign port where the mariners are fo engaged, or, if there
be no fuch conful there, under the hands of two known
Britidi merchants at fuch foreign port, no feizures fhall be
made by the perfons authorifed under this aft, nor fhall
fuch fhips be molefted or detained at fea ; but fuch perfons
fhall indorfe the certificate fo produced, teftifying the pro-
duftion thereof, and when and where met with at fea, and
that the number of foreign mariners correfpond with the
certificate of fuch Britifli conful, or fuch known Britifli
merchants, for the confideration and inveftigation of the
commiffioners of his majefty's cuftoms in England and Scot-
land refpeftively.

By 34 G. III. c. 68. f. 14, no transfer, nor agreement
for transfer, of the property in any fhip or veflel, either in
whole or in part, fliall be made but by a bill of falc or in-
ftrument in writing, which fhall contain a recital in words
at length of the certificate of regiftry.

If a fhip be at fea at the time when the transfer is made,
fo that an indorfement and certificate cannot be immediately
made, the fale, or contraft for fale, fhall, notwithftanding,
be made by fome inftrument in writing, and a copy thereof
fhall be delivered to the perfon authorifed to make regiftry,
who is to indorfe an entry thereof on the oath or affidavit,
make a memorandum in the book of regifters, and give no-
tice to the commiffioners of the cuftoms as before direfted :
and within ten days after the diip returns to port, an indorfe-
ment fhall be made on the certificate of regiftry, and a copy
thereof delivered as before-mentioned ; otherwife fuch fale
fhall, to all intents and purpofes, be void. f. 16.

Where the owner of any fhip fhall, at the time of trans-
ferring the property in any fhips, be abroad, fo that an in-
dorfement, 5cc. or fuch bill of fale, cannot be immediately
made, the fame may be done at any time within fix months
after fuch transfer, in which cafe, within ten days after the
arrival of the owner or his agent in this kingdom, (if the
fhip be in any port thereof, and if not, within ten days after
fuch fhip's arrival) an indorfement on the certificate of re-
giftry fhall be made, &c. as before direfted. f. 17.

Mafters of fhips refufing to deliver up the certificate of
regiftry to the proper perfon empowered to make regiftry,
upon being required fo to do by the owner or owners, or the
major part of the owners, (if fuch mafter have not any pro-
perty

REG

perty therein,) or by the other owner or owners, or major
part thereof, (if Inch mader have any fliare therein,) and
upon oath being made by fuch owner, owners, or major part
thereof, before any juflice of the peace near where luch
refufal fiiall be, fuch juftice may grant his warrant to bring
the mailer before him ; and if it (liall appear that the faid
certificate is ivilfiiUy detained, fuch mailer fliall pay one luui-
dred pounds, and on failure of payment fnall be committed
to the common gaol, for not lels than fix months, nor more
than twelve, f. 1 8.

Upon the jullice's certifying the above <wi!fii! refufal of
the madcr of any veflel to deliver up the certificate to the
perfon authoriied to maive rcgillry, he fliall regiller the faid
fiiip lie novo, the terms and conditions of the law being com-
plied with, f. 19.

When property in any fliip or velTel belonging to any of
his majelly's fubjefls Ihall be transferred by fale, and fuch
vefFel Ihall be required to be regillcrcd di novo, it fliall not
be done unlefs there be produced to the regiller, the bill or
other inllrumcut of fale. J'rovided always, that the com-
midioners of cufloms, and tlie governor, lieutenant-go-
vernor, or commander-in-cliief for the time being of the
iflands of Guernfey or Jerfey, or of any colony, plantation,
illand, or territory belonging to his majefly, may, upon due
confideration of the particular circumilances of the cafe,
give direftions for the regillering fuch veflel de novo, and
granting a certificate of fuch regiilry, notwithllanding fuch
bill or other intlrument of fale ihall not have been produced
as aforefaid ; and fuch regiilry fliall be made, and fuch cer-
tificate thereof Ihall be accordingly granted, if all the other
regulations required by the laws in force concerning the
regiftry of fhips de novo be complied with. 1. 30.

If there fhall be any alteration of property at the fame
port, and the owner (hall be defirous of having the fhip re-
giflered de novo, fuch fliip may be fo regiftered, provided
all the rules, regulations, and conditions are complied with
relative to veffels regiftered de novo. f. 21.

In cafe of any transfer of property in any fliip whilft at
fea, fuch fhip fhall proceed direflly to the port for which the
cargo then on board is deftined, and fhall fail from thence to
the port of his majefty's dominions to which fhc belongs, or
to any othc- fuch port in which fhe may be legally regif-
tered ; and fuch fhip may take on board in the port for
which her original cargo was dellined, or in any other port
in the courfe of her voyage home, fuch cargo as may be
legally carried to fuch port of his majefty's dominions where
fhe may be fo regiftered de novo. And if fuch transfer of
property fliall be made- while fuch fliip is in any foreign port,
as foon as the matter of fuch fhip fhall become acquainted
therewith, fuch fhip, after having delivered the cargo then
on board at the port for which ftie is deftined, fhall fail
thencefrom to the port to which fhe belongs, or to any
other fuch port in which fhe may be legally regiftered ;
and may take on board at the port for which her original
cargo was fo deftined, or at any other port in the courfe of
her voyage home, fuch cargo as may be legally carried to
fucli port of his majefty's dominions where flie may be fo
regiftered dc novo. And if fuch transfer of property fliall
be made while fuch fliip is on a lifliing voyage, as foon as the
mafter of fuch fhip fhall become acquainted therewith, fuch
fhip, after having finifhed fuch fifhing voyage, without
touching at any foreign port, except for the purpofe of re-
pairs or refrefhments, or for delivering any part of her cargo,
ihall fail to the port of his majefty's dominions to which fhe
belongs, or to any other fuch port where flie may be legally
regiftered, and may take on board at the foreign port or
port* 1-jft dtfcribed; or at any other ports in the courfe of

REG

her voyage home, fuch cargo as may be legally carried to
fuch port of his majefty's dominions ; and every fuch fhip
as aforefaid fliall be regiftered de novo, as foon as fhe returns
to the port of his majefty's dominions to which flie belongs,
or to any fuch port in which rtie may be legally regiftered
by virtue of the faid aft ; on failure whereof fuch fliip fliall
be deemed from thenceforth to be a foreign fhip or veflel, and
fliall not again be regiftered, or be entitled to the privilege
of a Britifii fliip or veflel, unlefs upon fpccial rcprefentation
of the cireunillances of the cafe to the commiflioncrs of
cuftoms, or to the governor, lieutenant-governor, or com-
mander-in-chief for the time being of the iflands of Guernfey
or Jericy, or of any colony, plantation, ifland, or territory
to his majefty belonging, as the cafe may be : provided
neverthelefs, that in no cafe tlie fliip or veflel of which the
property is fo transferred, fliall be entitled to the privileges
of a Britifli fhip or veflel, unlefs flie fhall return to the port
to which flie belongs, or to fuch other port in which fhe
may be regiftered de novo, within the period of twelve
niontiis after the date of fuch transfer of property, if fuch
fliip fliall not be on a voyage to the eaft of the Cape af
Good Hope, or to the weft of cape Horn ; or within two
years, if the fhip is on the above voyages at the time fuch
transfer of property fliall take place, except hj the order
of the faid commiffioners, governor, lieutenant-governor,
or commander-in-chief refpedtivcly. f. 22. See Marine
Insuraxces, and Policy.

REGIUS Professors. King Henry VIII. founded
five leftures in each of our univerfities : viz. of Divinity,
Hebrew, Greek, Law, and Phyfic ; the readers of which
leisures are in the univerfity ftatutes called regit prof ejfores.

Regius, vx Medicine. See Jaundice.

REGLE de rOHave, Fr., a rule for accompanying the
oiElave afcending and defcending in the bafe ; giving to each
note of the fcale its appropriate harmony in every key.
This rule, well known and praftifed in the 24 keys, major
and minor, will enable ftudents in thorough-baie to figure a
bafe themfelves, and to accompany modern mufic without
figures.

It is difputed in France who was the inventor of this rule :
Rameau and Roufleau aflign it to De Laire, M. Laborde
to Campion. " This formula," fays Roufleau, " was firfl
publiflied by De Laire in 1700." If this date could be
afcertained, it would remove all doubts concerning the au-
thor of the rule ; as Campion's " Treatife of Accompani-
ment" is not pretended to have appeared till after 1705.

This rule afcertains what chords or harmony belong
to every diatonic movement of the bafe, afcending and
defcending. See Accompakiment, or Thorough-base;
where the bafe will be figured, and the chords written
over it. We confine the infallibility of this rule to
modern mufic, as no provifion is made for 4ths and rjths,
which fo frequently occur in Corelli, Geminiani, and Han-
del. But thefe difcords, and feveral other combinations, are
confidered m the articles Counterpoint and Accompa-
niment, o^Thorougli-lafc; which fee.

By this formula it vv-ill appear, that to the key-note there
is always a common chord ; to the 2d of the key, a • ; to
the 3d of the key, a 6th ; to the 4th of the key, a % ;
to the 5th of the key, a common chord. Thus far the
chords are rigoroufly in one key ; but in order to conneft
the 6th to the 5th, Rameau gives the chord of the -i to the
6th, as in defcending, which makes it the 2d of a new key ;
but then to recover the modulation into the original key, he
gives \ t^ to the 7t]i or noU Jlufihk of the key, and then ter-

ip.inites

REG

ruinates the fcale by a common chord to the odtavc of the
key-note.

In defccnding, it is neceffary to imagine the harmony m
the Jth of the key for the four firil notes : as, fiippofing the
fcale to be in C major, after repeating the common chord to
theoftave, the 7th of C muil be regarded as 3d of the key
of G, and be only accompanied by the 6th. A, as 2d of G,
by a °» as in afcending ; and the jth of the key by a com-
mon chord, or clofe in G. Tlie 4th of the key in defcending
has a 4> or chord of the 5th of the key repeated ; the next
three chords are the fame as in afcending.

In minor keys, in all which fuppofing A natural to be the
archetype, the chords are much the fame ; only whenever
the 7th of the key is wanting in the afcending fcale, it muil
be accidentally (harp : as to A, a common chord minor ; to
B, the 2d of the key, a < ; to the 3d of the key, a 6th ; to
the 4th, a ° ; to the 5th, a common chord, with a (liarp 3d ;
to the 6th, if natural, a 6th; if (harp, a ° ; to the 7th fharp,

t?^u> 3fd a common chord to the ottave.

In defcending, to the 7th natural, a 6th ; to the minor 6th, a
% or 6 doubling the 3d ; to the 5th of the key, a (harp 3d ;

to the 4th of the key, the fame chord, or 1 -;- ; and to
the three laft, the fame as in afcending.

Thefe chords will be more clearly comprehended in nota-
tion on the thorough-bafe plates, to which we refer.

Though the regie de I'oftave only provides for the regular
afcent and defcerst of the bafe in plain counterpoint, we
know, by long experience, that it teaches more thorough-
bafe and counterpoint in a fliort time, than any other rule
that has been propofed fince the laws of harmony were fet-
tled. See Thorough-base, AccompanIiMent, and Com-

POSITIOX.

REGLET, or RiGLET, in Architeaure, a little flat nar-
row moulding, ufcd chiefly in compartiments, and pannels,
to feparate the parts or members from one another, and to
form knots, frets, and other ornaments.

The word is a diminutive of the French, regie, rule.

The reglet, according to Daviler, differs from the fillet
and lyiel, in that it projefts equally, like a ruler.

Reglets, or Rights, in Printing, are thin rulers, or flips
of wood, of different diraenfions, placed in the chafe, be-
tween the pages, and at the extremes of them, to keep them
afunder, and to hold them tight.

The reglets make the cliief part of what they call the
furniture of the chafe. See Chase.

They are particularly denominated from the place they
hold in refpedl of the pages, head-Jiicks, gutterflicks, &c.

The term reglets is alfo ufed abroad for a ruler of metal,
three quarters of an inch long, but which may be lengthened
out by joining feveral together ; ufed to feparate the co-
lumns, in books that have feveral in the fame page ; as alfo
for Unes to place the notes on, in printing of mufic. See
Printing.

Reglet is alfo ufed for a little thin flip of wood, occa-
fionally, though feldom, ufed by compofitors for the prefs
to take off the lines from the compofing-ftick, and place
tliem on the galley, where the lines are of an extraordinai^
length : and where the lines are at great diftances, thofe
diftances are made by leaving a reglet between each line,
when printed.

REGMALARD, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Orne ; 9 miles E.N.E. of Bel-
lefme.

REG

REGNANO, a town of Naples, in Capitanata ; 16

miles from Manfredonia.

REGNANT gunKN. See Queen.
REGNARD, JoiiN-FnAscis, in Biography, a French
poet and writer of comedy, was born of a good family, at
Paris, in 1647. His earlieft paifion was that for travelling,
and he firft made the tour of Italy. On his return, in an
Englifli fliip, the velfel was taken by the Algerines, and the
crew made flaves at Algiers. Regnard, by his (kill in cookery,
ingratiated himfelf with his mailer : he poflefTed another art,
which had nearly proved fatal to him. His perfon and man-
ners recommended him to the attention of the ladies, whofe
advances he encouraged, and being difcovered, the alterna-
tive was given him of being burnt to death or becoming a
difciple of the Koran. He was, however, releafed from
this difficulty by the interpofition of the French conful, and
the proper application of a confiderable bribe. He gained
his liberty, and returned to France, and in 1681 departed
upon a new tour to the northern countries of Europe. Af-
ter an abfence of three years he came back to Paris, and
fettled quietly, with the view of cultivating his taite for li-
terary purfuits. He compofed a number of comedies for
the French theatre, which were acted with fuccefs, and
which, in the general opinion, placed him next to Moliere in
true comic humour. Gaiety is the predominant charadtcr
of Regnard's comedies, which is fometimes maintained at the
expence of morality. He ex'celled not lefs in the elevated
or genteel comedy, than in the low, or familiar. His two
beft pieces are faid to be " Le Joueur," and " Le Lega-
taire ;" for defcribing, to the life, the fcenes of the fird, he
was extremely qualified, being himfelf a lucky gamelter.
He wrote eight comedies, fome pieces for the Italian theatre,
and an opera. He alfo publilhed mifcellaneous poems, con-
fiding of fatires, epifl.les, &c. In profe he gave a relation
of his travels, of which the only part that excited much in-
tereft was his account of Lapland. Regnard died at the age
of 62. His works have been printed collectively, of which
the beft edition is that of Paris, in 1790, in 4 vols. 8vo.

REGNAVADSOE, in Geography, a fmall ifland in the
North fea, near the coaft of Norway. N. lat. 69° 50'.

REGNI, \n Ancient Geography, a name given to the an-
cient inhabitants of Surrey and Sufl'ex, and perhaps of part
of Hampfliire. They were feated E. of the BelgK, and S.
Mf the Atrebatii. As thefe people poflelfed fo large a tradl
of the fea-coaft in the fouth part of this ifland, it is very pro-
bable that they had come from the continent, and fettled
here not very long before the Roman invafion, perhaps at
the fame time with their neighbours the Belga. The Belgx
and the Regni had been near neighbours on the continent ;
the one having migrated from. the country of the Suefliones,
now Soiflbns, and the other from the country of the Rhemi,
now Reims. The Regni, like all the other Belgic Britons,
early fubmitted to the Roman power, and continued fteady
in their obedience, without engaging in any revolt. It is
not known who was fovereign of the Regni when they fub-
mitted to the Romans, but foon after their fubmiflion, they
were put under the governraent of Cogidunus, king of the
Dobuni. For this prince, who was then very young, had
got fo much into favour with the emperor Claudius, and his
minifters, that he was not only allowed to keep his own do-
minions, but he had feveral other neighbouring ftates put
under his authority. It feems probable, from a famous in-
fcription difcovered at Chichefter, that Cogidunus governed
the Regni in quality of the emperor's lieutenant, or legatus
Augufti ; for in that infcription he is fo ilyled. He conti-
nued a faithful and ufeful friend and ally to the Romans
above 60 years, and thus he was fo much endeared to them,

that;

REG

H E G

that, according to their cuftom in other countries, they per-
mitted liis poilcrity to fucceed him, perhaps for feviral gene-
rations. Although tlie Regiii were very early and very obe-
dient fubjedls of the Roman empire, yet as they v.7cre long
after under the immediate government of Britidi princes, few
of the Romans feem to have fettied among them. This is,
witliout doubt, the reafon that we meet with fo few veltiges
of thofe great and active people in thofe countries which
were anciently iniiabited by the Regni. Cliichetter was cer-
tainly a confiderable place in tlic time of the Romans, and
probably the capital of the Regni, which led the Romans
to call it Regnum. However, Camden, Gale, Baxter, and
others, are unanimous in fixing Regnum, the capital of the
Regni, at Ringwood ; but Mr. Horlley has produced feveral
reafons for fuppohng it to have been fituated where Chi-
cheiler now ftands. The Neomagus of Ptolemy, and the
Noviomagus of the Itinerary, was a city of the Regni, and
it is generally placed nt Woodcote, near Croydon, in Sur-
rey ; though Mr. Baxter and fome other antiquaries contend
for Ravenfham, in Kent. In the moil perfeft Itate of the
Roman government in Britain, the country of the Regni
made a part of the province called Flavia Csefarienfis, and
was governed by the prefident of that province.

REGNIER, Mathurin, in Biography, a French poet,
was born at Chartres in 1573. He is faid to have difplayed,
at a very early period, a great propenfity to fatire, which
his father in vain attempted to reprefs by challifement. The
exercife of liis fatirical talents procured him patrons, among
whom were the cardinal Francis de Joyeufe, and Philip de
Bethune, both of whom he accompanied to Rome. By the
interell of thefe great men he received confiderable prefer-
ment in the church, but the dignity and gravity of the
clerical charafter was no rellraint upon his pleafures, and he
died at the age of forty, worn out with licentious praftices.
The works of Regnier confift of fatires, epiftles, elegies,
itanzas, odes, &c.: of thefe his fatires are moft efteemcd, and
they were thought to make a kind of epoch in French poetry.
The poems of Regnier have been frequently printed ; the
bell editions are tliofe of Rouen, 1729, and of London,
1734, with remarks.

kEGNIER-DESMARAIS, Francis-Seraphin, a
French author of confiderable reputation, was born at Paris
in 1632, of a family originally from Saintonge. Being the
younger fon of a numerous family, he had to depend folely
upon his own exertions for making his way in the world,
and he fucceffively attached himfelf to feveral perfonsof rank,
V, hom he accompanied in their travels. Making a proper
life of his opportunities, he acquired a knowledge of the
Italian and Spanidi languages, and he became fo much a
mailer of the former, that when he attended the duke of
Crequi on his embaffy to Rome, in 1662, he wrote the
official letters in Italian with fo much purity, that they were
not known to be the compofitions of a foreigner. But he
obtained a itill greater triumph, by palling upon the acade-
micians of Delia Crufca one of his own odes for a newly dif-
eovered piece of Petrai'ch. In confequence of this he was
eleiSed, in 1667, a member of that celebrated academy. At
the age of thirty-fix he took ecclefiaftical orders, for the
purpofe of enjoying a priory given him by Lewis XIV., as-
a reeompence for his public iervices, and iu 1670 he was ad-
mitted a member of the French Academy, in the hope that
he might become a contributor in the compilation of their
diilionary. Soon after this, at the requeil of the Jefuits, he
tranflated from the Spanifh language a treatife " On Chrif-
tian Perfe&ion." In his capacity of academician, Regnier
difplayed fo much activity and zeal, that on the death of
Mezerai, in 1C84, he was appointed to fucceed him as fe-

cretary. When the diftionary was completed, the fecretary
by order of the Academy, drew up a preface, and an epilllc
dedicatory to the king ; but, during his abfence, other
members, who were inlpired with the dcfire of emulating
him in this honour, procured a preference for their own pro-
duftions. This difappointment drew from Regnier fome
critical remarks U])on the rival performances, tinged with
that cavilling and difputatious fpirit, to which it appears he
fo often gave way, that he obtained the title of the abbe
Pertinax. He was fo attached to his own opinion, that he
could feldom be prevailed upon to give up his point, or to
drop a difputc. Fontenelle, being once prefent at an acade-
mical difcufiion, in which Regnierwas warmly engaged, ex-
claimed, " this is a difpute that might be prevented from
ever ending, and therefore it ought to be ended immediately."
Regnier obtained feveral benefices, and would probably have
been promoted to the very higliefl dignity in the church, had
he not been fufpedled of tranflating a fcene in the " Paftor
Fido," which feems to inculcate a licentious morality, and
likewife fufpcfted of writing a Hill more objedtionable copy
of verfes. He was occafionally employed in public bufinefs.
He died at Paris in 1 7 13, at the age of 81. He had drawn
up a great many of the moi^l important articles in the dic-
tionary of the French academy, and he pubh(hed, as the
refult of his long llndy of the principles of the French
language, his " Grammaire Frangoife," in 2 vols. i2mo.,
which is confidered as a very valuable performance. His
other works in profe were " L'Hiftoirc des Demeles de la
France, avec la Cour de Rome, au Sujet de I'AfFaire des
Corfes." Tranflations of feveral of Cicero's pieces. In
verfe he gave an Italian verfion of the Odes of Anacreon,
and mifcellaneous poems in Latin, French, Italian, and
Spanifh. His French poems are varied, ingenious, and well
turned, but they are allowed not to poffefs much fire or
force. We have alluded to the abbe's unyielding difpofi-
tion : but it mull be added, that he was fledfaft in his friend-
fliips, inflexibly upright, and fcrupuloufly veracious. The
lalt quahty, fays his biographer, he nobly exprefled, when,
on being urged to violate the truth in favour of a man in
power, and under the penalty of lofing his friendfhip, he
laid, " I had rather quarrel with him than myfelf."

REGNO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Ea(l
Gothland ; 28 miles N. of Nordkioping.

Regno, Ne exeat, in Law. Se Ne exeat, &c.
REGNUM. See Regni.

Regnum Ecdejiajl'uum, a denomination given to one of
the two kingdoms, which the clergy fuppofcd to have ex-
ifted in fome countries : this, they pretended, was abfolute
and independent of any but the pope, comprehending eccle-
fiaftical men and caufes, and exempt from the fecular magif-
trate : the other was a regnum fee ul a re of the kuig or civil
magiflrate, whicj^ was fubordinate and fubjeft to the eccle-
fiaftical kinrrdom : but thefe ufurpations were exterminated
here by Henry VIII. 2 Hale's Hift. P. C. 324.

REGNY, in Geography, a town of France, in I'the -de-
partment of the Rhone and Loire ; feven miles E. of
Roanne.

REGOLA, Ital., a rule in mufic, a canon.
Regoi.a Armonica, a monochord.

REGOLETS, in Geography, a palTage from the gulf of
Mexico into lake Pontchartrain, about ten miles long, and
three or four hundred yards wide.

REGRADATION, Regradatio. See Degrada-
tion.

REGRATOR, Regratarius, a law-word, formerly
ufed for one that bought wholefale, or by the great, and
fold again by retail.

^ ' The

REG

II E G

The term is now chiefly ufed, as it is defciibed by ft.it.
5 & 6 Edw. VI. cap. 14. to denote one that buys corn,
Of other dead victuals, in any market, and fells them
again, in the fame market, or within four miles of the
place.

Regrating is an offence againft the public, and is liable,
hy the ftatute juft cited, to the fame penalty with engroiling
and forellalling.

Reguatou is alfo ufed for a perfon who furbi{hes up
old moveables, to make them pafs for new. See FiiiP-

rjiiiv.

Among mafons, &c. to regrate is to take off the outer
I'lnface of an old hewn ftone, with the hammer and ripe,
ill order to whiten and make it look frefh again.

REGRESSION, or Retrogradation of curves, &c.
See Retroguapation.

REGUINY, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Morbihan ; five miles N.W. of Joffelin.
REGULA. See Rule.
Regui.a, in Architedure. See Reglet.
REGULAR, Regulauis, denotes the relation of any
thing that is agreeable or conformable to the rules of art.

In this fenle, the word Hands oppofed to irregular, or
anomalous.

Thus we fay, a regular proceeding, a regular building,
regular poem, regular verb, &c.

Regular Figure, in Geometry, is a figure which is both
equilateral and equiangular ; i. e. whofe fides, and confe-
quently its angles, are all equal.

The equilateral triangle and fquare are regular figures.
All other regular figures, confiding of more than four fides,
are called regular polygons.

Every regular figure may be infcribed in a circle ; which
fee.

For the dimenfions, properties, &c. of regular figures,
fee Polygon.

Regular Body, called alfo Platonic body, is a folid ter-
minated on all fides by regular and equal planes, and whofe
folid angles are all equal.

The regular bodies are five in number ; i>i%. the cube,
vvliich coniifts of fix equal fquares ; the tetrahedron, or re-
gular triangular pyramid, having four equal triangular
faces ; the oBahedron, having eight ; the dodecahedron, hav-
ing twelve pentagonal faces ; and the icofahedron, having
twenty triangular faces. See each under its proper article.
Befides thefe five, there can be no other regular bodies in
nature.

To meafure the furface and Jolidity, life, of the Jive regular
bodies. — The folidity, &c. of the cube is (hewn under the
article Cube. The tetrahedron being a pyramid, and the
oftahedron a double pyramid ; and the icofahedron con filling
of twenty triangular pyramids ; and the dodecahedron of
twelve quinquangular ones, whofe bafes are in the furface
of the icofaliedron and dodecahedron, and their vertices meet-
ing in a centre ; the folidities of thefe bodies are all found
from what we have fhewn under Pyra.mid.

I. Their furface is had by finding the area of one of the
planes, from the lines that bound it ; and multiplying the
area thus found by the number from which the body is de-
nominated : e. gr. for the tetrahedron, by 4 ; for the hexahe-
dron, or cube, by 6 ; for the oftahedron, by 8 ; for the
dodecahedron, by 12; and for the ifocahedron, by 20.
The product is the fuperficial area.

Or, t!ie fuperficial contents of any of the five Platonic
bodies may be had by the following proportion ; as i is to
the fquare of the fide of the given Platonic body,

i5

f i.732C5o8'l I* tetrahedroB.

3.4641016 I . ,, r r • I otlahedron.
r • I J ^ ^ I to the fuperficial ■ , ,

lo IS <^ 6.0000000 > . . r .1 { hexaliedron.
, o rt- \ content 01 the ' . r ■ ■

I 0.6602540 I I icolahedron.

L 20.6457788 J (^dodecahedron.

Hence we have the following rule : multiply the proper
tabular area, taken from the preceding table, by the fquare
of the fide of the given folid, for the fuperficies.

2. Tlie diameter of a fpherc being given, to find the fide
of any of the Platonic bodies, thut may be cither infcribed
in the fphere, or circumfcribed about the fphere, or that is
equal to the fphere.

As I is to the number in the follov.-ing table, refpecting
the thing fought, fo is the diameter of the given fpherc to
the fide of the Platonic body fought.

3 . The fide of any of the five Platonic bodies being given,
to find the diameter of the fphere, that may be infcribed in that
body, or circumfcnbed about it, or that is equal to it. As
the refpeftive number, in the above table, under the title,
infcribed, circumfcribed, or equal, is to i, fo is the fide of the
given Platonic body to the diameter of its infcribed, circum-
fcribed, or equal fphere, in lolidity.

4. The fide of any of the five Platonic bodies being given,
to find the fide of either of the Platonic bodies, which are
equal in folidity to that of the given body. As the numbet
under the title equal, againlt the given Platonic body, is to
the number under the fame title, againft the body whofe
fide is fought, fo is the fide of the given Platonic body to the
fide of the Platonic body fought.

5. To find the folid contents of any of the five Platonic
bodies. As i is to the cube of the fide of any of thefe
bodies, fo is o. 11 785 13 to the folid content of a tetrahe-
dron, 0.4174045 to that of the octahedron, i.oooooooto
that of the hexahedron, 2.1816950 to that of the icofa-
hedron, and 7.663 1 1 89 to the folid content of the dode-
cahedron.

Hence we have the following rule : multiply the tabular
folidity by the cube of the fide or hnear edge, for the foHd
content. The demonftration of this rule, and that for the
fuperficies above given, is as follows :

The tabular numbers denote the furface and folidity of
each body, when its fide or edge is one ; and, becaufe, in
iimilar bodies, the furfaces are as the fquares of the hnear
edges, and the folidities as the cubes of the fame, the truth
of the rules is manifeft.

If one of thefe bodies be required to be cut out of the
fphere of any diameter, let dr (P/afcXII. Geometry, jig.<^.^
be the diameter of any fphere, and d a one-third of it, =:
ab -^br. Erefl the perpendiculars a f, c f, and^_f ; and
draw d e, df, e r, f r, and g r ; then will (l) re be the
fide of the tetrahedron ; (2) df, the fide of the hexahedron ;
(3) d e, the fide of the oftahedron ; (4) and cutting d e m
extreme and mean proportion in h, d h wiU be the fide of
the dodecahedron ; (5) fetting the diameter d r up perpendi-
cular at r, from the centre c, to its top, draw the line eg,

cutting

11 E G

cutting the circle in g, let fall the perpendicular g I ; fo is
i r the fide of the icofahedron.

Regular Curve. Sec Cuuve.

Regulau ArchiteBure, Forllfiealion, &c. See Archi-
TECTUKE, and Fortification.

Regular Attacks, in a fiegc, are thofe that are made in
form, or by regular approaches. See Parallels.

Regular Bajlkn. See Bastion.

Regular Place. See Place.

Regular, in the Monajlk Senfe, denotes a perfon who
has made the vows in fome religious houfe. See Religious
and Vow.

Under regulars are comprehended the whole body of
monks, friars, and mendicants, &c.

The dencminatioa of regulars, in this cafe, arifes hence,
that they are bound to obferve the regula or rule of the order
they are entered into. Hence,

Regular Friejl is ufed for a priefl who is in fome reli-
gious order, in oppofition to a fccular priell, who lives in
the world, or at large.

A cardinal is reputed both regular and fecular, and is
intitled to the privileges of both Itates.

Regulars may be promoted to bilhoprics and archbifhop-
rics, as well as feculars ; but their promotion fecularizes
them ; the epifcopal dignity difpenfing them from the
obfervation of the rule of which they had before made pro-
feflion.

Regular Abbots. See Abbot.

Regular Benefices, are fuch as can only be held by
monks or religious ; or at lealt, per cupientem profiteri, by a
perfon defirous to embrace the monaitic life. See Bene-
fice.

It is a maxim in the Romifli canon law, regularia regula-
ribus, i. e. regular benefices are to be conferred on regular
priefts. The abbeys that are chiefs of their refpeftive orders
are all regular, and can only be ferved by monks and cardinals.
All benefices are prelumed to be fecular, unlefs they be
proved regular.

Anciently the regular benefices were almoft all conferred
by way of adminittration or curacy ; the religious incum-
bents being always ad manum to their fuperiors, who diiplacd
them at pleafure. Hence the common maxim among the
canoni fts, omne benejicium regulars manuale.

The benefices appropriated to regulars are abbeys, con-
ventual priories, fimple priories, and clauftral offices. They
may be conferred on feculars in commendam.

Regular Canons. See Canon.

Regular Places, are thofe within the boundary or inclo-
fure of the convent ; as the cloifter, dormitory, chapter, and
refeftory. In oppofition to thofe deftined for guelts, and
for the neceliaries of the houfe, whicii are reputed without
the inclofure.

Regular Corporation. See Corporation.

REGULATION, a rule or order prefcribed by a
fuperior, for the uniform and orderly management of fome
branch of policy, juftice, or the like.

REGULATOR of a Watch, is a fmall fpring belonging
to the balance, ferving to adjuft the going, and to make it
go either falter or flower.

Regulator of Velocity, in Mechanics, is a contrivance
for regulating or governing the motion of a mill, or other
large machine, by means of which it will always be caufed
to preferve an equable and regular velocity in the motion
of its parts, notwithftanding any accidental increafe of the
moving force, or decreafe of the refiftance that may occa-
fionally arife, A regulator mull be connefted with fome
lever, or other parts of the machine, which commands the

Vol. XXIX.

REG

fupply of whatever conftitutcs its moving force, as the
ftiuttle ot a water-wheel, the fail-cloth of a wind-mill, or
valve of a Ikam-engine ; and it fhould have the property
of aatng fuddenly upon this lever, or other part, the inftant
any mcreafe or decreafe of velocity in the motion takes
place, either to elevate or deprefs it, and thus regulate the
lupply in a degree proportioned to the quantity of altera,
tion in the velocity ; and it is by the fenfibihty and accu-
racy of the regulator in this refpcft that its perfeaion i»
ellimated.

The regulator mod commonly ufed is called a jfOTj^-nor.
This confilts of two or more pendulums fufpended from
joints, which are fupported upon a vertical axis : this being
caufed to revolve by the machine, and the pendulums ac-
companying it, the balls will, by the centrifugal force,
recede from the axis or centre a quantity proportioned to
the velocity of the motion and length of the pendulum :
then, on any acceflion of the motion, they recede ttill further
from the axis, or -vice verfd, if the velocity diminifties. This
motion is contrived to aftuate the lever which regulates
the velocity of the machine in a fleam-engine : it is con-
nefted with the valve which admits the ileam from the
boiler to the cylinder, in a water-wheel with the fhuttle,
through which the water flows, or in a wind-mill with
the mill-fl;ones, or fail-cloths. See a farther defcription
under Mill-work, &TE.AM-Engine, and Windmill.

The principle of the governor is the fame with the cir-
cular or conical pendulum, of which Huygens has laid
claim to the invention, as well as of the long pendulum for
regulating clocks, who fays he difcovered it nearly at the fame
time as the other. The conical pendulum circulates feconds
when of the fame length with the common pendulum, which
will vibrate only half feconds. To explain it, we mufl; fup-
pofe a ball or weight to be fufpended by a Uring or rod,
fo that the ball can defcribe in a horizontal circle by a
motion of the rod round a vertical axis, with which the
centre of fufpenfion coincides. In this motion the rod of
the pendulum will defcribe the furface of a cone, of which,
the point of fufpenfion is the vertex, and the horizontal
circle which the ball defcribes is the bafe : it is hence called
the circular or conical pendulum. The ball has liberty to
recede from, or approach to, the axis, by moving upon it»
centre of fufpenfion, and thus the circle the ball defcribe*
will be enlarged or diminifhed ; and it is this circumltance
which gives it the property of circulating or performing a
revolution always in the fame fpace of time which a fimple
pendulum of four times the length would vibrate ; for this
takes place equally whether the ball is extended to defcribe
a large circle, or retrafted to revolve in a fmall one ; though,
it ftiould be obferved, that this is only true in the fuppo-
fition that the pendulum-ball, in moving from the vertical
axis upon its centre, will defcribe a parabola inltead of %
circle, in the fame manner as the ball of a common pen-
dulum is required to move in the arc of a cycloid inftead
of a circle, to caufe all the vibrations, both long and Ihort,
to be performed in equal fpaces of time. Mr. Martin has,
in his Inftitutions, given a very complete explanation of the
principle of this pendulum, by fuppofing an inverted para-
bola, with its axis placed in a vertical pofition ; then fup.
pofing a bowl or veflel excavated by the revolution of this
figure upon its axis a paraboloid will be formed. A heavy
globe or ball being put in this bowl, may, by agitating the
veflil, be caufed to perform a revolution in a horizontal
circle within the vefTel, and it will be found to circulate in
the fame period of time, whether it defcribes a fmall circle
near the bottom of the veflel, or a large circle in its upper
part, where the diameter is larger.

4L The

REGULATOR.

The g-ovemor or flying-ball is the regulator mod gene-
rally uffd in nracliinery, although there are other means
whieh, ill particular inftaiicca, are preferable, from the cir-
cunillance of their poilelUiig a greater power to operate
upon tlie regulating part of the machine. One oi thtfe,
called the water-regulator, confills of a pump, which, being
worked by the machine, will raife water into a ciltern, from
which a conftant llream flows off by a pipe and cock ; a
float is placed upon the furface of the water in the ciitern,
and this communicates with the fteam-valve of the engine,
or Ihuttle of the water-wheel. The operation of this regu-
lator is eafily explained, for the pump will raife a quantity
of water exaftly proportioned to the velocity of the machine,
or the number of ftrokes it makes ; whereas the Itream
which flows off' by the cock is a conllant quantity, and
equal to that which the pump will fupply when the machine
moves with its intended velocity. When this is the cafe,
the furface of water in the ciftern will iland at the fame
height ; but if the velocity is increafcd, the pump will raife
more water into the ciltern than the pipe and cock will
carry off, and the furface rifing, elevates the float, wliich,
by its aftion to dimmifh the fupply of power to the machine,
will correft the acceleration which ha* taken place in its
velocity. The oppofite effeifl takes place if llie veh)city
decreafes, -viz. that the fupply to the cillern being dimi-
niflied whilft the efflux is conllant, the furface will fink,
and tiie float defcending, opens the valve or fhuttle, and m-
creafes the fupply of power to the machine until it regains
the original velocity. The great advantage of this regu-
lator is, that it can fo readily be made to keep the machine
fteady at any velocity which may be required, and this
by merely opening or clofing the cock : thus, if it is
opened to carry off a greater quantity, the furface will
fubfide, and the float, by defcending, opens a greater fup-
ply of power to the machine, and occafions it to move
quicker ; but this, though it raifes more water by means
of the pump, will not raife the furface of the water in the
ciftern to fo great a height as it flood at before, becaufe
the efflux is now equal to the increafed fupply.

In all cafes this regulator will caufe the machine to
work at fuch a rate, as to make the pump raife the fame
quantity of water as the cock emits, and its rate may be
afcertained before it is put to work ; for if the quantity of
water which the cock will difcharge in a minute, or other
given fpace of time, is known, and the dimenfions of the
pump ; then it may eafily be calculated what number of
ftrokes per minute the pump muft make to raife an equal
quantity of water. The fenfibility of this regulator will
be increafed by making the cittern of a fmall fize, becaufe
then any deviation from the intended rate of working will
caufe the greater elevation or depreffion of the furface, and
3 greater adtion on the float : and, for the fame purpofe,
it is beft to make the ciftern gradually diminifh in area, fo
as to be imallcr both towards the top and at the bottom,
than at the place where the furface is expefled to Hand
when the machine moves with the proper velocity. By
this means it will rife or fall more rapidly, in confequer.ee
of the diminilhed area of the ciftern, when the alteration of
velocity is confiderable, and a greater correftion is required,
than when the alteration is only trifling. It is necefi'ary
that the pump fhould raife a conftant ftream of water into
the ciltern, both in the afcent and defcent of its bucket :
to do this, two pumps, afting alternately, may be uled, or
by a very fimple contrivance a iin^tjle pump may be made
to effeft the fame ; thus, upon the rod of the pump a
cylinder of wood is fixed, which is of fuch a diameter, that
its area is equal to half the area of the pump-barrel, and its

length being equal to the length thweof, its content will
be equal to one-half of the barrel : this is fixed on fuch a
part of the rod, that it will, by the rifing and falling of the
rod, be drawn up out of water as much as the rod and
oucket moves : now, when the pump-bucket is drawn up,
the rifing of the cylinder above the furface of the water
iiicreafes the capacity of the ciftern one-half as much as
the quantity of water which is thus drawn up into it, and
the efflux of water by the cock being juft equal to the
other half, the furface will be flationary ; and when the
bucket defcends, and no water is raifed, the cylinder going
dov\ II into the water diminifhes the capacity of the ciftern
a quantity equal to the quantity of water which will flow
off in the fame time, and thus fupplies the wafte of water
which flows off in the fame time. A regulator of this kind
may, in many cafes, be formed from fome part of the ma-
chine, without any additional apparatus : thus, the cold
water-pump of a fleam-engine will raife the neceffary water
into a ciftsni for the float to adl in, and this float muft be
connecK'd with the arm of the fteam-valve. Alfo, in an
engine for blowing a furnace, where it has a water-regulator
(fee Blowing), the rife of the water in the external tiftera
may regulate the motion of the engine, the whole machine
being of the fame kind with the regulator we have
defcribed.

A regulator would be applied with great advantage to a
machine which is ufedin the Co/ton Makufactl'UE (fee that
article), for drawing a piece of cotton cloth regularly and
flowly over a red-hot cylinder of iron by two rollers, from
one of which it is wound to the other : now, if the men who
turn theie flop but for a moment the cloth is burnt through,
but by a regulator it might be hffcd off the hot iron the
inftant the motion was fo far diminifhed as to endanger the
firing of it.

The water-regulator is rendered more powerful by fuf-
pending the ciitern from the end of a lever, like a fcale-btam,
the oppofite end of which has a counterpoife fufficient to
balance the weight of the ciftern when the water in it ftands
at the intended height ; but if the water increafes ii: the
ciftern from the caufes above defcribed, the box will defcend,
and the motion of the lever will adl upon the machine to
make the regulation the fame as the motion of the float : on
the other hand, when the water in the ciftern diminifhes,
the counterpoife will draw it up and give motion to the
lever. The water from the pump is introduced to the ciftern
by a fpout, and all the other parts have the fame conftrudlion
as we have defcribed.

It is a defedl of both the regulators we have above de-
fcribed, that they do not operate upon the machine until the
alteration of velocity has adlually taken place, although they
immediately corredl it. It would be defirable to have others
which would make the corredlion before the evil takes place :
for inftance, in a wind-mill, which is more fubjedl to irregu-
larity than any other machine, a large vane may be fufpendeA
by a heavy pendulum, and oppofcd to the wind ; now the
force of the latter, when blowing regularly, will caufe the
pendulum to incline a certain quantity from the perpendi-
cular ; but if the wind increafes or diminifhes, it will incHne
mole or lefs, and this motion may be communicated to the
fhuttle which regulates the feed of corn, fo as to give more
or lefs to the Hones in proportion to the power of the wind
for grinding it, thus adapting the refiftance to the power;
and if this (hould mcreafe beyond all bounds, the fame motion
may be made to adl upon the grip of the mill to check its
acceleration effedlually. In the fame manner a water-wheel
may have a float placed in the dam or head to adt upon the
fhuttle whenever the furface thereof rifes or falls above or

below

REG

below tlic intended level, fo as to apportion the fupply to the
fall, and keep the velocity uniform.

There is another kind of regnlator fometimes ufcd ia
machines to caiife a fnHicient refillance to the motion to pre-
vent acceleration, fuch as a crane or h)werin^ machine, which
is to let down a heavy vv'eight, a coal winding machine, &c. ;
a very good one for thefe piirpofes is a vertical axis with
pendiiUmis, like the governor, but having a broad vane to
meet the air inftead of heavy balls, which indeed may be
added alfo : this, when put in motion, will oppofe a very
great refillance to the acceleration, becaufe the centrifugal
force caufing the vanes to recede from the centre, they mud
defcribe a larger circle in the air in proportion to the velocity,
or, by coUapfing, they make but little refillance when the
velocity is fmall.

REGULO, a title given to the fons of the emperor of
China.

REGULUS, Makcus Attii.ius, in Biography, a cele-
brated Roman general, was railed to the conlulAiip the firll
time in the year 267 B. C, and, m conjnnAion with his
colleague Libo, obtained the honour ot a triumph on account
of their fuccefs over the Salentines, from whom they took
their capital Brundufium. During the firfl Punic war the
Romans elefted Regukis conful, together with Lucius Man-
ilas Vulfo, B.C. 256, and gave them orders to carry their
arms into Africa. They failed with a very powerful fleet,
and in their voyage encountered a fiipcrior Carthaginian
force, under Hanno and Hamilcar, which they totally de-
feated. After refitting in Sicily, and taking frefh troops
aboard, the confuls failed for the African coaft, where they
took poflL-flion of the town ol Clupea. They next advanced
towards Carthage, which city was thrown into the utmoll
confternation by this unexpedled invafion ; and, after plun-
dering the country almoll to its gates, they returned to Clu-
pea loaded with booty of all kinds. Very foon after this,
orders arrived from Rome for the return of Manlius, leaving
Regulus with part of the fleet and army to condutl the war
in Africa. Regulus allied for his recall upon the following
plea : he was polfefied of a farm of feven acres, from whicii
his family derived their fubfiftence, and being informed that
his fervants were carrying off his flock, he begged that he
might return to fave his family from ftarving. The plea
was over-ruled, by an order that they Ihould be maintained
by the public during his ah fence upon the fervice of his
countrv. He again advanced towards Carthage, crofled the
river Bagrada (in pafllng which, according to the Roman
hillorians, he was encountered by a monllrous ferpent,) and
laid fiege to a town not far from the metropolis. Hamilcar
attempted to reheve the place, but Regulus met him and
gave him a very fignal defeat. After this he took feveral
towns, without any refillance. A revolt of the Numidians
reduced the Carthaginians to flill greater diftrefs, fo that it
appears the enemy iought for peace. The terms, however,
offered by Regulus were fo unreafonaWe, that the fenate of
Carthage could not for a moment liften to them, and re-
folved upon a vigorous profecution of hoflilities. During
the interval of negociation a body of Greek mercenaries
arrived at Carthage, commanded by Xantippus, a Spartan,
by whom the Romans were completely defeated, with the
lofs of 30,000 men, befides 15,000 taken prifoners, among
whom was Regulus himfelf, whom the Carthaginians brought
in triumph into that city, which, but a few hours before,
he had not only infulted, but, in his own mind, devoted to
dettruftion. Hitherto, fays the hillorian, Regulus had ap-
peared only as a Roman commander, and not one of the moll
confpicuous } the concluding fcenes of his life are thofe

REG

which entitle him to rank among the firfl of Roman patriots
The Carthaginians behaved to their other prifoners hul
mancly, but Regulus they treated with all the barbarity
which they could devife ; but, when the fortune of war ap-
peared to turn againft them, they began to ufe him with
more lenity, m order that they might engage him to en-
dcavour to obtain an accommodation. At their dcfire he
went with their ambafladors to Rome, liaviuT firll taken an
oath that lie would return to his prlfon, if the negociation
fliould n.it fucceed. When he arrived at the gates of the
city he refilled to enter, being, as he faid, a (lave to the
Cartliaginians ; and when his wife and children came out to
meet him, he viewed them as ftrangers, and d' cllned their
carcffes. Tlie fenators alfembled to give audience to the
Carthaginian ambad'adors, prefled him to take his f^-at amonff
them, but he refufed, till commanded by his mafltrs to accept
it. When he was called on for his opinion, he fpoke llrongly
both againll granting the Carthaginians peace, and exchang-
ing liiniielf and the other Roman captives for the prifoners
of importance whom they had taken from that nation.
Though convinced by his arguments, the fenators were un-
willing to fend back fo noble a citizen, and a fubterfuge was
fuggefted to him by which he might be releafed from his
oath, but he inftaiitly rejcfted the bafe fuggeilion, and de-
clared his refolution to return to Carthage in tiie face of the
cruel pur.ilhment that he knev/ awaited him. Afting upon
the idea that he was fl;ill a flave, he took no leave of his
family, but, with an unmovsd countenance, made his way
in iilence through the crowds of his admiring countrymen.
The Carthaginians were told that their offers of peace were
not only rejefted at Rome, but chiefly fo through the means
of Regulus, whom now they refolved to punilh in the fe-
rerelt manner pofTible. For fome days he was expofed to
the rays of a meridian fun, and afterwards confined in a
barrel, whofe fides were every where filled with large iron
fpikes, till he died in the greateft: agonies. His fufferings
were heard of at Rome, and the fenate permitted his widow
to infllft whatever punifliment file pleafed on fome of the
molt illuftrious captives of Carthage, and file took a fevere
revenge, till at lall the fenate interpofed, and put a flop to
the barbarity of her punifiiments. Regulus pei-iftied in the
year B.C. 251. Univ. Hift.

Regulus, Petty King, in our Ancient Cujloms, is a term
frequently ufed, in the Saxon councils, for comes or count.

Hence fiib-regulus was alfo ufed for a vice-comes or vif-
count : though in many places the two feem ufed indiffer-
ently for the fame dignitary. Thus in the archives of the
cathedral of Worcefter, Uthredus fometimes ilyles him-
felf regulus, and fometimes fub-regulus, of the city of
Worceller.

But in other places we find a diftlnaion : '< Offa, I'ex
Merciorum ; Uthredus, regulus ; Aldri;dus, fub-regulus,
&c."

Regulus, Konig, Germ., in C/.'emi/!iy, denotes, initsmofl;
extenfive fenfe, a metal in the proper metallic (late. The
term is now little ufed, though the old chemifts chiefly em-
ployed it as a diilinftive appellation in thofe cafes where a
metal and one of its ores happened to be called by the fame
name. Thus, the grey fulphurct of antimony viras not known
by the name of antimony long before it was fufpefted to
contain a peculiar metal ; when this difcovery took place, the
metal was called regulus of antimony, m order to diftin-
guilh it from the ore from which it was procured. For the
lame reafon, the metals arfenic and cobalt were denominated
the reguli of arfenic and cobalt.

Regui-US of Antimony. See ANUMyNi'.

4 L 2 RjEGULUS,

R E H

Regulus, Martial, of ytntimorty. See Antimont.
Regulus of ylrfcnk. Sec Ah.senic.
Kt-GVLVS of Cobalt. See Cobalt.
Regulus, in jlflrommy, is a liar of the firft magnitude,
in the conftellation Leo ; called alfo, from its fituation. Cor
Leonh, or the Lion's Heart ; by the Arabs, Alhalor ; and
by the Chaldeans, KalhkciJ, or Kalbeleceid ; from an opinion
of its influencing the affairs of the heavens ; as is obferved
by Theon. See Leo.

Regulus, in Ornithology, a fpecies of Faico ; which fee.
— Alfo, a fpecies oi Motacilla ; which fee. — See alfo Wren.
REGUSSE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Var ; 9 miles N.E. of Barjols.

REGYA, a river of Africa, which runs into the Medi-
terranean ; 16 miles E. of Algiers.

REHABERE facias f/ifmam, quando vicecomes libcr-
avit feifiiiam de majore parte, qiiam deberet, in Law, a
writ judicial ; of which there is another of the fame name
and nature. ( Reg. Jud. 13,51,54.) It lay when the fheriff
in the Habere facias feifnam had delivered more than he
ought.

REHABILITATION, Reuabilitatio, in the Ci-vil
and Canon Law, an aflion by which a prince or pope, by
difpenfation or letters patent, reftores a delinquent to the
condition he was in before his delinquency. Sec Degrada-
tion.

The king alone can rehabilitate an oflicer, noted, con-
demned, and degraded ; or a gentleman who has derogated
from his rank.

The pope alone pretends to rehabilitate, i. e. to render
capable of benefices and orders, fuch as had fallen into herefy
or other irregularities.

In Romifli countries, an ccclefiaftic who affifts at the exe-
cution of a fenteVice of death, is to be rehabilitated by an
abfolution, called afcevis.

By the rehabilitation of a convift in the Code Napoleon, or
French criminal jurifprudence, is underftood his reitoration
to all the rights and privileges which he had forfeited by
being fubjefted to a painful or infamous punifhment. He
cannot demand it till five years have elapfed fince the execu-
tion of his fentence, during the whole of which time he
muft have refided in the fame arrondijfement ; or unlefs he has
been domiciled during two complete years in the territory of
the municipahty to which the demand is addreffed. It muft
alfo be fupported by teiHmonials of his good conduft from
the municipal authorities. The criminal court receives the
demand, and pronounces on it at the end of three months :
if their judgment be unfavourable, the application may be
renewed at the end of five years, with the fame advantage ;
but if the party rehabilitated into fociety fhould offend again,
he becomes incapacitated for ever.

REHBURG, in Geography, a town of Weftphalia, in
the principality of Calenberg ; 18 miles W.N.W. of Ha-
nover.

REHEARING, in the Court of Chancery, is a procefs
to which either party, that thinks himfelf aggrieved, may
have recourfe, before the execution of a final decree. Every
petition for a rehearing muft be figned by two counfel of
charafter, certifying that they apprehend the caufe is proper
to be reheard. And upon the rehearing, all the evidence
taken in the caufe, whether read before or not, is now ad-
mitted to be read ; becaufe it is the decree of the chancellor
himfelf, who only now fits to hear reafons why it fhould not
be enrolled and perfected ; at which time, all omiflions of
cither evidence or argument may be fupplied. But after the
decree is once figned by the chancellor, aad enrolled, it can-

I2f

R E I

not be reheard or reftified, except by bill of review, or by
appeal to the houfc of lords.

REHEARSAL, in Mvfc and the Drama, an eflay or
experiment of fome compoiition, which is made in private,
previous to the rcprefentation or performance of it in pub-
lic ; to habituate the aftors or performers, and make them
more ready and perfect in their parts.

REHOBOTH, in Geography, a poft-town of America,
in Brittol county, Mafiachufetts, on a branch of Providence
river, a few miles from Providence, in Rhode iHand, 40
miles foutherly from Bolton. It was called '« Seconnet"
by the Indians; incorporated in 1645, and contains 4866
inhabitants.

REHUT, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Go-
hud ; 20 miles S.S.W. of Gwalior.

REI Domeflicte Domeflirus. See DcTmesticus.

REICH, in Geography, a town of Auftria ; 7 miles N.W,
of Schwaneftadt.

REICHARDT, John Frederic, in Biography, chapel-
mailer to Frederic II. king of Pruffia, at Berlin, was born
at Konigfberg, in Pruflia, in 1751, and lludied under the
organiil of the principal church. Richter taught him the
harpfichord, and formed his tafte. He likewife praftifed
the viohn, and was powerful upon that inftrument, parti-
cularly in double ilops. With thefe talents he travelled in
1771, diftinguilhing himfelf in Upper and Lower Saxony,
Drefden, Leipfic, Brunfwick, Hamburgh, and Berlin ;
where he was appointed by the king, in 1775, chapel-
mafter, in the ftation which Graun had formerly illuf-
trated.

The firft compofition which he produced in his new office,
was a prologue to Graun's opera of " Angelica e Medoro,"
which he fet on occafion of a vifit to the king of Pruflia by
the grand duke of Ruffia, in 1776 ; in which prologue he
compofed the famous air " Nell' orror d'Atra Forefta,"
for Mad. Mara.

In 1783 he went to Paris, and gave proofs of his abilities
at the concert fpirituel ; and in 1784, he was prefent at the
commemoration of Handel in London. He married the
daughter of Francis Benda, born the fame year as himfelf,
an excellent finger.

REICHELIA, in Botany, Schreb. Gen. 200. (Sa-
gonea ; Aubl. Guian. t. m. Juff. 134. Lamarck II-
luftr. t. 212.) Reduced by its author, on the fuggeftion
of Swartz, to Hydrolea ; Schreb. 826. There have been
two botanifts of the name of Rerchel ; but Schreber, mofl
probably, had principally in view George Chriftian Reichel,
profeffer of medicine at Leipfic, who publiftied a dilierta-
tion on the Spiral Veffels of Plants, and died in 1771, at
the age of 44.

REICHELSBERG, in Geography, a lordfhip of Ger-
many, in the circle of Franconia, deriving its name from a
mountain citadel, near the town of Aube, in the duchy of
Wurzburg.

REICHELSBURG, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg ; 20 miles S.E. of Wurzburg.

REICHELSDORF, a town of Bavaria, in the terri-
tory of Nuremberg ; 7 miles S. of Nuremberg.

REICHELSHEIM, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg ; 4 miles W. of Arnftein. — Alfo, a town of the prin-
cipality of Naffau Weilburg, infulatcd in the biffiopric of
Fulda ; 30 miles S. of Marburg.

REICHELSWAND, a town of Bavaria, in the terri-
tory of Nuremberg ; 3 miles E. of Lauf.

REICHENAU, an ifland in the lake of Conftance,
about two miles long, and abounding with vines and other

fruit

R E I

R E I

Iruit trees, with a celebrated abbey, and the villages of Up-
per and Lower Zell. — Alfo, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Chrudim ; 9 miles W.N.W. of Politzka. — Alfo,
a town of Auftria ; 5 miles S.W. of Freydadt. — Alfo, a
town of Saxony, in the Vogtland, near Pawfa. — Alfo, a
town of the Helvetian republic, at the union of the two
branches of the Rhine; 6 miles S.AV. of Coirc. — Alfo, a
town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bechin ; 6 miles E. of
Rofenberg. — Alfo, a town of Bohemia, called " New
Reichenau," in the circle of Bechin ; 8 miles E.S.E. of

Pilgram Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Ober-

land ; S miles S.E. of Ofterrod. — Alfo, a town of Pruffia,
on the Oli'a ; 22 miles E.N.E. of Culm.

REICHENBACH, a town of Saxony, in the Vogt-
land, containing about 700 houfes, two churches, and a
Latin fchool. The inhabitants are chiefly clothiers, and
dealers in cloth. Their method of dyeing is held in high
eftimation, the mod beautiful fcarlet in the whole eleftorate
being made at this place ; 10 miles S.W. of Zvk'ickau. N.
lat. jo°3i'. E. long. 12^ 16'. — Alfo, a town of Silefia, in
the principality of Schweidnitz, containing two churches
and an hofpital. The town has fome confiderable manufac-
tures of linen, canvas, and fuftian ; 9 miles N. of Schweid-
nitz. N. lat. 50° 35'. E. long. 16° 35'. — Alfo, a town of
France, in the department of the Sarre ; 8 miles S. of Lau-
tereck. — Alfo, a town of Lufatia ; 4 miles S.W. of Ca-
menz. — Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Ober-
land ; 7 miles S.S.W. of Holland. — Alfo, a town of Ger-
many, in the county of Henneberg ; 3 miles N. of Smal-
kalden. — Alfo, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Culmb.ach ; 12 miles E.N.E. of Neuftadt. — Alio, a town
of Germany, in the margraviate of Anfpach ; 2 miles N.W.
of Schwabach.

REICHENBERG, a mountain of Swabia; 6 miles
N.W. of Huiffingen. — Alfo, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Boleflaw. Twenty thoufand pieces of cloth are
fuppofed to have been made in this town in one year ; 25
miles N.N.E. of Jung-Buntzlau. — Alfo, a town of Pruffia,
in the province of Ermeland ; 3 miles S.W. of Heilfberg. —
Alfo, a town and caftle of Weftphalia, in the county of
Catzenelnbogen ; 5 miles E. of St. Goar.

REICHENBURG, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 12
miles S.S.E. of Cilley.

REICHENECK, a town of the duchy of Stiria;
5 miles E.S.E. of Cilley.

REICHENFELS, a town with a caftle in Saxony, in
the principality of Reuffen ; 8 miles N.W. of Greitz. —
Alfo, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ; 24 miles N.E. of
Clagenfurt.

REICHENHALL, a town of Bavaria, on the Sala,
with a rich fait fpring, the water of which is partly boiled
here, and partly, by means of a large wheel 36 feet in dia-
meter, thrown up to the higher parts of a lofty houfe, and
thence conveyed by means of leaden pipes to the diftance of
12 miles, over mountains, towards Traunftein, and there
boiled, ©n account of the convenience of wood, and alfo of
exportation. An aqueduft of fquared flints, two miles
long and five feet broad, with an arched roof, was formed
fome centuries ago, for conveying water to turn the wheels
and other engines, and to carry off any fuperfluous fait wa-
ter. This aqueduft, after running to a depth of 1 2 fathoms
under the town, and from thence under the gardens and
fields, at laft difcharges its water in a llrong torrent. The
current of the water is fo ftrong, that a boat with torches
may fail from one end to the other in a quarter of an hour.
In the aqueduft are five apertures in the form of towers, and
through feme of thefe a perfon may fpeak from the ram-

parts of the town with thofc who fail upon the canal j
9 miles S.W. of Salzburg. N. lat. 47" 40'. E. long.
12° 50'.

REICHENSTAIN, atownof Aultria; 19 miles N.E.
of Steyregg.

REICHENSTEIN, a town of Silefia, belonging to the
principality of Brieg, but infulated in that of Munlterberg;
16 miles W. of Neiflc. N. lat. 50° 15'. E. long. i6^ 40'.
— Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Roer ;
21 miles S. of Juliers.

Reichenstein, Unler, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Prachatitz ; 3 miles W.S.W. of Berg Reichendein.

REICHENTAL, a town of Aultria; 3 miles E. of
Haderfdorf.

REICHENWALT, or Riecher.s\,alde, a town of
Pruffia, in Oberland ; 4 miles N.W. of Liebftat.

REICHERSDORF, a town of Tranfylvania ; 4 miles
E. of Medies.

REICHMANSHAUSEN, a town of the duchy of
Wurzburg ; 10 miles E.N.E. of Schweinfurt.

REICHNAW, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 17 miles E.S.E. of Konigingratz. — Alfo, a
town of Lufatia ; 6 miles W. of Gorlitz.

REICHNICH, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 6 miles
N.E. of Windifch Gratz.

REICHOLDSGRUN, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Culmbach ; 2 miles S. of Kirch Lamitz.

REICHSHOFEN, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Rhine ; 9 miles N. of Haguenau.

REICHSTHABER, in Commerce. See Ri.x -dollar,
REICHTHAL, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in
the principality of Bredau ; 32 miles S. of Breflau. N. lat.
51° 9'. E. long. 17° 52'.

REID, Thomas, in Biography, an eminent divine and
raoralift, was born at Strachan, in Kincardinediire, of which
parifti his father was minider, in the year 17 10. The ele-
ments of learning he received at the parifti fchool of Kin-
cardine, after which he was fent to a claffical fchool at
Aberdeen ; and fo rapid was his progrefs in his dudies,
that about the age of thirteen he was found fully qualified
for the univerfity, and entered as a dudent in Marifchal
college. Here he diftinguidied himfelf by his proficiency
in the various branches ot learning taught during the ufual
courfe of four years, particularly in mathematics. At this
period he probably took his degree of M.A., and after-
wards commenced the dudy of theology, and in due time
was licenfed as a preacher. He was foon appointed libra-
rian to the univerfity, and became intimately acquainted
with Mr. John Stewart, the profeffor of m.athematics.
This conneftion ftrengthened and confirmed his predileftion
for mathematical ftudies. Occafionally he read ledtures for
his friend, in which he difcovered a happy faculty of mak-
ing every thing intelligible to the ftudents, which he clearly
apprehended himfelf. In 1736 Mr. Reid refigned his fitu-
ation of hbrarian, and accompanied Mr. Stewart on an ex-
curfion into England, and became acquainted with many
illuftrious characters in London, at Oxford, and at Cam-
bridge. In the following year, Mr. Reid was prefented by
the King's college of Aberdeen to the living of New
Machar ; but his entrance into the functions of his office
was very unpropitious. His unwearied attention, how-
ever, to the duties of his office, the mildnefs and forbearance
of his temper, and the adlive fpirit of his humanity, foon
overcame all their prejudices ; and not many years after,
wards, when he was called to a different fituation, the fame
perfons, who had taken a diare in the outrages againd him,
followed him, on his departure, with their prayers and

tears.

R E 1

R K I

tears. " We fought," faid fome of tliem, " againfl; Mr.
Reid, when he came ; and would have fought for him, when
he went away."

The greater part of his refidence at New Machar was de-
voted to the mod intend- Ihidy ; and by way of amufement,
he had recourfe to gardening and botany, of which he was
extremely fond, even in old age. In the year 1748 he pub-
lifhed a paper in the Tranfaftions of the Royal Society of
London, entitled « An Eli'ay on Quantity, occaiioned by
reading a Treatife, in which fimple and compound Ratios
are applied to Virtue and Merit." Tlie treatife here re-
ferred to was Dr. Hutchefon's " Inquiry into the Origin of
our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue."

The profellors of King's college, Aberdeen, m the year
1752, appointed Dr. Reid to be profellor of philofophy :
the choice origmated wholly from the high opinion they
were led to entertain of his talents and erudition. It is not
known what particular plan he purfued in the courfe of his
leftures ; but his department comprehended mathematics,
and phyfics, logic, and ethics. Soon after his removal to
this fituation, he projefted, in conjunftion with his friend,
Dr. John Gregory, a hterary fociety, winch fubfilled many
years, and which, it is believed, had confiderable effeft in
exciting and direfting that fpirit of philofophical refearch,
which has fince fo particularly dilhnguiihed the north of
Scotland. The writings of Reid, Gregory, Campbell,
Beattie, and Gerard, evince the numerous advantages which
the members derived from this inllitution, as they were in
the habit of bringing fuch works as they intended for pub-
lication to the teft of friendly criticifm. Among thefe the
molt original was that of our author, publidied in 1764,
entitled " An Inquiry into the Human Mind, 0.1 the Prin-
ciples of Common Senfe ;" intended to refute the philo-
fophy of Locke and H.'.rtley, by denying the connettion
which they fuppofed to fubfilt between the feveral pheno-
mena, powers, and operations of the mind ; and accounting
for the foundation of all human knowledge on a fyllem of
inftin£live principles. About the time when this " In-
quiry" made its appearance, the author received from the
college of Aberdeen the degree of doftor of divinity ; and
by the univerfity of Glafgow he was invited to the profef-
forfhip of moral philofophy. On the duties attached to this
office he entered in 1764 ; and he was enabled, by means of
a handfome income, to concentrate all his attention to his
favourite purfuits, which had hitherto been diftrac^ed by the
mifcellantous nature of his academical engagements. The
refearches of Dr. Reid concerning the human mind, were
extended and methodized in a courfe, which employed five
hours every week, during fix months in every year. The
fubftance of thefe leftures was afterwards given to the world,
in a more improved form, in the laft of his publications.
In the year 1773 appeared, in the form of an appendix to
the third volume of lord Karnes' " Sketches of the Hiitory
of Man," a brief account of Anftotle's logic, with re-
marks by Dr. Reid. In the year 1781 Dr. Reid with-
drew from his public labours, but he was not inactive : his
fubfequent works afford proof of the affiduity with which
he availed himfelf of his literary leifure. In 1785 he pub-
lifhed his " EfTays on the Intelleftual Powers of Man ;"
and in 1 788, thofe " On the Aftive Powers." Thefe vo-
lumes complete the fyflem of philofophy, begun in his
♦' Inquiry" many years before.

Notwithftanding his advanced age, Dr. Reid continued
to profecute his itudies with unabated ardour and activity.
The modern improvements in chemiftry attrafted his parti-
cular notice, and he applied himfelf witli his accuilomed
dihgence to tlie ftudy of its theories and normenclature. He

amufed himfelf alfo, at times, in preparing for a philo-
fophical fociety, of which he was a member, (liort eflaye 1,11
particular topics, which happened to intereft his curiofity,
and on which he thought he might derive or afford ufeful
hints in the courfe of friendly dilcuffion. His laft efiay ap-
pears to have been written in the 86th year of his age, and
was read by the author to his affociates but a (hort time
previoully to his death. In the month of September 1796,
he was feized with a violent diforder, with which lie for
fome time maintained a fevere ftruggle ; but which, to-
gether with fome paralytic attacks, put an end to his ufeful
life on the 7th of Oftober, in the 87th year of his age.
In point of bodily conftitution, few men iuive been more
indebted to nature tlian Dr. Reid. His form was vigorous
and athletic, and his countenance was ftrongly cxpreflive of
deep and coUefted thought ; but when brightened up by
the face of a friend, what chiefly caught the attention was
a look of good will and of kindnefs. The moll prominent
features of his charadler were intrepid and inflexible recli-
tude, a pure and devoted attachment to truth, and an entire
command over his pafTions. In private life, no man ever
maintained, more eminently or more uniformly, the dignity
of philofophy ; combining with the moll amiable modelly
and gentlenefs, the nobleft fpirit of independence. As a
public teacher, he was diftinguifhed by unwearied affiduity
in inculcating principles, which he conceived to be of effen-
lial importance to human happinefs. In his elocution and
mode of inftruftion, there was nothing peculiarly attraftive.
Such, however, were the fimplicity and perfpicuity of his
llyle ; fuch the gravity and authority of his charafter, that
he was always lillened to with profound refptft, and, in his
latter years, with a veneration, which age added to great
wifdom always infpires. Stewart's Life of Reid.

REIDEN, m Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Lucerne; 18 miles N.N. W. of Lucerne.

REJECTIO, a word uled by medical authors for tha
calfing any thing lip preternaturally by the mouth, whether
it be by vomiting or bv fpitting.

REIFF, in Geography. See RivA.
REIFFERSCHEID, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Sarre, and cliief place of a canton, in the dif-
trift of Prum. The place contains 311, and the canton 3542
inhabitants, in 45 communes. A.lo, a town pf France, in
the department of the Rhine and Mofelle, capital of a
county in the archbifhopric of Cologne ; 42 miles W. of
Coblentz. N. lat. 50"" 33'. E. long. 6° 27'.

REIFFLING, a town of the duchy of Stiria, on the
river Eims ; 28 miles N.W. of Pruck.

REIFFNITZ, a town of Middle Carniola ; 4 miles
N. W. of Gottlchee.

REIFTENBERG, a town of Auftria; 59 miles S.E.
of Goritz.

REIGELSBERG, a lordfhip of the duchy of Wurz-
burg.

REIGNAC, a town of France, in the department of
the Gironde ; 9 miles N.E. of Blaye.

REIGNIER, a town of France, in the department of
the Leman, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift of
Geneva. The place contains 1280, and the canton 9046 in-
habitants, on a territory of 1025 kiliometres, in 14 com-
munes.

P.EIGNING Winds, in Meteorology, are thofe winds
which ufually prevail in any particular coaft or region, the
knowledge of which is effentially necefiary to every pilot,
v;ho is charged with the navigation in thofe feas.

REIKENES, in Geography, a cape en the S. coaft of
Iceland. N. lat. 63° 43'.

REIKEVIG,

R E I

REIKEVIG, a fea-port town of Iceland, confifting of
about 60 or 70 hoiifes, ftaiiding in two rows of nearly equal
length, at riglit angles to each other, the high ftreet being
encumbered with rock. Among the rocks, which on every
fide furround the town, arc fcattered wretched hovels, a little
raifed above the level of the ground. The adjacent country
much refembles the fummit of fome of the higliell moun-
tains in Scotland, being compofcd of fragments of rocks,
and prefenting only a few patches ot alpine vegetation.
Almoll all the houles of Rcikevig are of Norwegian con-
ftruftion, and inhabited by Danes. The vvomeji of this
town are pruicipally employed in the operation of drying
filh. On the little jiland of Akarve, near this town, are bred
eider ducks in great numbers. About fix miles to the fouth
of Reikevig is an immenfe bed of lava, extending a length
of 2 J miles, and having its black and defolate furface broken
into mafies and fragments, which render it difficult and
dangerous to traverle it, efpecialiy where quantities of the
" trichoftomum" conceal the hollow parts from view. The
breadth of this remarkable current varies from two to ten
miles ; and its hideouily fliattered afpcift is fuppoied to have
refnlted from the expanfive force of clallic fluids which
cfcaped during the cooling of the lava. Moil of the pro-
duce of the Icelanders is brought to Reikevig ; and the in-
habitants of the interior of the country take back, in ex-
change for their tallow and (kins, the dried heads of the
cod-iilb, aild fuch filh as are injured by the rain and not lit
for exportation. Thefe form the principal article of their
food, and are eaten raw, with the addition of butter, &c.
Bilhop Videlinus in this place has a library of 5 or 600
volumes. The author of the work now cited (tates ttie
height of Hecla at about 5000 feet, and the population of
Iceland at about 48,000 perfons, who, from the rigour and
inltability of their climate, can never rely on their native
produce even for the necellary articles of lubfiRence. The
principal articles of export are dried iifb, (efpecialiy cod of
afuperlor quality,) mutton, lamb, beef, butter, tallow, train-
oil, coarfe woollen cloth, the il<ins of Iheep, lambs and foxes,
eider-down and fathers; and their ciiief importations arc
timber, fifhing tackle, various implements of tin, tobacco,
bread, (pirituous liquors, lalt, linen, &c. A large propor-
tion of their tood confifls of ii(h, butter, a:.d various pre-
parations of milk. Hooker's Journal of a Tour in Iceland
in 1809.

REILLANE, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Alps ; 7 miles S. of Forcalquier.

REIMBURSEMENT, in Commerce, the ad of repay-
ing or returning what monies a perfon had received, by way
of advance, &c. or what another had difburfed or paid for
him. A perfon who gives a bill of exchange in payment, is
to reimburfe it, if it come to be protelled, for want of being
accepted or paid.

REIMBURSING is alfo ufed for paying the price a
comiiioditv colls its owner.

REIMS, or RuEiMs, in Geography, one of the mod
ancient and celebrated cities of France, and principal place
of a diftrift, in the department of the Marne, feated on the
Veile. Before the revolution this city was the fee of an
archbiibop, who was the tirit duke and peer of Frar;ee, and
always crowned the king. In this place was the abbey of
the Benediftines of St. Remy, the noblelt of that order in
the kingdom of France; and on the altar of its church,
under which St. Remigius was buried, was kept the holy
vial, which, as tradition reports, was, in the year 496, at
,the baptifm ot Clovis by biftiop Remigius, brought from
heaven by a dove in deference to the prayer of that faint ;
the crowd obllrudting his palTage to tJie font with the ufual

R E I

oil. Tlie univerfity of Reims was founded in I3r47, and in
the following year authorifcd by the parliament of Paris.
This city contains 30,295 inhabitants, in the three parts into
which it is divided, and it has three correfponding cantons,
the firll containing 12,140, the fecond 10,107, and the third
10,874, in three, four, and five communes refpedively, on
a territory of 1 i7i kiliomctres. Rhcims carries on a con-
fiderable trade in wine, woollen and filk ItufiTs, and ginger-
bread. It has fevcral remains of Roman antiquities, par-
ticularly the three gates of the city, wliich itil! bear the
names of as many Pagan deities, wz. the Sun, Mars, and
Ceres. It was taken by the Englilh in the reign of Henry V
N. lat. 49° 15'. E. long. 4° 6'.

REIN, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 9 miles N.W.
of Gratz.— Alio, a town of the fame duchy, on the river
Save ; 20 miles E. of Cillcy.

Ka^-Beer, in Zoology. See CeRVUS Tarandus.

REINDORFF, in Geography, a town of Bavaria; 4
miles S.S.W. of Bamberg.

REINECCIUS, Reinier, in Biography, a learned Ger-
man, who flourilhcd in the i6th century, was a difciple of
Melanctlion, and taught the belles lettres in the univerfities
of Frankfort and Helmlladt till his death, in 1595. He is
known to the learned world by feveral works on liiilory and
genealogy, in which he was profoundly verfed. His chief
publications are, " Syntagma de Familiis Monarchiarum
trium priorum," 1574; '• Familia Regum .Judseorum ;"
* Chronicon Hierololymitanum ;" «' Hiiloria Oiientalis ;"
" Hiltoria Julia," three vols, folio ; " Methodus Legend!
Hiltoriam."

REINECK, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Rhine and Mofelle, late capital of a
burgravate, deriving its name from it, and fituated between
the duchy of Juliers and eleftorate of Cologne, on the borders
of the Rhine; 14 miles N.N.W. of Coblentz.

REINEN. See Rheine.

REINERTZ, a town of Silefia, in the comte of Glatz,
on the borders of Bohemia ; famous for its manufaftures of
beautitul cloth and plufh, and excellent paper, equal to the
bell in Holland ; x I miles W. of Glatz. N. lat. 50° 14'.
E. long. 16^ 10'.

REINFELDT, a town of Pruflia, in the province of
Pomerelia ; 12 miles S.W. of Dantzic.

REINFORCE, in Gunnery, is that part of a gun next
to the breech, which is made itronger, to refift the force
of the powder. There are generally two reinforces in each
piece, called the firft and fecond reinforce : the fecond is
fomewhat fmaller than the firft, upon the fuppofition that
when the powder is inflamed and occupies a greater fpace,
its force is diminiihed, which is very abfurd. See Cannon.

Reinforce Rings of a cannon, are flat mouldino-s like
iron hoops, placed at the breech-end of the firft and fecond
reinforce, projtdlmg beyond the reil of the metal about one-
fourth of an inch. See Cannon.

REINFORCEMENT, in War, a fupply, or new pro-
vifion of men, arms, ammunition, &c.

REINGUS, in Geography, a town of Auftria ; 32 miles
N.N.W. of Waidhoven.

REINHARTSBRUNN, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Gotha ; 10 miles S.S.W. of Gotha.
^ REINHARTZ, a town of Saxony ; two miles W. of
SchniiL-delberg.

REINHEIM, a town of the principality of Hefle
Darmftadt ; 5 miles S,E. of Darmftadt.

REINHOLD, Erasmus, in Biography, sn eminent
German mathematician, was born at Salfeldt, in Thuringia,
a province in Upper Saxony, in the year 1511. He was

educated

R E I

educated at the univerfity of Wittemberg, where his genius
chiefly inchned him to the ftudy of the mathematics, which
he cuhivatcd with great fucccfs. He afterwards became a
profeffor of thofe fciences in the fame univerfity, and ac-
quired very liigh reputation, not only by his kdlures, but
by the learned and ufeful writings which he communicated
to the public. Of thefe, which are very numerous, we
may mention " Theorise Novae Planetarum G. Purbachii,"
augmented and illuftrated with diagrams and fcholia.
" Ptolemy's Almageil, with a Latin Verfion, and Scholia."
In 155 1 he pubhlhed " Prutenicae Tabnlje Cccleftium Mo-
tuum," which were feveral times reprinted. In cacrying on
this work, which coll feven years' labour, he was encouraged
by the munificence of Albert, duke of Prufiia. They were
conftrufted by him from a companfon of the cbfervations of
Copernicus with thofe of Ptolemy and Hipparchus, and he
has fully explained the ufe of them in a great number of
precepts and canons, forming a complete iniroduftion to
pra&ical aftronomy. Reinhold alfo made many ailronomi-
cal obfervations, but he never had any better inftrument
than a wooden quadrant. The refult of thefe obfervations
were (hewn to Tycho Brahe after the death of Reinhold,
who exprefled his furprize that fo great and meritorious a
cultivator of aflronomical fcience was not furnilhed with
better inftruments. Reinhold died in 1553, when only in
the 42d year of his age, pronouncing the following verfe
a (hort time before he expired.

« Vixi, et quera dederas curfum mihi, Chrille, peregi."

He had a fon of the fame name, eminent as a mathematician
and phyfician, who publifhed a fmall work in the German
language " On Subterranean Geometry ;" alfo a traft con-
cerning the new ftar which appeared in Cafliopeia in 1572.

REINISCHDORF, in Geography, a town of Silefia,
in the principality of NeifTe ; 5 miles N. of Neifle.

REINS, in Jinatomy, the kidneys. See Kidney and
Renes.

The word, according to Varro, is formed from the
Greek, peiv, quafi rivl obfceni humoris ab lis oriantur. — The
Greeks call the rein vi^foc, from the verb ti:^iH, to rain,
Jnonu, Sec.

In the manege they fay, a horfe (hould have double reins ;
that is, he fhould have them a little more elevated on each
fide of the back-bone, than upon it ; fo that, pafling your
hand along it, you find it large, well-furni{hed, and double,
by the hollow that goe.s all along the back-bone. The
back fhould be firm and not hollow, or bending from the
withers to the croup, but Itraight.

Reins, of a bridle, alfo denote two ftraps of leather
meeting in the bridle-hand of the horfeman, in order to make
the bit bear, and keep the horfe under fubjedlion. See
Bridle.

It is alfo a name given by the duke of Newcallle to two
ftraps or ropes of a cavefTon, which he ordered to be made
faft to the girths, or the pommel of the faddle, with intent
that the rider fhould pull them with his hand, in order to
bend and fupple the neck of ^he horfe.

Rein, Falfe, is a lath of leather, pafTed fometimes through
the banquet, to bend the horfe's neck, which is difapproved
of by the duke of Newcaille, becaufe ft flacks the curb,
and makes the bit no more than a trench that has no
curb.

Reins, in Rural Economy, the long thongs or flrips of
leather, or other materials, by which horfes or other animals
are directed in carriages or teams, Thefe reins are much
ufed in fome counties, as Norfolk and Suffolk, in direfling
the plough-teams, in order to fave the expence of another

R E I

perfon, the ploughman directing them in this way himfclfi
the driver being by this means difpenfed with.

Reins, Check, a term fignifying the fame thing as a fort
of rein, and which is made ufe of in particular diftridte, .in
ch<M;king and directing the animals.

Reins, Whip, a term ufed to fignify a fort of hempen
rein, employed for directing the team in ploughing in fome
diftridts, fo called in confequence of being uled inftead of
whips.

Reins of a Fault. See Vault.

REINSBERG, or Rhinsberc, in Geography, a town
of Brandenburg, in the Middle Mark; 10 miles N.N.E. of
New Ruppin. N. lat. 53"^ 4'. E. long. 12° 58'.

REINSCHNICK, Der, a mountain of Stiria ; 12 miles
S.E. of Landfperg.

REINSDORF, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgebirg ; two miles E.S.E. of Zwickau.

REINSPURG, a town of Bavaria, in the territory of
Rothenburg ; fix miles S.S.W. of Rothenburg.

REINSTATING, the reftoring of a perfon or thing to
its former ftate or condition, from whence it had been dif-
turbed or difplaced. See Rehabilitation.

REINSTEIN, in Geography. See Regenstein.
REINSURANCE, or Re-assurance, in Commerce, a
contract by which a firft infurer reheves himfelf from the
rifles which he has undertaken, and devolves them upon other
under-writers, called re-infurers, or re-afTurers. When a
policy of infurance has been once figned, the under-writers are
bound by the terms of it ; nor can they be releafed from their
contract without the confent of the infured. But if an
under-writer repent of what he hasjdone ; if he be afraid to
encounter the rilk which he has engaged to run ; or if he
find that he has incautioufly engaged himfelf to a greater
amount than he may be able to difcharge, he may fhift it, or
part of it, from himfelf to other infurers, by caufing a re-
infurasce to be made on the fame riflf, upon the befl terras in
his power, and the new infurers will be refponfible to him in
cafe of lofs, to the amount of the r»-infurance. But in
fuch cafe, the new infurers are refponfible to the original
under-writer only, and not to the original infured, who can
have no remedy ffgainft him, in cafe of lofs, even though
the original infurer become infolvent ; becaufe there is no
privity of contraft between the original infured and the rc-
infurer. If, therefore, the original infurer fail, fo that the
original infured receive only a dividend, however fmall, the
re-infurer can gain nothing by this, but muft pay the full
amount of the lofs to the original infurer. Such is the law
on this fubjeft, in mofl of the commercial ftates of Europe.
But in this country it was found, about the time when the
ftatute 19 Geo. II. c. 17. was made, that this mode of in-
furance, though perfeftly reafonable, when confined to its
proper objeft, had been perverted from its original ufe, and
was employed as a mode of fpeculating in the rife and fall of
premiums ; and the legiflature forefeeing that it might be
ufed as a colour for wager policies, and a means of evading
theprovifions of that aft, declares (feft. 4.) " that it fhall
not be lawful to make re-infurance, unlefs the infurer fhall
be infolvent, become bankrupt, or die ; in either of which
cafes, fuch infurer, his executors, adminiftrators or afEgns,
may make re-infurance to the amount of the fum before by
him infured ; provided it be expreffed in the policy to be a
re-infurance." This claufe, having no words to confine its
operation to fhips belonging to Britifh fubjects, like the
firft claufe of the aft reftraining infurances, interefl or no inte-
r£/?, extends to re-infurances made in England in foreign fhips,
even when they are infured abroad. This has been fo deter-
mined } though it is obfervable that the following cafe, in

wliich

R F. I

which that queflion was made, was not the fpecies of re-iii-
furancL- above deicribed, and to which only the ilatute refers,
but zficonj in/urance,effe£tiid on account of the orjg'mal in-
fured.

That was the oafe of an infurance made in London, on a
French velfel, which had before been infured at Marfeilles
for the fame fum, by an infurer there, who, at the time of
fubfcribing the fecond policy, was living and folvent, and
who, in fadl, afterwards paid the fum infured by him.
Upon this cafe the court determined that the latter policy
■was void by the words of the aft ; for though the firll claufc
of the aft which prohibits infurances, ' intcreft or no inte-
reft,' is confined to infurances on Britifh {hips, yet the fourth
feftion being general, and without any fuch reltriftive claufe,
every re-infuraucc in this country, either by I'ritifli fub-
jefts, or forcignei-s, on Britirti or foreign iliips, is declared
void by the ftatute, unlefs the firfl infurer be infolvent, be-
come bankrupt, or die.

There are two other kinds of re-infurance ; the one where
the infured infures the folvency of the infurers ; the other,
where he makes a new infurance, in confequence of the in-
folvency of an infurer during the continuance of the rilk.

The infurance of the folvency of an infurer is permitted
and praftifed in fome foreign countries ; but it fccms never
to have been in ufe among us ; not, perhaps, as has been
iuppofed, becaufe the folvency of an under-writer is not an
infurable intercit, or that fuch an infurance would be deemed
a wager ; but, more probably, becaufe the infolvency of an
inlurer feldom happens in England ; befides, a double in-
furance would better anfwer the end propofed.

If France, if an infurer fail during the continuance of
the rifk, the infured may infill on the diflblution of thecon-
traft, unlefs the creditors of the infolvent infurer, in order
to entitle themfelvesto receive the premium, (which is rarely
paid in that country till after tha rifk is ended,) will give fe-
curity for the payment of the fum infured, in cafe of lofs.
At Marfeilles, (for in France different praftices prevail in
different provinces,) the infured, in fuch cafe, fues the infol-
vent infurer, till he obtains a fentence, authorizing him to
re-infure at the expence of the infolvent, which he may de-
duft from the ftipulated premium, if it be not paid, and
if this be infufhcient, then out of the effefts of the in-
folvent.

Double infurance is where the infured makes two infurances
on the fame rifle, and the fame intcreft ; and it differs from
a re-infurance in this, that it is made by the injured, in order
that he may be entitled to receive a double fatisfaftion, in
cafe of lofs ; whereas, a re-infurance is made by a former
infurer, his executors or affigns, to proteft himfelf and his
eilate from a rifk to which they were liable by the firlt in-
furance. A re-infurance, except in the cafes permitted by
the ftat. 19 Geo. II. c. 37. J 4, is abfolutely void ; but a
double infurance, though it be made with a view to a double
fatisfaftion in cafe of lofs, and is therefore in the nature of
a wager, is not void by the law of England. The two poli-
cies are confidered as making but one infurance. They are
good to the extent of the value of the effefts put in rifk : but
the infured fhall not be permitted to recover a double fatis-
faftion. He mby fue the undsr-writers on both the policies,
but he can only recover the real amount of his lofs, to
which all the under-writers fhail contribute in proportion to
their feveral fubfcriptioi.s. And therefore, if he fhould
content himfelf with luiug only on one of the policies, the
under-writers on that policy may recover a rateable contribu-
tion from thofe on the other.

In confequenae of the determination of lord Mansfield, in
1763, it has been agreed ^j be the courfe of praftice, that,
Vol. XXIX.

R E I

upon a double' iii.furance, though the infured is not entitled
to two fatisfactioiis, yet, that in an aftion upon thefirft policy,
he may recover the' whole fum infured, and may leave tlie de-
fendants therein to recover a rateable fatisfaftion from tlie
other infurers. Formerly, in tlie cafe of an over -infurance,
that is, where, in a fingle pohcy, the fums fubfcribcd
amount to much more than the value of the eflefts infured,
the firfl under-writers on the pohcy were holdento be anfwer-
able to tlie extent of the lofs, and the fubfequent ones dii-
charged. Although only a fingle fatisfatlion can be reco-
vered on a double infurance by the fame perfon, yet dilFerent
perfons may iiifurc the fame thing, and eacli recover the full
value of the thing infured. To enable the defendant, 111 ati
aftion on a policy, to difcover whether there be a double
infurance, he may, by the authority of the ftatute
19 Geo. II. c. 37. J 6, call upon the plaintiff to declare in
writing, what fums he has infured in the whole, and how
much he has borrowed on bottomry or relpondentia. Mar-
fhal's Treatife on the Law of Infurance, vol. 1. ch. 4. ^ 4.
REINTAL, in Geography, a town of Auftria ; four
miles E.S.E. of Feldfberg.

REINTEGRATION. See Redintegration.
REJOICING FiUE, in Military AJairs, is ufed on ob-
taining a viftory, or in celebrating fome public feftival : of
this there are two forts, ws;. one by a volley, and the
other by a running fire, from the right to the left of the
battalion or line.

REJOINDER, in Laiv, the defendant's anfwer to the
plaintiff's replication.

The order of the court of chancery is thus ; firft, the
defendant puts in an anfwer or pica to the plaintiff's bill,
which is fometimes alfo called an exception ; the plaintiff's an-
fwer to this is called a replication ; and the defendant's an-
fwer to that, a rejoinder.

The plaintiff may anfwer the rejoinder by a fur-rejoinder,
upon which the defendant may rebut ; and the plaintiff may
anfwer him by a fur-rebutter ; which pleas, replications, re-
joinders, fur-rejoinders, rebutters, and fur-rebutters, anfwer
to the exceptio, duplicatio, triplication and guadruplicalio of l\\s
Roman laws. See Pleading.

REJOINTING, or Rejoynting, in Architedure, the
filling up of joints of the ftoncs in old buildings, &c. when
worn hollow by the courfe of time, or by weather.

Rejointing is to be performed with the beft mortar, as
that of lime and cement ; fometimes alfo with plaifter ; as in
the joints of vaults, &c.

REIPOLTZHEIM, in Geography, a town of the
duchy of Wurzburg ; three miles N.E. of Schwarzbach.

REIPOLTZKIRCHEN, a caftle of France, in the

department of Mont Tonnerre, which gave name to a lord-

fhip, fituated in the Hunfruck ; five miles E. of Lautereck.

REIS, Re, or Res, in Commerce. See Rees.

REISBACH, in Geography, a town of Lower Bavaria,

in the Vils ; 35 miles W. of Paffau.

REISCH, a town ef Moravia, in the circle of Iglau ,
18 miles S. of Iglau.

REISCHSTADT, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boleflau ; two miles N.W. of Nimep.

REIS-EFFENDI, in the Turkijl} Empire, one of the
ten members of the divan, (which fee,) or council of the
grand vifir, of which the vifir and mufti are the prefidents.
The rers-efleudi is a kind of fecretary of ftate, high chan-
cellor of the empire, and minilter for foreign affairs. He
figns all the orders of the Porte, which do not direftly con-
cern the finances and the military operations ; he treats with
all the European minifters who are at Conftantinople : in a
word, every thing that concerns the foreign powers, and
4 M every

R E 1

R E L

every thing that relates to the interior adniiiiillratiou, pafi
through the channel of the reis-effendi ; but he dots nothing
without communicating it to tlie grand vifir, and taking liia
orders. In this council there are alfo two ex-reU-efftndi.

REISENBERG, in Geography, a town of Auttria, on
the Reifenpach river ; 12 miles S.E. of Vienna.

REISENBURG, a town of Prullia, in the province of
Oberland, built in the year 1169, and anciently the refi-
dence of the bifhops of Pomerania. The chief fubfiitenre
of the inhabitants is derived from brewing and agricul-
ture ; near it is an ancient calUe ; 78 miles S.W. of Konigf-
berg.

REISENGEBERG, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Konigingratz. N. lat. 50° 40'. E. long. 15° 30'.

REISENPACH, a river of Aullria, which runs into
tl>e Danube ; 12 miles below Vienna.

REISHOFFEN, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Rhine ; 21 miles N. of Strafburg.

REIS.IARVI, a town of Sweden, in the government
cf Ulea ; 47 miles E. of Gamla Karleby.

REISKE, John Jamks, in Biography, a learned philo-
logift, born in 1716, at Zorlis, in Mifnia, was the. fon of a
tanner in that place. He was, at the age of twelve, fent
to the orphan-fchool at Halle, where he made a rapid pro-
grefs in the learning of the place. In 1733 he entered at the
univerfity of I.eipfic, and being deftined for the theological
profeflion, he fpcnt five years chiefly in the itudy of rabbi-
nical writings, and in tlie ftudy of the Arabic language.
To the latter he became fo ardently attached, and his paf-
fion for Arabic books was fo ftrong, that he almoil deprived
himfelf of necedaries to purchafe them. He went to Hol-
land with the view of improving himfelf in his favourite
language, and while there, he ranfacked all the Oriental
treafurcs of the library at Leyden, while, for his fubfiftence,
he was obliged to become a correftor of the prefs. He
paffed his time in a Hate of indigence that brought upon
him hypochondriac affeflions, the eSedis of which never
left him. During his refidence at Leyden, he was prefented
with a gratuitous degree in phyfic, but he never intended to
avail himfelf of it in the way of praftice : " Poverty," fays
his biographer, " was his perpetual companion, and his
fcanty refources were derived from correcting the prefs,
tranflating, and performing other talks for bookfellers."
Many learned pieces in Oriental and Greek literature occa-
fionally proceeded from his pen, which made him well known
in the learned world : and feveral of the works edited by him
are held in very high eftimation. He was atlaft nominated
reclor of the college of St. Nicholas, in Leipfic, a htuation
xvhich enabled him to piirfue his literary labours more ac-
cording to his inclination. At the age of forty-eight he
married Erneftine MuUcr, a young woman of twenty-five,
who, under his inllrudtions, acquired fo much knowledge of
the Greek and Latin, and fome modern languages, that (he
became extremely ufeful to her hulband in his editorial ein-
ployments. He died at the age of fifty -eight, in the year
J 774. Of the moft valuable works of Reifke, are " Differ-
tatio de Principibus Muhamedanis qui aut ab Eruditione aut
ab Amore Literarum inclaruerunt ;" " Animadverfiones in
Sophoclem ;" " Animadverfiones in Auflores Grjecos ;"
" OratorumGrscorum," 8voIs.; "Plutarchi Opera omnia;"
■" Maximi Tyrii Differt.;" " Apparatus Critici ad Demof-
"ihenem," 3 vols. And after his death were pubhfhed his
I •" Conjefturse in Jobum et Proverbia Salomonis, cum Ora-
lione de Studio Arabia Lingua." The " Adla Eradito-
711m" were much indebted to the pen of Rei/ke.

REISNITZ, in Geography, a towa of the duchy of
Carjiiola ; four miles N. W. of Gottfchee,

RElbSENDORI", a town of Silefia, in the principality
of Neilfe ; four miles N. of Putrtikau.

REISTEN, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg ; fix
miles N.N.E. of Arnftein.

REISTERSTOWN, a poft-town of America, in
Baltimore county, Maryland; ten miles S.E. of Weil -
minder.

REITERATED Gkafting. See Grafting.

REITERATING, in Printing. See Printing.

REITERATION, the aft of repeating a thing, or
doing it a fecond time.

The church does not allow of the reiteration of baptilm.
St. Gregory obferves, that it is no reiteration when there
are wanting proofs of the thing's having been regularly done
before.

REITLENGIN, in Geography. See Reutlencin.

REITTERECK, a tov/n of Stiria ; feven miles E. oi
Voitfhurg.

REITTERS, an ancient title given the German cavalry.
The word is originally High Dutch, and fignifies a horfe-
man, cavalier, or even knight.

REITZ, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the pro-
vince of Beira ; three miles N. of Vifeu.

REKEK, a fmall ifiand in the Eaft Indian fea. S. la'.
i°33'. E. long. 138'= 40'.

RELAIS, in Fortijlcatior., a French term, the fame with
herme.

RELAND, Adria>:, in Biography, an eminent orien-
talift and polite fcholar, was born in the year 1676, at a
village in North Holland., He was educated at Amfterdam,
and made fuch progrefs in learning, that, having gone
through the ufual clafTical courfc when he was only eleven
years old, he employed the next three years in making him-
felf acquainted with the Hebrew, Syriac, Chaldee, and
Arabic languages. At the age of fourteen he was fent to
the univerfity at Utrecht, and in three years was admitted
to the degree of dottor in philofophy, and on this occafion
he fuilained a thefis " De Libertate Philofophandi." After
a refidence of fix years at Utrecht he removed to Leyden,
and was in a fliort time chofen by the earl of Portland as
preceptor to his fon. At the age of twenty- four, the univer-
fity of Harderwyk nominated him to the chair of philofo-
phy, but he did not remain long in that fituation, for the
univerfity of Utrecht, on the recommendation of king
William, invited him to the profelforfliip of the Oriental
languages and Jewifii antiquities, which he accepted, and oc-
cupied with high reputation during the remainder of hij life.
He died at the age of 43, in the year 17 19. Few writers
have met with more general applaufe than Reland. His
principal works, which are all extremely valuable, are ;

1. " Paleftina Monumentis veteribus illuftrata," 2 vols. 4to.

2. " Diflertationes de nummis veterum Hebrsorum."

3. " Antiquitates facrse veterum Heba°orum." 4. " In-
troduftio ad Grammaticam Hebraeam." 5. " De Spohis
Templi Hierofolymitani in Arcu Titiano Roniae confpi-
cuis." 6. " De Religione Muhamedica." Befides thefe
he publiihed many other thi^ngs. In private life he was dif-
tinguifhed by his modefty, humanity, and learning, and
carried on a correfpondence with the moft eminent fcholars
of his time. Moreri.

RELAPSE, in Medicine, the recurrence of a difeafe
durincj the period of convalefcence.

Relapfes of all difeafes, whether acute or chronic, are
deemed more dangerous than the original attack ; becaufe
the conftitution, being already debilitated and rtduced by
the previous illnefs, is lefs capable of refilling the farther
ravages of difeafe. This may be faid to be true of all acute

difeafes.

R E L

(lifeafes, fuch as fevers, dyfentcrics, inflnmmations of the
lungs, liver. Sec. Ncverthelel's, rclnpfes of tliefe difordcr-!
are not always fatal ; bccaufc, as the weaker coiilHtution is
lefs capable of being excited to violent adtion, i'o thcfe le-
cond attacks are iometimes milder, and mm-eearily influenced
by remedies. Relapfes of chronic difeafes, luch as dropfies
or jaundice, are more unfavourable ; becaufe their recur-
rence implies that the internal dii'eafe, from which they ori-
ginate, is not removed, but has only been temporarily alle-
viated.

RELATIO, Lat., Relation, Engl., in Mtific. Relative
founds are in general fuch as belong to two or more cliords,
as in the key of C. The cliords of A, F, G, and E, are
relative chords ; as E, the 5th of A, is 3d of C ; in tlie chord
of F, C is the 5th ; in the chords of G and E, each of
thofe founds is a part of the chord of C.

• *

C major.

m^^^^^^

'ee=L

ira:

ZMZ

::zp

^1

The relatives to A minor are obvious here.

3^^

-m^~

*•_

e-

1

zrizzs:-

m

In the modulation by rifnig and faUing a 3d in the bafe,
two relative notes are in common with each chord. The
moft: agreeable relation of a minor key to a major, is in the
modulation from a minor key to the 3d above : as from A to
C, or D to F ; tlie fcales of both keys being the fame in
defcending. But falling a 3d in the bafe from a minor 3d to
a major, as from A to F, or from D to Bb, is Hill more
pleafing.

Fa/fe relation is C* againft Clq, or G« in the chord of
Cfc). But even thefe falfe relations are allowed now, as
paljing-notcs of tafte, though not in the body of the hr-
mony.

RELATION, Relatio, in PhUofophy, the mutual Ti-
fpeft of two things ; or what each is with regard to the
other.

The word is formed a referenda : relation confifting in this,
'hat one thing is referred to another : whence it is alfo called
/ejpeli, habitude, and comparifon.

The idea of relation we acquire, when the mind fo con-
uders any thing, that it doth, as it were, bring it to, and fet
it by, another, and carry its view from the one to the other.
Hence the denominations given to things intimating this re-
fpeft, are called relatives ; and the things fo brought toge-
ther, are faid to be relatid.

Thus, when I call Cains hujhand, or this wall whiter, I
intimate fome other pcrfon or thing in both cafes, with
which I compare him or it. Hence the wall is called by
the fchoolmen the fubject ; the thing it exceeds in white-
nefe, the term; and the whitenefs, the foundation of the
relation.

R E L

Relation may be confidered two wayr, ; either on tlie part
of the mind referring one thing to another; in which fenfe
relation is only a mode or afl'edion of the mind, by which
we maice iuch comparifon ; or on the part of the things
referred, which being no other than ideas, relation, in this
fenfe, i". only a new idea refulting or arifing in the mind
upon confidering of two other ideas. So that relation, tak-;
it as yon will, is only in the mind, and has nothing to do
with the things themfelves.

Any of our ideas, Mr. Locke obferves, may be the
foundation of relation. Though where languages have
failed to give correlative names, the relation is not eaiily
taken notice of ; as in concubine, which is a relative name,
as well as w'ife.

There is, in elFeft, no idea but is capable of an infinite
number of relations : thus, one fingle man may at once
fudain the relations of father, brother, fon, hulband,
friend, fubjeft, general, European, Englifhmaii, iflander,
mailer, fervant, bigger, lefs, &c. to an almoll infinite
number ; he being capable of as many relations as there
can be occafions of comparing him to other tilings in any
manner of agreement or difagreeraent, or any refpecl what-
foever.

The ideas of relations are much clearer and more dii-
tindt than thofe of the things related ; becaufe the know-
ledge of one fimple idea is oftentimes fufiicient to give
the notion of a relation ; but, to the knowing of any
fubftantial being, an accurate conneAion of feveral ideas
is neceflary.

The perception we have of the relations between the various
ideas in which the mind acquiefces, makes wliat we call
judgment. Thus, when I judge that twice 2 maTce 4, or do
not make 5, I only perceive the equahty between twice 2
and 4, and the inequality between twice z and 5.

The perception wc have of the relations between the re-
lations of various things, conftitutes what we call reafoning.
Thus, when from this that 4 is a fmaller number than 6,
and that twice 2 is equal to 4, I gather, that twice 2 is a
lefs number than 6 ; I only perceive together the relation
of the numbers twice 2 and 4, and the relation of 4
and 6.

The ideas of caufe and effeft, we get from our obferva-
tion of the vicillitude of things, while we perceive fome
qualities or fubllances begin to exift, and that they receive
their exiftence from the due application and operation of
other beings. That which produceth, is the caufe ; that
which is produced, is the effeft.

Thus, fluidity in wax is the effect of a certain degree of
heat, which we obferve to be conilantly produced by the
application of fuch heat.

The denominations of things taken from time are, for
the moft part, only relations. Thus, when it is faid, that
queen Elisabeth lived fixty-nine, and reigned forty-five years,
no more is meant, than that the duration of her exiftence
is equal to fixty-nine, and of her government to forty-five,
annual revolutions of the fun ; and fo are all words anfwer-
ing to how long.

Young and old, and other words of time, that are
thought to ftand for pofitive ideas, are indeed relative, and
intimate a relation t» a certain length of duration, of which
we have the ideas in our minds. Thus, we call a man young
or old, that had lived little or much of that time which men
ufually attain to : and thus a man is called young at twenty,
but a horfe old at the fame period.

Tihere are other ideas that are truly relative, which we

fignify by names that are thought pofitive and abfolute ; fuch

as great aiid little, ftrong and weak. The things thus deno-

4 M 2 miuated

R E L

R E L

miiiatcd arc- referred to fomc llaiitlards, with whicli we com-
pare them : thus, we call an apple ^rmi, which is bijrgcr
than the ordinary lorl of ihofc we have been ufcd to ; ai»d
a man -weak, that has not lo much Itrength or power to
move as men uiually have, or as others of his own fize

Authors give various divifions of relations. The fchool
pliilofophers commonly divide them into thofe of originfitlon,
under which arc comprelunided the relations of caufe and
elfca ; thofe of negation, which are between oppofite things ;
snd thofe of affirmation, which are relations of agreement
between whole and part, tlic fign and thing fignified, the
adjunft and fubjeft. This divifion is founded upon this,
that the mind can only compare things three ways ; wz. by
inferring, denying, and affirming.

Others divide relations into thofe of origination ; thofe of
agreement, e. gr. fimilitude, parity, &c. ; thofe of dlverftty ;
and thofe of orders, as priority, polleriority, &c.

Others divide them into predicamental and tranfcendcntal.
Under the (irft come thofe relations between things that be-
long to the fame predicament, e. gr. between father and fon.
To the latter belong thofe which are more general than the
predicaments, or are of different predicaments ; as the rela-
tions of fubftance and accident ; of caufe and effeft ; and of
Creator and creature.

Mr. Locke gives us a diftribution of relations on a differ-
ent principle. All fmiple ideas, he obferves, in which are
parts or degrees, afford an occafion of comparing the
fubjefts in which they are to one another, in refpedl of
thofe fimple ideas ; as whiter, fweeter, more, lefs, &c.
Thefe, depending on the equality and excefs of the fame
fimple idea, in feveral fubjed s, may be called proportional
relations.

Another occafion of comparing things being taken from
the circumilances of their origin, as father, fon, brother,
&c. thefe may be called natural relations.

Sometimes the foundation of confidering things is fome
aft, by which any one comes by a moral right, power, or
obligation, to do fomething : fuch are general, captain,
burgher : thefe are itijlituted and -voluntary relations, and may
be diftinguifhed from the natural, in that they are alterable
and feparable from the perfons to whom they fometimes be-
longed, though neither of the fubftances fo related be
deflroyed. But natural relations are not alterable, but are
as lading as their fubjecls.

Another relation is the conformity or difagreement of
men's voluntary actions to a rule, to which they are re-
ferred, and by which they are judged of: thefe maybe
called moral relations.

It is this conformity or difagreement of our aftions to
fome law (by which good or evil is drawn on us from the
will and power of the law-maker, and is what we call re-
ward or punifljment) ihzt renders our actions morally good
or evil.

Of thefe moral rules or laws there feem to be three forts,
with their different enforcements. Firft, the divine law ;
fecondly, civil law ; thirdly, the law of opinion or reputa-
tion. By their relation to the firit, our actions are either
fins or duties ; to the fecond, criminal or innocent ; to the
third, virtues or vices. Locke's Eflay, vol. i. chap. 25,

^'^' 33- . . .

Relation, in Logic, is an accident of fubftance, ac-
counted one of the ten categories or predicaments.

Each fubftance admits of an infinity of relations. Thus
the fame Peter confidered with regard to Henry, is iu the
relation of a mafter ; with regard to John, in that of a
tenant-; with regard to Mary, in that of a hufband, &c.

Again, with regard to one perfon, he is rich ; with regard
lo another, poor ; with regard to another, he is far, nev,
tall, (hort, a neighbour, llranger, learned, unlearned,
good, bad, equal, &c. It is difputed among t.he fchool
philofophers, whether or no the relation be a thing for-
mally and really diftindt from the foundation of the fub-
ftance.

Relation, Relatio, in Rhetoric, is (ometimes ufed lo
fignify the fame with recrimination ; which fee.

Rllation is alfo ufed, in the School Theology, to denote
certain of the divine perfections, caWed per/o/ial ones; be-
caufc by thefe one Divine Perfon is referred to another, and
dillinguiftied from it.

Hence the fchoolmen teach, that in God there is one
nature, two proceffions, three perfons, and four relations.

Thefe relations are paternity, filiation, aftive fpiration,
and paflive fpiration.

Rklation, in Geojnetry, Arithmetic, &c. is the habitude,
or refpedt of two quantities to one another, with regard to
their magnitude. This we more ufually called ratio or
reafon. See Ratio.

The equality or famenefs of two fuch relations we call
proportion ; which fee.

Relation, in Grammar, is the correfpondence which
words have to one another in ccnjlru8ien ; which fee. See
alfo Regimen and Syntax.

Faulty and irregular relations are the things chiefly to
be guarded againft in writing corredtly ; they make the
fenfe obfcure, and frequently equivocal. Thus : the orator
was attended to with a coldnefs, which was the more re-
markable, as the audience were under fome emotion before
he began. Here coldnefs being put indeterminately, the
relative -which can have no jull and regular relation to it.

Relation is alfo frequently ufed for analogy, or what
feveral things have in common. See Analogy.

In painting, architefture, &c. a certain relation of the
feveral parts and members of the building, or pifture, con-
ftitutes what we cvW fymmetry ; which fee.

Relation, in Laiv, is where two things, as times, &c.
are confidered as if they were one; the thing fubfeqaent
being confidered as taking effeft, by relation, at the time
preceding.

As if A dehver a writing to B, to be delivered to C,
as the deed of A ; the writing fhall be deemed to be
delivered to C, at the time when it was given to B, by
relation.

When the execution of a thing is done, it hath relation
to the thing executory, and makes all but one aft to record,
although performed at feveral times, (i Rep. 199.) Judg-
ment fhall have relation to the firft day of the term, as if
given on that very day, unlefs there is a memorandum to
the contrary ; as where there is a continuance till another
day in the fame term. (3 Salk. 212.) A verdift was
given in a caufe for a plaintiff, and there was a motion in
arreft of judgment within four days ; the court took time
to advife, and in four days afterwards the plaintiff died :
it was adjudged, that the favour of the court ftiall not
prejudice the party, for the judgment ought to have been
given after the firft four days ; and though it is given after
the death of the party, it (hall have relation to the time
when it ought to have been given, (i Leon. 187.) Rule
was had for judgment, and two days after the plaintiff died ;
yet the judgment was entered, becaufe it ftiall have relation
to the day when the rule was given, which was when the
plaintiff was ahve. (Poph. 132.) Judgment againft an
heir of the obligation of his anceftor fhall have relation to
the time of the writ. Jir/l purchafed ; and from that time it

wUl

RET.

will avoid all alienation made by the hoir. (Cro. Car. 102.)
If one be bail for a defendant, and before judgment he
leafes his lands; they fliali be liable to the bail, and judg-
ment by relation.

By itat. 29 Car. II. c.' 3. § 16. writs of execution
(hall bind the property of goods taken in execution,
only from the time of their delivery to the officer.
Sale of goods of a bankrupt, by commiflioners, fliall
have rek.tion to the lirll adt of bankruptcy ; and be
good, notvvithllanding the bankrupt fells them afterwards.
(Stat. Jac. I. c. 15.) If a man buys cattle in a market,
which are (bolen, and felleth them out of the market,
though the cattle are afterwards brought into the market,
and the fecond bargain confirmed, and money paid, &c.,
this bargain will not be good ; for it fhall have relation to
the beginning, which was unlawful. (Dyer 99.) Fines,
being but common alluranccs, (hall be guided by the in-
dentures precedent ; and the execution of them have relation
to the original aft. (Cro. Jac. iio.) Letters of admi-
niftration relate to the death of the inteilatc, and not to
the time when they were granted.

So bills in Parliament to which the king aflents on the
lalt day of parliament, (hall relate and be of force from
the firll day thereof. Coke calls this Jia'io juris.
Rf.lation, in Mujic. See Relatio.
RELATIVE PiiorosiTiONS, are fuch as include fome
relation and comparifon.

Thus, where the treafure is, there will the heart be ;
As much as thou haft, fo much thou art worth, &c. are
relative propofitions.

Relative gravity, levity, motion, neceffity, place, /pace,
time, velocity. See the feveral fubftantives.

Relative Terms, in Logic, are words which imply a
relation, or a thing confidered as compared to another.

Relative terms include a kind of oppofitian between
them ; yet fo, as that the one cannot be without the
other.

Such are father and fon, hujhand and ivije, king and
fiihjeds, &c.

Relative, in Grammar, is a word or term, which in
the conftruftion anfvvers to fome word foregoing, called the
antecedent ; which fee.

All relatives are faid to reciprocate, or mutually infer
each other ; and, therefore, they are often expreffed by
the genitive cafe.

Relative Pronoun. See Pronoun.
RELATOR, in Latv, a rehearfer, or teller, applied
to an informer. See Information.

RELAXATION, in Laiu, is ufed for a releafing. See
Release.

In this fenfe, we fay the relaxation of an attachment in
the court of admiralty.

The tenor of indulgence is a relaxation, or a diminution,
of the pains of purgatory.

Relaxation, in Surgery, is a preternatural extenlion,
or ftraining of a nerve, tendon, mufcle, or the like ; either
through violence or weaknefs.

Hernias are defcents or relaxations of the inteftines, &c.
From the fame caufe arife defcents or prolapfions of the
anus, &c.

RELAY, a frelh equipage, horfe, &c. fent before, or
appointed to be ready, for a traveller to change, to make
the greater expedition ; as in riding polt.

The term is boiTowed from the French, relais, which
iignifies the fame thing. In France, the general of the
ports entitles himfelf fuperintendant of the relays.

Relay Horfis, in the Artillery, are horfes that march

R E L

with the artillery or baggage, and are ready to relieve
others, or to aflill in going up a hill, or through bad
roads, &c.

Relavk, in Hunting, arc trL-(h fcts of dogs, or horfes,
or both, difpofed here and there for readinefi, in cafe the
jrame come that way, to be call oft, or to mount the
hunters in lieu of the former, which are fuppofed to want
refpile. ,

Relay, in 'lapejlry, is an opening k-ft in a piece of
tapedry, where the colours or figures are to be changed ;
becaufe on thole occafions, the workmen are changed ; or
elfe the places are left to be filled up, till the reft of the
work is done. See Tapestry.

RELEASE, Relax ATio, in Law, denotes an inllru-
ment, by which edates, rights, titles, entries, adtions, and
other things, are fometimes extinguilhed and annulled,
fometimcs transferred, fometimes abridged, and even fome-
times enlarged : and it is a fpecies of conveyance which
jirefuppofes fome other conveyance precedent, and ferves to
enlarge, confirm, alter, rellrain, reflore, or transfer the
interell granted by fuch original conveyance.

A releafe is either in faft or in law. A releafe infaS, is
that which the very words do exprefsly declare.

A releafe in law, is that which acquits by way of con-
fequence, or intendment of law. A releafe is the giving or
difcharging of a right of aftion, which a man hath claimed,
or may claim, againll another, or that which is his : or it
is the conveyance of a man's mterell or right which he
hath to a thing, to another who hath pod'eifion of it, or
fome eftate in it. (4 New Abr.) According to Coke releafes
are diftinguilhed into exprefs releafes in deed, and thofe
arifing by operation of law ; and are made of lands and
tenements, goods and chattels ; or of aftions real, per-
fonal and mixed, (i Inft. 264.) Releafes of land may
enure, or take effeft, either, i. By way of enlarging an
ejlate, or enlarger I'ejlale : as if there be tenant for life or
years, remainder to another in fee, and he in remainder re-
leafes all his right to the particular tenant and his heirs,
this gives him the eftate in fee. (Litt. § 465.) But in
this cafe the releflee muft be in polleflion of fome eftate,
for the releafe to work upon : for if there be a lefl'ee for
years, and, before he enters and is in polleflion, the lefTor
releafes to him all his rights in the reverfion, fuch releafe is
void for want of pofleflion in the relell'ee. (Litt. § 459.)
But when it is faid, that a releafe, which enures by en-
largement, cannot work without a pofleflion, it muft be
underftood to mean, not that an aftual eftate in pofleflion is
neceflary, but that a " vefted interell" fuffices for fuch a
releafe to operate upon. By comparing this with the opera-
tion of a Lease and Releafe (which fee) it will be feen,
that not only eftatcs in pofleflion, but eliates in remainder
and reverfion, and all other incorporeal hereditaments, may
be effeftually granted and conveyed by leafe and releafe ;
but it is an inaccuracy to fay, that the releflees are, in thefe
cafes, in aftual pofleflion of the hereditaments : the right
expreflion is, that they are aftually vefted in him, by virtue
of the leafe in poffeltion and the ftatute. i Inft. 270. {a)

To make releafes operate by enlargement, it is generally
necelTary, that the releflee, at the time the releafe is made,
(hould be in aftual pofl'elTion of, or have a vefted intereft in,
the lands intended to be releafed ; that there fhould be a
privity between him and the releffor ; and that the pofleflion
of the releflee (hould be notorious.

2. By way of pajfing an ejlate, or mitter I'ejlate: as
when one or two co-parceners releafeth all her right
to the other, this pafl'eth the fee-fimple of the whole.

(I Inft.

R E L

(l Inft. 273.) And in both tUelo cafes llicrc mull bo
a privity of eftate between the ix'ledbr and the rclellce ;
that is, one of their ellates miift be fp related to the
other, as to make but one and the fame eilate in law.

3. By way of paffing a right, or mitter le droit: as if
a man be diifeifed, and releafcth to his diffeifor all his
right ; hereby the difl'cifor acquires a new right, which
changes the quality of his eftatcs, and renders that lawful
which before was tortious or wrongful. (Litt. §. 466.)

4. By way oi extrngui/hmait : as if iny tenant for life makes
a leafe lo A for hfe, remainder to B and his heirs, and I
releafe to A ; this extinguiilies my right to the reverfion,
and fliall enure to tlie advantage of B's remainder as well
as of A's particular eftate. (Litt. §. 470.) 5. Byway
of tiilry and feoffment : as if there be two joint difl'eifors,
and the diiieifee releafes to one of them, he fliall be fole
feifed ; and fhall keep out his former companion ; which is
the fame in effeft as if the difleifee had entered, and by
that means put an end to the 'difreifin, and afterwards had en-
feoffed one of the difl'eifors in fee. (l Inft. 278.) And here-
upon we may obferve, that when a man has in himfelf the
polTeflion of lands, he mull at tlie common law convey the
freehold by feoffment and livery ; which makes a notoriety
in the country : but if a man has only a right or a future
interefl, he may convey that right or interefl by a mere re-
leafe to him that is in pofFelTion of the land : for the oc-
cupancy of the relefTee is a matter of fufficient notoriety
already. Blackft. Com. book ii. See Lease and Releafe.

Littleton fays, that the proper words of a releafe are
" remififle, rclaxafUc, and quietum clamafle," which have
all the fame fignillcation. Lord Coke adds, " renunciarc,
acquietare," and fays, that there are other words which
will amount to a releafe ; as, if the lefTor grants to the
lefl'ee for life, that he (hall be difcharged of the rent ; this
is a good releafe. (Litt. § 445. i Inft. 264. Plowd. 140.)
So a pardon, by aft of parliament, of all debts and judg-
ments, amounts to a releafe of the debt : the word pardon
including a releafe. (i Sid. 261.) An exprefs releafe
muft regularly be in writing and by deed, according to the
common rule, " eodcm modo oritur, eodem modo dilTol-
vitur," fo that a duty ariiing by record muft be difcharged
by matter of as high a nature : fa of a bond or other deed.
(Co. Litt. 264. b. I Rol. Rep. 43. 2 Leon. 76. 213.
2 Rol. Abr. 408. 2 Sand. 49. Morr. 573. pi. 787.)
But a promife by words may, before breach, be difcharged
or releafed, by word of mouth only. ( i Sid. 177. 2 Sid. 78.
Cro. Jac. 483. 620. See Cro. Car. 383. I Mod. 262.
2 Mod. 259. I Sid. 293.) A releafe of a right in chat-
tels cannot be without deed, (i Leon. 283.) A cove-
nant perpetual, as that the covenantor will not fue beyond
a certain limitation of time, is an abiolute releafe. But if
the covenant be, that he will not fue till fuch a time, this
does not amount to a releafe, nor is pleadable in bar as
fuch, but the party hath remedy only on his covenant. If
two are jointly and feverally bound in an obligation, and
the obligee, by deed, covenants and agrees not to fue one
of them ; this is no releafe, and he may notwithftanding
fue the other. (Cro. Car. 551. 2 Salk. 575.) But if
two are jointly and feverally bound, a releafe to one dif-
chargcs the other. L. Rayni. 420.

It feems agreed, that a will, though fealed and delivered,
cannot amount lo a releafe ; and, therefore, where in debt
on an obligation, by the reprefentative of a teftator, a de-
fendant pleaded, that the teflator by his lafl will in writing
releafed to the defendant ; this was adjudged ill, and that no
advantage could be taken by plea. (1 Sid. 421.) But it
hath been held in equity, that though a will cannot tenure

R E L

as a releafe, yet provided it were cxprcdcdto be the intf^n-
tion of the teflator that the debt llionld be difcharged, the
will would operate accordingly ; and that, in fuch cafe, 11
would be plainly an abfolute difcharge of the debt, thougli
the teflator had furvived the legatee. ( i P- Wrm. 85.
2 Vern. 521.) If a debt is mentioned to be devifcd to the
debtor, without words of releafe, or difcharge of the debt,
and the debtor die before the teflator, this will not: operate
as a releafe, but will be confidered as a lapfed legacy, and
the debt will fubfifl. (2 Vern. 522.) A debt is only a
right to recover the amount of the debt by way of aflion ;
and as an executor cannot maintain an aftion againit himfelf,
or againfl a co-executor, the teftator, by appointing the
debtor an executor of his will, difcharges the adlion, and
confequcntly difcharges the debt. Still, however, when
the creditor makes the debtor his executor, it is to be con-
fidered merely as a fpecific bequeft or legacy, devifed to the
debtor to pay the debt ; and, therefore, like other legacico, it
is not to be paid or retained till the debts are fatisfied ; and if
there be not afTets for the payment of the debts, the exe-
cutor is anfwerable for it to the creditors. In this cafe, it
is the fame whether the executor accepts or rcfufcs the exe-
cutorfhip. On the other hand, if the debtor makes the
creditor his executor, and the creditor accepts the executor-
fhip, if there be aflcts, he may retain his debt out of the
aflets againft the creditors in equal degree with himfelf; but
if there be not aflets, he may fue the heir, when the heir is
bound. I Inft. 264. i in n. See ExECUTon.

Littleton fays, that a releafe of all demands is the beft
releafe to him, to whom it is made ; and Coke fays, that
the word "demand" is the largeft word in law, except
" claim ;" and that a releafe of all demands difcharges all
forts of aftions, rights, and titles, conditions before or
after, breach, executions, appeals, rents of all kinds, cove-
nants, annuities, contrafts, recognizances, flatutes, com-
mons, &c. (Litt. § 508. Co. Litt. 291.) A releafe of
all aftions difcharges a bond to pay money on a future day.
But a releafe of atrions docs not difcharge a rent before the
day of payment. (Co. Litt. 292.) By a releafe of all
manner of adtions, all aftions, as well criminal as real, per-
fonal and mixed, are releafed. Co. Litt. 287. Sec Jacob's
Law Dift. by Tomhns.

RELEGATION,. Relegatio, a kind of exile or ba-
nilliment, by which the obnoxious perfon is commanded to
retire to a certain place prefcribed, and to continue there
till he be recalled.

Lord Coke calls relegation a banifhment for a time only ;
Courtin more adequately defines relegation a banifhment to
a certain place for a certain term.

In Rome, relegation was a lefs fevere punifhment than
deportation, in that the relegated perfon did not thereby
lofe the rights of a Roman citizen, nor thofe of his family,
as the authority of a father over his children, &c.

RELHANIA, in Botany, received that name from the
pen of the late M. I'Heritier, in honour of the Rev. Richard
Relhan, F.R.S. and A.L.S., author of the Flora Canta-
brigienfis. — L'Herit. Sert. Angl. 22. Schreb. 563.
Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 2135. Mart. Mill. Dift. v. 4. Ait.
Hort. Kew. v. 5, 91. Thunb. Prodr. 145. Poiret in-
Lamarck Dift. v. 4. 93. (Eclopes; Gsrtn. t. 169.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 689.) — Clafs and order, Syngenefia Po-
lygamia-fuperjiua. Nat. Ord. Compofitit difcoiden, Linn.
Corymhtfcrs, JufT.

Gen. Cli. Common calyx oblong, imbricated, with ob-
long chaffy fcales. Cor. compound, radiated ; united
florets in the diflc numerous, tubular, funnel-iliaped, live-
cleft ; female ones in the radius ligulate, ovate-oblong.

Stam.:,

R E L

R E L

Slam., HI liic perfect llorets, tilaments five, very fliort ; an-
thers combined into ;i tube. PiJ?. in the pcrfeft florets,
germeii obloHg ; ilyle fimple ; lligmas two, reflcxed : in
the female ones, germen oblong, rather incurved ; flyle
iimple ; ftigmas two, recui'vcd. Perk, none, except the
permanent unchanged calyx. Seeds, to all the florets alike,
folitary, angular, with a membranous, many-cleft, (hort
crown. Recept. chaffy.

EfT. Ch. .Receptacle chaffy. Seed-crown membranous,
fliort, cylindrical. Calyx imbricated, chaffy. Florets of
the radius numerous.

M. I'Heritier diftinguifhes this genus from Athannfia by
the prefence of a radius ; from Ofmites by the florets of that
radius producing perfeft feeds ; and from Ley/era by the
want of a feathery feed-down. Gsertner remarks that his
Eclopes, adopted from fir Jofeph Banks's and Dr. So-
lander's papers, is nothing more than an Athanajia, fur-
niflied with a radius. A due attention to the fyngenefious
dafs foon teaches us to miilrufl this charafter, which is un-
ftable, even in fevcral fpccies of that clafs ; witnefs the
genera Coreopfis and Bidens. Still lefs is the fertility or
barrennefs of the radiant florets capable of diftinguilliing
natural genera, though Linnaiiis has, unadvifedly, founded
a diftinftion of orders, in the clafs in queftion, upon thofe
differences. We cannot but affent, therefore, to the opinion
of Poiret, that the genus of Relhania is not naturally dif-
tindl from the Linnxan Ofmites, at leail, which lad name
being already eftabliflied, ought to have been retained.
However ftriking the radiating, chaffy, (hining inner fcales
of the calyx may be in a few fpecies of Ofmites ; approaches
towards that charafter are found in the Rdhanics, as genijli-
fol'ia, and ftill more in pa'cacea. We are far from intending
to do away the claims of our friend, Mr. Relhan, to bo-
tanical commemoration, even were that honour beitowed in
general far lefs indifcriminateiy than it is. For the prefent,
the Relhania of L'Hcritier is received; and if that be at
any time abolilhed, there ought to be one eflablifhed on
more folid principles.

Willdenow has nineteen fpecies of this fuppofed genus ;
all natives of the Cape of Good Hope, moftly of a fnrubby
Ijtifliy habit, green-houfe plants in England, where only
one of them indeed appears to be cultivated. Their flowers
are moftly corymbofe, fmall, of a dull yellow, not remark-
able for beauty. We feleft a few examples.

R. fquarrofa. Hook-leaved Relhania. Willd. n. i.
Ait. n. I. (Athanafia fquarrofa; Linn. Sp. PI. 1180.
Amoen. Acad. v. 6. 98. Santolina fquarrofa ; Linn. Am.
Acad. v. 4. 329.) — Leaves elliptical, pointed; recurved
at the point. — Sent to Kew by Mr. Mailbn, in 1794. It
flowers in the green-houfc in May and June. The whole
Jhrul is fmooth, much branched. Leaves numerous, fome-
' what imbricated, about a quarter of an inch long, elliptical,
obfcurely fingle-ribbed beneath, entire, acute ; Itrongly re-
curved, fmooth, finely dotted on both fides. Flotvers foli-
tary, on flender axillary ftalks, thrice the length of the
leaves. Calyx about half an inch long, very fmooth, rather
ihining. This fliould feem a different plant from R.
fquarrofa of Thunberg, who defines his " with terminal
umbels," and has thus led Willdenow, contrary to the de-
fcription of Linnsus, to refer the fpecies in queft;ion to the
firft feclion of the genus, " with aggregate flo-zvers." It
appears, by fpecimens in the Linnsan herbarium, that the
fiowers are fometimes fo crowded about the ends of the
branches, as to affume a corymbofe appearance, though
each ilalk is really axillary. Such a fpecimen probably was
defcribed by Thunberg.

R. genijlifolia. Broom-leaved Relhania. Willd. n. 2.

(Atliaiiafia gcniftifolia ; Linn. Syft. Nat, cd. 12. v. 2. 3-40.
Mant. 464.) — Leaves obovato-lanteolate, pointed, fingk-
ribbed beneath, entire, fmooth, fomewhat imbricated.
Flowers terminal, umbellate. — A bufliy _/^n/^, very much
branched. Leaves a quarter of an inch, or hardly fo much,
in length, numerous, crowded, dotted, entire, fmooth?
the lower ones obovate, and fmalleft ; the upper more
lanceolate and elongated ; all bluntifli, with a minute, often
liooked, point, and fingle-ribbed at the back only. Flaiuers
fmaller than the preceding, from five to eight together, in
little terminal umbels. Calyx fhining.

R. vifcofi. Glutinous Relhania. L'Herit. Sert. 2^.
Willd. n. 5. (Eclopes vifcida ; Gaertn. v. 2. 440. t. 169.)
— Leaves linear-lanceolate, pointed, vifcid, obfcurely fingle-
ribbed beneath, rather flefliy ; the upper ones fomewfiat
crenate. — The Jloivcrs are much like the laft-mentioned ;
but the leaz'fs are twice as large, more elongated in fhapc,
more flightly ribbed, the edges of the upper ones rough or
crenate, and all of them extremely glutinous When
bruifed, the dried leaves are found to retain a powerful aro-
matic fcent, approaching to that of orange-peel.

R. pedurteulata. I>ong-ftalked Dwarf Relhania. L'Herit,
Sert, Angl. 23. 'Willd. n. 7. (R. pumila; Thunb. Prodr,
146. Athanaha pumila ; Linn. Suppl. 362. Zoegca ca-
penfis ; ibid. 382.) — Leaves linear, villous, and glandular.
.Stem diffufe. Flower-italks axillary, much longer than the

leaves A fmall herbaceous annual fpecies, whofe root is

furnifhed with numerous capillary fibres. Stem a fpan high,
branched from the bafe, round, purplifh, fpreading ; glan-
dular and flightly cottony in the upper part, as well as the
leaves ; which are about an inch long, very narrow, fome-
what triangular. Floivers fmall, yellow, on long, fl;outifli,
downy, axillary ftalks, about the fummits of the branches.
This occurs twice 111 the Supplementum, having, in one in-
ftance, been delcribed by Linnieus himfelf, from a wild
fpecimen, and in the other, adopted by his fon, unfeen,
from Thunberg's communications.

K. paleaeea. Chaffy-flowered Relhania. L'Herit. Sert.
Angl, 24. Willd, n. 11. Thunb. Prodr. 146. (Leyfera
paleacea ; Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 13. 641. L. ericoides ;
Berg. Cap, 294, Eclopes ; Lamarck f , 2 ? Afterophorus
frnticofus luteus, foliis rorifmarini crtbris, ovariis hirfutis ;
Vaill. Aft. German edition, 585.) — Leaves linear, trian-
gular, channelled, hoary ; recurved at the point. Flowers
terminal, folitary, feffilc. Calyx turbinate. — Communi-
cated by Van Royen to Linnaeus, and by Sherard, as it
appears, to Vaillant. The flem is flirubby, a fpan high,
branched. Leaves numerous, about an inch long, narrow,
clothed, as well as the young branches, with fine hoary
down. Calyx ovate, fmooth, a quarter of an inch in dia-
meter ; its inner fcales much elongated, lanceolate, acute,
and membranous, refembling the fcales of the receptacle,
which ftand prominent and ereft, above the florets of the
di(k. This plant has fo much of the external afpeft of Ley-
fera gnaphalodes, that we can hardly wonder at Linnzus, for
having referred it, by the habit alone, to the fame genus.
Upon a careful examination, hov.'ever, the charafters, and
even the appearance, of the parts of fruftification, .ire
abundantly different in the two plants.

Moft of the other fpecies of Relhania, in Willdenow, are
adopted from the fliort fpeciSc definitions of Thunberg and
L'Heritier ; nor have we been able to determine them all
with certainty. It is remarkable that no figure of any has
appeared, except in Gsrtner and Lamarck, nor is the latter
very happy or difcriminative, in what he has exhibited of
this genus, called by him, after Gaertner, Eclopes.

RELICS, IiEllQUi.«, in the Romi/h Church, certain

12 renaains

RELICS.

remains of the body or clothes of feme faint or mart^'r, de-
voutly preferved in honour to his memory, carried at pro-
ceflions, killed, revered, &c.

The abufes of that church in point of relics have been
very flagrant. F. Mabillon, a Benedidline, complains of
the great number of fuipefted relics expofcd on altars : he
owns, that were there to be a Itrift iiiquifition into the relics,
vail numbers of fpurious ones would be found offered every
where to the piety and devotion of the faithful ; and adds,
that bones are frequently confecrated, fo far from belonging
to faints, that, in all probability, they do not belong to
Chriflians.

The catacombs are an inexhauftible fund of rehcs ;
yet it is ftill difputed who were the perfons interred in
them.

In the eleventh century, a method was introduced of try-
ing fuppofed relics by fire. Thofe which did not confume
in the lire were reputed genuine ; the reft not.

It is an ancient cuftom, which ftill obtains, to preferve
the rehcs in the altars on which mafs is celebrated. To
this purpofe, a fquare hole is made in the middle of the
altar, big enough to receive the hand ; and in that is the
relic depofited, being firft wrapped in red filk, and inclofed
in a leaden box.

The Romanifts allege a confidcrable degree of antiquity
in behalf of their relics. The Manichees, it feems, out of
hatred to the flefli, which they held an evil principle, are
recorded as refufuig to honour the relics of faints ; which is
efteemed a kind of proof, that the Catholics did it in the
firft ages.

Indeed, folly and fuperftition blended thcmfelves with
religion at too early a period. Even the touching of linen
cloths on relics, from an opinion of fome extraordinary'
virtue derived from them, appears to be as ancient as the
firft ages ; there being a hole made in the coffins of the
forty martyrs at Conftantinople, exprefsly for this pur-
pofe.

This practice of honouring the rehcs of faints, on which
the church of Rome, in fucceeding ages, founded her fu-
perftitious and hicrative ufe of them, as objefts of devotion,
as a kind of charms or amulets, and as iniiruments of pre-
tended miracles, feems to have originated in a very aneient
cuftom, that prevailed among Cluriftians, of afiembling at
the coemeteries or burying-places of the martyrs, for the
purpofe of commemorating them, and of performing divine
worfhip. When the profeffion of Chriftianity obtained the
protection of the civil government, under Conftantine the
Great, ftatelv churches were erefted over their fepulchres,
and their names and memories were treated with every pof-
fible token of affedlion and refpeft. (See Saints.) In
procefs of time, this reverence of the martyrs exceeded all
reafonable bounds ; and thofe prayers and religious fervices
were thought to have a peculiar fanftitv and virtue, which
were performed over their tombs. Hence probably pro-
ceeded the pradlice, already mentioned, which obtained in
the fourth century, of depofiting rehcs of the faints and
martyrs under the altars in all their churches. This prac-
tice, however, was then thought of fuch importance, that
St. Ambrofe would not confecrate a church, becaufe it had
no relics ; and the council of Conftantinople in Trullo or-
dained, that thofe altars fliould be deniolifhed, under which
there were found no relics. The rage of procuring relics
for this and other purpofes of a fimilar nature became fo
exceflive, that, in 386, the emperor ThecJofius tlie Great
was obliged to pafs a law, forbidding the people to dig up
the bodies of the martyrs, and to traffick in their relics.

Such was the commencement of that refpeft for facred

relics, whicli, m after ages, was perverted into a fom'ial
worfhip of them, and became the occafion of innumerable
procedions, pilgrimages, and miracles, from which thi
church of Rome hath derived incredible advantage. To-
wards the clofe of the ninth century, it was not enough to
reverence departed faints, and to confide in their intercef-
fions and fuccours : it was not enough to clothe them with
an imaginary power of healing difeafes, working miracles,
and delivering from all forts of calamities and dangers ; their
bones, their clothes, the apparel and furniture they had
poireflcd during their lives, the very ground which they had
touched, or in which their putrified carcafes were laid, were
treated with a ftupid veneration, and fuppofed to retain the
marvellous virtue of healing all diforders both of body and
mind, and of defending fuch as poflefTed them againft all the
affaults and devices of Satan. The confequence of this
wretched notion was, that every one was eager to provide
himfelf with thefe falutary remedies ; for which purpofe,
great numbers undertook fatiguing and perilous voyages,
and fubjefted themfelves to all forts of hardfhips ; w-hile
others made ufe of this delufion, to accumulate their riches,
and to impofe upon the miferable multitude by the molt
impious and fliocking inventions. As the demand for relics
was prodigious and univerfal, the clergy employed all their
dexterity to fatisfy thefe demands, and were far from being
nice in the methods they ufed for that end. The bodies of
the faints were fought by fafting and prayer, inftituted by
the prieft, in order to obtain a divine anfwer and an infal-
lible direction ; and this pretended direilion never failed to
accomphfli their defires : the holy carcafe was always found,
and that always in confequence, as they impioufly gave out,
of the fuggeftion and infpiration of God himfelf. Each
difcovery of this kind was attended with exceflive demon-
ilrations of joy, and animated the zeal of thefe devout
feekers to enrich the church ftill more and more with this
new kind of treafure. Many travelled with this view into
the Eaftern provinces, and frequented the pkces which
Clu-ifl and his difciples had honoured with their prefence,
that, with the bones and other facred remains of the firft
heralds of the gofpel, they might comfort dejefted minds,
calm trembling confciences, fave finking ftates, and defend
their inhabitants from all forts of calamities. Nor did thefe
pious travellers return home empty ; the craft, dexterity,
and knavery of the Greeks found a rich prey in the ftupid
credulity of the Latin relic-hunters, and made a profitable
commerce of this new devotion. The latter paid confidcr-
able fums for legs and arms, fliulls and jaw-bones, (feveral
of which were Pagan, and fome not human,) and other
things that were fuppofed to have belonged to the primitive
worthies of the Chriftian church : and thus the Latin
churches came to the pofleffion of thofe celebrated relics of
St. Mark, St James, St. Bartholomew, Cyprian, Panta-
leon, and others, which they fhew at this day with fo much
oftentation. But there were many, who, unable to pro-
cure for themfelves thefe fpiritual treafures by voyages and
prayers, had recourfe to violence and theft : for all forts of
means, and all forts of attempts, io a caufe of this nature
were confidered, when fuccefsful, as pious and acceptable
to the Supreme Being.

Befides the arguments from antiquity to wliich the Papifts
refer, in vindication of their worfliip of relics, of which the
reader may form fome judgment from this article, Bellar-
mine appeals to fcripture in fupport of it, and cites the fol-
lowing pafTages, -viz. Exod. xiii. 19. Deut. xxxiv. 6.
2 Kings, xiii. 21. 2 Kings, xxiii. i6, 17, 18. Ifaiah, si.

10. Matth. xi. 20, 21, 22. Afts, V. 12 — 15. Afts, xix.

11, 12. See Popery.

7 Relici

R E L '

Relics nre forbidden to be ufed or brought into England
by icveral ftatutes ; and juiliccs of peace are empowered
to fearch hoiifes for Popi(h books and relics, wliicli, wlien
found, are to be defaced and burnt, &c. 3 Jac. I.
cap. 26.

RELICT, Remcta, in Laiv. See Widow.
RELICTA VrciiiFicATioNR, is wlien a defendant re-
linquiflies his proof or plea, and thereupon judgment is
entered for tlie plaintiff.

RELIEF, RiiLEViUM, Le-vamen, a fine paid the chief
lord, by a perfon at his coming to the inheritance of land
held by military fervice.

This was faid rdcvare heredUattm caducam ; and the
money thus paid was called relcvamen, relevium, or relief.
Relief is ufually to the value of a year's rent or revenue.

The origin of the cuftom is thus : a feudatory or bene-
ficiary eftate in lands being at firll only granted for life,
after the death of the vaffai, it returned to the chief lord ;
and was hence czWed feudiim caducum, q. d. fallen to the lord
by the death of the tenant.

In courfe of time, thefe feudatory ellates being con-
verted into inheritances by the connivance and conient of
the lord ; when the pofleflbr of fuch eftate died, it was
called hercditas caduca, q. d. an inheritance fallen to the
lord, from whom it was to be recovered, by the heir's pay-
ing a certain fum of money. But this fum was arbitrary,
and at the will of the lord ; (o that, if he pleafed to demand
an exorbitant relief, it was in ciTeft to difinherit the heir.-
The Enghfh ill brooked this confequcnce of their new-
adopted policy ; and, therefore, William the Conqueror by
his laws (cap. 22, 23, 24.) afcertained the relief, by diredt-
ing (in imitation of the Danifh heriots), that a certain
quantity of arms and habiliments of war fliould be paid by
the earls, barons, and vavafours refpeftively ; and if the
latter had no arms, they (hould pay iooj-. William Rufus
broke through this compofition, and again demanded arbi-
trary uncertain reliefs, as due by the feodal laws ; thereby
in effeft obliging every heir to ncw-purchafe or redeem his
land : but his brother Henry I. by his charter, reltored
his father's law ; and ordained that the relief to be paid
Ihould be according to the law fo eilabliihed, and not an
arbitrary redemption. But afterwards, when, by an ordi-
nance in 27 Hen. III. called the Aflife of Arms, it was
provided that every man's armour fliould defccnd to his
heir, for defence of the realm, and it thereby became im-
pratlicable to pay thefe acknowledgments in arms, accord-
ing to the laws of the Conqueror, the compofition was
univerfally accepted of 100^. for every knight's fee ; as we
rind it ever after ettabliflied. (Glanv. 1. ix. c. 4. Litt.
;; 112.) But it muft be remembered, that this relief was
only then payable, if the heir at the death of his anceftor
had attained his full age of twenty-one years.

Relief, Reafonable, called alto la'wful and ancient relief,
IS that enjoined by fome law, or fixed by ancient cuftom ;
and which does not depend on the will of the lord.

Thus in a charter of king John, mentioned by Matthew
Paris: — " Si quis comitum vel baronum noftrorum, five
aliorum tenentium de nobis in capite per fervitium militare,
mortuus fuerit, & cum deceffsrit, haeres fuus plense aetatis
fuerit, & relevium debet, habeat haereditatem fuam per anti-
quum relevium."

What this was, may be feen in the laws of William the
Conqueror, &c. Bra£fon fays this fine was called a relief,
" quia haereditas, qu2 jacens fuit per anteceflbris deceffura,
relevatur in manus lisredum, &c."

A relief is alfo paid in focage-tenure, or petit ferjeanty ;
.vhere a rent, or other thing, is paid by rendering as much
Vol. XXIX.

R E L

as the rent or payment referved. But the manner of taking
relief upon focage-tenure is very different from that upon
tenure in chivalry. The relief on a knight's fee wa» 5/., or
one-quarter of the fuppofed value of the land ; but a
focage-relief is one year's rent or render, payable by the
tenant to the lord, be tlie fame cither great or fmall (Litt.
§ 126.) ; and, therefore, Brafton (1. 2. c. 37. § 8.) will
not allow this to be fo properly a relief, but " quaedam
prxftatio loco relevii in recognitionem doinini." So, too, the
Jtatute 28 Edw. I. c. i. declares, that a free fokeman fliall
give no relief, but (hall double his rent after the death of
his anceftor, according to that which he hath ufed to pay
his lord, and fhall not be grieved above mcafure. Relief
in knight-fervice were only payable, if the heir at the death
of his anceftor was of full age ; but in focage they were
due even though the heir was under age, becaufe the lord
has no wardfliip over him. (Litt. /127.) The ftatute
12 Car. II. refcrves the reliefs incident to focage-teniu-es ;
and, therefore, whenever lands in fee-fimple are holden by
a rent, rehef is ftill due of common right upon the death of
a tenant. 3 Lev. 145.

By the cuftoiji of Normandy, relief is due for lands held
in villainage as well as in fee. By the cuftom of Paris,
relief is not due upon inheritances in the dired: line.

The quantity of the relief is very different ; there are
fngle reliefs, doubid reliefs, &c. The quality, too, i* diverfe ;
there are reliefs of property, paid by the heir ; reliefs of bail,
or tutorage, paid by the guardian for his minor, or by the
huftaiid for the fiefs of his wife, &c. ; relief of horfe and arms.
Sec.

By the laws of king Canutus, the relief of an earl, paid
to the king, was eight war horfes with their bridles and
laddies, four cuiralfes, four helmets, four fwords, four hunt-
ing-horfes, and a palfrey. The relief of a baron or thane
was four horfes, &c.

Relief, in Chancery, denotes an order fued out for the
diffolving of contrads, and other afts, on account of their
being unreafonable, prajudicial, grievous, or from fome
other nullity, either dejure, or de fado.

Minors obtain relief againft afts pafTed in their minority.
Majors have rehef in cafes of enormous damage, deceit,
violence, over-reaching, extravagant bargajns, &c.

Among the Romanift-s it is a rule, that the church ob-
tains rehef any time, and againft all afts paiTed in its pre-
judice ; no prefcription prevaihng againft it.
Relief, Aid de. See Aid.

Relief of a Hare, among Hunters, is the pkce where Ihe
goes to feed in the evening.

Relief, in Sculpture. See Relievo.
RELIEVE, in the Military Senfe. To relieve, is to
take the poft of another body. Hence, to relieve the guard,
to relieve the trenches, &c. is to bring frefli men upon the
guai-d, or to the trenches, and to fend thofe to reft who
have been upon duty before. They alfo fay, relieve a fen-
tincl, which is generally done every two hours, by a cor-
poral who attends the relief ; rehevc the fteerfman, &c.

To relieve a place that is befieged, is to furnifli it with
a fupply of men, provifions, ammunition, &c.

RELIEVER, in Artillery, is an iron ring fixed to a
handle by means of a focket, fo as to be at right angles to it.
It ferves to difengage the firll fearcher of a gun, when any
of its points are retained in a hole, and cannot be got out
otherwife.

RELIEVING Tackles, in a Ship, are two ftrong

tackles, nfed to prevent a Ihip from overturning on the

careen, and to affift in bringing her upright after that

operation is completed. The relieving tackles are furniflied

4 N with

R E L

witii two ftrong guys, or pendants, by wliidi their efforts
are communicated, under the (hip's bottom, to the oppoiite
fide, where the ends of the guys are attached to the lower
wuH-ports. The other ends of the tackles are hooked to
the wharf or pontoon, by which the veflel is careened. Thus,
if a (hip is iirft to be laid down on the larboard fide, which
is nearelt the wharf, the relieving tackles are parted under
]ier bottojm from the faid wharf, and attached to the Itar-
board fide, by which they will reftrain her from falling
lower than is neceflary. Falconer.

Relieving Tackle, is alfo a name given to the train tackles
of a gun-carriage.

RELIEVO, or Relief, Imlojfmeni, is applied to a
figure which projefls, or Hands out prominent, from the
{T-ound or plane on which it is formed, whether that figure
be cut with the chiffel, moulded, or call. There are three
kinds of relievo ; -viz. alto, lajfo, and demi-relievo.

Relievo, jIIio, haut relief, or high relievo, is when the
figure is formed after nature, and projefts as much as the

fife.

Relievo, Balfo, beu relief, or low relievo, is when the
work is but railed a little from its ground, as we fee in
medals, and in the frontifpieces or buildings, particularly
the hiftories, feftoons, foliages, and other ornaments in
friezes. See Basso Relievo.

Relievo, Demi, is when one-half of the figiire rifes from
the plane, i. e. when the body of a figure feems cut in two,
and one-half is clapped on a ground. When in a bafFo re-
lievo there are fome parts that (land clear out, detached
from the reil, the work is called a demi-boffe.

Relievo, in ArchiteSure, denotes the (ally or projeftare
of any ornament.

This, Daviler obferves, is always to be proportioned to the
magnitude of the building it adorns, and the diftance at
which it is to be viewed.

If the work be infulate, and terminated on all fides, it is
called a figure in relievo, or a round embofjment. Such are
Itatues, acroters, &c.

Relievo, in Painting, denotes the degree of force or
boldnefs by which a figure feems, at a due diflance, to
ftand out from the ground of tlie painting, as if really
imbofled.

The relievo depends much on the depth of the fhadow,
and the ftrength of the light ; or on the hght of the dif-
ferent colours bordering on one another ; and particularly
on the difference of the colour of the figure from that of
the ground.

When the light is well chofen, to make the nearell parts
of figures advance ; and well diffufed on the maffes, itill
diminiihing infenfibly, and terminating in a large fpecious
fhadow, brought off infenfibly ; the relievo is faid to be
bold, and the claire obfcure, well underflood.

RELIGION, Religio, that worlhip or homage that is
due to God, confidered as Creator, Preferver, and, with
Chriftians, as Redeemer of the world.

The foundation of all religion is, that there is a God ;
and that he requires fome acknowledgment and fervice firom
his creatures.

Accordingly, religion, in the true meaning of the term,
neceffanly fuppofes and includes an intercourfe between
God and man ; i. c. o\\ the part of God difcoveries and
manifeftations of hi.nfeff and his perfettions, and of his will
with regard to the duties which he requires ; and on the
part of man, a capacity and readinefs to receive and im-
prove thofe difcoveries, and to conform to all the figniii-
cations of the divine will. For it is an undeniable prin-
ciple, that whatfoever plainly appeareth to be the mind and

R E L

will of God, whatever be the way in which we obtain lh<?
knowledge of it, we are indifpenfibly obliged to obferve.
And as there are twro ways by which God may be fuppofed
to inanifefl liimfelf and his will to mankind, vix. by his
works and by his word, religion has been ufually diftri-
buted into natural and revealed. Thefe are not two kinds
of religion, etlentially different, much lefs contrary or con-
tradiftory to cacli other, becaule they both have God for
their objeft, and proceed from him ; nor are they alto-
gether the lame, and diilering merely in the mode of their
communication. Although all true revealed religion mull
be confident witli, and in no refpeft contrary to, the clear
light of nature and reafon, yet it may difcover and reveal
feveral tilings pertaining to truth and duty, which that
light, if left to itfelf, could not have difcovered at all, or
not with fufficient clearnefs and certainty. Thefe fhould
not be oppofed to one another ; nor is the one of thorn
defigned to exclude the other.

Religion, Natural, has been taken in different accepta-
tions. Some underlland by it every thing in religion, with*
regard to truth and duty, which, when once difcovered,
may be clearly fhewn to have a real foundation in the nature
and relations of things, and which unprejudiced reafon will
approve, when fairly propofed, and fet in a proper light.
Accordingly fome Chriitian philofophers and divines have
comprehended under their fcheme or fyftem of natural
religion, a confiderable part of what is contained in the
fcripture revelation, e. gr. the important truths gnd prin-
ciples relating to the exiftence, the unity, and attributes of
God, his governing providence and moral adminiftration,
the worlhip that is due to him, the law that is given to
mankind ; or the whole of moral duty in its juH extent, as
relating to God, our neighbours, and ourfelves, the rewards
and punifhments of another (late, and other articles nearly
connefted with thefe, and dependent upon them, fiaving
taken great pains to (hew, that all this is perfeftly agree-
able to found reafon, and founded in the nature of things,
they have honoured tlie whole witji the name of natural
religion. None can hefitate to allow, that it is a real and
great ferwee to religion to fhew, that the main principles
and duties of it are what reafon muil approve ; and thofe
are unqucllionably entitled to praife, who have undertaken
to demonftrate this with great clearnefs and force of argu-
ment. But it does not follow that, becaufe thefe things,
when once clearly difcovered, may be proved agreeable to
reafon, and to have a real foundation in the nature of things,
reafon alone, in the prefent flate of mankind, if left to
itfelf, without higher affiftance, would merely, by its own
force, have difcovered all of them, with their genuine
confequences, and have applied them to their proper ufes,
for diredling men in the true knowledge and praftice of
religion. Many things, fays Mr. Locke, in his " Reafon-
ablenefs of Chriflianity," are taken for unqueitionable
truths, and eafily demonflrable, without confidering how
long we might have been in doubt or ignorance refpefting
them, if revelation had been filent. Native and original
truth is not fo ealily wrought out of the mine, as we who
have it ready dug and fafhioned to our hands, are apt to
imagine To the fame purpofe Dr. Clarke obferves,
(Difc. on Nat. and Rev. Religion,) that it is one thing to
fee, that thefe rules of life, which are before-hand plainly
and particularly laid before us, are perfeftly agreeable to
reafon, and another thing to find out thefe rules merely
by the light of reafon, without their having been firil
otherwife made known. Accordingly fome able and ftre-
nuous affertors of natural religion, or the law of nature,
though they contend that it is founded in the nature of

thing;,

RELIGION.

thinga, and agreeable to riglit reafon, derive the promulga-
tion of it from divine revelation. Hence it may be con-
cluded, that natural religion, or the Law of Nature (which
fee), is not fo called, becaufe it was originally difcovcred
by natural reafon, but becaufe, when once made known, it
is what the reafon of mankind, duly cxercifed, approves, as
founded in truth and nature.

Natural religion, in the fenfe now explained, is very con-
fiitent with the fuppofition of an extraordiii;try divine reve-
lation, for the purpofe of difcovering and promulgating it
at firft, and alfo of re-e(tabli(hing and confirming it, when,
through the corruption of mankind, the important prin-
ciples and duties of it were funk into fuch darknefs, and fo
confounded with pernicious errors, that an extraordinary
afiiftance was necelfary to recover men to the right know-
ledge and praftiee of it.

Natural religion is underilood by others in a fenfe which
is abfolutely exclufive of all extraordinary revelation, and
in direft oppofition to it. By natural religion, they mean

turally and ncceffarily known to all men, but that wliidi
reafon, duly exercifed and improved, is able, by its owu
-natural force, to difcover, without the aflittance of any ex-
traordinary revelation. In order to form a juft conception
of this theory, we might inveftigate the extent of the
powers and abilities of human reafon in judging concermng
matters of religion, independently of all revelation : but
without entering on a fpeculation of this kind, the difqut.
fition of which would be more curious in the procefs than
fatisfadtory in the refult, we fliould recur to the fureil and
l)laincfl mode of judging, whicli is the examination of the
conclulions that may be deduced from faft and experience.
Let us tijen inquire, what hath human reafon aftually done
ni this way, by its own force, without any extraordinary
afTiftance ? Tlie fatisfaftory anfwer to this inquiry cannot
be obtained from any fyllems formed by perfons who have
lived in ages and countries which have enjoyed the light of
divme revelation ; fince in this cafe it may reafonably be
fuppofed, that tliey have borrowed light from revelation.

that religion which men difcover by the fole exercife of their though they are not wiping to acknowledge it, or may not

natural faculties and powers, without any other or higher themfelves.be fenfible of it. Syftems, therefore, that have

afiiftance. Thefe perfons difcard all pretences to extraordi- been drawn up by our modern admirers of natural religion

nary revelation, as the effefts of enthufiafm or impofture. in Chriftian countries, cannot be alleged in proof of the

It is in this fenfe, that thofe who call themfelves Deists (fee
that article) underftand natural religion, which they highly
extol as the only true religion, the only difcovery of truth
and duty upon which we may fafely depend ; and which

force of unalTifted reafon in matters of religion ; and the
fame may be faid of thofe Pagan philofophers who have lived
after Chriftianity had made fome progrefs in the world.
Nor can we fairly infer the fufficiency of the light of natu-

comprehends the whole of what is necelfary to be known ral reafon, without the aid of revelation, from the fyftems
and done, in order to our obtaining the favour of God, and of the ancient philofophers, lawgivers, and moralifts, who
attaining to true happinefs. But thofe who take natural lived before the Chriftian revelation was pubhfhed^ unlefs

religion in this fenfe entertain different opinions of the fub-
jeft, and exprefs their fentiments vai-ioufly. The ableft ad-
vocates for natural religion, as oppofed to revelation, main-
tain, that it is clear and obvious to the whole human race,
and that all men have a natural knowledge of it. They
argue, that fince religion is equally the concern of all man-
kind, the wifdom and goodnefs of God require, that it
fhould be aftually known to all. To this purpofe is the
reafoning of lord Herbert, who alleges, that God hath
impriirted on the minds of all men innate ideas of the main
principles of religion and morality. Tindal alfo, and the
author of " Chriftianity as old as the Creation," argue in a

it can be fhewn, that they themfelves derived the religious
and moral principles which they taught, folely and entirely
from the refearches and difquifitions of their own reafon,
and difclaimed their having had any afiiftance, with regard
to thofe truths and principles, from tradition or divine in-
ftruftion. And it is no hard matter to (hew, by teftimonies
from the moft celebrated ancients, that this was not the cafe,
nor was it what they afl"umed to themfelves. It is well
known, that the moft admired philofophers of Greece did
not pretend to fet up merely on their own ftocks, but tra-
velled into Egypt, and different parts of the Eaft, for the
purpofe of improving their knowledge by converfation with

fimilar manner : tlie former afierts, that this clear univerfal tlie fages of thofe countries ; who themfelves profelfed to
light that ihines into the minds of all men cannot be made have derived their knowledge, not merely from the difquifi-
cleartoany man by an external extraordinary revelation: with tions of their own reafon, but from a higher fource, from

the latter it is a kind of fundamental principle, that tlie law,
or religion, of nature was a perfeft fcheme of rehgion and
morality, fairly drawn on the mind and heart of every man,
in fuch a manner, that it is not pofTible for any man to mif-
take it : and he even affirms, that the moft illiterate of the
human race have naturally and neceflanly a clear and intimate
perception of the whole of religion and of their duty.
Hence it will be eafily owned, that there is no need of an
extraordinary revelation to teach men what they all natu-
rally and neceflarily know. This fcheme, however plaufible
it may at firft appear, and though it feems to exhibit a
beautiful reprefentation of the dignity of our fpecies, and of
the univerfal goodnefs of God to the human race, appears
to be altogether vifionar^^, when brouglit to the tfft of fatl

very ancient traditions, to which, for the moft part, they
alTigned a divine original. After all it muft be allowed,
that the moft celebrated and fagacious of the ancient philofo-
phers made pathetical complaints of human darknefs and ig-
norance, and of the great difficulties they experienced m
fearching after truth. Many of them were fenfible of the
great need there was of divine inftruAion and affiftance, for
enlightening and direfting mankind in matters of religion
and their duty : fo that no argument can be juftly drawn
from the wife men and philofophers among the ancients, to
fhew that the knowledge of what is tifually called natural
religion, in its juft extent, is wholly and originally owing to
the force of human reafon, exclufive of all divine revelation.
And perhaps, fays the excellent writer whofe obfervations

and experience: whilft it fuppofes, that religion, in its true we are now citnig, it would not be eafy to mention any na

nature and juft extent, is naturally known to all men, fo tions, among whom any true knowledge of religion has

that they cannot miftake it, it contradiifls the teftimony of been preferved, concerning which we can be affured, that

the authentic hiftory of mankind in all ages, which evinces they never had any benefit from the light of divine revela-

that they have miftaken religion in its important princi- tion ; and that the principles of religious truth and duty.

plee and obligations.

Senfible of the inconveniences of this fcheme, others, by
natural religion, underftand not merely that which is na-

which were to be found among them, were originally the
mere produft of natural reafon, vrithout any higher affift-
ance. Several things may be obferved among them, which
4 N 2 feeiij

RELIGION.

fcem to be tlie remains oi an ancient univerfal tradition, or
primeval religion, derived from the rcmoteft antiquity, and
which, probably, had their original fourcc in divine revela-
ton, though in procefs of time it was greatly altered and
cornitltedr Leland's Advantage and Neceffity of the Chrif-
tian Revelation, vol. i. J i. ,,,,..

Religion, Revcnhd, is commonly underltood to be that
knowledge of religion, whicli was originally communicated
from God to men in a way of extraordinary revelation, for
initrufting them in important rehgious truth, and direding
and engaging them to the praftice of their duty. In a ge-
neral fenfe, all truth, and the manifeftation of it, may be
faid to come from God, even that which we difcover in the
ordinary ufe of thofe rational faculties which God hath
given us. But revealed religion, as dillinguifhcd from that
which is ufually called natural, denotes that knowledge of
religion which was originally communicated in an extraordi-
nary and fupernatural way. Leland, ubi iupra. See Revk-

I.ATION.

The firll kind of religion, above-mentioned, or natural
religion, flows immediately from the relation between the
creature and the Creator ; the latter, or revealed religion,
does not follow from fuch a relation, but is fuperadded from
the mere will and pleafuro of the Creator.

The fil-ft we ordinarily call morality, or ethics ; becauic
immediately convcrfant about ths manners and duties of men
towards one another ; and towards themfelves, confidered as
creatures of that Being. See Ethics, Morality, and
Moral Philosophy.

The latter we call, by way of eminence, religion, as being
the rule of our duty immediately to God himfelf.

Tlie firfl fuppofes a God, a providence, and a future ftate,
of rewards and punifhments ; the latter likewife fuppofes an
immediate miffion from God himfelf, attelted by miracles,
&c. See Christian Religion.

Religion is more particularly ufed for that fpecial fyftem
of faith and worfhip, w-hich obtains in a particular age, feft,
or country, &c.

In this fenfe we fay the Romilh religion, the Reformed
religion, the religion of the Greeks, the Mahometan reli-
gion, the Jewifli religion, &c. See Judaism, Mahome-

TANISM, &C.

The Siamefe hold the diverfity of religions, i. e. the dif-
ferent manners of honouring God, to be pleafing to him ;
inafmuch as they have all the fame objeft, and all tend to
the fame end, though by different means. Claude.

This fentiment of thefe idolaters is doubtlefs more juft
than that of our zealots, who hold all but thofe of their
own religion odious to God. The feveral fefts in rehgion
fee under their proper articles. See alfo Sect.

Of the religion of the ruling part of the world, you may
hnd a lively defcription in a chorus in Seneca's Troas, at
the end of the fecond act, beginning thus : " Verum elt, an
timidos fabula decipit ? umbras corponbus vivere conditis,
Stc." This, according to Patin, is the rehgion of princes,
and oreat men, of magiftrates, monaftic fuperiors, and even
fortie phyficians and philofophers. M. Du Maine, head of
the leaguers in France, ufed to fay, that princes have no
religion till after they are turned of forty. ""Cum numine
nobis mors inftat, majore facit." Patin. Lett. Choif. io6.
Under this article we are naturally led to difcufs the fub-
ieft of national religion, in its connexion with religious etta-
blifliments. It mull appear, on the flighteft' reflection,
that religion has a very confiderable influence, not only on
the difpofition and charafter of individuals, but on the ftate
of fociety in general. Accordingly legiflators and rulers
have often found it one of the moil powerful inftruments of

civil policy ; and the liillory of ainiull every country aliord^
numerous inftances of its being an excellent ally to llie
povrer of the civil magiftrate, or the moil dangerous rival.
By religion we now mean that principle which influences
men by the dread of evil or the hope of reward, from un-
known and invifible caufes ; whether the good or the evil
be cxpedled to take place in this world or in another ; and
in this general fenfe of the term, it comprehends cnthufialm,
fuperdition, and every other fpecies oi falfe rehgion as well
as the true. It would lead us too far, if we attempted to
trace the influence of this principle in the more barbaroiu
or more civilized nations of antiquity. Enthufiafin and fu-
perdition have been more powerful and more efficacious on
many occalions, which hiftory records, than political wifdom
in the cabinet, or martial (Icill and valour in the iield. In
fome cafes religion has concurred with the views of the civil
magifl:rate ; and in others, it has counteradted them even in fa-
vour of the bell intercils of mankind. It is an obfervation oi
Mr. Hume's, that the pn-cious fparks of liberty were
kindled and prefervcd by the Puritans in England, and that
it is to this feft, whofe principles appear fo frivolous, and
whofe habits fo ridiculous, as he fomewhat invidioudy *
defcribes them, that the Engbfti owe the whole freedom
of their conftitution. The affertion, however, is too
general. The capital advantage derived from Chriilianity
in this weftern part of the world, is the total abolition of
llavery, in confequence of its raifing men's ideas of the im-
portance of the human fpecies. It is a memorable faft,
that after the introduction of Chriilianity into the Roman
empire, every law which was made relating to (laves was in
their favour, till at lad all the fubjedts of the empire were
reckoned equally free. Although, in later times, flavery
has been revived and continued, for commercial purpofes, in
countries calling themfelves Chridian, we trull that laudable
efforts, originating in the liberal fentiments and uffeftions
which Chriilianity inculcates, will be crowned with fuccefs,
and gradually annihilate this nefarious kind of trafhck in
every nation of the globe. Cliriilianity, indeed, is almoft
incompatible with abfolute defpotic power, both in fove-
reigns and private perfons. The corruptions of Chridianity,
exemplified in the exorbitant power of the pope, and tlie
fuperdition of the Popiih worfliip, have been indireitly pro-
duftive of confiderable benefit. The union of the welteru
churches under one fupreme pontiff facilitated < the inter-
courfe of nations in barbarous ages ; and the pomp of the
Popiih power contributed in no fmall degree towards pre-
venting the fine arts from being totally loil in the barbarifm
of Europe, and to their fubi'equent revival, previoufly to
that of literature and fcience in this wedern part of the
world. Erroneous notions of religion, and the fuperdition
blended with its purer principles, have been, however, the
occafion of the mod lamentable evils in the government of
dates. Beccaria fays, in his " Effay on Crimes and Punidi-
ments," that more than 100,000 witches have been con-
demned to die by Chriftian tribunals. Falfe principles of
religion have encouraged men to commit the mod horrid
crimes ; and to inflict tortures both on themfelves and
others, which cannot be thought of without horror. The
hidorical page of perfecution is dained with blood. But
it is our prefent defign to iketch out the benefits refulting
from religion to civil fociety, rather than the evils which
the perverfion of its principles and genuine fpir* have pro-
duced. It is natural to imagine, that the civil magiltrate
would take religion under his proteftion with a view to
thefe benefits ; neverthelefs, it is much to be lamented that
by erroneous notions of its nature and deiign, and a mif-
application of its influence, it has been rendered the in-
1 drument

RELIGION.

Urumenl of lyiauny and opptefTioii. If iiiagiilrates and
rulers availed themk-lvcs of the afliitaiici; whitii religion
affords for mclioratinfr the cliaraftir and condition of the
members of the community over which they prefide ; if they
patronized and enconraged the principles and protelfion of
it for the purpofe of rcilraining the profligate and vicious,
and of promoting a virtuous c-onduft with a view to the
welfare and profperity of the itate ; and it they made ufe of
the mighty powers with which religion furnifhes them merely
for the purpofe of maintaining order and peace in the com-
munity to which they belong, and of fecuring and advancing
its true interefts ; there could be no reafon for alarm or
complaint. Religion and civil government might unite
their efforts for fuch laudable purpofcs, and co-operate m
promoting them, without any apprclienfion of danger ; but
lamentable experience has teilified th.at in too many inftanccs
religion has been made fubfervient to ambition and worldly
policy, infomuch that many perfons of juft reflettion and
comprehenfive views have dreaded the interference of civil
governors in matters of religion, if, in iomc cafes, they .
have done good, in others their interference has been perni-
cious, not only to religion, which has been thus corrupted
and degraded, but to the civil community itfelf. Never-
thelefs the opinion, that it is neceffary for the ftate to pre-
fcribe the principles, and to regulate the modes of religion,
has been almoll univerfally prevalent.

We are thus led briefly to diiculs the fubjeCt of national
eflabliflmients of religion ; and that wf may do this without
prejudice and partiality, we fliall ftatc tiie arguments on both
fides of the queflion, as mwcli as poliible in the language of
thofe who oppofe, and of thofe who defend them. Amongft
thofe who have thought freely, and who have written as freely
on this fubjeft, we find fome who contend againll eftablillt-
ments in any degree whatever. They will not allow that
religion fliould receive any fupport from the itate, but infill
that it ought to be left entirely to its own operation. There
is naturally, they fay, no more connettion between civil go-
vernment and religion, than between the former and any
thing elfe that depends upon opinion ; lefs than the bulinefs
of philofophy or religion. Becauie thefe refpett the
prefent life, with which civil governors have to do ; whereas
religion refpeSs the life to come, with which they hYtve
nothing to do. However, the conclufivenefs of this kind
of reafoning feems to be materially affected by our preli-
minary remarks. Religion, it is faid, is a concern that lies
out of the proper province of the civil magiitrate. Its ob-
jeft is inviiible ; its principles and affettions, which are the
fprings of moral and religious condutf , as well as its mo-
tives and fanttions, are not fubjecf to the direction and con-
troul of fecular counfel and power ; its feat is the under-
llanding and heart : nor is the external conduft, to which
alone the cognizance of the civil magiftrate extends, of any
importance in a moral view, independently of the internal
principles in which it originates, and by which it is guided
and governed. Befides, it has been urged that civil rulers
have no right to prefcribe to the judgment in the province
of religion, or to frame and enforce rules of moral conduct,
for the obfervance or violation of which mankind are ac-
countable only to God ; nor are they competent or qualified
for the exercife of fuch high powers. And if they cannot
controul the faculties of the mind, their iniluence on the
profeffion and praftice, and that outward conformity to
modes and rites of a religious nature which they may enforce,
without the confent of the judgment and concurrence of
the will, are calculated to do much gi-eater harm than good ;
and to add to the number of hypocrites or martyrs. As
tlie civil magiflrate cannot bellow the rewards, nor infliS

the punifliments, that are appropriate to rehgion ; and as
he cannot eflimate the moral worth or demerit of his fub-
jctts, he cannot, without culpable prefumption, afl'ume, nor
without intruding on the province of the fupreme and al-
mighty God, exercife the authority of a fpiritual and final
judge. Civil governors in general, fuch are their rank and
llation, the courfe of their education, and the habits of
their lives, arc lefs able than many others of lower con-
dition, but of different views and conncftions, to decide
concerning religious truth, or to determine who are qua-
lified to advife and afi-iil them. Moreover, it has been ob-
ferved, that neither magiftrates nor their ccclefiaftical ad-
vifers are warranted to eflablifh a flandard either of reli-
gious faith or moral condudl, to which all the members of a
community are required to conform, and from which they
are not allowed to deviate without incun-ing fome lofs or
damage. Such a flandard, let it be ever fo liberally framed, or
ever fo mildly enforced, is not likely to be fo comprehenfive,
as to include all the teachers and all the profeflors of reli-
gion, who are entitled to the proteftion of the flate in which
their lot is call. Befides, if fuch a flandard of faith and
practice could be devifed, thofe who objeft to religious
eflablifliments on the ground now flated, conceive, that
their civil rulers have no right to eflablifh and impofe it ; and
thus to deprive perfons, who cannot approve it, of worldly
honours and benefits, to which they have naturally an equal
claim with others of their fellow-fubjedls ; — a claim, which
they do not forfeit by the exercife of their own judgment in
the province of religion. It has alfo been argued, that
Chriflianity, fo far from countenancing, rather difcourages
every kind of religious cllablifhment, that interferes with
the right of private judgment. The language of the divine
Author of our holy religion is, " Render to Csefar the things
that are Ca'far's, and to God the things that are God's ; —
Search the fcriptures ; — Call no man mafler on earth ; —
My kingdom is not of this world." And that of his apoftles,
" Let every man be fully perfuaded in his own mind ; —
Judge ye what I fay ;" &c. &c. The advcrfaries of efla-
blifliments allege, that a national church, conflituted by
the civil magiflrate, and governed by laws enaSed by his
authority, and the Chriftian church, founded on the doc-
trine of Chrifl and his apoflles, are eflentially dillinft ; and
they fay, that fuch a church, e.gr. the church of England,
lefs exceptionable than many others, which claims and ex-
ercifes, according to its 20th article, " power to decree
rights and ceremonies, and authority in matters of faith,"
has, agreeably to the true nature and conflitution of the
Chriftian church, no fuch power and authority ; that it is
inconfiflent with the allegiance which Chrillians, as the
fubjefts of Jefus Chrifl, owe to him, the only lawgiver
and king in the church ; who, as they fay, hath exprefsly
commanded that no power of this kind fliall ever b& claimed,
or ever be yielded by any of his follov/ers. In the profe-
cution of this mode of reafoning, they farther add, that if
the church of England hath really this authority and right,
the church of Rome had it before, and, as the elder and
mother-church, ought to have been obeyed ; and confe-
quently the reformation, as it has been called, was a rebel-
lion againfl fuperiors, a difobedience to the authority veiled
in the church, and ought, as fuch, to be renounced by re-
turning to the church of Rome. They alfo argue, that
this power to order the manner of God's wortliip, and to fettle
articles of faith, is not at all lodged in the biihops or clergy,
who are the fpiritual paftors and guides in the eftablifhed
church, but entirely in the king and parhament of thefe
realms. So far were the bifhops and clergy from having any
concern in the firll forming our prefent eftablifhed church,

or

RELIGION.

or in ordering its riles and articles of f.'iUli, that it was done
not only without, but in adual oppofition to them. Hence
they conclude, that the ^church of England is, in reality, a
parhamcntary church ; that it is not, properly, an ally, as
I'ome have afl'erted, but a mere creature of the ilate. It
depends entirely upon the ads and authority <)f parliament
for its very cffence and frame. The qualifications of its
miftifters, their power to ofHciate, the manner in which they
are to adminillcr the facraments, are all limited and pre-
fcribed by authority of parliament ; and this authority,
which at llrft made, can alone alter and new-maks it ; can
abolifh, or add to its articles or rites, according to its plea-
fure, even though the whole body of bifliops and clergy
ever fo much diilike or proteit carneiUy againd it.

If it be alked, how came the civil magiftrate to pofTefs the
authority which hcexercifes in the church of Chriil ? The
objeftors to eftablilhments reply, that the fubjedtion to
higher powers, and obedience to magiftrates, wliich the
fcriptures enjoin on Chrillians, relates only to civil, and not
at all to religious matters, for this obvious reafon, that the
magiftrate was at that time every where Pagan. They fay,
that ChrilUanity is fo far from enjoining, that it aftually for-
bids, obedience to civil governors in things of a religious
nature. It commands us " to call no man upon earth father
or matter" (Matt, xxiii. 8, 9.), i. e. to acknowledge no au-
thority or jurifdidtion of any in matters of religion, but to
remember, that " one, one only is our mailer" and lawgiver,
even Chrift, and that all Chrillians are brethren : and that,
though " the princes of the Gentiles exercife dominion over
them, and they who arc great exercife authority upon them,
yet it (hall not," fays our Lord, " be fo amongit you."
(Matt. XX. 25.) Chrift's kingdom is not of this world, and
of courfe he is the fole lawgiver, judge, and fovereign in
religious matters. (See Matt, xxiii. 8. xxviii. 18, 19.
I Cor. viii. 6. Ephef. i. 22.) In the church of Chrift, it
is faid, all authority and jurifdi&ion are vefted originally in
him, and flow from him, nor can any one lawfully exercife
them without a commiflion from him ; but in the church of
England, the king, or queen, is " fupreme head," pofl't-ning
" all power to exercife all manner of ecclefiaftical jurifdic-
tion, and archbiftiops, bifhops, archdeacons, and other ec-
clefiaftical perfons, have no manner of jurifdidion ecclefiaf-
tical, but by and under the king's majetty, who hath full
power and authority to hear and determine all manner of
caufes ecclefiaftical ; and to reform and corre£l all vice,
fin, errors, herefies, enormities, abufes whatfoever, which
by any manner of fpiritual authority or jurifdidion, ought,
or may be lawfully reformed." (26 Hen. VIII. cap. i.
37 Hen. VIII. cap. 17. I Ehz. cap. I.) At the firft
eftabliftiment of this church under Henry VIII. and Ed-
ward VI. all the biftiops took out commiflions from the
crown, for the exercifing of their fpiritual jurifdiftion in
thefe kingdoms, during the king's pleafure only ; " and in
their commiflions acknowledge all forts of jurifdidion, as
well ecclefiaftical as civil, to have flowed originally from tlie
regal power, as from a fupreme head, and a fountain and
fpringof all magiftracy within his own kingdom." Burnet's
Hiil. Reform, part ii. Col. p. 92.

Yea, even the power of ordination itfelf, which is reckon-
ed a peculiar of the epifcopal office, tlie firft reformers and
founders of this church derived from the king, and exercifed
only as by authority from him, and during his pleafure.
" Thus Cranmcr, archbiftiop of Canterbury, Bonner, bifiiop
of London, &c. took out commiflions from the crown, im-
porting, that becaufe the vicegerent (Cromwell, a lay per-
fon) could not perfonally attend the charge in all parts of
jhe kingdom, the king authorifes the biftiop, in his, (the

king's or perhaps the vicegerent's) Head to ordain, within
his diocefe, fucJi as he judged worthy of holy orders ; to
collate to benefices ; to give inftitution ; and to execute all
otlier parts of the epifcopal authority ; and thib during the
Ijng's pleafure only."

In confequence of tliis fupremacy, the king or queen of
this church hath power to excommunicate from, or to re-
admit into it, independent of, yea, in direct oppofition to,
all its bidiops and clergy. The king or queen revoke, if
they pleate, any .fpiritual cenlures of the bifhops or arch-
bifliops ; yea, can fufpend, deprive, or even excommunicate,
themfelves ; or can, by their proclamation only, without the
Icaft confeflion, liumilialion, or fatisfaftion for their oflence,
pardon and reftore excommunicated perfons, the vileft of-
fenders, to the cliurch's bofom again.

Yea, furtlier, they have power to forbid all preaching for
a time ; as did king Henry VIII. king Edward VI. queen
Mary, and queen Elizabeth; to limit, inftruft, and pre-
fcribe to the clergy what they fhall, and w hat they (hall not
preach ; as did queen Elizabeth, king James I. king
Charles I. king William, &c. Finally, to the king or
queen only does it pertain to declare what is herefy, and
authoritatively to pronounce what doftrines and tenets arc,
and what are not, to be cenfured as fuch : nor have all the
biftiops and clergy, aflembled in convocation, the leaft au-
thority to cenfure any tenet as heretical, if the prince on the
throne refufe his confent.

Accordingly, the objeftors to religious cftablifhmcnts al-
lege, that in Clu-ift's church, himfelf is the only fovereign
and head ; he only hath power to decree ceremonies and rjtes,
to fix terms of communion and authority in points of faith ;
nor hath any earthly prince power to make laws in his king-
dom, which fhall bind the confcience of his fubjefts ; or fo-
vercignly to diftate to his fervants and minifters what they
fiiall believe, and what they ihall preach. Yea, his fubjedls are
exprefsly commanded and charged to receive nothing as doc-
trine or parts of religion, which are only commandments of
men.

But in the church of England there is another fovereign,
lawgiver, fupreme head, befides Jefus Chrift ; an authority
which commands things which Chrift never commanded,
which teaches dottrines he never taught, which enjoins terms
of communion, and rites of religious worfhip, which Chrift
never enjoined. Hence they conclude, that thefe two churches
are two diftinft and quite different focieties, framed after dif-
ferent models, confifting of different members, and governed
by different officers, ftatutes, and laws. Whilft the objeftors
to eftabhfhcd forms of worfhip efteem and reverence the
great number of illuftrious and excellent perfons, both cler-
gy and laity, of which the church of England can boaft,
they fuggeft, that the prefent eftablilhed forms were drawn
up when this kingdom juft emerged out of Popifh darknefs ;
that in drawing them up fpecial regard was had to the
weaknefs of the people at that time, who could not be all at
once entirely brought off from the old ceremonies and forms ;
and that there are ieveral parts of our liturgy and ecclefiafti-
cal conflitution, which even many of our bifhops and clergy
wifli to fee altered. Schemes have been propofed, and at-
tempts have been made for omitting what is ofTenfive, for
correcting what is eafily capable of amendment, and for ac-
commodating the dotlrine and forms of the eftabfifhed
church, to the prefent advanced flate of knowledge, and to
the correfponding liberality of the modern profeffors of re-
ligion, botli in and out of the church ; but they have hither-
to been unavailing : and it has been tliought, that an ejcclu^.
five eftablifliment, appropriating to itfelf diftinguiflied ho-
nours and benefits cf a Iccular nature, and expofing thofe

whom

RELIGION.

whom it (Iocs not comprehend to privntion.", botli of emolu-
ment and honour, has a tendency to difcourage every eflort
for improving its conftitution, and enlarging its boundaries.
Some have alfo been of opinion that it reltrains freedom of
inqui-y, emhurrafies integrity, and too much difpofcs the
iniinftrufted and uniiirormed to intolerance and perfec\ition.
From whom, it has been faid, is a reform to be expefted,
but from tliofe who have reafon for wifliing every thing to
continue in ilatu quo J The dignitaries of the church,
whofe emoluments induce them to rell fatisfied, and the
ruling magitlrates of the Rate, who wifti things to remain
quiet, and the great body of the laity, connefted in one way
or other with eccleliaftical eltablilhments, cannot be luppofed
to be very anxious about a change in the conftitution of the
church : nor will they be at a lofs for plaufible reafons for
refitting any material alteration. The church and the Hate
are fo incorporated, that nothi.ig but a revolution, as it lias
been faid, in the latter, would caufe any very important
amendment in the former. Neverthelefs, reformers have
maintained, that if the liturgy, clergy, articles, canons,
with all the ceremonies and rites of the ellablillied church,
were entirely vanilhed from the land ; if its immenfe revenues
were applied to eafe our heavy taxes, and for the pay-
ment of the public debts ; and if preachers were paid
only by voluntary contributions ; the Itate would not
fullain fo ed'ential a lofs and damage, that it could not
thenceforward polTibly fubfitt. Would, fay they, the
Britifli monarchy be overthrown ; our courts of judicature
be fhut up ; the courts of law be ftopped ; parliaments no
more meet ; commerce and trade ttagnate, becaufe the na-
tional church was no more ? On the contrary, however
great the convulfion might be, the goverr.ment, both civil
and military, might remain the very fame. A timely re-
formation, however, would, as they imagine, prevent its
total deftrudlion, and contribute to its permanence and pro-
fperity.

Some notice rtiould here be taken of the learned War-
burton's famous argument in favour of an eflablidied cli-urch.
The church, fays this prelate, has, by contraft or alliance,
refigned her fupremacy in matters ecclefiaiUcal, and her in-
dependency, to the ftate. In confequence of this, the ftate
hath drawn up for her articles of faith, and forms of public
worfhip, which it requires the church to fubfcribe and ufe.
This alliance is a mere phantom, created by the warm imagi-
nation of the paradoxical bilbop, whofe ingenuity and learn-
ing have not been fufficient to render it popular, even among
the molt zealous advocates of religious ellablirtiments.
Neither ourhittory nor our laws know any thing at all of it.
The nature of our conftiti-.tion utterly difowHs it ; and
avows the church to be not an ally, but a fubjett to the
flate. ^n alliance fuppofes independency in the pawers be-
tween which it fubfifts. But it is needlefs to enlarge on this
topic.

Whilft it is allowed that religion has an influence on the
conduft of men in this life, it is pleaded, on the other hand,
that this beneficial influence of religion is promoted in all
denominations of Chrittians, and as much in thofe which
are reprobated by the ilate as in thofe which are encouraged
by it. It has been alfo faid, that the fubjeft of religion is
fo interefting to the generality of mankind, that if govern-
ment did not interfere, the contention about it would be fo
violent, that the public peace could not be preferved. To
this argument in favour of ellabliftiments, it has been re-
plied, that thefe contentions are much increafed by the favour
fhewn to one mode of religion, and the opprobrium which is
confequently thrown on the reft ; and that, where temporal
intercll is not concerned, mere opinions will not occafion any

9

differences at whiclj government need to be alarmed. Chrif-
tianity was introduced and oilabliflied, and fubfiflcd for
about three hunch-cd years, without any favour or protedmn
from tlie governing powers ; and the example of America,
iu fonie provincis of which tlierc is, ftridly fpeaking, no
eftabliflimcnt of religion, and in which numerous forms of
religion are openly profefl'ed, ferves to ftew, tliat the want of
an eftablilhmeiit is attended with no danger to the ftate.
It is farther objefted, that the ftate, by undertaking the
care of religion, the trutii and utility of which will, under
providence, cnfure its permanence, has taken upon itfelf a
great, dangerous, and unneceflary burden ; and from its jea-
loufy of fedtarics, often deprives itfelf of the fervices of fome
ot Its beft and nioft able fubjefts ; and at fome times it has
been induced to perfecute and dcttroy them, becaufe if they
were left tree, and even fuffered to live, it was apprehended
their principles might fpread to the rilk of the eftabliftiment.
To the national eftabliftiment of our owji country, the en-
lightened advocates of which abhor and difcountenance into-
lerance and perfecution, it has been objefted, that it de-
privcs the people of the choice of their own teachers and paf-
tors ; that it impofes fubfcription to creeds of doubtful evi-
dence, and the obfervance of forms of queftionable utility,
on its own minifters ; that it renders the fupport of them
burdenfomc to thofe who avail tljemfelves of their labours,
and to others who derive no benefit from them ; and that it
excludes by obnoxious ftatutes a confiderable clafs of loyal
fubjefts from offices which they are competent to difcharge,
as well as emoluments and honours of which they have a right
to participate. See Dissenters, Subscription, Test,
and Tythes.

We now proceed to ftate the arguments that have been
urged in favoirt- of national eftabliftiments of religion ; and
we fliall here avail ourfelvea of the reafoning of an excellent
writer, who has done ample juftice to the fubjeft, and who,
at the fame time, has difcufled it with a liberality and mode-
ration, which have a tendency to conciliate thofe whofe fen>
tiraents may be different from his own. " A religious efta-
bliftiment," he fays, " is no part of Chriftianity ; it is only
the means of inculcating it." It cannot be proved, that
any form of church government has been laid down in the
Chriftian, as it had been in the Jewilh fcriptures, with a view
of fixing a conftitution for fucceeding ages ; and which con-
ftitution, confequently, the difciples of Chrift woidd, every
where, and at all times, by the very law of their religion,
be obliged to adopt. Certainly no command for this pur-
pofe was delivered by Chrift himfelf ; and though the apof.
ties ordained biftiops and preftyters among their firft con-
verts, and appointed alfo deacons and deaconeffes, inverting
them with funftions different from any that now fubfift, fuch
offices were at firil erefted in the Chriftian church, as the
good order, the iiiftruftion, and the exigencies of the fo-
ciety at that time required, without any declared defign of
regulating the appointment, authority, or diftinftion of
Chriftian minifters under future circumftances. After this
concefiion, our author founds the authority of a church
eftabliftiment in its utility ; and in judging of the compara-
tive excellence of different eftablifliments, he fuggefts, that
the fingle view, under which we ought to confider any of
them, is that of " a fcheme of inftruftion," and the fingle
end we ought to propofe by them is, " the prefervation and
communication of religious knowledge." Every other idea,
and every other end that have been mixed with this, as the
making of the ciuirch an engine, or even an ally of the
ftate ; converting it into the means of ftrengthening, or of
diffufiiig influence ; or regarding it as a fupport of regal, in
oppofition to popular forms of government, have ferved only

to

RELIGION.

to dcbafi" the iultitulioii, and to introduce into it numerous
corruptions and abufcs. The notion, fays our autlior, of
a religious eftablifhment comprehends three things, a clergy,
or order of men fccUidcd from other profeffions to attend
upon the ofiices of rehgion ; a legal provifion tnr the main-
tenance of the clergy : and the confining of that provifion
to the teachers of a particular fed of Chriftians. Without
thefe, there exills no national religion, or ellablifhed church,
according to the fenle which thefe terms are ufually made to
convey. He, therefore, who would defend ccclefiaftical
citabli(hraents, mull Ihevv tlie feparate utility of thefe llu-ee
efi'ential parts of their conftitution. Under the firft head he
maintains, that the knowledge and profelfion of Chrillianity
cannot be maintained in a country without a clals of men
fet apai-t by pubhc authority to the ftudy and teaching of
religion, and to the condudting of public worfhip ; and that
for thefe purpofes they fiiould be precluded from other em-
ployments ; and that of courle they ought to derive a main-
tenance from tiieir own. If they depended for this mainte-
nance upon the voluntary contributions of their hearers, he
is of opinion, that few would ultimately contribute any thing
at all. To the confideration of the difficulty with which
congregations would be eftablifhed and upheld upon the •vo-
luntary plan, he adds, that of the condition of thofe who
are to officiate in them. Preaching, he thinks, would in
this cafe become a kind of begging ; and the preacher, being
at the mercy of his audience, would be obliged to adapt his
doftrines, and alfo his ityle and manner of preaching, to the
pleafure of a capricit)us multitude ; and to live in con-
ilant bondage to tyratinical and infolent direftors ; which
he could not do without a facrificc of principle, and a de-
pravation of charatter. Admitting thefe circumftances to
be fairly ilated, which perhaps an objeftor would reluc-
tantly allow. Dr. Paley concludes, that a legal provifion
for the clergy, compulfory upon thole who contribute
to it, is expedient ; and then proceeds to inquire, whether
this provifion fliould be confined to one feft of Chriftians,
or extended indiflerently to all. This queftion, it (hould be
recollefted, can never oiler itfelf where the people are agreed
in their religious opinions, and ought never to arife, where
a fyftem of doftrines and wordiip may be fo framed as to
comprehend their difagreements, and which might fatisfy all
by uniting all in the articles of their common faith, and
in a mode of divine worfhip that omits every fubjeft of con-
troverfy or offence. Where fuch a comprehenfion is prac-
ticable, the comprehending religion ought to be made that
of the Hate. But where this comprehenfion is impradti-
cable, and feparate congregations and different fects muft
continue in the country, the queflion fairly recurs, whether,
under fuch circumftances, the laws ought to eflablifh one
fett in preference to the reft ; 'hat is, whether they ought
to confer the provifion afPigned to the maintenance of reli-
gion upon the teachers of one fyftem of doccrines alone.
This queftion is intimately connected with, and in a great
meafure dependent upon, another ; and that is, in what
way, or by whom, ought the minifters of religion to be ap-
pointed? In that fpecies of patronage which fubfifts in this
country, and which allows private individuals to nominate
teachers of rehgion for diftridts and coagreg ations, to which
they are abfolute ftrangers, forae teft ihould be propofed to
the perfons nominated, in order to prevent that difcordancy
of reUgious opinions that might othervvife arife between the
feveral teachers and their refpedlive congregations. The
requifition of fubfcription, or any other teft by which the
;iational rehgion is guarded, may be coniidered merely as a
rellrid'tion upon the exercife of private patronage. Where-
locver, therefore, this conftitution of patronage is adopted.

a national religion, or the legal preference of one particulai
religion to all others, muft almoll iieceffarily accompany it. If
we iuppole tliat the appointment of the miniller of religioi.
wa". in every parifh left to the choice of the parifliioners, might
njt this choice be fafely exercifed, without its being limited
to the teachers of any particular fedt ? The cij'edt, fays our
author, of fuch a liberty mull be, tUat a Papifl, or a Pref-
byterian, a Methodift, a Moravian, or an Anabaplill, would
fucceffively gain poffeifion of the pulpit, according as a ma-
jority of the party happened at each eledtion to prevail ; and
on every choice, it is apprehended, that violent conflidls
would be renewed, and bitter animofities be revived. If
the flate appoint the minifters of rehgion, this conftitution
will difier little from the eflablifhment of a national religion :
for the ilate would undoubtedly appoint only tiiofe whofe
religious opinions, or rather whofe religious denomination,
agree with its own ; unlefs it be thought that religious li-
berty would derive any advantage from transferring the
choice of the national religion from the legiflature of the
country to the magiftrate who adminiftcrs the executive go-
vernment. The only plan which fecms to render the legal
maintenance of a clergy pradticable, without the legal pre-
ference of one fedt of Clu-iitians to another, is that of an ex-
periment which has been attempted (and which is faid to
have fucceedcd) in fome of the new iiatcs of North- Ame-
rica. The nature of the plan is thus defcnbed. A tax is
levied upon the inhabitants for tlie general fupport of re-
ligion : the collector of the tax goes round with a regifter
in liio hand, in which are infertcd, at the head of fo many
diftindt columns, the names of the feveral I'eligious fedls that
are profeffed in the country. The perfon who is called
upon for the alTeflmeiit, as loon as he has paid his quota,
fubfcrlbes his name in which of the columns he pleafes ; and
the amount of what is coUedted in each column is paid over
to the minifter of that denomination. In this fchemc it is
not left to the option of the fubjedl, whether he will con-
tribute, or how much he fhall contribute, to the main-
tenance of a Chriltian minifter : it is only referred to his
choice to determine by what feet his contribution Ihall be
received. The above arrangement, fays Paley, is un-
doubtedly the beft that has been propofed upon this prin-
ciple ; it bears the appearance of liberahty and juftice ; and
it may contain fome folid advantages. But our author
thinks that its inconveniences will be found to overbalance
all its recommendations. It is fcarcely compatible with the
firft requifite in an ccclefiaftical eftablifhment, which is the
divifion of the country into parifnes of a commodious ex-
tent. If tlie parifhes be fmall, and minifters of every deno-
mination be ftationed in each, which the plan feems to fup-
pofe, the expence of their maintenance will become too bur-
denfome a charge for the country to fupport. If, for- re-
ducing the expence, the diftridls be enlarged, the place of
affembling will, in fome cafes, be too far removed from
the refidence of the perfons who ought to refort to it. Be-
fides, if the pecuniary fuccefs of the different teachers of
religion be made to depend upon the num.ber and wealth of
their refpcctive followers, this would naturally generate
ftrifes and indecent jealoufies amongi^ them, as well as pro-
duce a polemical and profelyting fpirit, founded in or
mixed with views of private gain ; which would both de-
prave the principles of the clergy, and diltradt the country
witli endlefs contentions.

If it be expedient, lays our author, to eftablifh a national
religion, that is, one fedl in preference to all others, fome
tefi, by which the teacher of that fedt may be diftinguiflied
from the teachers of different fedts, appears to be an indif-
penfable confequence. The cxiftence of fuch an eftablifh-
ment

RELIGION.

ihcnt fuppofes it : the very notion of a national religion • i-
cludcs that of a tcil. But the ncccflily of a ted has fur-
nilhed to almoll every church a pretence for extending, mul-
tiplying, and continuing fucli tells beyond what the occailon
juitilied. For though fome purpoles of order and tran-
quillity may be anfwered by the cllablifliment of creeps and
confeflions, yet they are at all times attended with ferious

prince, the fcntence of the judge, cannot afFeft my falra-
tion ; nor do they, without tlie mod abfurd arrogance,
pretend to any fuch power : but tliL-y may deprive me of
liberty, property, aiid even of life itfelf, on account of my
religion ; and however I may complain of the injuftice of
the fentence, by which I am condemned, I cannot allege
that the magitlrate has tranfgrefLd the boundaries of Ins

inconveniences. They check inquiry ; they violate liberty ; jurifdicr.ion ; bccaufe the property, the liijcrty, and the life

of the fubjeft, may be taken away by the authority of the
laws, for any reafon, whicli, in the judgment of the legifla-
turc, renders fuch a nieafure necefi'ary to the common wcU
fare. Moreover, as the precepts of religion may regulate
all the offices of lif,-, or may be fo conllrued as tt> extend to
all, tlie exemption of religion from the control of human
laws might aflord a plea, which would exclude civil govern-
ment from every authority over the con-dudl of its fulijeils.
Religious liberty is like civil liberty, not an immunity from
reilraint, but the benig roilrained by no law, but what in a
greater degree conduces to the public welfare."

By way of qualifying this reafoning, which may be
thought exceptionable. Dr. Paley obferves, that " dill it
is right to obey God ratiier than man." — " When human
laws intcrpofe their dircftion in matters of religion, by dic-
tating, for example, the objeft or the mode of divine wor-
(liip ; by prohibiting the profedion of fume articles of faith,
and by i xecuting that of others ; they are liable to clalh
with what private perfons believe to be already fettled by
precepts of revelation, or to contradiil what God himfelf,
they think, hath declared to be true. In this cafe, on
whichever fide the midake lies, or whatever plea the date
may allege to judify its cdift, the fubjeft can have none
to excufe his compliance. The fame confideration alfo
points out the didinftion, as to the authority of the date
between temporals and fpirituals. The magidate is not to
be obeyed in temporals more than in fpirituals, where a re-
pugnance is perceived between his commands, and any
creditL-d manifedations of the divine w:ll ; but fuch repug-
nancies are much lefs likely to arife in one cafe than in
the other." The general propofition laid down by our
author is as foDows : " That it is lawful for the magidrate
to interfere in the affairs of religion, whenever his inter-
ference appears to him to conduce, by its general tendency,
to the public happinefs." To others this propofition will
appear to be in many refpefts exceptionable. The ma-
gidrate of courfe is to be the judge, what are the occafions
in which he may interfere ; and thefe occafions will occur
whenever he pleafes. Dr. Paley has therefore endeavoured
to guard it againlt mifapprehenfion and mifapplication.
Having dated, that it is the general tendency of the mea-
fure, or, in other words, the edefts which would arife from
the meafure being generally adopted, that fixes upon it the
charafter of rectitude or injudice, he then proceeds to in-
quire what is the degree and the fort of interference of
fecular laws in matters of religion, which are likely to
be beneficial to the public happinefs. In fettling this
point he premifes two maxims ; the fird is, that any form
of Chridianity is better than no religion at all ; and the
fecond is, that of different fydems of faith, that is tlie
bed which is the trued:. From the fird propofition it is in-
ferred, that when the date enables its fubjects to learn

they enfnare the confeiences of the clergy, by holding out
temptations to prevarication ; and in procefs of time, they
contradift the opinions of the church, whofe doiSlrines they
profefs to contain ; and they otten perpetuate the piofcrip-
tion of fedls and tenets, from which any danger has long
ceafed to be apprehended. Although teds and lubfcriptions
may not be abolillted, they ihould be made as ealy and
fimple as poffible. They fliould be adapted from time to
time to the varying fentiments and circumdances of the
church in which they are received ; nor diould tliev at any
time advance one ttep farther than fome fubfiding necefiity
requires. Promifes of ccmformity to the rites, liturgy, and
ofli-ces of the church, if fufhcient to prevent confufion in
tlie celebration of divine wordiip, diould be accepted in the
place of dritler fubfcriptions. It any agreements, not to
preach certain doftrines, nor to revive certain controverfies,
dcnomin>ted articles oi peace, would exclude indecent alter-
cations amongd the national clergy, and alio fecure to the
public teaching of religion as much of uniformity and quiet
as is neceffary to edification ; then coRfeffions of faith ought
to be converted into articles of peace. In a word, it ought
to be held, fays Dr. Paley, a fufiicient reafon for relaxing
the terms of fubfcription, or for dropping any or all of the
articles bo be fubfcribed, that no prefent necedity requires
greater driftnefs.

It is a quedion that has been long agitated in the re-
formed churches of Chridcndom, whether a parity amongd
the clergv, or a didindtion of orders in the minidry, be
more conducive to the general ends of the inditution ? Our
author is inclined to the latter alternative, for realons which
he has dated.

In difcufiing the fubjeft of a national eltablidiment of re-
ligion, the riglit of the civil magidrate to interfere at all in
matters of religion offers itfelf to confideration ; and al-
though this right may be acknowledged whild he is em-
ployed folely in providing means of public iudruftion, it
may be quedioned whether he diould inflift penalties, and
impofe redraints or incapacities on the account of religious
didindlions. Our author, deducing the authority of civil
government from the will of God, and inferring that will
from public expediency alone, concludes that the jurifdic-
tion of the magidrate is limited by no confideration but that
of general utility ; or that whatever be the fubjeft de-
manding regulation, it is lawful for him to interfere, when-
ever his interference, in its general tendency, appears to be
conducive to the common hitered. Our author conceives,
that there is nothing in the nature of religion, d^sfuch, which
exempts it from the authority of the legidator, when the
fafety or welfare of the community requires his interpofition.
To the objettion, that religion, pertaining to the intereds
of a life to come, lies beyond the province of the civil go-
vernment, the office of W'hich is confined to the affairs of this

life. Dr. Paley replies, that when the laws interfere even fome form of Chridianity by didributing teachers of a re-
in rehgion, they interfere only with temporals ; their effefts ligious fyllem througiiout the country, and by providing
terminate, their power operates only upon thofe rights and for the maintenance of thefe teachers at the public expence ;
intereds, which confed'edly belong to their difpofal. He that is, when the laws edablidi a national rehgion, they
proceeds to oblerve, probably without fatisfying the ob- exercife a power and interference, which are likely, in their
jeftor, " that the atls of the legidator, the edi^tls of the general tendency, to promote the iatercd of mankind.
Vol. XXIX. 4 O But

11 E L

R E L

But after the right of the magiflrate to tllabhih a parti-
cular rtligion has been, upon this principle, admitted ; a
doubt arilfs, whtther the religion he ought to eltablifh be
that which he hirr.ftlf profciics, or that which he obferves
to prevail amongft ih» majority of the people. Alluming
it to be an equal chance, which of the two rehgious, that
of the magiftrate or that of the people, contains more of
truth, it becomes a confideration of fome importance, to
which arrangement we may attach the greater efficacy ; that
of an order of men appointed to teach the people their own
religion, or to convert them to another ; arid as in our
author's opinion the advantage lies on the fide of the
former fcheme, it becomes the duty of the magiftrate, in
the choice of the religion which he cltablifhes, to confult
the faith of the nation rather tlian liis own. For our
author's reafoning on other topics connected with a na-
tional eftablKhment of religion, we refer to the articles
SuBscruPTioN, Test, and Toleration. He clofes the
difcuflion of the general fubjeft with the following lum-
mary of his argument : the refult of our examination of
thole geneijal tendencies, by which every interference of
civil government in matters of religion ought to be tried,
is this : " That a comprehenfive national religion, guarded
by a few articles of peace, and conformity, together with
a legal provifion for tlie clergy of that religion ; and with
a complete toleration of all diffenters from the eilabliflied
church, without any other limitation or exception, than
what aril'es from the conjunftion of dangerous pohtical
difpofitions with certain religious tenets, appears to be, not
only the moft juil and liberal, but the wifeft and fafeft
fyftem, which a ftate can adopt : inafmuch as it unites
the feveral perfeftions, which a religious conftitution ought
to aim at — liberty of confcience, with means of inftruc-
tion ; the progrefs of truth, with t}ie peace of fociety ;
the right of private judgment, with the care of the public
fafety." Paley's Principles of Moral and Political Philo-
fophy, vol. ii. ch. lO.

In moft countries where religion is eftablifhed, it is that
of the majority of the people ; and on this principle the
writers in defence of ecclefiaftical eftabhihments vindicate
them. But in a part of the united kingdom of Great
Britain, -viz. in Ireland, we have a remarkable exception
to this rule. There the eftablilhed religion is not that of
the majority, but of a fmall minority of the people. Ever
fince the reformation the members of the church of Eng-
land have kept pofleffion of the tithes of the whole ifland,
where they have long defpaired of bringing the people over
to that religion for which they pay fo dear.

In conneftion with the national eltablifhment of religion
we fhall here remark, that in this country the care which
government takes of religion extends itfelf to the bufinefs
of education, confining the univerfities, which are fupported
by the national funds, to the education of the members of
the church of England, and rigoroufly excluding all fefta-
ries, either by requiring fubfcription to the thirty-nine
articles at the time of matriculation, or of taking certain
degrees, or obliging the ftudents to attend the fervice of
the eftablifhed church, and to declare that they are Bona
fide members of it.

Among the oft'ences againft religion enumerated by judge
Blackftone, and punifhable by the laws of England, are
apnjlacy and herefy, which fee refpeftively ; and alfo thofe
which affcft the eftabliflied church. Thefe latter are either
pofitive or negative ; pofitive by revihng its ordinances, or
negative, by non-conformity to its worfhip. See Reviling,
.Tcc. Common Prayer, Non-cokfoumists, Dissenters,

Papists, and Popery. See alfo Blasphemy, Phofane-
NESS, Conjuration and Witciickapt, Religious Im-
posTons, Sunday, Falfe Puopiiecies, Dkunkenness,
Lrwdnkss, and Simony.

Religion, again, is applied to a military order, con-
ililing of knights who live under fome certain rule, &c.

In this fcnfe we fay, the religion of Malta, &c. See
Malta.

Religion is fometimes alfo ufed for a convent. Thus,
we fay, there are religions of men, /. c. monks ; religions
of women, i. e. nuns.

Religion, The, ufed abfolutely, denotes the Reformed in
France. Thus, they fay, d'Ablancourt and Dacier were
of the religion. See Huguenots.

RELIGIOUS, in a general fcnfe, fomething that relates
to religion.

We fay, a religious life, religious fociety, &c. Churches
and church-yards are religious places. A religious war is
alfo called a croifade; which fee.

Religious is more particularly ufed for a perfon engaged
by folemn vows to the monaftic life ; or a perfon fhut up
in a monaflery, to lead a life of devotion and aufterity,
under fome rule or inftitution.

The male religious we popularly call numkt ^x^A friars ;
the female, nuns and canoneffes. See Canon, Monk,
Nun, &c.

M. Nicole obferves, that fome domeflic chagrins, and a
certain pride, which leads people to abfcond when they
cannot make a figure to their mind, make as many reli-
gious as real piety. He adds, that a girl mufl often be
made a religious for no other reafon, but becaufe fhe can-
not be married anfwerable to her condition.

Great influence, however, may be attributed to enthu-
fiafm and fuperffition, and to thofe miftaken notions of
duty and of perfeftion of charafter, which have often ori-
ginated in thefe fources, and which have produced effecl on
honeil minds of a peciiUar temperament and difpofition.
Whilft no kind of argument can juftify this retirement from
the world, and total feclufion from the occupations and
pleafures of focial life, it would manifeft a want of can-
dour as well as ignorance of human nature indifcriminately
to condemn all who have devoted themfelves to fuch a
kind of indolent and ufelefs life.

A religious cannot make any will. By the council
of Trent, a religious may reclaim his vows within five
years.

Anciently the religious were all laymen, and it was
even prohibited them to take up orders. In 1557, the
parliament of Paris made a difEcidty of receiving a bilhop
of Laon to the oath of a duke and peer, by reafon of his
being a religious : yet a religious, being promoted to a
bifltopric, is thenceforth fecularized or difpenfed from the
obfervation of his rule. ''

In ancient deeds and conveyances of lands, we often find
the feller reftrained from giving or alienating it, "viris reli-
giofis, vel Judceis, to religious, or to Jews ; 'to the end
the land might not fall into mortmain ; which fee.

In a memorial direfted by king John to his vifcounts,
they are ordered to proclaim through their refpcftive coun-
ties, that nobody, as they love their bodies and cattle,
injure the religions or clerks, either in word or deed, on
penalty of being hanged up on the next oak. " Nulli, ficut
diligunt corpora et catalla fua, malum faciant vel dicant
viris religiofis vel clericis. Si quem inde attingere poflimus,
ad proxirnam quercum eum fufpendi faciemus."

Religious Houfes, denote houfts fet apart for religious

purpofes.

R E L

purpofes, fuch as monaltcries, churches, hofpitals, and all
other places where charity is extended to tli« relief of the
poor and orphans, or for the ufe or exercife of religion.
See " Notitia Monallica," or " A ftiort Hillory of the rc-
igious Houfes in England and Wales," by Tainier, 8vo. ;
in which, according to the alphabetical order of counties,
is accurately given a full account of the founders, the time
of foundation, tutelar faints, the order, the value, and the
diffolution ; with reference to printed authors and MSS.
which preferve any memoirs relating to each houfe ; with a
preface of the inititution of religious orders. Cowtl.

Religious Impojlors. See Impostors.

Religious Order. See Order.

Mod military orders pretend likewife to be religious ; as
thofe of Malta, who make vows, &c. See Malta.

RELINQUISHMENT, in Lanv, is a forfaking, aban-
doning, or giving over. It hath been adjudged, that a
perfon may relinquifti an ill demand in a declaration, &c.
and have judgment for that which is well-demanded.

RELIQUA, the remainder or debt, which a perfon
finds himfelf debtor in, upon the balancing or liquidating
ail account.

Hence rellquitary, the debtor of a reliqua ; as alfo a
perfon who only pays piece-meal.

The term reliqua is pure Latin.

RELIQUiE, Relics, in Antiquity, the afties and bones
of the dead, which remained after burning their bodies ;
and which they very religioufly gathered, and put into urns,
and afterwards depofited in tombs. See Relics.

RELIQUARY, a (hrine or call<et, in which the relics
of a dead faint are kept.

RELIQUE. See Relics.

RELIQUIA, in Natural Hi/lory, a term ufed to exprefs
the foflile remains of certain fubftances found in different
parts of the earth. In the article Petkifactions we have
given the Linnsan divifion of the fifth clafs of minerals,
and a pretty full defcription of the eight genera into which
it is divided. In this place we (hall prefent our readers with
a very brief view of Mr. Martin's " Syftema Rcliquiorum."
He confiders the regnum foflile, or foflile kingdom, to be
divided into five clafles, viz.

I. Reliquia, or foflile remains from animals or plants.
II. Terra:, earths.
ill. Salia, falts.
IV. Inflaramabilia, inflammable fubft^ces.

V. Metalla, metallic fubllances.
The reliquia he divides into two orders, viz.. animal and
'vegetable remains ; of the formeJ' he gives eight genera ; of
the latter only one genus, which are as follow :

Order I. Reliquia Animalia.

Innatii,

Genus I. Mammodolithus, or remains of Mammalia.

2. Ornitholithus, - - Birds.

3. Amphibiolithus, - - Amphibia.

4. Ichthyolithus, - - Fiflies.

5. EnthoHthus, - - Infeds.

6. Helmintholithus, of the parts of worms not

fabricated.

Fabricaia.

7. Conchyliothus, or remains of Teilacea.

8. Erifmatolithus, of fulciments, or fabricated

fupports of worms.

Order II. Reliquia Vegetalia.
9= Phytolithub, the remains of Plants.

R E L

Mr. Martin has given certain fundamental priaciplet,, oa
which he conceives the (tudy of reliquia may be fcientifically
condufted : thefe are as follow.

1. All natural bodies without life found on or beneath
the furface of the earth, and which arc not fufceptible of pa-
trefaftion, belong to the folfile kingdom, and are either reli.
quia or minerals. Foflils are ufually denominated "bodies
dellitute of an organic llrufture :" now though it be ad-
mitted that all foflils are, according to the common accepta-
tion of the term, unorganized, they are not dellitute of
the ftrufture which dillinguiflies an organized body. This
being admitted, it follows that a line muil be drawn between
animal and vegetable matter recently buried in the earth,
and which has acquired a genuine foflile character. This
hnc will depend perhaps on putrefaftion, to which even or-
ganic fubftances, after they have become foflile, are no longer
fubjcft.

2. An organic llrufture, whether of a plant or animal,
is the eflence of an extraneous foflil or reliquium. By
this alone it is charafterifed, or diftinguiflied from a mi-
neral.

3. It is the organic/orni alone on vvhich the arrangement
of reliquia muft be founded. Every fyftem of natural
bodies Ihould aflume for its bafis but one principle, and
this fliould be drawn from the moll ellential charafteriftics
of the bodies under arrangement. It is on tliis account
the form is pointed out as furnifliing the only genuine prin-
ciple, on which the claflitication of reliquia can be elta-
bliflied.

4. The primary divifions of the arrangement, viz. orders,
genera, &c. fliould agree with fuch natural divifions of
plants and animals as are determinable by the form of the
foflile fubjefts.

5. The fpecific differences in reliquia depend on the fpe-
citic differences of form in the original bodies. One fpecies
of plant or animal can give but one real or genuine fpecies
of extraneous foflil. For if the effence of the reliquium be
an organic form, its other aff'eftions, arillng from fubllance,
mode, and foil, are accidental, and cannot be ufed as fpecific
diftinftions, which muft always depend on fomething efl'ential
to the body which we wifli to difcriminate. Form, there-
fore, raufl furnifli fpecific differences of reliquia, and it of
courfe follows that there will be as many genuine fpecies of
reliquia, as there are genuine fpecific forms in the animal
and vegetable prototypes or originals : and that the number
of foflile fpecies are not increafed by a feparation of parts,
or other accidental circumftances to which the original
bodies may have been fubjedled during their change into
foflils.

6. Specific diftinftions of reliquia being founded only on
the organic form, it follows, that their geological and mine-
ralogical affeftions, with their modal diverfities, merely cha-
radlerife fpecimens.

7. The fpecific defcriptions of reliquia are to be given
according to the principles of botany and zoology. Thofe
of the fpecimens, according to the principles of mineralogy
and geology. The ejfential form of the reliquium muft be
diftinguiflied from the accidental, that is, the form of the
original body, from that which has arifen in the foflil from
the mode of mineralization, the conftituent fubftance, and
the foil of the fpecimen.

8. The nomenclature of reliquia fliould manifeft the ex-
tent of the prefent ft ate of knowledge with refpeft to the
original bodies.

To what has been faid, we fliall add an account of our
author's " Delineations of Reliquia."

The leading parts in the delineation of a reliquium are
4 O 2 the

RELIQUIA.

llie fpecific charafter or diagnofis, and the general de-
fcriptfon.

The fpecific charaflcr contains the marks that diltiiiguifh
the fpecies to which they belong, from all others in the fame
genus. Specific charafters of roliquia fliould be fo con-
Sruftcd as to diftinguifh permanent from temporary fpecies ;
and thofe whoi'e originals have not, as yet, been difcovtred.
The fpecific charafter of the recent fpecies of plants or ani-
mals frequently depends on parts often or conilantly wanting
in the foflile fubjeft. When that is the cafe, another diag-
nofis muft be given to diftinguifh the reliquium ; that of the
recent fpecies being marked as a parenthefis. The generic
and trivial names are prefixed to the fpeciiic character. And,
generally, the name of the family, or fubdivifion of the
genus to whicli tlie reliquium belongs : after which is to be
detailed in diftiiift clades, I. The fynonyms or names by
-which the fpecies has been diltinguithed by authors, with
references to the figures given of it. 2. The varieties of
'the fpecies, with their fynonyms. 3. The vernacular name.

4. The mode or ftate in which the reliquium is found.

5. Its foil or geological fituation. 6. Its geographic fitu-
ation, and then the general defcription.

The defcription delineates in appropriate terms all the parts
conilituting the effcnlial form of the reliquium, according
to their number, figure, proportion, and fituation : it mull
primarily refer to the original of the reliquium, as no jull or
p'erfeft delineation of the fpecies can be given, until the nature
of its prototype be afcertained.

The terms employed in defcribing reliquia, which derive
their form from the external parts of animals and plants, muft
be thofe ufed by zoologifts and botanifts of the Linnxan
fchool. But thofe which derive their form from the internal
parts of organic bodies, are to be defcribed in fuch terms as
anatomifts would ufe in diftinguifliing the fame parts in the
recent fubjefts.

As appendant parts to the general defcription of the reli-
quium muft be given, I. An enumeration of the fpecimens
which exhibit the various accidental forms under which the
fpecies has been found. 2. An enumeration of the various
fubftances which have been obferved asconftituting the reli-
quium and its matrix.

Having given this brief account of Mr. Martin's fcientific
delineations of reliquia, we fhall prefent our readers with
the fubftance of two very interefting communications fent
to the Royal Society fince the printing of the article Petri-
factions. Of thefe, the firft is " An Account of fome Orga-
nic Remains found by Mr. Trimmer, near Brentford, in
Middlefex."

*' The fpecimens," fays Mr. Trimmer, " have been col-
leftedfrom two fields, not contiguous to each other ; there-
fore, to avoid confufion, I (hall take each field feparately,
firft defcribing the Itrata as far as they have come within my
knowledge, and afterwards I ihall fpeak of the organic
remains as they were refpeftively found in thofe ftrata.

" The firft field is about half a mile north of the Thames
at Kew bridge ; its furface is about twenty-five feet above
the Thames at low water. The ftrata here are, firft, fandy
loam from fix to ft ven feet, the loweft two feet flightly
calcareous. Second, fandy gravel, a few inches only in
thicknefs. Third, loam fiightly calcareous, from one to five
feet : between this and the next ftratum, peat frequently
intervenes in fmall patches, of only a few yards wide,
and a few inches thick. Fourth, gravel containing water ;
this ftratnm varies from two to ten feet in thicknefs, and
is always the deepeft in the places covered by peat ; in
thcfe places the lower part of the ftratum becomes an hete-
rogeneous mafs of clay, fand, and gravel, and frequently

exhales a difagrceable muddy fmell. Fifth, the main (Iratam
of blue clay, which lies under this, extends under London
and its vicinity ; the average depth of this clay has been
afcertained, by wells that have been dug through it, to be
about two hundred feet under the furface of the more level
lands, and proportionally deeper under the hills, as appear*
from lord Spencer's well at Wimbledon, which is five hundred
and fixty-fcven feet deep. This ftratum, befides figuicd fof-
fils, contains pyrites and many detached nodules ; at the
depth of twenty feet there is a regular ftratum of thefe
nodules, fome of whicli are of very confiderable fize.

"In the firft ftratum, as far as my observation has extended,
no remains of an organized body has ever been found, and
as my fearch has not been very limited, I may venture to
fay it contains none. In the iecond itratum, fnail-fhells,
and the (hells of river fifli, have been found, and a few bones
of land animals, but of inconfiderable fize, and in fuch a
mutilated ftate, that it cannot be afcertained to what clafs
they belong. In the third ftratum, the liorns and boneS of
the ox, and the horns, bones, and teeth of the deer, iiave
been found, and alfo, as in the fecond ftratum, fnail-ftiella,
and the fhells of rivcr-fifli. In the fourth ftratum were
found teeth and bones of both the African and Afiatic
elephants, teeth of the hippopotamus, bones, horns, and teeth
of the ox.

" A tufi< of an elephant meafured, as it lay on the ground,
nine feet three inches, but, in attempting to remove it, it
broke into fmall pieces. When this ftratiim dips into the
clay, and becomes a mixed mafs, as before ftatcd, it is fel-
dom without the umains of animals. In the fifth ftratum,
namely, the blue clay, the extraneous foflils are entirely
marine, with the exception of fome fpecimens of fruit and
pieces of petrified wood, the latter of which may be confi-
dered as marine, becaufc, when of fufficient fize, they
are always penetrated by teredines. Tlie other foffils
from this ftratum are nantilij oyfters, pinnae marins, crabs,
teeth and bones of fifii, and a great variety of fmall marine
fiiells ; this ftratum has been penetrated hitherto in this field
only to the depth of thirty feet, throughout which the fpe-
cimens found were difperfed without any regularity.

'• The fecond field is about one m.ile to the welUvard of the
former, one mile north of the Thames, and a quarter of a
mile to the eallwardof the river Brent ; its height above tlie
Thames, at low water, is about forty feet. The ftrata are,
firft, fandy loam, eight or nine feet, in the loweft three feet
of which it is flightly calcareous. Second, fand, becoming
cparfer towards the loweft part, and ending in landy gravel
from three to eight feet. Third, fandy loam highly calca-
reous, having its upper furface nearly level, but gradually
increafing in thicknefs from a feather-edge to nine feet.
Below this are two ftrata of gravel and clay, as in the other
field ; but as thefe ftrata have been only occafiop.ally pene-
trated in digging for water, nothing therefore is known with
refpeft to them, but that they exift there.

" In the firft ftratum, as in the other field, no organic re-
mains have been obferved. In the fecond, but always within
two feet of the third ftratum, have been found the teeth and
bones of the hippopotamus, the teeth and bones of the ele-
phant, the horns, bones and teeth of fevera! fpecies of deer,
the horns, bones and teeth of the ox, and the fliells of river-
fifti.

" The remains of hippopotami are fo extremely abundant,
that, in turning over an area of 1 20 yards in the prefer.t
feafon, parts ot fix tu(ks have been found of this animal,
befides a tooth and part of the horn of a deer, part of a tuik,
and part of a grinder of an elephant, and the horns, with a
fmall part &f the ikuU, of an os. One of thefe horns I had

an

R ELI QUI A.

an opportunity of Tneafunng as it lay on the ground, and geognoftic obfervaf ions 'in various parts of the world render
found It to be 4^ feet in length, and live inches in diameter probable, the creation of man mull have been pofterior to
at the large end ; it was found imprafticablc to remove that of tliofe genera and fpecies of mammalia which pe-
It, otherwifc than in fragments, which I have preferved, rifhed by a general cataclyfm, and whofe bonei are fj
and have hopes of being able to put a tonfiderable part thickly dilienimated in the mqre recent formations of rocks
of It together. The immciife fize of this horn is rendered " The liuman (keletmis from Guadaloupc are called Galibi

more remarkable by another horn from the fame fpot, by the natives of that idand ; a name faid to have been that
wiiich mcafures but fix inches in length. Though this of an ancient tribe of Caribs of Guiana, but which, accord,
ftratum is fo extremely produftive of the remains of ani- ing to a plaufible conjedhire, originated in the fubllitutioii
iiials, yet there are but few good cabinet fpecimens from it, of the letter / inltead of r, in the word Caribbee. No men-
owing, it is prefunied, to their having been crulhed at the tion is made of them by any author except o-encral Ernouf'
time they were buried, and to the injury they have fmce in a letter to M. Fanias St. Fond, infcrted in vol. v. (180C)
received from moiiture. It is neceflary to remark, that of the Annales du Mufcum ; and by M. Lavaiffe, in his
the gravel-llones in this llratum do not appear to have been \''oyage a la Trinidad, &c. publilhcd in 1813. The former
rounded in the iifual way by attrition, and that the bones of thefe gentlemen writes, that, on that part of the wind-
mult have been depofited after the flcfli was off, becaufe, in ward fide of the Grande-Terre, called La Moule, flccletons
no inflance, have two bones been found together which were are found enveloped in what lie terms " iVIades de madrc-
jouied in the living animal ; and further, that the bones are pores petrifies," which being very hard, and fituated witliin
not in the leall worn, as mull have been the cafe had they the line of high water, einild not be worked without great
been expofed to the wafh of a fea-beach. difficulty, but that he expecled to fucceed in caufing feme

"In the third ilratnm, vi-z. calcareous loam, hare been of thefe mades to be detached, the meafurements of which
found the horns, bones and teeth of the deer, the bones and he ftates to be about eiglit feet by two and a half
teeth of the ox, together with Inail-fli -lis, and tlie ihells of " The block brought home by fir Alexander Cochrane ex-
nver-filh. aftly anfwered this account with regard to the meafure-

" Brentford, in the neighbourhood of which are the fields ments ; in thicknefs it was about a foot and a half. It
I have mentioned, is fituated on the north hank of the Thames, weighed nearly two tons; its fliape was irregular, approach-
and is fix miles well of London. ing to a flattened oval, with here and there fome concavities,

" The fall of the Thames from Brentford to its mouth at the largefl of which, as it afterwards appeared, occupyino- the
the Nore, is eftimated at feven feet." place where the thigh-bone had been fituated, the lowcr^'part

The next communication is in relation to a foflile human of which was tlierefore wanliu'-i-. Except the few holes
(keleton, found imbedded in lime-ltone lately brought from evidently made to afliil iu raifing the block, the mafons here
the ifland of Guadaloupe by the honourable fir Alexander declared, that there was no mark of a tool upon any part of
Cochrane, and prefented by the admiralty to the Britifii Mu- it ; and, indeed, the whoL- had very much the appearance of
feum. Of this highly curious fpecimen Mr. Konig has given a huge nodule difengagcd from a furroundino- mafs.
an account that, to naturahtls, will be regarded as highly " The fituation of the &eleton in the block was "fo fupcr.

important and interelling. ficial, tliat its prefence in the rock on the coall had probably

" Onthehiftory ofthe ftrata produced by the more recent been indicated by the projcdlion of fome of the more elevated
cataftrophes of the globe," fays Mr. Konig, " moll light parts of tiic left fore-arm.

has been thrown by the indefatigable exertions of M. Cuvier. " Tlie Iknll is wanting ; a circumftance which is the more

Superlatively llviiled in comparative anatomy, this gentleman to be regretted, as this characlerillic part mitrht pofiibly
has fucceeded in determining the foiflle bones of no lefs than ha«e thrown fome light on the fubjeft under confideration
78 fpecies, of which 49 are entirely unknown among the ex- or would, at leaft, £ive fettled the quellion, whether the
iiling races of animals; about 12 are identified with known fkeleton is that of a Carib, who ufed to give the frontal
fpecies, and the remainder ftrongly refemble exilling fpecies, bone of the head a particular ihape by comprellion ; which
although their identity lias not been completely afcertained. had the effeft of deprcfling the upper, and protruding the
From the multiplied obfervations which this uaturalill has lower edge of the orbits, fo as to make the direftion of their
communicated in his numerous memoirs, we may gather that opening nearly upwards, or horizontal, inllead of vertical,
the viviparous quadrupeds appear at a much later period in " The vertebra; of the neck were loft with the head. Tlie

the foflile Hate than the oviparous ; the latter b.-ing pro- bones of the thorax bear all the marks of confiderable con-
bably coeval with the fiflics, whillt the former are found cufTion, and are completely dillocated. The feven true ribs
only in the neweft formations, in which, according to of the left fide, though their heads are not in connection
Brongniart and Cuvier's interefting difcovery, marine beds with the vertebra?, are complete ; but only three of the falfe
are obferved to alternate with thofe of frefli water, and whic'h ribs are obfervable. On the right fide only fragments of
(in the neighbourhood of Paris) overlay the coarfe fliell thefe bones are feen ; but the upper part of the feven true
limc-ttone, which conftitutes the lalt ftrata formed, as it ribs of this fide are found on the left, and mio-ht at firit fight

be taken for the termination ofthe left ribs. ' The right ribs
muft, therefore, have been violently broken, and carried over
to tiie left fide, where, if this mode of viewing the fubjedi
be corredt, the fternum muft likewifc lie concealed below

would appear, by a long and quiet ttay of tile fca on our
continent.

" All the circumftances under which the known depofitions
of bones occur, both in alluvial beds and in the caverns and

fifliires of flcctz lime-ltone, tend to prove, that the animals the termination of the ribs. The fmall bone dependent abo

to which they belonged met their fate in the very pLices the upper ribs of tlie left fide, appears to be the rieht cla-

where they now lie buried. Hence, it may be confidered as vide. The right os humeri is loft ; of the left nothinsr

an axiom, that man, and other animals, whofe bones are not remains except the condyles in conneftion with the fore-arm

found intermixed with them, did not co-exiil in time and which is in the ftate of pronation ; the radius of this fide

place. The fame mode of reafoning would further juftify us in exifts nearly in its full length, while of the ulna the lower

the conclufion,tiiat, if thole cataftrophes which overwhelmed part only remains, which is confiderably pulhed upwards.

a great proportion of the brute creation were general, as Of the two bones of the right fore-arm, the inferior terminal

5 tioDs

R E L

REM

tions arc leen. Botli tlic rows of the bones of the wrifts
are loft, but the whole metacarpus of the k-ft band is dif-
playcd, together with part of the bones of the fingers : the
firll joint of the foro-fingcr retts on the upper ridge of the os
pubis, the two others, detached from their metacarpal
bones, are propelled downwards, and fituated at the inner
llde of the femur, and below the foramen magnum ifchii of
this fide. Veftiges of three of the fingers of the right hand
are likewife vifiblc, confiderably below the lower portion of
the fore-arm, and clofe to th? upper extremity of the femur.
The vertebrae may be traced along the whole length of the
column, but are in no part of it well defined. Of the os facrum,
the fuperior portion only is dillindl : it is difunited from
the laft vertebra and the ilium, and driven upwards. The
left OS ilium is nearly complete ; but fliattcred, and one of the
fragments depreded below the level of the reft : the ofia
pubis, though well defined, arc gradually loft in the mafs of
the ftone. On the right fide the os innominatum is com-
pletely fliattered, and the fragments are funk ; but towards
the acetabulum, part of its internal cellular ftrufture is
difcernible.

" The thigh-boncb and tlie bones of the leg of the right
fide are in good prefervation, but being confiderably tiu-ned
outwards, the fibula lies buried in the ftone, and is not feen.
The lower part of the femur of this fide is indicated only by
a bony outline, and appears to have been diftended by the
compaft lime-ftone that fills the cavities both of the bones of
the leg and thigh, and to the expanfion of which thefe bones
probably owe their prefent ftiattered condition. The lower
end of the left thigh-bone appears to have been broken and
loft in the operation of detaching the block ; the two bones
of the leg, however, on this fide are nearly complete : the
tibia was fplit almoft the whole of its length a little below
the external edge, and the fifture being filled up with lime-
ftone, now prefents itfelf as a dark-coloured ftraight line.
The portion of the ftone which contained part of the bones
of the tarfus and metatarfus was unfortunately broken ; but
the feparste fragments are preferved.

" The whole of the bones, when firft laid bare, had a
mouldering appearance, and the hard furroundmg ftone
could not be detached, without frequently injuring their
furface ; but, after an expofure for fome days to the air,
they acquired a confiderable degree of hardnefs. Sir H.
Davy, who fubjefted a fmall portion of them to chemical
analyfis, found that they contained part of their animal
matter, and all their phofphate of lime. Here follows an
exaft defcription of the rock, in which the foffile rt<eleton is
found. The attention of geologifts being now direfted to-
wards this objefl, it may be expefted that a fcientific ex-
amination of the circumftances under which this lime-ftone
occurs, will not fail ere long to fix its age, and affign to it
the place it is to occupy in the ferics of rocks. All our
prefent information refpefting the Grande Terre of Guada-
loupe amounts to this, that it is a flat lime-ftone country,
derived principaOy from the detritus of zoophytes, with
here and there fingle hills (mornes) compofcd of fhell lime-
ftone ; while Guadaloupe, properly fo called, feparated
from the upper part by a narrow channel of the fea, has no
traces of lime-ftone, and is entirely volcanic."

M. Lavaifle, alluded to above as the only author who
mentions the galibies, except general Ernouf, fpeaks of the
bed of lime- ftone which inclofes them, as the moft remark-
able of the calcareous rocks in the Leeward iflands. Mr.
Konig, therefore, expefted to find in his work an exaft
ftatement of its mode of occurring ; but the only pofitive
information he could coUeft from this author is, that the
bed is a kilometre (nearly an Englilh mile) in length, and

that it is covered by the fea at high water. According to
him, no trace of fticUs or organized bodies is difcoverabk
ira this rock ; but in lieu of thele, he was fortunate enough
to meet with mortars, pellles, hatchets, &c. of a bafaltic
or porphyritic rock, which, we are informed, were petri-
fied (petrifies). From this very vague account, we ftiould
not be induced to lay much ilrefs upon the circuraftancc that
the pofition of the Ikelctons is eaft-weft, and that the fpot
muft, therefore, have been a cemetery, which time and cir-
cumftances have transformed into a hard calcareous rock.

" I have to apologife for this long letter on a fubjeft,"
concludes Mr. Konig, " which may turn out to be interelt-
ing only fo far, as the human bones from Guadaloupe are
unqueftionably the only bones we are acquainted with that
have ever been found imbedded in a hard ftony mifs, that
does not appear to belong to common ftala6titical calcareous
depofitions. This circumftance admits of buing eafily afccr-
tuined by a clofe infpcftion of the locality ; and I am per-
feftly of opinion, that a comparifon of the nature of the
different varieties of fliell-fand, with which the neighbour-
hood of the Caribbee iflands abounds, would alone be fuffi-
cient to remove many doubts relative to the origin of the
bed in queftion. The fand from thence, which I had an
opportunity of feeing, was unlike that of which the ftone is
compofed."

RELL, Mouse, in Zoology, the Enghfii name of the
white-bellied moufe, with a blackifti back and long body.
See Myoxus and Glis.

RELLING, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Holftein ; 2 miles S.S.E. of Pinnenberg.

RELLINGEN, a town of France, in the department
of the MofcUe, and chief place of a canton, in the diftridt
of Thionville. The place contains 602, and the canton
9046 inhabitants, on a territory of 212^ kihometres, in 36
communes.

RELLINGHAUSEN, a town of Germany, lately be-
longing to the abbey of Corvey ; 16 miles N.N.E. of Duf-
feldorf.

RELLINGHUSEN, a town of the duchy of Holftein ;
9 miles E. of Itzehoa.

REM, Information in, in Laiu. See Information.
REMAGEN, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Rhine and Mofelle, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrift of Bonn. The place contains 79c,
and the canton 7801 inhabitants, in 37 communes.

REMAIGHIAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Lariftan ; 10 miles N.W. of Tarem.

REMAINDER, Remanentia, in Laiu, an eftate li-
mited to take effeft and be enjoyed after another eftate is
determined. As if a man feifed m lee-fimple granteth lands
to A for twenty years, and, after the determination of the
faid term, then to B and his heirs for ever : here A is tenant
for years, remainder to B in fee. In the firft place, an
eftate for years is created or carved out of the fee, and given
to A ; and the refidue or remainder of it is given to B.
But both thefe interefts are in faft only one eftate ; the pre-
fent term of years and the remainder afterwards, when
added together, being equal only to one eftate in fee. (Co.
Litt. 143.) Thus, alfo, if land be granted to A for twenty
years, and after the determination of the faid term to B for
life ; and after the determination of B's eftate for life, it
being limited to C and his heirs for ever : this makes A
tenant for years, with remainder to B for life, remainder
over to C in fee. In this cafe alfo, the firft eftate, and both
the remainders, for Lfe and in fee, are one eftate only.
Hence it is eafy to infer, that no remainder can be limited
after the grant of an eftate in fee-fimple (Plowd. 29.

6 Vaagh,

REM

REM

Vaugli. 269.) ; becaufethis is the highcfl and largefl cftate
that a fubjeft is capable of enjoying ; and he that is tenant
in fee, hath in him the whole of the cdate : a remainder,
therefore, which is only a portion, or refiduary part of the
eftate, cannot be referved after the whole is difpofed of.

The rules that are laid down by law to be obfcrved in the
creation of remainders, arc as follow, i. There muft ne-
ceflarily be fome particular eitate, precedent to the eltate in
remainder ; which particular ellate is faid to fupport the
remainder. (Co. Lilt. 49. Plowd. 25.) 2. The remainder
mull commence or pafs out of the grantor, at the time of
the creation of the particular eltate (Litt. § 6jl. Plowd.
25.) : as where there is an ellate to A for life, with re-
mainder to B in fee ; here B's remainder in fee paffes from
the grantor at the fame time that feifin is delivered to A of
his life-eftate m pofFenion. And it is this which induces the
necefiity at common law of livery of feifin being made on
the particular ellate, whenever a freehold remainder is cre-
ated. (Litt. § 60. Co. Litt. 49.) 3. The remainder
muft veft in the grantee durmg the continuance of the par-
ticular eftate, or eo hijlat'ti tiiat it determines. (Plowd. 25.
1 Rep. 66.) As if A be tenant for life, remainder to B in
tail : here B's remainder is vefted in him, at the creation of
the particular eftate to A for life : or if A and B be tenants
for their joint lives, remainder to the lurvivor in fee ; here,
though dunng their joint lives the remainder is vefted in
neither, yet on the death of either of them, the i-emainder
vefts inllantly in the furvivor ; whence both thefe are good
rejnSinders. But if an eftate be limited to A for life, re-
mainder to the eldeft fon of B in tail, and A dies before B
hath any fon ; here the remainder will be void, for it did not
veft in any one during the continuance, nor at the deter-
mination, of the particular eftate : and even fuppofing that
B ftiould afterwards have a fon, he fliall not take by this
remainder ; for, as it did not veft at or before the end of the
particular eftate, it never can veft at all, but is gone for
ever, (i Rep. 138.) Hence remainders are either vejled
or contingent. Vejled remainders (or remainders executed,
by which a prcfent interelt palfes to the party, though to
be enjoyed in futuro) are fuch where the eftate is invariably
fixed, to remain to a determinate perfon after the particular
eftate is fpent. As if A be tenant for twenty years, re-
mainder to B in fee ; here B's is a -vefted remainder, which
nothing can defeat or fet afide. Contingent or executory re-
mainders (by which no prefent intereil pafles) are where
the eftate in remainder is limited to take effeft, either to a
dubious and uncertain perfon, or upon a dubious or uncer-
tain event ; fo that the particular eftate may chance to be
determined, and the remainder never take effetl. (3 Rep.
30.) In the firft cafe, if A be tenant for life, with re-
mainder to B's eldeft fon (then unborn) in tail, this is a
contingent remainder, becaufe it is uncertain whether B will
have a fon or not ; and if A dies before B's fon is born, the
remainder is abfolutcly gone ; even though A leaves his
wife big with child, and after his death a pofthumous Ion is
born. (Salk. 228. 4 Mod. 282.) But to remedy this
hardftiip, it is enafted by ftatute 10 & n W. TIL cap. 16.
that pofthumous children fliall be capable of taking in re-
mainder, in the feme manner as if they had been born in
their father's life-time ; that is, the remainder is allowed to
veft in them, while yet in their mother's womb. This
fpecies of contingent remainder, to a perfon not in being,
mult, however, be limited to fome one, that may by com-
mon poffibility, or potentia propinqua, be in ejfe at or before
the particular eftate determines. (2 Rep. 51.) A re-
mainder to a man's eldeft fon, who has none, is good ; be-
caufe by common poffibility he may have one ; but if it be

limited in particular to his fon John or Richard, it is bad, if
he have no Ion of that name ; for it is too remote a poffi-
bility, that he (hould not only have a fon, but the fon of a
particular name. (5 Rep. 51.) A limitation of a re-
mainder to a baftard before he is born, is not good (Cro.
Eliz. 505.) ; for though the law allows the poffibility of
having baftards, it preiumes it to be a very remote r.nd im-
probable contingency. In the fecond cale, where land is
given to A for life, and in cafe B furvivcs him, then with
remainder to B in fee : here B is a certain perfon, but the
remainder to him is a contingent remainder, depending upon
the uncertainty of his furviving A. During the joint lives
of B and A, it is contingent ; and if B dies firll, it can
never veft in his heirs, but is for ever gone ; but if A dies
firft, the remainder to B becomes vefted. Contingent re-
mainders of either kind, if they amount to a freehold, can-
not be limited on an eftate for years, or any other particular
eftate, lefs than a freehold. Thus, if land be granted to A
for ten years, with remainder in fee to the right heirs of B,
this remainder is void (i Rep. 130.) ; but if granted to A
for life, with a hke remainder, it is good. Contingent re-
mainders may be defeated^ by deftroying or determining the
particular eftate upon which they depend, before the con-
tingency happens, by which they become vefted. i Rep.
66. 155.

In devifes by laft will and teftament, remainders may be
crea.ed in fome meafure contrary to the rules here laid down :
though our lawyers will not allow fuch difpofitions to be
ftriftiy remainders ; but call them by another name, that of
executory devifes, or devifes hereafter to be executed.
Blackft. Com. book ii. chap. 1 1. ^ 3.

Spelman makes the difference between a remainder and re-
verfion to confill in this ; that by a reverfion, after the ap-
pointed term, the eltate returns to the donor, or his heirs,
as the proper fountain ; whereas by remainder it goes to
fome third perfon or ftranger.

Or, a remainder is an expeftancy, created by a<S of the
parties ; whereas a reverfion is created by afl of law.

The limitations of peribnal goods and chattels, in remain^
der after a bequeft for life, are permitted in laft wills and
teitaments : fo that if a man, either by deed or will, limits
his books or furniture to A for life, with remainder over to
B, this remainder is good. But where an eftate-tail in things
perfonal is given to the firft or any fubfequent poffefFor, it
veils in him the total property, and no remainder over fi.all
be permitted on fuch a limitation, i P. Wms. 290.

Glanville obferves, that bilhops and abbots, in regard
their baronies are the king's alms, cannot give any part
of them by way of remainder.

Remainder, Writ of formedon in the. See Formedon.

Remainder, in Mathematics, is the difference ; or that
which is left after the taking a leffer number, or quantity,
from a greater.

REMAL, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan j 18 ■
miles N.W. of Agimere.

REMALAND, a town of France, in the departmen*^
of the Orne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrift ot
Mortagne. The place contains 1702, and the canton i!,68^ «
inhabitants, on a territory of 2025 kiliometres, in 12 com-
munes.

REMANCIPATE, To, in Commercc'is. to fell or return
a commodity to him who firll fold it.

REMANCIPATION, Remancipatio, among the
Romans, a form of divorce obferved in marriages that had
been contradted by coemption. This was done by delivering
the wife into the hulband's hands j fo the marriage was dif-

folved

R E M

falved by llie liiifljaiid'n re-deliveriiig the wife into any per-

loii's liiiiids ajjrccd upon between llitni.

REMAND, Fi-., 7>y, in Military Language, to fend back ;

as when a foldier, who ha; been brought out of prifoii, or the

guard-houfe, for the purpofe of being examined or tried, is

ient back, witliout any thing final occurring relative to his

cafe.

■ JlEMANSO, i;i Geography, a town of South America,

in tht province of Cordova ; 170 miles N. of Cordova.
RE-MARRYING, the repeating of a marriage ; or the

going tiirough tlie folemnities of a fecond marriage.

Clandeltine and uncanonical marriages are deemed null ;

and tlie parties are to be re-married in form ; at lealt, it had
always better be fo to avoid difputes.

It was anciently exprcfsly forbid to re-marry in the firft
year of viduity. M. Bayle obferves, that a perfon who
does not re-marry, is anfwerable to the public for all the

time Inil in his viduity, or widowhood.

REMBANG, in Geography, a town on the N. coaft of
the ifland of .Tava, where the IDutch had a refident merchant.
It yields fait and timber, and was the place where the fmall
veflels of the company were built ; 45 miles N.E. of Sa-
niaraiig.

REMBERTUS, in Biography, the difeiple, friend, and
fellow labourer of Anfgarius, ilyled the apoftle of the
north, was a native of Thurliolt, in Flanders, in the monaf-
tery of which, as well as in that of Corbey in AVellphalia,
he ofRciated as fchool-mafter. He was one of the firft pro-
moters of Chriltianity in Denmark, and in or about the year
860 he became bifhop of Ribc. After the death of Anf-
garius, in 865, he was appointed to the archbifhopric of
Hamburgh, which office he held till his death, in 8S8. He
wrote, in conjnntlion with a friend, the life of Anfgarius,
which is inferted in the firlt volume of Langebeck's " Scrip-
tores Rerum Danicarum." In this work Rembertus relates
various fafts, not elfewhere to be found, with regard to the
itiite of Denmark at that period, but intermixed with fables.
He collected extrafts from Gregorius Magnus, whofe works
no longer exift, and he wrote many letters, one of which
only is to be found in the fecond volume of Langebeck's
coUedlion. An account of Rembert's life and miracles is
given in the fame work. A Danifh writer, quoted in the
General Biography, to which we are indebted for this article,
in fpeaking of Rembert's labours, fays ; " here we have not
fo much the commencement of Danifh literature, as the feeds
of it. They were fown by the exertions of Ebbo, Wille-
had, Anfgarius, and Rembert, but remained a long time, as
it were, trodden down by the fevere perfecutions to which the
Chrillians were expofed from Gormo the old, and other
kings ; and retarded in tlieir growth by the rudenefs and
barbarifm which formed the principal features in the charac-
ter of a people, who were fonder of roving about on the
feas to rob and m.urder, and of feafting and drinkmg, than
of reading and writing books. At length, however, the
feeds which he had fcattcrcd took root, fprung up in the
1 Ith century, and in the 12th and 13th produced abundance
of fruit." Gen. Biog.

REMBERVILLERS, in Geography. See Ramber-

VILLEKS.

REMBRANDT, Van Rvn, in Biography, was born
at a village near Leyden, in 1605. The real name of his
family wa.s Gerretfz ; but he acquired that of Van Ryn,
from having refided in early life at a village upon the banks
of the Rhine.

The little which this extraordinary artift owed to tuition
was derived firit from Zwanenburg, then from Peter Laft-
man, ?nd afterwards from Jacob Pinas, from whofe manner

II E M

fome are induced to think that Rembrandt drew his own in-
clination for powerful oppofitions (if light and fllade ; but
whatever hints he may have obtained from oliiers at the out-
fet of his praftice, they were loon loft in the effulgence of
his brilliant career, and abforbed in tlie lullrc of iiis own
over-powering abilities.

He was firft brought into notice by having taken a pic-
ture to the Hague, and oflered it for lale to an able connoif-
feur ; who, confcious of Ins merit, treated liim with kind-
nefs, and gave hiin a hundred florins for it. By this incident
both hinifelf and the public were made acquainted with his
wortli ; and hence arofe the reputation and fucccfs he after-
wards enjoyed. Inceliant occupation foon crowded upon
him, and many pupils applied for admiihcn into his fchool,
with each of whom he received 1 00 florins a-year ; and
whofe copies of his piftures he not unfrequently lold as ori-
ginals, after bellowing a (hort time upon them himlelf. By
thele means, aided by incedant indullry, and the fale of
etchings, which he produced with great facility and fl<ill, he
accumulated confiderable wealth : his income, according to
Sandrart, being, for a length of time, at leall 2500 florins
yearly.

His place of refidence, during this fuccefsful difplay of
his talents, was Amfterdam, where his peculiarities proeured
him the charafter of a humorift, whilft his abilities afto-
niflied and delighted his contemporaries, and he produced
thofe works which itiU gratify fuccetding ages.

The peculiarities of his mind are as much obfervable in the
manner of producing his effedts, as in th^ choice of the ma-
terials. The execution of his earlier works was in a ftylc
highly laboured, with great neatnefs, and patient comple-
tion of the figures ; fuch is that of the picture of the wo-
man taken in adultery at Mr. Angerftein's. As he advanced
in art, he took liberties with the pencil, wrought with all
the broad fulnefs of the brufli, and left the touch undif-
turbed : he even employed the ftick, the pallet -knife, or his
fingers, accordingly as they were moft capable of producing
the effeft he defired, when fcen at a proper diftance, difre-
garding the appearance of the work upon a clofer infpec-
tion.

In his piftures is exhibited a total inattention to the tafte
of the antique ; he is even faid to have made it a fubjeift of
ridicule, and to have jocofely denominated a coUedlion of
old armour and rich drelles, which he had coUetled and em-
ployed to ftudy and paint from, " his antiques." Thefe he
evidently ufed as his models, though frequently in moft he-
terogeneous combination ; but by an innate power of feizing
the moll ftriking effefls produced by light and lliade, fuper-
added to the moft perfeCl maftery over the materials of the
pallet, he always excited an intereft, either by originality or
beauty.

It is not, however, the approval of his power in the tech-
nical part of the art, which can or ought to fatisfy the ob-
ferver of the works of Rembrandt. Entering with the
warmth of a poet into the nature of his fubjefts, he pro-
duced piftures which terrify with their fublimity, delight
with their fuavity, or gratify us with the moft perfeft tran-
fcripts of Nature, in her moft varied afpefts. Being himfelf
polielied of the full force of his fubjeft, he imprefles it
ftrongly, and notwithftanding the frequent vulgarity, and
even deformity of the agents he exhibits, he extorts from
us praife before we hare time to confider the means by
which we are ftimulated to bellow it. To him every time
and feafon was alike eafy of reprefentation ; and all degrees
of illumination, in form or quantity, he managed with the
greateft perfeftion ; no matter whether the fcene arofe from
tJie breadth of the noon-day blaze, the dimiiefs of twilight,

the

REM

the darkncfs of night, or the glimnicriiiga of the loiic-ly ta-
per ; whether the light were fpread over an extuiided fp.ice
and a multitude of figures, or coufmed to the interior of a
room, and lerving only to illumine the hooka or the figure
of a fequeitend pitilofopher.

He was certainly a genius of tlie tirit clafs, aliiiougli. the
objefts upon which he exercifed his powers bore little or no
proportional value when compared with thofe felcAed by the
befl Greek and Italian mailers. His invention was abun-
dantly fertile, but employed generally among low charac-
ters and materials, although the fubiedt he treated might be,
as it frequently was, of a facred or lublime quality. In de-
igning the nude, he never appears to have had a thought of
an elevated nature concerning form. Such as the model
prefented, he imitated with exaftuefs, wiien he wifhed to be
moft perfeit ; but he fonietimes ieems to have (ported with
the idea of felection, by making figures demanding grace
and beauty, inch as Venus, Cupid, &c. ilill more vulgar,
and in aftions more difguding, tlian thofe lie drew of com-
mon life. The redemption of this vulgarity and meannefs
rells with the extreme force, depth, riclniefs, brilliancy,
and truth of his colouring, and the perfection with which
lie treated his chiaro-fcuro ; which conjointly fafcinate the
eye, and hold it in admiration, in fpitc of the deformities pre-
fented in defign.

The power of Rembrandt in the art he praftifed was per-
feftly original, and its exercife quite unlike that of any
other painter ; being drawn from nature with the moll faith-
ful and difcriminating eye, but with the moft peculiar felec-
tion. Always powerfully and beautifully executed, but not
unfrequently too artificial ; and only agreeable becaufe it is
perfeftly efteftive. All imitations of his ftyle which are
not well wrought, reduce it to manner, and only exhibit
the artifice by which-it is condufted.

To guefs from the number and finifh of his works, he mud
have painted with amazing facility. His fyitem appears to
have been that of ufing the ground as a half teint, and re-
peating the lights and darks till he had obtained the efFeft he
fought for. His pencil, particularly in his earlier and
more finifhed works, is remarkably delicate, yet full ; and
has never been exatfly imitated ; though fome of his fcho-
lars, as Bohl and Eckhout, approached very near it ; none
of them, however, appear to have imbibed any large por-
tion of his clear perception of natural efFefts, which fo
powerfully appeals to our fympathy in his fcenes of twi-
light, of tempeit, and the fpirit-ftirring gloom of night.

His pidlures are julUy and highly valued, and are rarely
to be purchafed ; and then only at very high pi-ices. We
are pofiefled of many fine fpecimens of lus talents, both in
hiftory and portraiture ; and the gallery of the Louvre is
rich ill his iinaller produftions. At Florence alfo, and at
Genoa, his name is efteemed, and his works preferved with
due refpeft.

He lived to the age of fixty-eight, and died in 1674.
REMDA, in Geography, a town of Saxony, in the prin-
cipality of Eifenach ; 11 miles S.S.W. of Jena. N. lat.
50° 45'. E. long. 11° 19'.

REMEDIAL Part of a Laiu. See Law.
Remedial Statutes, are thofe which are made to fupply
fuch defefts, and abridge fuch fuperfluities, in the common
law, as arife either from the general imperfection of all human
laws, from change of time and circuraftances, from the mif-
takes and unadvifed determinations of unlearned judges, or
from any other caufes whatfoever. And this being done,
either by enlarging the common law where it was too narrow
and circumfcribed, or by rettraining it where it was too lax
and luxuriant, hath occafioned another fubordiiiate divifion
Vol. XXIX.

II i<: M

of remedial a<?ts of parliament into enlarging and rellraiiiing
ftatutes. E. gr. In the cafe of treafon, clipping the cur-
rent coin of the kingdom was an oft'ence not fufficienlly
guarded againft by the common law; therefore it was
thought expedient by ftatute 5 Ehz. cap. 11. to make it
high treafon, which it was not at the common law ; fo that
this was an enlarging ftatute. At common law alfo fpiritual
corporations might leafe out their eftatea for any term of
years, till prevented by the ftatute 13 Eliz. cap. 10. This
was, therefore, a reftraining ftatute. Blackft. Com. book i.
REMEDIOS, in Geography, a town of South America,
in the province of Popayan ; 71 miles S. of Santa Fe de
Antioquia.

11e.mkdios, or Nojra Segnora de los Rcmedios dc Pueblo
Nuevo, a town of Mexico, in tlie province of Verat^ua ;
yo miles W.N. W. of St. Yago. N. lat. 8° 44'. W. lollir.'
82^ 16'. **

RkmivDios, or Paynfal, a town of Mexico, in the pro-
vince of Yucatan, in lake Fue. N. lat. 17^3'. W. long.
91'' 46'.

Reml'DIOs, a town of New Navarre; 120 miles S. of
Cafa Grande.

REMEDY, in Law, is the aftion or means given by
law for the recovery of a right.

Remedy, Remed'ium, in Medicine, any phyfical agent
by which a difeafe may be alleviated or cured.

Remedies are either general or topical ; the former com-
prehending fuch as iiofluence the actions of tlie wliole frame,
as blood-letting from any large vein, the cold-bath, and
almoft all thole medicaments or drugs which arc taken into
the ftomach ; the latter- including thofe which are applied
to, or in the vicinity of, any particular part which is difeafed :
thus, among topical remedies, are blood-letting by leeches or
cupping, blifters, in"ues, cataplafms, ointments, plafters, &c.

The operation of remedies is rather a qucftion of expe-
rience than of logical inveftigation. Some remedies, the
number of which appears to be very limited, poftefs a
fpccific power of curing certain difeafes. There are, perhaps,
not more than two medicines, however, that are fairly enti-
tled to the appellation oifpecifics : thefe are mercury, which
cures the venereal difeafe, and fulphur, which cures the
itch. The bark of cinchona has, indeed, been deemed a
fpecific for intermittent fevers ; but it is not entitled to
fuch a character : and the eau medicinale, which has recently
been brought forward as a fpecific for the gout, appears to
have loft much of its reputation. The pretended fpecifics
daily advertifed for many difeafes by quacks, are mere
impofitions, being commonly difguifed forms of the moft
aftive and dangerous medicines which are employed cau-
tioully by the faculty ; fuch as arfenic, corrofive fublimate,
and other preparations of mercury ; laudanum, hemlock,
and other narcotics. Of the former fpecies are Ward's
ague-drop, and his white drop ; of the latter, are Dalby's
carminative, Godbold's balfam, and many others. The
danger refulting from the ufe of thefe noftrums, arifcs from
the indifcriniinate adminiftration of them in many difeafes
which have a fimilar name, but which vary much in different
conftitutions, and at different periods of Hfe. Much injury-
is done by the conftant fale of thefe pretended fpecifics, by
the impreffion which it contributes to maintain, that each
difeafe has its fpecific I'emedy ; whereas no opinion can be
farther from the truth. When it is confidered that almoft
every difeafe, though fimilar in name, arifes from feveral
caufes (which we have already illultrated when fpeaking of
Col'Gh), it will be obvious that the fame remedies muft be
applied, upon general principles, to difeafes of different
name, and different remedies to thofe which have the

4 P fams

REM

fame appellation ; and that, therefore, the cure of difeafcs
is not to be cffedicd by applying a certain^ remedy to a
certain tlifeale nominally the famt, but only by llrll afoer-
iHining the laws of the living body, and of its various
organs, both in a Hate of healtli and of difeafe : in
other words, the proper application of remedies can only
be learned by much obfervation of difeafes, after a previous
:1udy of the anatomy and ptiyliology of the animal frame.

Kemudiks ytppeiiikJ. See Ai'PENSA.

Remedy for ihe Majl^r of the Mint, in Coinage, denotes
a certam allow;mce for deviation from the Itandard weight
and finenefs of coins. In fomc places the remedy is al-
lowed in the weight, in others in the linenefs ; but moftly
in both weight and finenefs. It ia confidered generally as
an allowance for the fallibility of workraandiip ; but in
fome foreion mints it is made a fource of emolument : and
when governments iHiic corns at a rate above their intrinfic
value, the profit thus m^ide is called " feignorage." Out
of every fifteen pounds of gold coined at the mint in Lon-
tJcn (according to the account pubhdied by the learned Mr.
Folkes, in his curious tables of Englifh filver coins), fome
pieces are taken at random, and depofited in a flrong box,
tailed the pix ; at certain intervals, fometimes of one year
and fometimes of feveral years, the pix ia opened at Weft-
minfter, in the prefence of the lord chancellor, the lords
commiflioners of the trcafury, and others ; portions taken
from the pieces of each coinage are melted together, and
an affay made of the coUeftive mafs by a jury of the gold-
fmiths' company. At this trial the mint-mafter is held
excufable, though the monies be either too bale, or too
light ; provided the imperfeftion and deficiency together
are lefs than the fixtii part of a carat, which amounts to
forty grains of fine gold on the pound of itandard, or the
one hundred and thirty-fecond part of the value. It is
faid that this remedy is contained within as narrow limit?,
as any w^orkers can reafouably be fuppofed to make them-
felves anfvverable for. The remedy, for filver coins is two
pennyweights in the pound. If the deficiency or excefs of
the coin (hould be more than this, either in the weight,
or in the finenefs, or in both together, the money mull be
recoined at the expence of the mailer of the mint ; and no
allowance is made for remedy unlefs the error is fuppofed
to have cafually happened.

REMEE, in Geography, a town of Bengal; i6 miles
S. of Koonda.

REMEMBRANCE, is when the idea of fomething
formerly known recurs again to the mind, without the ope-
ration of a like objed. on tlie external fenfory. See Me-
MoriY, Reminiscence, and Recollection.

REMEMBRANCERS cf the Exchequer, are two of-
fleers, or clerks, therein, formerly called clerks of the remem-
biance.

They are now diftiiiguilhed by the appellations of the
hin'^'s remembrancer, and the hril treafurer's remembrancer.
There is alfo another officer, called the remembrancer nf frji-
fniils. Their bufinefs is to put the lord_ treafurer and
"iullices of the court in remembrance of fuch \hings as are
to be called upon, and dealt in for the king's benefit.

Remembrancer, The King's, enters into his office all
recoo-nizances taken there before the barons, for any of
the king's debts ; for appearance ■ cr for obferving orders ;
and makes out procefs againil the coUeftors of cuftoms, fub-
iidies, excife, and other public payments, for their accounts.
All informations upon penal ftatutes are entered in this
office ; and there all matters upon Englifh bills in the ex-
uhequer-chamber remain. He makes the bills of compofi-
tion upon penal laws ; takes the llatement of debts j has

REM

delivered into his office all manner of indentures, fines, and
other evidences whatfoever that concern the affuring of any
lands to the crown : he every year, in craflino /^n'rmarun?,
reads, in open coort, the ftatute for election of fheriffs, and
gives them their oath, and reads the oath of all the officers
of the exchequer, where they are admitted.

Remembuancer, The Lord Treafurer's, is charged to
make procefs againfl all fheriffs, efcheators, receivers, and
bailiffs, for their account ; precefs of fieri facias, extent for
any debts due to the king, either in the pipe, or with the
auditors ; and procefs for all fuch revenues as are due to
the king, by reafon of his tenures. He alfo makes record,
by which it appears, whether flierifts, or other account-
ants, pay their proffers due at Eafler and Michaelmas. He
makes another record, whether IhcrifTs, or other accountants,
keep their days of prcfixion : all eilreats or fines, iffues,
and amerciaments, fet in any of the courts of Weflminfter,
or at the affixes or feffions, are certified into his office,
and arc by him delivered to the clerk of the eflreats to
write procefs upon them, &c.

Re.membrancer of the Firjl Fruits, he who takes
all compofitions and bonds for firll fruits and tenths ;
and makes procefs againil fuch as do not pay the
fame.

Rememivrancer is alfo the title of an oflicer in the city
of London, who is to attend the lord mayor on certain davi,
and whofe bufinefs is to remind his lordfhip of the fek-ft
days, when he is to go abroad with the aldermen, &c.
He is to attend daily at the parliament-houfc during the
feffions, and to report to the lord mayor their tranfaftions.

REMI, St., in Biography, archbifhop of Rheims, who
converted Clovis to Chriflianity, and baptized that monarch.
He died about the year 535. There are lome letters which
pafs under his name, but they are of a very doubtful autho-
rity. There was another faint of this name, or, as he is
fometimes flyled, Remigius, who was archbifhop of Lyons,
and prefided in the council of Valentia in 855. He was
a fleady fupporter of the dodtrine of St. Augufline, on
grace and prcdellination, in feveral works that are now
extant. He died in 875.

Remi, Joseph Honore, an advocate in the parliament
of Paris, was born in 1738. At the age of eight he loft his
fight, and it was believed irrecoverably, by the fmall-pox j
but when he had attained the age of fourteen he was in
the enjoyment of his eyes. He was author of a burlefque
poem, entitled " Days," in oppofition to Young's Night
Thoughts ; but his principal work is an eloge on the
chancellor de L'Hopital, which was crowned by the
French academy in 1777, and cenfured by the Sorbonne.
He alfo wrote the eloges of Moliere, Colbert, and Fenelon,
and furnifhed the articles relating to jurifprudence for the '
French Encycloptcdia. He died in the year 1782.

Remi of Auxerre. See Remigiuf.

Remi, Order of St., or of the Holy Vial, an order of
knighthood in France, which, according to the moft ap-
proved hiilorians of that kingdom, was inftituted by Clovis,
king of France, in the year 499. The reigning king of
France is always fovereign of this order, and the knights
companions are never more than four ; nor is it ever con-
ferred on any perfons but the barons, Terrier, Belel^re,
Veneflre, and Louverfe, who ftile themfelves baron knights-
of the Holy Vial, and are the bearers of the canopy under
which the vial is carried from the abbey of St. Remi to the
cathedral of Rheims, for the inauguration of the kings of
France at their coronations. The badge of this order,
which is worn pendant to a black ribbon, is " 3 crofsof gold,
enamelled white, cantoaed with four fleur-de-lis ; on the

ciofs.

REM

crofa, a rfovL- defcending, dipping its beak into a vial Iield
in a hand, all proper."

REMICH, in Geography, a town of France, in the
departmcin of the Forefls, and chief place of a canton,
in the diitrift of Luxembourg, feated on the Mofclle ; iz
miles E. of Luxembourg. The place contains 1480, and
the caston 10,885 inhabitants, on a territory of 230 kilio-
metres, in ij communes.

REMIGES, in Ornithology, denote the primary and
fecondary win ^-feathers.

REMIGIO, FlORKNTiKO, in Biography, a man of letters
in Ttaly, was a native of Flon.-iicc. He entered at an early
period into the Dominican order, and was called to Rome
by pope Pius V. to fuperintend an edition of the works
of St. Tliomas. He was himfelf a confuierable author, and
publiflied " A Commentary on the whole Scriptures ;"
trandations of " Ammianus Marcelliiuis ;" " Cornelius
Nepos ;" and " Fazello's Hiftory of Sicily ;" « Rellec-
tious on Guicciardini's Hillory ;" " Italian Poems;" and
" A Tranflation in Verfe of Ovid's Heroic Epiftles,"
of which an elegant edition was printed at Paris in 1762.
He died at Florence in 1580, about the age of 62.
Morcri.

REMIGIUS. See Remi.

Remikiis of Auxerre, a learned French Benediftine
monk in the ninth centui-y, derived his furname from the
abbey of St. Germain, at Auxerre, where he embraced the
religious profeffion. He diftinguiilied himfelf by his pro-
ficiency in profane and facred literature, at a dark and bar-
barous period, and was placed at the head of the fchools
belonging to his monaltery. About the year 882, he was
called to Rheims by Foulque;, the fuccefTor of Hincmar in
that fee, who gave him the direftion of the literary femi-
nary whicli he had founded in his metropolitan city. Here
he taught with great reputation for feverai years, after
which he went to Paris, where he opened the firft
public fchool in that city, after the decline of learning
which followed the ravages of the Normans. In the
life of pope Formofus, by Platina, the name of Remi-
gius of Auxerre is the only one that occurs of a perfon
eminent for learning under that pontificate. He was
author of " Commentarius in omnes Davidis Pfalmos,"
which was publifhed at Cologne in 1536. It confifts very
much of the collefted opinions and explications of St. Am-
brofe, St. Auguftine, and Cafliodorus, reduced into one
mafs. — Another work of this author was entitled " Enar-
ratio in pofteriorcs XI. minores Prophetas," publilhed at
Antwerp in the year 1545, with the " Commentaries" of
Oecumenius upon the AAs of the ApolUes, and their
Epiftles, and thofe of Arethas upon the book of Revelation ;
and " Expofitio Mifls," deduced from the fentiments and
authority of the fathers. Some critics have given, among
the produftions of Remigius, the " Commentary upon the
Epiftles of St. Paul," which by others has been afcrlbed
to St. Remi, or Remigius, but which in truth are fuppofed
to belong to Haymo, a German bifhop, who flouriftied in
the ninth century, and who was author of a long lift of
theological works. Such at leaft is the opinion of Du
Pin, in oppofition, indeed, to the authority of Mofheim.
Moreri.

Remigius left behind him " A Commentary on the Mu-
llcal Treatiie of Martianus Capella," which is ibll fubfifting
among the MSS. in the king of France's library, N° 5304.
He acquired his fcience from Heric. Heric was the dif-
ciple of Rabanus, and Hayman of Halberllidt, who had
converfed with the Roman fingers fciit into France by pope
Adrian.

REM

REMILLY, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Ardennes ; 7 miles W. of Charlcville.

REMINISCENCE, Rkminisclntia, is that power of
the human luiud, by which it rccoUeas itfelf, or calls
again to its remembrance fiicli ideal or notions as it had
really forgot : in which it differs from memory, which is a
treafuring up of things in the mind, and keeping them there,
without forgetting them.

Hence memory may be confidcred as a continual remem-
brance ; and rcminifccHce as an interrupted memory.

How near akin focvcr the two faculties may feem, yet
ihcy are generally found feparatcd ; fo that they who excel
in the one, are grnerally defcClive in the other.

The ancient Plalonifts were of opinion, that all learning
and knowledge coniiftej in the reminifcence or rccolleftion
ot notices which hud been in the foul before its union with
the body.

REMINISCERE, the fccond Sunday in Lent; an-
ciently thus called from the firft word of the introit of
the mals faid for that day, " Reminifcerc miferationum
tuarum."

REMIREA, in Bol.my, Aubl. Guian. 44. t. 16. Brown
Prodr. Nov. HoU. v. i. 236. (See MittiiA.) We are
unacquainted with Mr. Brown's reafoi.s for preferring the
above name, whofe origm does not appear, and which the
claffical Schrcber rtjeftcd as barbarous.

REMIREMONT, m Geography, a town 0/ France,'
and principal place of a diftridl, in the department of the
Vofgcs ; 10 mites S.S.E. of Epinal. The town contains
3250, and the canton 14,916 inhabitants, on a territory of
235 kiliometrcs, in 15 communes. N. lat. 48° 1'. E.
long. 6° 40'.

REMISIT. — Re8o quando dominus Rciiiifit. See
Recto.

REMISSAM, in Geography. See Remsa.
REMISSION, in Laiu, b'f. denotes the paidon of a
crime, or the giving up the punifhment due to it.

Remission, in Medicine, is when a dillcmper abates,
but doe's not go quite off, before it returns again : as is
common in fevers which do not quite intermit. See Re-
mittent.

Remission, Remi/fw, in Phy/ics, the abatement of the
power or efficacy of any quality. In oppofition to the
increafe of the fame, which is called its intenjion.

In all quahties capable of intenfion and remiflion, the
intenfion decreafes as the fquares of the diftance from the
centre of the radiating quality increafe.

Remission, RemUfto, avss-i,-, in the Ancient Muftc, was ufed
to fignify the pafiage of the voice from acute to grave,
being oppofite to intenfion.

REMIT, in Commerce. To remit a fum of money, bill,
or the like, is to fend a fum of money, &c.

To remit is alfo ufed among bankers for what is accaf-
tomed to be given a banker, or, as it were, difcounted with
him, for his giving a bill of exchange.

To remit is alfo to give up part of one's due to a debtor ;
as, I would remit you a fourth of what you owe on con-
dition of paying me the reft in hand.

REMITTANCE, in Commerce, the traffic or return of
money from one place to another, by biUs of exchange,
orders, or the like.

A remittance is properly a bill of exchange, or the like,
fent to a correfpondent, and the content of it to be received
by him, or Ibme other perfon, on whor.i it is drawn. B>
means of thefe remittances, large funis of money are re-
turned from one city to another, without danger, witho'^t.
carriage, &c.

4 P 2 I"'

REM

R E M

In London it is cafy to get icinitlaiices upon any city in
the world ; in the country n is iitore diflitiult.

Remittances, Book of. See Book.

RKMlTTANCEis alfo uled in fpeaking of tin- payment of
a bill of exchange.

Remte'Tance alfo denotes the due or fee allowed the
banker or merchant, both on account of his trouble, and
the different value of the fpccies in the place where you
pay the money, and where he remits it.

This remittance is more uraally called f/;rtfifc Mid rechange.

REMITTENT, in Medicine, implying alio the word
fever, is a fever which is charafterifcd by a regular de-
creafe and exacerbation of its fymptoms every day, and dif-
fers from an intennillent, inafmuch as the fymptoms never dif-
appear altogetiicr, and the exacerbation is neither begun
by the complete rigors, nor terminated by the profufe fweat,
which occur in the latter. The remittent fever, however,
originates, in common with the intermittent, from the in-
fluence of marfli effluvia, but under particular circumitances,
which will be ilated immediately.

It is fcarcely neceilary to dcfcribe minutely the fymptoms
of the remittent fever after the ample detail which we have
given of thofe of fever in general (fee Fevek) ; and it
varies extremely in its charafter, according to the feafon,
climate, and other circumftances under which it appears.
In its milder forms, the remittent begins with chillinefs,
laffitude, pains in tiie bones, head-ache, and a difordered
condition of the ilomach, lofs of appetite, licknefs, and
even vomiting. At night the febrile fymptoms run high ;
the heat and thirlt are great, the tongue and mouth are
parched, the pain of the head is violent, the patient is
totally unable to fleep, and is continually tolling and tum-
bling about, and often becomes delirious. But generally in
the morning, an imperfect fweat brings on a remiflion of all
the fymptoms. In the evening, the paroxyfm returns, but
is not preceded by any cold lit or (hivering ; yet it is com-
monly more fevere than the former. Next morning it remits
as before ; and thefe periodical changes recur daily, be-
coming, however, lefs marked, if the difeafe be neglefted,
imtil the fever infenfibly ailumes a continued form. The
pulfe is full and quick during the exacerbations, and con-
tinues during the remiflions to indicate fever ; but rigors fel-
dom precede the fits after the firll attack. Many patients
difcharge a bilious matter from their ftomachs by vomiting,
and all are difordeved in that organ. In the more violent
foKms, which take place in hotter feafons and climates, the
difeafe often feizes the patient at once with a burning and
violent head-ache, with little or no fenfible chillinefs pre-
ceding it. The thirit and heat are intenfe, and acute paiiis
in the back and all the limbs, with extreme laffitude and in-
quietude, harafs the patient, and naufea, vomiting, and
pain of the ftomach enfue. In fome inilances, indeed, the
head becomes fo fuddcnly and violently aft'efted, that a vio-
lent delirium, all'uming the appearance of infanity, feizes
the patient without any previous indication, until the re-
miflion evinces the nature of the difeafe. Many of the fick
become yellow, as if affefted with jaundice. Indeed, the
remittent fever afTumes every degree of violence, from the
autumnal bilious fever of temperate climates, to the mod
ieveve ye//oiu fever of tropical countries.

The circumftances under which thefe varieties of form
occur, have been amply afccrtained by experience. The
combination of marfli effluvia and great lieat are necefiary
to the prodnftion of thefe fevers; and they are violent,
nearly in proportion to the degree of the latter. In cold
climates, and in cool feafons, as the fpring, the miafmata
excite but the common mtermittent ague. But in the au-

tumnal feafon, eipecially when the heat is confidcrable, and
the quantity of mialma great, as in the Low Countries, in
particular years, the production of thefe fevers is very ex-
teufive ; they become aftually endemic, and afFe£t efpe-
cially thofe perfons who are not accultomed to the climate.
The experience of all our military expeditions to Holland
and Flanders, in the autumnal feafon, aflords fatal proof of
this truth. (See the writings of fir John Pringle, Dr.
Home, Sic. on the Difeafes of the Army in the Campaigns
of 1742 — 1748, inclufive. And the fevere epidemic of
Walcheren, at a more recent period, cannot be forgotten.)
In thefe climates, 'the remittrni ufually commences at the
clofe of fummer, in a milder form, and gradually aflumes
a more violent and formidable charadter, as the heats of au-
tumn advance. But if we extend our inquiries to the hotter
regions of the globe, we find the difeafe under its mod fevere
and fatal forms: In the fouth of Europe, efpecially in
Spain, and thofe parts of the Mediterranean coalts where
miafmata are found, the autumnal remittent becomes a
formidable malady in particular feafons ; but we muft pro-
ceed to the Weft Indies and America to difcover the difeafe
in its moft terrific form ; for although there may be a con-
tagious fever, which puts on the yellow or bilious charadter.
Dr. Bancroft appears to have demonilrated, fatisfadtorily,
that the J'f//o•zuyi?^Icr, commonly lo called, isbut the leverelt
form of the endemic remittent of the hot feafons of hot cli-
mates. (See his able " Effay on the Difeafe called Yellow
Fever, &c." 1 8 1 1 ) . He affirms, indeed, that all fevers, oc-
curring in thofe countries in which the atmofpheric heat
rifes, during certain feafons, to the 85th degree of Fahren-
heit's thermometer, have a tendency to affume that violent
and dangerous appearance, which is ufually conlidered as
charadleriftic of the yellow fever.

Tlie teltimony of all experienced medical obfervers con-
curs in proving the origin of remittent fevers from the in-
fluence of miafmata. Thus, among the hiilorians of difeafe,
as it occurs among feamen in warm climates, Drs. Lind,
Blane, Hunter, and others, have demonftrated the ex-
clufive attacks of thefe fevers to be among thole men who
have gone on fliore, in fwampy grounds, for water, &c. ;
and efpecially among thofe who fpend the night on (hore.
Many inftances are recorded, in which all the men fo em-
ployed have been feized with fevers, while the reft of the
ibip's company have remained in health. (See Dr. Lind,
on the Difeafes incidental to Europeans in Hot Climates,
p. 27. 221, &c. 5th edit. Dr. Blane, on the Difeafes of
Seamen, p. 92, and 392.) Again, lir John Pringle, in
his valuable work on the difeafes of the army, has not only
ftated many fadts which occurred under his own obferva-
tion, but has adduced many proofs from the writings of an-
cient phyficians and hiftorians, in corroboration of the evi-
dence that theie fevers have, every where, and at all times,
originated in hot feafons, in circumftances where miafmata
exifted. (Fart 3. chap. iv. fedt. 3.) In times, indeed,
not very remote, when the want of proper means of carry-
ing off the filth and refufe of large towns by proper drains,
and fcavengers were not employed, and when the materials
for the produdtion of miafmata were accumulated even in
the ftreets, the remittent and intermittent fevers were epi-
demic, in favourable feafons, for the generation of the miaf-
mata, and the fource of confiderable fatahty. Thus, even
in London, Dr. Short remarks that, early in the feventeenth
"tentury, " one of forty of the whole that died of fevers,
died of agues." (Sec his New Obfervations, &c. on Bills'
of Mortality, p. 203.) And Burnet, in his Hiftory of
the Reformation, fays, that in the laft year of queen Mary's
reign, they " raged like a plague." At a later period, we

have

REMITTENT.

have the teftimony of Sydenham and Morton, in ])niof of
thL- great prevalence of remittents in London ; and Morton
affirms tluit they were extremely dellriiftive for leveral years
hefore tlie i;reat plague, w's. from 1658 to 1664. He
ilates that Oliver Cromwell died of an attack of remittent
fever in the former of thefe years, and that he loll his own
father, who was liimlelf an experienced phyfician, from the
fame difeafe, which had gone through his whole family.
(Morton, I'yretologia, append, ad Exerc. ii.) "The re-
fult of the whole, therefore, is," to ufe the words of hr
John Pringle, " wherever the greateil caufes of moillure
and putrefaction in the air exift, there alfo will be feen the
greateil number and the worft kinds of the remitting and
intermitting fevers." This truth is farther confirmed by the
negative evidence, that thefe fevers have ceafed to exiil where
inardies have been drained, where towns hare become cleanly,
whea armies have moved to dry fituations, and wlien the
heats of particular feafons have cealed, or lailed to occur.

What the nature of thefe mialmata is, the invelligations
of philofophers have not yet taught us. Dr. Bancroft has
entered at great length, and with great ability, into this
queilion, reafonmg from a large collection of important
evidence. He details a number of interelling fafts, vvhicli
feem to lead latisfaftorily to the conclulion, tiiat the mere
exhalations from putrefying animal matter, however ofFenfivc
to the fcnfes, are never produdtive of fevers. The fame in-
ference has been deduced, not lefs fatisfadtorily, by Dr.
Chifliolm, in a very elaborate and able diflertation upon this
topic, publilhed in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical
.Journal for Oftober, 1810, vol. vi. p. 389, However
contrary to the general opinion, this doftrine, that mere
putrefattion is not the fource ot contagion and fever, ap-
pears, indeed, by thefe writers to be rllabliflted. Tlie ex-
periment, in fact, has been ti'ied on a large fcale in France,
in the cafe of the prodigious exhumations made in the
church-yard of St. Eloi, at Dunkirk, in 17^)3, and in that
of the laints Innocents at Paris, in 1786. in the latter cafe,
nearly 20,000 bodies were taken up, in every llage of putr.e-
faftion, and a confiderablepart of the work was carried on
during the greateil heats of fummer, rendering the whole
city offenfive ; yet no fever was occafioned by this immenfe
mafs of corruption. (See M. Thouret's Memoir in the
Journal de Phylique, for 1791, p. 253; and the Annales
de Chimie, vol. vi.) The good health of nightmen, of
perlons living in difleiling-rooms, of thofe employed in the
manufatfory near Bath of a fort of fpermaceti from putre-
fying flefh of all delcriptions, and many other ftriking iadls,
detailed by the two authors jult quoted, conilitute a llrong
evidence in proof of the abience of infalubrity from mere
putrefaction.

Dr. Bancroft next proceeds to prove, by another ample
collection of fatts and teftimonies, that it is not the mere
aqueous vapour that conilitutes the morbiiic quality ot marlh-
miafms. Tlie principal proofs that mere moillure is inca-
pable of producing thefe fevers, are, that failors at fea tor,
many months are generally very healthy ; that no fct of men
are more uniformly fo than the Newfoundland fifhermen,
who are ufually enveloped in the dampell fogs for feveral
months together ; that while perfons living on (hore on un-
wholefomj iliands, as at Walcheren, are fpeedily attacked
with fevers, thofe who remain on fhip-board, at a little dif-
tanee from land, entirely efcape them ; and that the occur-
rence of thefe fevers has been frequently prevented by laying
fwampy ground under water, under which circumftances
the moillure of the atmofphere mull be highly augmented.

Conlidering, then, that the mineral part of the foil is not
vaporizable in anv natural heat, and that animal fubilances

in a Hate of putrefaftion are incapable of producing fever,
as well as the mere acjueons vapoiu-. Dr. Bancroft was dif-
pofedto conclude, that tlie morbific exhalations in queilion
arife wholly from "the mutual decompolition of vegetable
matters and water ;" and tliat thofe fivampy grounds arc
mod likely to emit them, which contain the largeft pro-
portion of fucli matters, and in wlilch the decompofition is
moll rapid and complete. This concluflon, he is of opinion,
is confirmed by the fadts that tlie exhalations from mace-
rating hemp and flax are well known in Italy to produce
fevers, and that thofe ariting from heaps of decaying indigo,
in the Eafl and Weft Indies, have produced the fame cfFeas,
See his Elfay on Yellow Fever, above quoted.

Of the Treatment of Remittent Fevers. — As the violence
of tiie fymptoms, and confcqnently the adtual charadter of
thefe difeafes, vary materially in different feafons, climates,
and circumllances, under which they occur ; fo no uniform
rule of treatment can be purfued for their cure. The fame
remedies, indeed, which at one period of the fame fever
are beneficial, are hurtful if reforted to at another. This
obfervation, however, is applicable to all febrile difeafes,
and cannot be too often inculcated ; finco not only empiricifm,
but the routine of too many of the profefiion, tends to the
appropriation of fome leading remedy, whenever the name
of a particular fever is mentioned : with fome it is bark,
with others antimony, and with others mercury ; the indif-
criminate ufe of any of which mull be neceflarily produdtive
of injury.

In the more violent forms of the difeafe, which are
common in hot climates, and in which the attack is marked
by a fudden and fevere affedtion of the head, with a hard,
full, and ftrong pulfe, indicating, with other fymptoms, an
inflammatory affedtion of the brain, perhaps the only re-
medy which is capable of arrelling the difeafe, is fpeedy and
tree blood-htting. In the moft violent forms of all, this
evacuation fliould be reforted to very early, as within the
firlt twenty-four hours, or the mifchief will liaTe advanced
beyond the reach of tliis remedy. In milder cafes, a mo-
derate bleeding from the temporal artery or jugular vein,
or even from the arm, within the firfl day or two, will often
remove the danger and feverity of the fever. The repe-
tition and extent of the bleedings mud be determined by a
conlideration of the violence of the fymptoms, the duration
of the difeafe, and the vigour of the patient. The notion
that thefe fevers of hot climates are of a putrid nature, be-
caufe they fpeedily run on to lymptoms of debility, or pu-
trefcency, as they have been called, appear to be altogether
erroneous ; and it is now generally admitted, that the only
effedtual mode of preventing thefe fymptoms, is by arreft-
ing the violent inflammatory excitement in the beginning, of
which they are the immediate efi:'edt.

The next raoft effedtual remedy, if reforted to alfo fuf-
ficiently early, is purgation. The purgatives adminiftered
fliould be fuch as m bulk and quality are not calculated to
offend the flomach, which is ufually in an irritable Hate :
calomel, with jalap, anfwers the purpofe well ; and it is in
all probability by its purgative quahty alone, that mercury
has been found beneficial hi thefe fevers. The efficacy of
mercurial purgatives, indeed, feeras to have been fully efta-
blifhed by the recent experience of our naval and military
pradtitioners, in every quarter of the globe ; while the mer-
curial pradtice, which had for its objedl the excitement of
lahvation, is fhewn by Dr. Bancroft, from the tellimony of
Di-. Rufh and others, its advocates, to have been by no
means fuccefsfirl.

This carljiexcitelnent is alfo conliderably alleviated by
the application of cald in every mode. Almoll all the mo-
dern

REMITTENT.

dcrn writers bear their tcdimoiiy to the important auxiliary
operation of the cold and tepid aftufion ; although they ad-
mit that, alone, its effedts arc not fufficiently powerful or
permanent to be depended upon. Coolnefs ot the patient is
to be promoted by every means ; by the free ule of cold
aqueous drinks, by frequent wafliing, by the full adniiniun
of fre(h air, and by the ufe of few and light coverings on
the bed.

Thcfe remedies (hould be adtivcly employed, and repeated
on the return or non-ceffation of the fymptoms of excite-
ment. For as an intelligent phylician has remarked, " the
great objeft is the removal of the local afteftion of the brain,
or other organ, and the produftion of a complete ramiflion
of the febrile fymptoms, in the Icail pofiible time, by which
the dangerous fymptoms of the latter ftages arc prevented
or greatly mitigated, and a perfeft and rapid recovery in-
fured." (See Dr. Burnett's Account of the Bilious Re-
mittent Fever in the Mediterranean, p. 22. Lond. 1814. )
This obje6l is rather impeded, than aflifted, by the ad-
miniflration of emetics and fudorifics ; and altogether de-
feated by the ufe of bark, cordials, or Ilimulants of any
kind, whether in the way of food or medicine. With rc-
fpeft to emetics, they are objeftionable in all llages of the
difeafe ; tor they not only fail in removing naufea, but
aftually increafe that diftrefling fymptom : their operation
aggravates the afFeftion of the head, of which the naufea
appears to be fympathetic ; and as the tendency of the difeafe
is to augment irritability of the flomach, which often be-
comes extreme and diftrefling in the latter ftages, fo they
contribute to aggravate this and other dangerous fymptoms.
Sudorifics are alfo to be condemned ; for, in the firft place,
they are unneceffary, becaufe a natural perfpiration will
readily enfue, as foon as the excefs of heat above the ftandard
of health has been removed, which can be accomplifhcd with
certainty by the proper application of cold water to the
furface of the body ; and, in the next place, the fudorifics
which are ufed are apt to increafe the irritabihty of the fto-
mach ; and if they fail to excite a diaphorefis, they increafe
the heat and the determination to the head, and tend to
lengthen the paroxyfm. With regard to the bark and
cordials, they are invariably injurious in the firft ftage of
the fever. When a diftinft remiftion has taken place, fome
writers recommend the immediate adminiftration of cin-
chona ; but even thefe admit, that " if it be given when
there is a parched /kin, a hard pulfe, a dry tongue, great
heat and pain at the ftoraach, or delirium, it will gcHerally
be found to increafe and prolong thefe fymptoms." (See
Bancroft, loc. cit. p. 76.) On the whole, however, the
late experience in the Mediterranean led to the rejeftion of
the ufe of bark, while any febrile fymptoms whatever re-
mained. " Under its ufe," fays Dr. Burnett, " raartality
has been great, relapfe frequent, and (as in the cafes of the
Temeraire and Invincible) dyfentery attacked nearly all the
patients who had fever in a feverc form ; nor was there an
inftancc, as far as I could learn, that, when given during a
fuppofed remiflion of the fymptoms, it prevented a return
of the paroxyfm. Too often it has been given with wine at
the ):ommenccment of this difeafe, when the tongue has foon
put on a brown, dry, and furred appearance ; the anxiety,
delirium, and irritability of the ilomach, have been much
increafed ; the whole train of nervous fymptoms foon be-
came formidable, rcfifting every means of alleviation, till
dcatli has put a period to the fuffcrings of the patient."
Loc. cit. p. 34.

If any thing were wanting to corroborate the foregoing
dedudlions from experience, in favour of the antiphlogiftic
a;id cvacuRnl plan of treatment, in the commcnccraent of

remittent fevers, the detail of the appearances obferved on
dilledtion, after the deatli of patients in thefe fevers, would
amply fupport them, by the proofs which it aflords of the
inflammatory condition of various organs of the body it.
tl.efo fatal cafes. In different iuftaiices, inveiligattd by Dr.
Burnett and his colleagues in the Mediterranean, the veftch
of the brain were generally diftended, and in many cafes com-
pletely gorged, with blood ; the membranes of that organ
were cosfiderably inflamed, often preftnting what that
writer calls " a blood-fhot appearance," and depofitions of
coagulable lymph were feen among the convolutions : there
were occafionally alfo adhefions, and the ventricles were
often diftended with a fluid, fometimes limpid, fometimes
yellow. Appearances of high iriflummatirm prefented them-
felves in the cavity of the chcft, affecting the lungs, peri-
cardium, and diaphragm ; and thefe were connected with
depofitions of lymph and effufions of ferum. In the ab-
domen, the liver was generiUv found er.larged, and fome-
times exhibiting marks of inflammation ; the ftomach dif-
tended with air, more or lefs inflamed, and containing a
dark coloured matter ; and the inteflines in a fimilar condi-
tion, with frequent intus-fufception.

Thefe appearances, which are in fact the efFeft of the
continuance of the febrile aftions in the organs in queftion-
fufficiently prove that the firft ftage is the time when active
remedies, of an anti-inflammatory power, can be chiefly ex-
pefted to produce a very decided removal of the difeafe.
When the fever is a httle more advanced, the principal ob-
jeft of the praftitior.er is to diminifti the violence of any local
aff^eftion that may be fevere. Thus, if head-ache remains,
with fiufhed countenance, fuffufion of the eyes, and a firrr.
pulfc, a fmall bleeding from the temporal artery (the pulle
being at the fame time carefully examined) may be employed
with advantage : a hliiler, applied to the head at this time,
is alfo manifeftly beneficial ; and daily evacuations of the
bowels fliould be procured by gentle laxatives, fuch :is
caftor oil, or glyfters, the powerful cathartics being now
laid afide. Jrritabihty of the ftomach, which is often dif-
trefling at this period, is relieved by the effervefcing
draught, and by the application of leeches, or of a large
blifter to the pit of the ftomach. A degree of ftupor fome-
times fupervenes, which is often removed by a blifter ap-
plied to the neck or forehead, or by the application of
leeches to the temples. If there is any obvious afl'eclion of
the abdominal vifcera, which fhould be carefully inquired
into, blifters, and, above all, the warm bath, (hould be re-
forted to, as well as copious emollient glyitcrs.

If, however, from want of the means of relief, or from
the violence of the difeafe, it has advanced to that ftage, in
which the yellow fuffufion of the flcin appears, and various
nervous fymptoms, fubfultus, tremors, &c. come on, with
increafed uneafinefs about the ftomach, hiccup, or vomiting
of a dark matter, refembling coffee-grounds, with ifchuria,
and a finking or intormiffion of the pulfe, little more can be
done than to look on, and endeavour to obviate fympton^.s
as they occur. " Singultus," to borrow again the words
of Dr. Burnett, " is a dangerous, and commonly a moit
harafting fymptom at this time ; it %v!ll often be relieved by
camphorated julep, to which may be added opium and
aether. If the pulfe fink, the ftimuli mulk be increafed ;
and under thefe circumftances, I have found the carbonate
of ammonia, with aromatic confection, of lingular benent.
But while we endeavour to reftore the circulation, cars mujl
It talcn not to indues a Jlaie of jecondary cxcittnunt ; and as
the pulfe rifes, the ftimuli fhould be decreafcd. Conftant
attention muft ftill be paid to the daily evacuation of the
bowels ; but at a period, when the excitability of the fyf-

tem

REM

Icm is nearly deftroycd, powerful catliartics will be attended
with the moil deleterious coiileqiiences : glyllcrii arc parti-
cularly ferviccable at this time. As the difeafe advances,
the fecretioMs are at times voided involuntarily : in a few I
have obfervcd a retention of urine, and in thefe lad cafes
the cathi'ter fliould be ufed ; but as a general fymptom,
there is far oftener a deficiency in the fecretion of that fluid.
Frequently in this rtate, the ftomach rejefts every thing.
We may now fafely- indulge the patient moderatdy with any
tiling to which his fancy leads him. Bottled porter, wine,
and brandy and water, have been found beneficial. But no
remedy can be relied on with any degree of certainty :
whatever calms the irritability of the ilomach, and mode-
rately fupports the excitability of the fyllem, is ufeful. A
few fpoonfuls of arrow-root or fago, with wine and fpice,
given occafionally, will often be retained by the patient,
and greatly at this period affill the cure." Burnett, loc.
cit. p. 29.

During i\\o Jlate of convalefcence at every period, whether
from a complete remifiion being procured early, or from a
gradual ccfTation of the difeafe, extreme caution is neceffary
iii regard to preventing repletion : in the former cafe, it is
apt to induce a relapfe ; and in the latter, it will retard the
cure. During the whole progrefs of recovery, attention
fhould be paid to the regularity of the bowels. Some light
tonic, as an infufion of quaflia, gentian, or cinchona, with
an aromatic or fulphuric acid, may be adminiftered. When
the yellow fuffufion of the flcin has been great, a protrafted
convalefcence is commonly the confequence ; and is often at-
tended with irregular affeftions of the bowels, and fjjmp-
toms of indigellion. In thefe cafes, fmall dofes of the mer-
curial pill, with an occafional gentle purgative of caltor oil
or rhubarb, are very beneficial. It is almoft exclufively,
indeed, in thefe protrafted cafes, where a morbid affeftion
of the liver, brain, or fome other vifcera, has been the refult
of the uninterrupted violence of the firft ftage of the fever,
and efpecially when there is reafon to fuppoie that affufion
had taken place within the cranium, that mercury, in fmall
dofes, is of any aftual utility. Small defes of calomel, or
of the pilula hydrargyri, fhould be adminiftered until fome
fenfible, but flight, effeft be prsduced on the falivary fyf-
tem ; after which the difeafe often ceafes of itfelf, or is
readily removed by the ufe of the Peruvian bark. See Bur-
nctt on the Bilious Remittent in the Mediterranean ; Ban-
croft on the Yellow Fever ; and Irvine on the Difeafes ot
Sicily. See alfo Fever, Tellow, and Miasma.

Remittent Fe-ver of Children, the fins infantum re-
mittens of Dr. Butter, which is a very common affeftion of
children, when the abdominal organs are deranged, has al-
ready been defcribed at length, under the head of Infants,
^ 5. Febrile Difeafes of ; which fee.

REMITTER, in Lam. Where a man has two titles
to land, and is feifed by the latter ; and, that proving de-
feftive, he is remitted or reitored to the former more ancient
title ; this is called a remitter, from the Latin, remiitere, to
fend bad.

If land defcend to him that had right to it before, he fhall
he remitted to his better title, if he pleafe. I Inft. 347. b.
Litt. § 659.

Remitter is clafi'ed (with retainer) by judge Blackllone,
among thofe remedies for private wrongs, which are effefted
by the mere operation of law, and is thus defcribed : re-
mitter is where he, who hath the true property or jus pro-
brietatis in lands, but is out of pofleflion thereof, and hath
no right to enter, without recovering polTeflion in an adion,
■ hath afterwards the freehold call upon him by fome fuble-
qiient, and of courfe defcftive title : in this cafe, he is re-

REM

milted, or font back, by operation of law, to hn ancient
and more certain title. (Litt. $ 659.) The right of
entry, which he hath gained by a bad title, fhall be ipfo fnfio
annexed to his own inherent good one ; and his Qetealibl'
eitate fhall be utterly defeated and annulled, by the inftan-
taneous aft of law, without his participation or confcnt.
(Co. Litt. 358. Cro. Jac. 489.) As if A didcifes B,
that is, turns him out of pofleflion, and dies leaving a fon
C ; hereby the eitate defcends to C, the fon of A, and B
is barred from entering thereon till he proves his right in an
aftion : now, if afterwards C, the heir of the dili'eitor,
makes a leafe for life to D, with remainder to B the diflcifre
for life, and D dies ; hereby the remainder accrues to B,
the difleifee ; who thus gaining a new freehold by virtue of
the remainder, which is a bad title, is by aft of law remitted,
or in of his former and furer eftate. (Finch. L. 194.
Litt. J 683.) For he hath hereby gained a iiew right of
pofiefTion, to which the law immediately annexes his ancient
right of property.

If the fubfequent eftate, or right of pofTefTion, be gained
by a man's own aft or confent, as by immediate pur.chafe
being of full age, he fhall not be remitted. For the taking
fuch fubfequent eftate was his own folly, and ftiall be looked
upon as a waiver of his prior right. (Co. Litt. 348. 350- .'
Therefore it is to be obfervcd, that to every remitter there
are regularly thefe incidents ; an ancient right, and a new
defeafible eftate of freehold, uniting in one and the fame
perfon ; which defeafible eftate muft be cafi upon the tenant,
not gained by his own aft or folly. The reafon given by
Littleton (J 661.), why this remedy, which operates filcntly
and by the mere aft of'law, was allowed, is fomewhat fimikr
to that given under the article Retainer ; becaufe other-
wife he who hath right would be deprived of all remedy.
For as he himfelf is the perfon in pofttlTion of the freehold,
there is no other perfon againft whom he can bring an ac-
tion, to eftablifii his prior right. And for this caufe_ the
law doth adjudge him in by remitter ; that is, in fuch P%'"^
as if he had lawfully recovered the fame land by fuit. P(>r,
as lord Bacon obferves (Elem. c. 9.), the benignity of the
law is fuch, as when, to preferve the principles and grounds
of law, it depriveth a man of his remedy without his own
fault, it will rather put him in a better degree and condition
than in a worfe. Nam quod remedio dflituitur, ipfa re valet ;
fi culpa abfit. But there (hall be no remitter to a riglit, for
which the party has no remedy by aftion (Co. IJtt. 349.):
as if the ifliie in tail be barred by the fine or warranty of his
anceitor, and the freehold is afterwards cait upon him ; he
fhall not be remitted to his eftate tail. (Moor. 1 15. i Ann.
286.) For the operation of the remitter is exactly the
fame, after the union of the two rights, as that of a real
aftion would have been before it. As, therefore, the iffue
in tail could not by any aftion have recovered his ancient
eftate, he ftiall not recover it by remitter.

The determination of the law, according to the doftrine
of remitter above ftated, might fecm fuperfluous to an hafty
obferver ; who perhaps would imagine, that fince the tenant
hath now both the right and alfo the pofleflion, it little '^xg-
niiies by what means fuch poffeflion fhall be faid to be
gained. But the wifdom of our ancient l.iw deterraincd
nothing in vain. As the tenant's poffefrion was gained by
a defeftive title, it was liable to be overturned by fhewing
that defedt in a writ of entry ; and then he muft have been
driven to his writ of right, to recover hisjuft inheritance:
which would have been doubly hard, becaufe, during the
time he was himfelf tenant, he could not eftablilb his prior
title by any pofleflbry aftion. The law, therefore, remits
him to his prior title, or puts him in the fame condition as

R E M

R E M

if lie liad recovered the land by writ of entry. Without the
remitter, l>c would huve had jus, el fiifmam, ieparale ; a
good right, hut a bad pofleflion : now, by the remitter, he
hath the mail perfeft of all titles, jur/V H fiifina: canjundtioiifm.
Blackll. Com. h. iii.

REMLINGEN, in Geography, a town of Germany, m
the county of Wertheim ; 9 miles E. of Werthcim.

REMNEY, or Rempney, a river of Wales, which rifcs
iu Brecknocklhire, and, after fcparating the counties of
Monmouth and Glamorgan, falls into the mouth of the Se-
vern, a little below Cardiff.

REMOLADE, in the Manege. See CllAUGE.

REMOLLAN, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Higher Alps, on the Durance ; 15 miles
S.W. of Embrun.

REMON, a townlhip of Upper Canada, on the St. Lau-
rence ; N. lat. 44^' 50'.

REMONSTRANCE, an expollulation, or humble fup-
plication, addreffed to the king, or other fuperior, to beieech
him to refleft on the inconveniencies, or ill confequences of
fome order, edift, or the like.

RE.\toNSTRAN(ii is alfo ufed for an expoftulatory counfel
or advice ; or a gentle and handfome reproof, made either
in general or particular, to apprife or correft lome fault.

REMONSTRANTS, Remonstkantes, a title given
to the Arminians, by reafon of the remonjlrance they made,
in 1610, to the flates of Holland, againlt the fynod of Dort,
in which they were condemned.

Epifcopius and Grotius were at the head of the Remon-
llrants. And as the patrons of Calviniim prefcnted an addrefs
in oppofitiou to their remonftrance, which they called their
counter-remonllrance, they received, in confequenCe of this,
tlie name of '< Counter-remonllrants."

REMONTER, Fr. in Mufic, to new-ftring an inftru-
ment.

REMONTOIR, or ReMONTOIHE, in Horology, is a fpe-
cies of cfcapement, in which a fecondary Ipring frequently
wound up, or a fmall fecondary weight frequently raifed, by
means of the maintaining povrer of a watch or clock, is fub-
ilituted for the maintaining power itfelf, for the purpofe of
urging the balance or pendulum, at fhort intervals, by more
equable impulfcs than can be conftantly effefted by the main-
t.iining power alone, as varied by diflerent degrees of fric-
tion in the train. When treating of E.scapemexts in ge-
neral, under their appropriate head, we defcribed three only
out of the four dalles, and referved the fourth clafs, de-
nominated Remonto'ir, till we arrived at our prefent article.

The firil remontoir was invented and made by a German
artill in 1 600, according to Berthoud ; but Huygens, who ap-
plied one to his marine clock, defcribed it iirft in his " Horo-
logium Ofcillatorium," page 17, and, in conjuntlion with his
cycloidal cheeks, it promiled to be a great improvement in
his machine ; but, as no compenfation had at that tjme been
applied to the pendulum, and, as a pendulum is not calcu-
lated for a portable machine, particularly on the fea, the
utility of the contrivance remained to be proved by fubfe-
quent artifts. The contrivance under our confideration was
a fmall weight, fufpended by an endlefs well-made metallic
chain, that was coiled round the crown-wheel of the efcape-
ment, and wound up a Imall fpace, at every vibration of a half-
fcconds pendulum, by the next wheel, which wheel took its
motion from the maintaining power, through the medium of
the train, as is ufual in common clocks ; a ratchet and click,
however, were a requiiite appendage, to aft in the way that
the endlefs cord was applied, in winding up the maintaining
power without (lopping the motion of the works ; fuch as
we have already defcribed in the fifth feftion of our article

Clock-work. One half of the weight of the remontoir ac-
tuated the efcapement wheel during its fmall fall, and the
other half was iupported by the wheel that as often raifed it
again to its original height, while both parts of the folded
cnain were llretched ahkeby tiie faid weight. Leibnitz and
Dr. Hooke alfo claimed the originality of a fimiiar invention,
but do not appear to have put it in praftice, as Sully after-
wards did.

Mr. Harrifon and Mr. Mudge fuccefTively applied remon-
toir (prings, inftead of fuipended weights, to the efcape-
ments of their time-pieces ; but, as wf have defcribed thefe
under our article Chkonometeii with fufficient minutenefs,
it is not neceffaryto repeat here what we have there detailed
of their conllruftions.

Mr. Cumming and Mr. Nicholfon, on the contrary, had
recourfe again to weights initead of fprings in their allro-
nomical clocks ; but as thefe weights did not act during the
whole period of the y'bration, we have already defcribed
them in another clafs, in the 21ft and 38th feftions of our
Escapements.

After Huygens and Sully, who left 110 plans of their
mechauifm behind them for the advantage of futtire work-
men, who had not acccfs to the original machines, Gaudron
contrived a remontoir, which performed its office very well,
but which was applied in a wrong place, fo as not to pro-
duce the defired effeft of equalizing the impulfcs given to
the regulator ; for, inilead of being applied to either the
balance or balance-wheel, it was made to aftuate the wheel
preceding the minute-wheel ; and, therefore, permitted the
irregular friftion of a confiderable portion of the train to
afleft the motions of the balance, which fault was avoided
in the conllruCtion of Harrifon's and Mudge's time-keepers :
the former of which had its fecondary fpring w^ound up
eight times in every minute, and the latter had its two re-
montoir-fprings alternately coiled at every correfponding
ofcillation.

Haley's. — In the year 1796, Mr. Charles Haley, of Wig-
more-ilreet, Cavendilh-fquare, London, watch-maker, took
out a patent for his invention of a new remontoir fpring for
a marine time-piece, or chronometer ; the fpecification of
which is contained in the 6th volume of the Repertory of
Arts and Manufaftures. Figs. I and 2, of Plate XLI. of
Horology, e.xhibitj the firlt a perfpeclive fide view, and
the fecond a plan of Mr. Haley's remontoir efcapement, as
originally drawn ; and we propofe to retain the fame letters
of reference as are infertedin the original defcription. The
utility of the invention is ftated to confill of its property of
communicating an invariable force to the balance, which it
does 150 times in the minute, in a train of 9000 beats in the
hour. The fame letters of reference apply to both figures,
and indicate the correfponding parts, which will mutually
illuftrate each other. A B is the potance plate, and T the
balance, the pivots of which, P, X, turn in the cock C and
potance D ; above the balance T is fixed a pendulum fpring
S, in the uiual way ; on the axis of the verge, below the
balance, are placed two fmall fteel collets I and K, by fric-
tion, having each a ruby pallet projefting a little way
beyond their furfaces. I is called the difcharging pallet, and
K the impelled one ; which pallets, together with the pen-
dulum fpring, all vibrate with the balance, whenever it is
put in motion. E is the balance-wheel of the ufual form,
moving juft clear of the potance plate, and having its pivots
fupported by the cocks F and G. W V is the axis of the
remontoir, which the inventor calls the renovating fpring ;
and the three axes, or arbors, juft defcribed, ftand in
the ftraight line in the dircftion A B. Below the re-
montoir fpring the round ileel pallet M is fixed, fo as
7 j"it

IIEMONTOIR.

jiirt to efcape touching the ends of the balance-wheel's tion of the arrow Z, by the adlion of the niain-fprinjr,
teeth in its refling pofition, and the notch cut in this pallet through the train, whenever the finglc detent d is by any
is to receive the impulfe of any tooth of the laid wheel that force impelled hack to its baiikijig. Lot it alfo be con-
may, at any time, aft againll it, in paffing the line A B. ceived that, when the I'nail-pallct N is carried by any means
.Full above this large pallet i,-; fixed, by friftion, another in a dircdtion contrary to that of the wheel till it reaches
I mailer pallet N, of ftecl, in the form of a fnail-picce, and the pallet »• of the rcmontoir or double detent-fpring, the
iiaving iiifcrted into it, near the centre of motion, and at right remointoir-fpring is wound up by fuch motion, and i>iV«
angles, a Imall ruby pallet, which points direftly to the verfa, and alfo'that when the ilruke of the fnail-paliet has
radial end of the notch cut in the large pallet M. A fmall driven back this detent to its banking, by linking the floped
collet, twiflcd fall to the axis of the rcmontoir, juR above face of the ruby pallet r, the detent will inltantly return by
this fnail-pallet, receives the lower end of the fpring R, tlie force of its elalticity, and the back part of the faid
while the upper end is made fall to a piece in the cock H, ruby palK't r will hold tlie fnail-pallet locked at its return,
near W, in a manner funilar to that by which the pendulum- till fomc other mipuHe lets it free again ; but that when the
fpring is fixed. On the arbor ot the remontoir, and under unlocking takes place, the ipring of the rcmontoir, now
the plate A B, is twifled on a pallet I, which may be called wound up, returns by its own force to its original filuation ;
the remontoir's impelling pallet, becaufe it gives motion to and that its axis brings back with it its affixed pallets,
the balance by ilriking tlie pallet K, which the author alfo Fi^. 1. will be of no ufc in defcribing the adtion of this
called tlie impellhig pallet ; but is, as we have named it, more elcapement, but mjig. 2. the parts are reprefented in a ftate
properly the impelled pallet, becaufe it receives the impulfe ready to commence motion ; the wheel is locked by tooth 3
which pallet I imparts. From this detail of the pallets it is againll the fapphire pallet s of the fiiigle detent d, and
obvious, that whenever the balance-wheel impels the large the remontoir-fpriiig is wound up, and kept locked by the
pallet M, the remontoir-fpring R, the fnail-pallet N, toge- fnail-pallet, refting behind the ruby pallet r of the double
ther with its fmall ruby pallet and impelling pallet I, mud detent : in this fituation let the balance be wound round in
have a contemporary motion, and will defcribe each its refpec- fuch diredtion that the difcharging pallet I may Itrike the
tive circle round the common arbor W V. end of tlie double or remontoir detent outwards, taking

In_yff. 2, (J is a detent-fpring, fixed by a fcrew and fteady both its fprings along with it, and thereby unlocking
pin to the upper face of the potance plate, and pointing the fnail-pallet ; at this inllant the remontoir-fpring R
direttly to tliv axis of the verge, which it nearly approaches, begins to return, and brings all its four pallets with it, and
Its lliape and mode of being fixed will be better underltood during the return, pallet L, which we have called the impel-
from an infpeftiou ol Jl^r. j, which gives a fide view of it, ling pallet, gives its flroke to pallet K on the verge, which
and from which it will be fcen that it is placed high enough w-e have called the impelled pallet, and through its medium
above the plate, to come in the way of the difcharging pal- to the balance itfelf, which now goes on m its ofcillation,
let I, in each revolution of the latter. Upon the fide of till the pendulum or balance-fpring is wound up ; in the mean
the faid detent-fpring a, next to the balance-wheel, a fecond, time the little unlocking ruby pallet, inferted into the fnail-
but very flender fpring is pinned, fo that its projedling end pallet near its centre of motion, meets with the extreme end of
exceeds that of the detent-fpring, and comes nearer to the detent //, and drives it back to its banking, thereby fetting the
balance verge than that of the detent, as reprefented at »i, tooth 3 of the wheel free from the fapphire pallet j; the wheel,
in fig. 3. To the detent-fpring is made fail a fmall ruby being urged by the train, now proceeds till tooth 2 falls into
pallet r, feen alfo in_y?f. 3. The cock ^ is fcrewed to the the notch of pallet M, and is checked, experiencing a little re-
potance, and the hole at i is tapped to receive the fcrew c, coil ; the balance-fpring, being now wound up, returns, and
the head of which, being turned towards the centre of the alfo the wheel winds up the remontoir-fpring, till it is again
fnail, forms a banking for the detent-fpring a, when ilruck by locked, by the fnail-pallet, after its impulfe has driven back
the fnail-pallet. This fcrew, c, is removed from its due place the detent : during this attion the detent ^returns by its own
in the drawing, to avoid confufion; and for a reafon, which will fpring, and locks tooth 4 of the wheel, at the inflant that
prefently appear, this double fpnng « may be called the re- tooth 2 efc<ipes from the notcli of pallet M, and the original
montoir-detent. On another fide of the balance-wheel a fecond fituation of all the afting parts is now reftorcd, except that
detent-fpring d is fixed, pointing towards the centre of the the motion of the balance is not arretted, the flender fpring
remontoir axis, and forming nearly a right angle with the fixed to detent a allowing it to pafs in the return, without
former detent : this fecond detent is adjufted by the fcrew j. unlocking the faid detent ; but whea the backward ofcillation
The fhape and fituation of this fecond detent, which may is finilhed, and the balance returns, the fame operation is re-
be called the locki.- g detent of the balance-wheel, is better peated ; ;'. e. the remontoir detent is unlocked, the pallets on
feen in Jig. 4, where its fapphire pallet s may be diflinguiih- its axis are brought back, the impulfe is next given to pallet
ed, againfl which the tooth 3 of the wheel is fuppoied to K of the balance, to reflore its lofs of momentum, and
be refling in fig. 2. The fituation of tliis pallet s, as ad- laftly, the wheel is unlocked to wind up the remontoir-fpring
jufted by the fcrew y, determines the refting places of the as before.

teeth I and 2, while they are equally free from the edge of The obfervation we have to make on this ingenious re-
the pallet M. The locking detent d is hkewife made fall by montoir efcapement is this, that on enquiry from good
3 fcrew to the upper face of the potance plate ; and the authority we learn, that the theory could never be com-
fcrcw y, placed in the cock e, but out of its place in the pletely put into praftice by the inventor, though he laboured
figure, forms a banking to the fapphire pallet s, while the to obtain his objeft lull fourteen years. However well the
fcrew ^, in a fmaller cock, limits the excurfion of the detent- parts of aftion were mechanically made, the locking of
fpring d itfelf. the remontoir-fpring was never certain, for the_^;Vr given to

Having defcribed the various pieces of mechanifm that the ruby pallet r by the fnail-pallet, drove back the detent
compofe this rcmontoir efcapement, we will nov/ proceed to fo far, as frequently to enable the fnail to be brought back by
explain its mode of afting. Firll, let us fuppofe all the the remontoir-fpring, before the detent returned to catch it,
parts at reft with the wheel locked by the pallet s lafl the confequence of which was, that the pallets of the remon-
defcribed, but that the wheel is ready t« move in the direc- toir axis were all brought back, and the impulfe vainly ex=.
Vol.. XXIX. 4 Q per.ded

IIEMONTOIU.

pcnded by pallet L, before the pallot K of the balance re-
turned to its place to receive it. Mr. Hardy, however, has
lately contrived a fpeciea of locking that is quite certain,
as well as fafe, which we fliall prefently have occafion to
defcribe.

Bre^uet's We have not been able to afccrtain the exaft

date of tlie French watch-maker Breguet's invention of a
remontoir efcapement, but as Berthoud has placed it after
Haley's in his " Hiltoirc de la Mefure du Temps," we muft
conclude that it is of more recent origin. The mechanifm
is fo complex, that thedefcription given in the French work
is divided into three parts, which plan we propofe to follow.
Figs. 5. and 6. of Plate XLI. of Horology, will fuffice to ex-
plain the different parts of Breguet's remontoir ; Jig. 5. be-
uig a plan of the whole, aud/^r. 6. exhibiting a perfpeftive
view of fuch parts as could not be well underftood without
fuch reprefentation. Tlie firll portion of the mechanifm
confills of two wheels of unequal numbers of teeth, with
their planes in contaft, and revolving on one common arbor
concentrically, namely, the wheel B B', and the wheel D,
the tirll having many teeth and alarger diameter, and the lecond
having few, for a reafon which will appear hereafter : thefe
wheels are aftuated by a pinion ^f, connefted with the train,
and having jull fo many leaves as there are teeth in the large
wheel B B', contained in the fpace between two contiguous
teeth of the fmall wheel D ; on the arbor of this pinion,
near the pivot, is inferted a fly with unequal arms, repre-
fented by t!ie letters ig h in both figures, the longer arm of
which, g h, is arm.d with a piece of Heel of peculiar ihape,
feen in Jig. 6. A fpring-detent ;• F, made fait to the
cock at y^^lies at right angles to the fly, when in a ilate of
relt, and has a ruby pallet V at about one-third ofits
length from its interior end, which Hops the fly by oppofing
its end h near 0, and confequently prevents the train from
urging the double wheel, fo long as no force unlocks the
pallet from the end of the fly ; but if any impulfe happen
to bend the detent in a direaion towards the pinion g, then
the ruby pallet flips through a notch made in the fteel part
• of the fly, and the fly makes an entire revolution, while the
pinion revolves and urges the large wheel the fpace of as
many teeth as the pinion contains ; that is, a fpace corre-
fponding to the dillance between two contiguous large teeth
in the fmall wheel, which wheel alfo moves the fame quantity,
before the fly is again oppofed and llopt.

The fecond portion confills of the following parts ; a
fpring G, curved at the interior, or moveable end, fcrves
at the fame time for a remontoir -fpring, and alfo for a pallet
to give the impulf> to the balance ; it has confequently a
heel-piece n, by which it is urged into a ftate of tenfion by
the fmall wheel D, at every revolution of the fly, and alfo a
ruby pallet m, with a locking notch cut in it ; a H, made
fafl; at a, is a detent-fpring, placed nearly at right angles
to the fpring G, and having a (lender fpring N made
fafl; to its fide; this detent-fpj-ing carries a fmall ruby/,
which locks into the notch of the piece m in the fpring G,
when this is in a Itate of tenfion. Another ruby, inferted
into the extreme end of the detent « H at j, is fo placed,
that the flender fpring N can move from right to left with-
out impediment, but when urged in an oppofite direftion
againfl: the ruby s, it takes the large or detent-fpring along
with it, and unlocks the remontoir-fpring G, by removing
the fmall ruby / from the notch of m. The detent-fpring H
has at its extreme end a claw, againft which the ruby m
falls when this detent efcapes back from a tooth of wheel
D ; and this claw has a pin in it, againll which the (lender
fprino- N rcfls ; again, at the extreme end of the flender
tpring N are fixed two parallel chamfered plates, fo contrived,

that any prefFurc made on the upper (lope, or inclined edge,
will deprefs the (pring, but a fimilar preflTure made on the
under (lope will elevate it again, the downward preflure
being employed to difengagc the ruby m from the claw, and
the contrary.

The third portion confifts of the pieces or pallets K and
b, borne by the fuperior end of the verge of the balance,
and fixed at a quarter of a circle from each other. When
the ofciUation of the balance is from right to left, or in the
direilion from i to K, the unlocking pallet piece K, in its-
motion, bends the flender fpring, and pafFcs over it, but as
the pallet b is placed above the plane of the wheel B B', and
under the fpring H, thisofcillation from right to left is per-
formed in freedom, except that the flender fpring N requires
to be a little bent out of the way ; but when the ofcillation
is made from left to right, the pin at H prefles this flender
fpring againft the ruby s, the fpring H then gives way,
and bending, allows th; ruby p to efcape from the notch at
m, and the fpring G, being unlocked, is at liberty to per-
form its office, which we now proceed to defcribe.

The adf ion of thefe three portions of the mechanifm may
be thus explained : at the inltant that the ruby/, in the de-
tent a II, is difengaged from the notch at m in the remon-
toir-fpring G, the pallet b of the balance is found pointing
towards the common centre of the wheelj, and ready to re-
ceive an impulfe from the extreme end q of the curved part
of the remontoir-fpring G, which end now gives its ftrokc
to the balance through the medium of pallet b ; immediately
after which ftroke, the fame end q proceeds till it falls on
the end Fof the fly's detent, to which it now gives a pufli,
and remains quiet ; this pufli unlocks the fly, as has been
before explained, and an entire revolution is immediately per-
formed by it, wliile its pinion^, now at liberty to advance,
urges on the double wheel, till another tooth in the fmall
wheel, catching the heel-piece « of the remontoir-fpring,
puts this fpring again into a (late ef tenfion ; and the ruby/,
fulling into the notch of m, locks it as before, the balance
in the interim completing its ofcillations : and in this manner
the operation is repeated.

De Lajons. — In the year 1801, the Adelphi Society for
the Encouragement of Arts, &c. rewarded Mr. John de La-
fons with thirty guineas for his invention of a new remontoir
watch efcapement, which comes next under our notice.
Figs. I and 2 of Plate XLII. of Horology, are a plan and
feftlon of this efcapement, as given by the inventor in the
Society's Tranfaftions of the year above-mentioned. In
both thefe figures, A is the efcapement wheel ; B, the lever-
pallet on an arbor with fine pivots, which has, at its lower end,
the remontoir fpiral fpting C, fixed with a collar and ftud in
the ufual way ; D is the pallet of the verge, having a roller
turning in fmall pivots, for the lever-pallet to aft againft
without fricf ion ; at E are the pallets for difcharging the
locking, with a roller betvveen, containing a fmall notch ;
F is the arm of the locking pallets, continued at the other
end beyond the centre of motion, to preferve the equipoife,
and having ftuds and fcrews for adjuitment of the banking;
a and b are the locking pallets, being portions of circles
faftened on an arbor, turning on fine pivots at the mid-
way between the pallets ; G is the triple fork, at the end
of the arm of the locking pallets. In Jig. i, tooth i of
the wheel having caught the interior end of the lever,
pallet B, has urged it forwards and wound up the remon-
toir-fpring, and the inftant that the verge pallet D comes
nearly in contaft with the remote end of the lever-pallet,
the difcharging pallet E, taking one prong of the fork,
removes the arm F, thereby relieving the tooth 3 from
the convex part of the claw «, that locks the wheels.
12 The

REMONTOIR.

The wheel now adv.Tnces a little way, jufl; enoiipjh to allow
the iiiterior end of the levcr-pallct to pafs back, again, as
urged by the fpiral fpring, wiiile the remote end of the
faid lever gives an impulfe to the balance, through the
pallet D ; the tooth 4 is then locked on the concave
fide of the locking claw b, and the interior end of the
lever-pallet partly fupi)Orts tlie following tooth ; in this
fituation the ofcillalion is finiflicd, and on the return of the
balance pallet E, ilriking the prong of the fork in a con-
trary direftion, as^ain unlocks the wlieel from claw b, while
the force of this wheel is partly fufpended by the end of
the lever-pallet ; being now at liberty, the wheel proceeds to
wind up the remoiitoir-fpring again, till another tooth falls
on the claw a, now brought inwards, when the operation
is completed, and the preflure of the inner end of the lever
pallet againll its contiguous tooth again relieve;: the claw a
from a part of the prcll'ure of the wheel, and thereby ren-
ders the unlocking as eafy as before, when claw b was un-
locked. This cfcapement appears to us an improvement
on Haley's, both as to its fimplicity and fafety of locking,
and the inventor propofes a (till further fimplilication, by
fubllitutuig a ilraight remontoir-fpring for the fpiral one,
particularly in time-pieces intended to remain in a llationary
fituation, where the weight of the fpring would form no
objeftion ; but it does not appear that iuch conllruftion
was ever adopted. The fimplicity of the locking of the
remontoir-fpring by the wheel itfelf, where this fpring and
the maintaining power mutually re-aifl, requires, as might
be forefeen, an unufually llrong maintaining power, which
is, perhaps, one of the greatell objeftions to this mode of
applying the remontoir ; unlcfs, indeed, what was remarked
by the fociety's committee be true, that the balance mull
vibrate in a large arc before the piece will continue to per-
form.

MaJfey'L—lih-. Edward Mafley, of Hanley, in StafFord-
fhire, received a reward of fifty guineas from the Adelphi
Society, in the J'ear 1803, for his invention of two dif-
ferent clock efcapements, one of Avhich we have already
defcribed, under our article Escapement, as being with-
out a verge ; and the other we (hall make the fubjeft of
our prefent feftion. Fig. j. of Plate XLII. reprefents fo
much of Mafley's remontoir efcapement as is fufficient to
explain all the ellential parts ; in which A is the fwing-
■wheel ; B, C, are two detached pallets, moving on feparate
arbors, at oppofite fides of the fwing-vvheel ; B is feen
urged by the remontoir-fpring E, by the aid of a tail-piece
fixed on the arbor of pallet B, which receives the aftion ;
and the other pallet muft be conceived to have a fimilar
fpring and tail-piece, which cannot eafily be reprefented in
the drawing ; F is the verge bearing two arms without
pallets, which prefs under the pins of the detached pallets,
and raife them alternately, at each vibration of the pen-
dulum, from the teeth of the fwing-wheel, which had been
previoufly impelled by the maintaining power, and K is
the pendulum fufpendcd in the ufual way, and having a
crutch to communicate its force to the verge at the mo-
ment of withdrawing the pallets. All, therefore, that
the pendulum has to do, is, to difengage the pallets from
the teeth of the fwing-wheel that locks againft the in-
clined planes of the pallets ; for the remontoir-fpring then
oppofes the afcent of the pendulum, and aids its defcent,
by means of the connection between the pins of the pallets
and the arms of the verge, which muft, from the nature
of the conftruftion, continue in contaft during a large
portion of each cxcurfion of the pendulum. It is not
ftated in the author's account (Tranf. Adel. Soc. vol. xxi.)
at? what part of the arc of vibration the pendulum unlocks

either of the pallets, but it feems to us capable of being
made to effeft this office at its point of greatijl ndocUy, if
it does not do that as now confirufted. An attention to
this particular is of the utmoil importance in any cfcape-
ment, fince the natural law of gravity is tlie leaft deranged,
when any force is given, or taken away, when the pen-
dulum is at the loiuejl point of its arc, for the velocity it
has at that point determines the height to wiiich the ball
fliall rife ; but any addition or diminution of the pendulum's
momentum, beginning at any other point of the arc, either
adds to, or diminiflies the natural length of the vibration,
and injures the ifochronifm. Befides, a fpring commencing
both its accelerating and retarding influence at the point of
the pendulum's greatefl velocity, afls, not only by a law
commenfurate with the law of gravity, but their various
forces, thus exerted, are contemporary, and, therefore, aft
together as one ; a confidcration which never fhould be lolt
fight of in the conftruftion of an efcapement of anv de-
nomination. The principal advantages that the author
leems to iiifift on in this elcapcment, are, that the friftion
is diminiflied at the afting parts of the pallets, the impulfe
bi-iiig given by a direft pi]fl}, without, or with very little.
Hilling motion ; and that a certain regular momentum is
kept up in the pendulum, independently of any variation
which may occur in the wheel-work, or in the adting part
of the pallets during the fliort lime of unlocking ; but,
what is the principal objeft of fuch a contrivance, he has
not ftated, perhaps not coiifidered, how this certain tegular
momtntum is, or ought to be, modijied. — Indeed, in fpeak-
ing of his other efcapement without arbors, he fays, that
one of its advantages over this is, that during z. part of the
vib-ation the pendulum i-s difengage d ; from which remark,
it fhould feem, that he thinks the conilant aftion of this
remontoir-fpring, however modified, an objeftion to be
avoided.

Antis^. — In vol. xxiii. of the Tranfaftions of the Society
laft mentioned, it is Hated, that Mr. John Antis of Fulneck,
near Leeds, fent this focicty a model of a new clock efcape-
ment in 1805, with a correfponding defcription, for which
a reward was voted him of twenty guineas. The model is
depofited in the room at the Adelphi appropriated for
the reception of models, but as the defcription is not pub-
liflied in the Tranfaftions of the Society, nor an engraving
given of the model, we muft infer, that the contrivance
either is not new, or is not of fuch importance as to merit
the particular notice that has been given by them to the in-
ventors of like contrivances, who both preceded and fol-
lowed him. Indeed, in the letters of Mr. Antis to the
Society, publilhed with their account of the rewards, it
feems that two efcapements were fent them, one a detached
one, and the other, one that " would equalife the power of
the impulfe," which muft, therefore, have been of the
remontoir defcription ; but he confefles that thefe contrivances
by him " may have been praftifcd before." With refpeft
to the latter efcapement, he remarks, what is worthy of
being recollefted by clock-makers in general, that, by its
means " a fpring-clock will be as perfeft as one which goes
by weight, and more fo if tihe latter has no remontoir."
Should any of our readers have a wifh to fee and examine
Mr. Antis' produftions, which, he acknowledges, are done
in a rough manner, and under difadvantageous circumftances,
but which may not be the lefs ingenious on that account,
there will be no difficulty in gaining adniiffion to the model
room, where the original work is preferved with a view to
public infpeftion, provided the applicant be properly iu"
troduced.

Mendham'f,—lt frequently happens that confiderable
4Q a improve-

REMONTOIll.

improvpments are made in mpchanical contrivances, by men
whole ui-incipal employment has no connection with the art
to the impruviMiicnt of which they contribute ; this was
probably the cafe with Mr. Antis, and is confelledly lo
with Mr. Mendham, who was rewarded with the filver
medal of the Adelphi Society, in the year 1807, (fee
vol. XXV. ) for a remontoir efcapcment for a chronometer,
which next offers itfelf for our defcription. Fij;s. 4, 5,
and 6, of Plale XLIl. are copied from the plate given by
Mr. Mendham, fig. 4. being a fedion of the whole elcape-
ment, fy. 5. a plan of the wheel and locking pallet, and
Jig. 6. a detached view of the pallets and their common
arbor. The letters a a, mfig. 4, are the two plates of the
frame that contain the works ; b is the balance, nearly of
the ufual (hape and fizc ; c is the pallet that acls with the
wheel, and d its arbor ; e is the locking fingle fpring ; and
f is the unlocking pallet in the form of a pin, attached
to c, and feen better in fig. 6. At the lower end of arbor
d is placed g, the remontoir-fpring, that gives force both
to the fmall pallet f, and alfo to the perpendicular pin h,
that forms a part of the pallet c. The arbor d docs not
alcend above the upper plate of the frame, but the pin h
does, and the plate being formed, as we fuppofe, like a
rim, h is jormitted to move in the vacant fpace within the
rim, and fufliciently high to fall in the way of the finer
pin /, inferted into and under the balance. The balance i
has its verge immediately over the upper pivot of arbor d,
point to point nearly, fo that the motions of the balancc-
piu /, and of the pin h, tliat impels it, may be concentric.
The cock k fupports the upper pivot of the verge, and
alfo holds the outer end of the balance or pendulum-fpring.
The aftion of thefe parts may be thus explained ; before
motion is given to the balance, we mufl conceive its pin t
to be in contaft, or nearly in contaft with the pin h of
the pallet c, and it muft be remembered, that the wheel
refts on the pallet during the vibration of the balance : fup-
pofe now that the remontoir-fpring g is in the aft of being
wound up by tlie balance-wheel, a-s aftuated by the train ;
and that the pin i of the moving balance has kept in contadl
with the impelling pin h, borne by the arbor of the remon-
toir, it is evident, that the force of the remontoir-fpring is
here oppofed to the momentum of the balance and at lall
flops it, thereby forming a banking of an unlimited extent ;
but the tooth of the wheel in contaft with pallet c, at the
point of Ihortell radius, alTifts to oppofe or wind up the
faid fpring during a fpace of one-fifth of a circle, till
the tooth has palled and the wheel is locked ; on the re-
turn of the balance the remontoir-fpring exerts all its force
on the balance, but without a jerk, the pins i and h being
already in contad, till it comes to the flop ; the balance
then maintains its motion, and the fmall pallet/ having un-
locked the wheel by forcing out the detent, the next tooth
of the wheel falls on the pallet c, and waits the return of
the balance, when the fame operation is repeated.

Mr. Ramfay of lllington was confulted on the merits
of this efcapement, and, on confidering its properties, he
gave a written report to this effeft ; that the impulfe is here
given to the balance without fridion, exadly as in Mudge's
chronometer ; and that the remontoir is wound up by the
maintaining power in a fimilar way, except that the fhape
of Mudge's toolh limited the quantity of tenfion of the
.fpring, which here depends on the amount of the maintain-
ing power ; but that this efcapement, having but one re-
montoir-fpring, is more fimple than Mudge's, and allows
an unlimited arc of vibration, which advantages com-
penfate the foregoing difadvantage in the (hape of the
tooth ; and laiUy, that it is fuperior to the detached efcape-
3

ment, inafmucli aj that it gives the impulfe without fric.
tion.

C. Prior's. — The filver medal and twenty-five guineas
were voted to Mr. George Prior, junior, of Otiey, ir
V.orkfliire, in the year i8oy, by the Adelphi fociety (vol.
xxvii.) for his invention of a new clock efcapement, in which
an impelling (not however called a remontoir) fpring ac-
tuates, or profedes to actuate, the pendulum at each alter,
nate vibration. The account, particularly of the action,
as printed in the fociety's Tranfadtion':, feems to us fo extra-
ordinary, that we beg leav^ to tranfcribe it verbatim, in or-
der to make fome remarks on it, that may enable the reader
to judge of the efcapement's peculiar qualiti;-s, or at leall
of llie manner in which they are defcribed. Fig. 7. of
Plale XLII. already referred to, contains enough of thi
cicapement to anfwer the purpofe of the defcription in quel-
tion, and therefore we will omit the references to fig. i. in
tlie original plate, and attend to its^-. 2. only. " Fig. (j) is
a back view, which is fuppoled to be taken from behind the
clock ; a reprefents the axis of the fwmg-wheel, or lall
wheel of the train of the clock i I d is the fwing-wheel
fixed upon it, having thirty ferrated teeth ; it is turned
round, in the direction from i to d, by the maintaining power
of the clock ; ^^f is a fpring-detent, which locks againft one
ol the teeth of the fwing-wheel, and this prevents its run-
ning down by the action of the maintaining power; /j is
another fpring-detent, which is called the impelling fpring ;
when left at liberty, it unlocks the former, by pufhin;;
againll the end of the fmall arc e, failencd to the detent g,
and thus removing the end of the detent which obftructed the
wheel's motion ; / ij the rod of the pendulum, fufpcnd-ed bv
a cock fcrewed to the back plate of the clock ; a fmall
piece of brafs, i, projeds at right angles from the impel-
ling fpring /j, fo as to intercept the pendulum rod in its vi-
bration, and at this place a fmall fcrew is put through the
pendulum-rod /, the point of which moves the impelling
fpring back : a fmall pin is fixed to the frame, in a line be-
tween the point of fufpcnfion of the pendulum, and the
centre of the fwing-wheel, againll which the impelhng fpring
flops when at liberty.

" Suppofing the pendulum to be vibrating backwards and
forwards, and the wheel locked as in the figure, the pendu-
lum fwinging from m to n, the impelling fpring h follows by
its elaflicity, until the pendulum / arrives at its perpendicu-
lar (or lowefl point of its arc) ; at this period the impelling
fpring comes lo rejl againll the end of the arc e, which it
pujlies back, fo as to releafe the tooth of the wheel from the
detent-fpring g ; the wheel now moves round a very fmall
fpace before it meets the end of the impelling fpring h, and
isjlopped thereby ; in the mean time the pendulum continues
its motion the extent of its vibration towards n, when it
returns, and arriving at the perpendicular, it meets the impel-
ling fpring h, and carries it along ivith it, until the tootii of
the wheel which rclls againll it efcapes from the end of it,
and another tooth of the wheel comes to relt againfl the
fpring-detent g. The fucceeding vibration of the pendu-
lum repeats the fame operation." This is the whole ac-
count, from which the reader is induced to believe that the
pendulum, and impelling fpring h, ad and re-aft on each
other ad infnitum, without any aid from the maintaining
power through the medium of the wheel, which is never
faid to raife, or otherwife to move the impelling (or remon-
toir) pallet, in order that it may, in its turn, impel the pen-
dulum by its acquired force. Again, it is faid, the impel-
ling fpring unlocks the detent g when it arrives at the per-
pendicular, or nearly, if not quite, at the point of its
quiefcence, where it has no force, and from that point, not

the

UKM()\T0]1{,

the wheel, but tlie pcrtdulum unbends it into a flute of teii-
fion, to rcfutne its ojnTation ; thcit is, the pendulum raifes
the fprinjT, tliat the fpiiiig may drive (he pendulum back
a^raiu ; and thus the vibrations are niaintaim-d without the
aid, and confequently without the iieceility, ot either amain-
taininir power or traui ; and what is equally extraordinary,
the impelling ipring locks the vshcel by its rcfijlnnce, near
the perpendicular line (within tlie fpace ot one tooth),
where it luui almolt the Imallelt force, or nearly the fame
Imall force that it has when it vnlachs tlie detfiit. According
to this account, even iuppoiing- the action of the wheel on
the remontoir pallet to be onutltd, the pendulum is under the
influence of the impelling pallet dunng nearly the wliole of
one excuriion, and tree from it in the other. The model,
however, is faid to be preferved in the fociety's room, and
will explain itfelf.

G. Pfici's improved. — Mr. George Prior, jun. again prc-
fents an improved remontoir efcapement for a clock to the
focicty we have repeatedly had occalion to name in this arti-
cle, in the year 1811 (vol. xxix.), and again receives a re-
ward at their hands, of twenty guineas, for his improvement.
The defcriptioii given of this efcapement, and of its aftion,
is fufliciently clear, and the alteration made in the conilruc-
tion is in many refpetls an improvement, though we fliall
take occalion to fliew, in our remarks on it, that it is ftill
liable to objections. In the plate laft referred to, Ji^. 8.
contains the original ^/j-. 1, which will explain the account
with fufficient pveafion. " The fwing-whcel A," fays the
author, " has thirty teeth cut in its periphery, and is con-
llantly urged forwards by the maintaining power ; C, D, are
two fpring-detents, cat(;hing the teeth of the wheel alter-
nately ; thefe are, at the proper intervals, unlocked by the
parts marked 2 and 3 upon the pendulum-rod H, intercept-
ing fmall pins a, b, projecting from the detents, as it vi-
brates towards the one or the other ; E is the renovating or
remontoir-fpring, fixed to the fame ilud, F, as the detents ;
it is wound up by the highell tooth of the wheel, its poli-
tion, when unwound, being fliewn by the perpendicular dot-
ted line. This being the cafe, luppofe a tooth of the wheel
caught by the detent D, which prevents the wheel from
moving any further, and keeps the renovating Ipring from
pfcaping olf the point of the tooth ; in this pohtion the pen-
dulum is quite detached from the wheel : now it the pendu-
lum be caufed to vibrate towards G, the part of it marked
2 comes againft the pin b, projefting from the renovating
fpring E, and puflies this fpring from the point of the
wlieel's tooth ; on vibrating a little further, it removes the
detent D, which detained the wheel, by the part 3 ilriking
the pin a, which projefts from the detent ; the maintaining
power of the clock makes the wheel, thus unlocked, to ad-
vance, until it is detained by a tooth refting upon the end
of the detent C, on the oppofite tide ; by this means the re-
novating fpring will be clear of the tooth of the wheel as it
returns with the pendulum, and gives it an impulfe by its
pin h prefling againlt the part 2 of the pendulum, until
the fpring comes to the pofition fhewn by the dotted line,
in which poiition it is unwound, and relts againft a pin fixed
iti the crofs-bar of tlie plate ; the pendulum continues vi-
brating towards I, nearly to the extent of its vibration,
when the part 1 meets the pin in the detent C, and removes
it from the wheel and unlocks it ; the maintaining power now
carries it forward, puOiingthe renovating fpring E before it,
until another tooth is caught by the detent D, which de-
tains the wheel in the pofition firft defcribed." Agreeably
to this defcription,t!ie pendulum is oppofed in its afcent, and
accelerated in its defcent, in one of its excurfions from the
centre, or perpendicular line, by both the impelling fpring

E, and detent D, alter it is unlocked, though ;.ot tiif
whole di (lance ; but is alternately accelerated and I'etarded
in the other excurfion by the detent C alone, and only af-
ter the unlocking ; thele unequal checks, given at different
parts of the arc of vibration, we apprehend, are by no
mean:, favourable to the natural ilochronifm of the pen-
dulum.

Hardy\t. — Mr. Hardy, chronometer-maker, of Ccppic*'-
row, Cierkenwell, I^ondon, whofe ingenious improvements
in cluck and watch-making have placed him high in public
cllimation, on contemplating Mr. C. Haley's failure ia
the locking of his remaiitoir detent, contrived a remedy
which fully anfwers its purpofe, and which, on that ac-
count, merits our particular notice.

Fig-I- of Plalc XiA. of Horology, reprefents the plan
of Hardy's new remontoir efcapement, which, though it
appears to differ coiifiderably in conllruClion from Haley's,
yet refembles it fo much in its aftion, as well as principle,
that we will put the fame letters of reference to the fame
correfponding parts, in order that the reader who has pe-
rufed our defcription of Haley's remontoir with attention,
may the more clearly comprehend our defcription of Hardy's,
and perceive in what the improvement confills. -^s in Ha-
ley's conftruC^ion, T T reprefents the balance, or rather the
place of the balance not feen ; E the etcapemcnt, or balance-
wheel ; P the pivot of the verge ; .S tire b;dance-lpring,
fufpended as ufual ; K the impelled pallet ; I the unlocking
pallet of the remontoir ; N the remontoir detent, or locking
pallet, on the fame axis with a, the arm of the flender or
unlocking fpring, Tvhich lies parallel with it ; n the cock,
taking the pivot of the remontoir detent's arbor, and alfo
the upper end of its fpiral fpring ; c the head of the banking
fcrew, audi its Ilud ; H the cock that takes the pivot of the
remontoir, or cylindrical fpring at W, and alfo one end of
the faid fpring, reprefented by the fmall circle at R ; L ia
the impelling lever or pallet, for giving motion to the paUet
K of the balance ; M is a lever, inllead of the notch i.n
Haley's large circular pallet, by means of which the wheel
winds up the fpring R of the remontoir ; O is a lever, in
place of the fmall ruby unlocking pallet of Haley, fixed to the
fnail ; d is the fpring-detent of the wheel, and j- its ruby, or
fapphire pallet, on which the wheel is locked,_/and^ being
the banking fcrew and its ftud, and y the place where it ia
fixed by a fcrew on the potance plate ; and lallly, the fec-
toral piece Q, in which the improvement chiefly confifts, is
the addition introduced for rendering the locking of the
rcmointoir-fpring, when wound up, both certain and feciu-e.
The acting faces of the pallets s, M, K, N, and of the cir-
cular portion of Q, are of ruby, or other precious flone
nicely polifhed, and are properly (haped for their refpective
offices. From this defcription of the mechanifm before us,
it will be perceived that the double Ipring a, and the detent
with a claw pallet at N, are both faft to the arbor
of the fpiral fpring, which gently prefl'es the detent
at all times down upon the fedtoral piece Q, thereby pre-
venting its being thrown back from its pofition for locking, as
was the cafe with Haley's remontoir detent. It will alfo
be feen that the arbor W, of the remontoir-fpring R, has
the faid fedtoral piece, the impelling lever L, the lever M
impelled by the wheel, and the difcharging lever O, all faft to
it at different heights, the two firft being above, and the two
laft below, fo that when one of thefe four pieces is moved
out of its firll fituation by any external force, they all move
together, as do alfo the remontoir detent N and its fpring
a on their common arbor, and as do likewife the pallets K
and I on tlie verge of the balance. Thefe particulars being
underftood, and that levers in Hardy'e conftruAion are

ufed

11 E M

REM

ufed for pallets in feveral indaiices, we may proceed to ex-
plain the aftion of the difFcreiit parts, and to fliew how they
produce the defircd efFedts of producing equable impuUes
on the balance at all times, and of effecting certain and
fecure locking of the remontoir-fpring. In the figure
before us, tooth i of the wheel has juft proceeded far enough,
by the a6liou of the main-fpring and train, to wind up the
remontoir-fpring, and its detent N, urged by its own ipiral
Iprnig againft the curved face of the feAoral piece, fifler
Hiding finoothly along it, has locked it ; that is, by oppofing
it at right angles, prevents its return, which would take
place when the wheel leaves the arm M, or, which is the
fame thing, when the remontoir-fpring, on the fair.e arbor
with this arm, is wound up. The balance is now fuppofed
to have commenced its motion, carrying tlse pallets K and I
outwards from the wheel, but the fmall pallet I lias not
yet arrived at the flender fpring of the rcmontoir detent,
though it is Approaching it ; the flender fpring, however,
foon yields to the outward inipulfe of this fmall pallet,
without difturbing its arm or the detent N, therefore the
remontoir-fpring remains locked : at the return of the ba-
lance, which takes place when its fpnng is wound up, the
faid httle pallet I difplaces not only the flender fpring but its
arm alfo, which lies next towards the wheel, the one not
being liable to move in this inward dire£lion without the
other ; the confeque;-;ce is, that the detent N is now lifted
by its connedtion with the arm of the flender fpring, and at
that inilant the remontoir-fpring, being wound up, and at
liberty to aft, throws back the feftoral piece Q nearly its
whole breadth, but not quite, for the claw of the detent in
queftion refts on the curve of the fuftor during the motion
we have defcribed, till the unlocking lever O llrikes the
end of the fingle detent-fpring d, and forces the ruby pallet
1 out of the wheel, which wheel inllanlaneoufly relumes its
motion from the train, and meeting with lever M winds up
the remontoir-fpring a fecond time ; in the mean time the
impelling lever L has given its impulfe to the pallet or lever
K, and confequently to the balance, which has tnus had its
momentum increaled ; and en its returning vibration ex-
aftly the fame procefs is repeated. Thus the force of the
mamtaining power is expended in winding up at each alter-
nate ofcillation the remontoir-fpring, which fpring, fo re-
inforced, impels the balance in its turn by quantities of force
that are always the fame, whatever may be the irregularities
of the force tranfniitted through the train that winds up
the remontoir-fpring ; therefore, properly fpeaking, the
remontoir-fpring is the maintaining power that reftores, at
each alternate ofcillation, the lofs of momentum that the
balance has experienced from the refiftance of the air, and
friftion of the parts in aftion. This efcapement is, notwith-
ftanding, of the detached kind, feeing the balance performs
the greateft part of its ofciUations without any conneftion
of even the auxiliary force derived at intervals from the
remontoir-fpring ; and a chronometer of this conftruftion,
made by Hardy for his royal highnefs the duke of Suflex,
anfwers the maker's moft fanguine expeftation, and will
probably become a model for other makers when its merit
is proved, and made public. The fame artift has made
feveral experiments on the fame principle, with this differ-
ence, that the remontoir-lpring is retained by the lever reft-
ing Oil the tooth of the wheel, in place of being locked by
the feftoral piece, as in the one before us.

Befides the preceding efcapement, Hardy invented one
for the aftronomical clock he made for the Royal Obfer-
vatory at Greenwich, which at firit fight appears to refera-
ble Mafley's and Prior's improved one, with fpring pallets,
but on clofe examination we difcovered that it has the fol-

lowing defirable properties peculiar to itfelf; irt, it gn-ct
the impulfe not only from remontoir-fprings, but flrikcs and
unlocks the two feparate detents alternately, at the inttatit
when the pendulum has the grealejt velucity ; and, zdly, tlit
accelerating and retarding power imparted to the' pendulum
co-operates with the force of gravity, thereby deranging the
natural law of gravity as little as polfible. V?c feel not at
liberty to enter more minutely into the d&fcription of this
efcapement, becaufe we underltand its inventor propofes
giving an account of his machine liimfelf, to be read before
the Royal Society, as conftituting the compai-ion to Trough-
ton's tranfit circle, already defcribsd by the allronomcr
royal. We have permillion, however, to fubjoin the rate of
the clock in quellion for three quarters of a year, as taken
at the Roya! Obfervatory, which will afford the beft proof of
its pretenlions to public notice. We have further to add, that
the inventor has applied the fame principle of movement to a
chronometer of a large fize, in which the balance has two
metalHc rods to adjuit it for temperature, in place of the
metal being fluxed on the rim of the balance, as is common.
See Compensation.

Trial of Mr. Hardy's clock at the Royal Obfervatory at
Greenwich in the vear 1 8 1 1 .

Diily Rate.

iMean of
Thermometer.

//

0

April 12 to May 13

- 0.86

61

May 13 to June 9 - -

- 0.74

63

June 17 to July 12

- 0-74

64

July 18 to Auguft 17 -

- 0.83

68

Auguft 17 to September 14 -

- 0.77

65

September 14 to Oftober 4 -

— 0.61

60

Oftober 17 to November 17 -

— 0.60

51

November 17 to December 10

— 0.50

46

December 10 to December 30

- 0-47

39

. 1

From the above ftated authentic document it appears, that
for the nine months of trial, and in oppofite extremes of
temperature, the daily rate never varied quite four-Uriths of
a fecond ; and when the quantity of mercury proper for the
compenfation of the pendulum is exaftly afcertained, it may
be expected that the performance will be ftill more accurate ;
feeing that the deviation in the rate depends evidently on
the change of temperature, and not on the efcapement.

REMORA, in Natural Hijlory, the fucking-fjh ; a little
fifh, refembling a herring, called by the Greeks echeneis,
famous for flicking to the fides of fhips. It belongs to
the genus of echeneis and clafs of thoracici in the Linnxan
fyftem.

Its characters, according to Artedi and Linnaeus, are
thefe : the branchioftege membrane on each fide contains
about ten bones ; the head is thick, depreffed, naked, and
marked on the upper fide with tranfverfe rough flriae ; the
body is oblong, roundifh, and naked, but fomewhat com-
preffed ; the back-fin is oblong, and placed very far toward
the tail ; its under jaw is longer than its upper ; it has a
great number of teeth in both jaws ; the colour of its body
is hoary, and it has feven fins ; two peftoral ones, two ven-
tral ones placed farther from the fnout than the peftoral
ones, one at the anus, one on the back, and one at the tail ;
the flriae of the head are from eighteen to twenty-four in
number, they are rough and tranfverfe, but are divided as it
were into two feries by a middle longitudinal line. By-
means of thefe ftrix or ridges the fi(h can fix itfelf to any

animal

REM

animal or other fubflance, and has often been found adher-
ing to the lldcs of iTiips and the bodies of fliarks, &c.

Linnxus enumerates two Ipecies of the cchcneis ; the rc-
mora and neucrates : the former has a forked tail, and
eighteen llrix on the head ; the latter has an entire tail,
which is longer tlian tluit of the former, twenty-four ftrise,
a larger body, and (harper fins. They are b-)th inhabitants
of the Indian ocean. The remora is much talked of by the
ancients, who, as we find from Pliny, lib. ix. cap. 25.
lib. xxxi. cap. 31. unanimouily believed it had the force to
itop a veflel in full fail, or a whale in fwimmin^ ; and hence
called it remora, c rcmorcindo. (See TElian's Hilt, de Animal.
lib. ii. cap. 17. Plutarch. Sympof. lib. ii.) Bat Mr.
Catefby obferves, that even feveral of thofe fi2\es together
can do no more than (liells or corals, and other foulnelies of
the fame bulk, which make a Ihip fail fomewhat the (lower.
And in the fame manner only they may be fome fmall hin-
drance to a whale. The author lall mentioned alTurea us he
has taken five of them off the body of a (liark. Vide Phil.
Tranf. N'438. p. 113.

Remoha, among Surgeons, is alfo an inllrumciit ufcd for
fetting broken bones.

ReAiora Muliani, in Natural Hyiory, a name given by
fome to the genus of (hells called concha venerea, and porcel-
lana. See Porcklain Shell.

REMOTION, Remotio, in Rhetoric, the fame with
what is otherwife called metajlajis.

REMOVAL of the Poor. See Pooit.

REMOVELLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Vofges ; 5 miles E. of Neufch.ateau.

PvEMOVING Objiniaions to Tillage, the means of remov-
ing Hones and any other fubftances that may be in the way of
the plough.

The operations which are to be performed in thefe inten-
tions are of feveral different kinds, as tiie removing of varioas
forts and ftates of ftony matters, both from above and
below the lurface of the lands ; the eradicating and dellroy-
iijg different kinds of woody materials of the tree, root, and
plant forts, the taking away of the fuperabundant wetnefs ;
the deftruftion of many aquatic vegetables, and fome others.
Sec Land, Stone, Till,\ge, and Wood.

REMOULIN, in the Manege, is ufed to denote a ftar
upon a horfc's forehead.

REMOULINS, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Gard, and chief place of a canton,
in thediftrift of Uzes ; 7 miles S.E. of Uzcs. The place
contains 905, and the canton 4758 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 13 J kiliomctres, in 8 communes.

REMOUNT, in Il^ar. To remount the cavalry, or dra-
goons, is to furmdl them with frelh horfes, in lieu of fuch
as have been killed or difabled in the fcrvice.

REMPHAN, in Antiquity, the Egyptian name for the
planet Saturn. Some think that remphan was the moon,
othcis Mercury and Mars, and others the fun. See
Chiun.

REMPLY, in Heraldry, fomething///t'^ up. The term
is chiefly ufed to denote, that the chief is quite filled up
with a fquare piece of another colour, leaving only a bor-
dure of the proper colour of the chief about the faid piece.

REMPORETTY, in Geography, a town of Hindoo-
ftan ; 30 miles N. E. of Travancore.

REMS, a river of Wurtemberg, which runs into the
Neckar, 4 miles N.W. of Waiblingen.

REMSA, or Remissam, a town of Saxony, in the
lordihip of Schonburg ; 2 miles N.N.E. of Glauchau.

REMSCHEIDT, a town of the duchy of Berg; 2
miles S.W. of Lennep.

REN

REMSEN, a town(hip of America, in Oneida county,
New York, E. of Leyden and adjoining it.

RLMUNGOL, a town of France, in the department
of the Morbihan ; 7 miles S. of Pontivy.

REMURIA, among the Romans, a fellival inftituted in
honour of Remus by his brother Romulus. See Lkmuuia.

REMUZAL, in Geography, a town of France, in t.he
department of the Drome, and chief place of a canton, in
the diilria of Nyons ; 6 miles N.E. of Nyons. The plaae
contains 514, and the canton 3724 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 2725 kiliomctres, in 17 communes.

REMY, a town of France, in the department of the
Oi(e ; 6 miles N. of Clermont.

REN, a town of Rullia, in the government of Nov-
gorod ; 16 miles S.E. of Ulliuzna.

RENAISON, a town of France, in the department
of the Rhone and Loire ; 6 miles W. of Roanne.

RENAIX, a town of France, in the department of the
Scheldt, and chief place of a canton, in tlie diilridt of
Audenaerde. The place contains 9499, and the canton
14,683 inhabitants, on a territory of 70 kiliometres, in 6
communes.

RENALIS, Renal, m Anatomy, an epithet applied to
the parts belonging to the kidney ; as to the artery and vein
of the organ, alfo called emulgent, of v.'hich the former comes
from the aorta, the latter joins the inferior vena cava ; fee
Artery and Vein : to the plexus of nerves derived
principally from the ganglia of the great fympathetic ; fee
Nerve : and to the fmall bodies placed above the kidnies,
called the renal cnpfules. See alfo Kidney.

Renalis Lapis, m Natural Hijlory, the name given
by many authors to a fort of fiderochitum, or crullated
ferruginous body of that kind, containing a nucleus of a
different matter from that of the crults. It is found about
Prague, and in fome other places, lying near the furface in
ftrata of a yellow clay. Its ufual bignefs is that of a ripe
peach, and its cruds arc of a dulky ferruginous brown co-
lour : and its internal nucleus of a pale yellowifh-green, com-
pofed of a marley earth, and u(ually of a kidney-like
Ihape, whence its name.

RENASSAU, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Dowlatabad; 1 14 miles N.W. of Hydrabad. N. lat. iS**
30'. E. long. 79^ 10'.

RENATHIA, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Cara-
mania ; 10 miles S.W. of Satalia.

RENAU d'Elisagauay, Bernard, in Biography, a dif-
tinguifiied engineer and naval archited, was born in the pro-
vince of Beam, in the year 1652. He was at an early age
inltrufted in the mathematical fciences, and was obferved
not to read a great deal, but to think moll profoundly, and
as he advanced in years, he was capable of thinking upon
the moft abftrufe fubjefts, as well in the midll of company,
as in the clofet. One of the firll books that attracted his
attention was Malebranche's «' Refearche de la Verite,"
and, it is faid, it made fuch an impreilion upon him, that
nothing could efface it through the whole of life. It gav^
him a full convidion of the truths of religion, and preferved
his morals pure and uncorrupted. In 1679 he was placed
with the count de Vermandois, admiral of France, as his
inltruftor in naval affairs. When, by the royal command,
conferences were held to determine upon a plan for bring-
ing to perfetfion the conlbruftion of vefl'els, Renau was
called upon for his opinion ; and at length the fyftems of
Du Cuefne and that of Renau were alone left for con-
fidcratioii, and to the honour of Renau, then young and
almolt unknown, his plan was adopted, and he himferf was
fent to Breft and the other ports to put it in execution.

In

R i: N

REN

111 i6So, the Algcrincs liiviiig docliircd war aguinit I'Vanco,
Reiiaii propofcd th^ bonibardiiifiit of Algiers, for which
purpofe lie conceived the idea of bomb-veftels, which were
as yet unknown. .This was at firfl regarded as vifionary ;
but reliance being placed on his talents, he was permitted
to make the trial, and he brougiit five of thefe vefTels before
the town, where, under the command of Du Quefnc, the
boiiibardnient was executed with complete fucctfs. In
1684 lie was employed, as engineer, at the bombardment
of Genoa ; from this place he went to join Vauban, who
was fortifying the frontiers of Flanders and Germr.ny, and
he coiitraded an inlimate friendfliip with that great man.
In 1688 he accompanied \'auban to the liege of Phihpfhurg,
and afterwards conducted, or was prcfeiit, at fome other
fico-es ; vet in the midil of thefe adive fervices he found
leifiire to attend to his lludies, and publiflied in 1689 his
" Tlieorie de la Manoeuvre des Vaiffeaux :" fome of the
propolitions in this work were contelted by the celebrated
Huygens. In this fame year he endeavoured to prove, by
argument, that the navy of France might be rendered
capable of making head againll that of England and Hol-
land united, and his obfervation produced lucli an effect
upon tlie government, that an order was made to change all
the 50 and 60-gun veflels, on the ftocks, into (hips of a
iiigher rate. About the fame time he invented a new
lerics of naval evolutions, lignals, and Orders of battle.
His merits wera well uiiderftood by the government, who
rewarded him with a penfion, and confiderable rank in the
iervice. He was now fent to Brelt for the purpofe of
inltruAing the naval ofFicei-s in his newly invented evolu-
tions, &c. He met with an oppoiition, which is not un-
common in endeavouring to change old ettabliftied cuiloms.
Of his opponents, two of the moil dillinguiflied were put
under arrell and broke, though he did his utmoll to pre-
vent the punilhment being carried to that extremity. He
afterwards ferved under Vauban at the iiege of Namur, from
thence he repaired to St. Malo after the battle of La
Jiogue, to lave the relics of the French fleet which had
taken fhclter there. Having conifructed a veifel of 54
guns upon his own plan, Renau put to fea with the view
of intercepting two rich Englilh Ealt Indiamen, one of
which he captured after a deiperate engagement. Among
the booty were fomie packets of diamonds, which he
thoutrht of too great value to be claimed by himfelf, though
the naval cultoms would have jullilied him in it, and he car-
ried them to the king, who accepted the pri/.e, and remu-
nerated the captor with an annuity. When Philip V. fuc-
ceeded to the crown of Spain, he fent to his grandfather,
Lewis XIV., to requell that he might have Renau to diredt
his engineers in fortifying his molt important towns. He
found means to render the crown of Spain the mod import.
ant fervices, and was, in 1704, employed in the fiege of
Gibraltar, which, it has been alTumed by the French bio-
grapher, was about to furrender, when it was reheved by
the Englilh fleet. To the difgrace of the court of Spain,
whofe interefls he had effeftually promoted, and in whofe
caufc he had expended his own property, he was fuffered
to return to France with a fingle piftole in his pocket,
though his Catholic majefty had given him the title of lieu-
tenant-general of the armies of Spain. The high reputa-
tion which Renau had acquired as an engineer, caufed the
grand-mafter of Malta to requeft that he might be fent to
that ifland on an alarm of an invafion, which was readily
granted. Soon after this Lewis XIV. died, and the .duke of
Orkans fucceeded to the regency, who appointed Renau
to be counfellor of the marine council, and graiid-croix of
^t. I,ouis. He dicfi of a dropfy in 17:9, and bis death

was, like tliat of La Trappe, in ardent afpirations after
another life : " What a difterence," he exclaimed, " from one
moment to the following ! 1 am going to pafs in an indant
from the thickell darkncfs to perfedt liglit." He had been
twrnty years an honorary member of the Academy of
Sciences, and was among the firfl after that clafs was in-
flituted.

RENAUDOT, Ei'sebius, a learned writer 011 the ec-
clefiallical hiitory and antiquities of the Eafterii church,
was born at Paris in 1646. He was educated at the
.Icfuits' college, and entered the congregation of the oratory
when he was about 19 years of age, though he liad no in-
tention of entering into holy orders, or to the taking any
ecclefiallical degree. He was particularly attached to tlie
iUidy of the oriental languages, in the knowledge of which he
far excelled almoft all his contemporaries ; and he applied
with fuccefs to the lludy of fo many other tongues, that he
was fufficieritly mafter of ieventceu difierent languages, to be
able to fpeak the greater number of them witli facility.
He became well Imown at court, where his genius, his ta-
lents, and his pohtencfs, made him much elleemed and ad-
mired. Here he was noticed by M. Colbert, who was
defirous of ellablifhing printing-prefl'es for the oriental lan-
guages at Paris, and confulted Reiiaudot upon the fubjeft,
as a perlon who might ably contribute to render fuch an
eftablifhment ufeful to the ftate as well as the church. To
engage his affiitance, he prcmifed him the revertion of the
poll of keeper of the king's library ; but the minifler died
before the place became vacant. He received a fimilar pro-
mife from the archbifhop of Rheims, and was again dilap-
pointed. He was, however, einployed by the king in
various confidential concerns of great importance relating
to the affairs of Rome, England, Spain, &c. So much
was his time occupied by thefe engagements, that he almofl
entirely difcontinued his favourite iludies. In the year
16S9 he was received into the French Academy, and in 1692
into the Academy of Infcriptions and Belles Lettres. He
found a patron in the cardinal de Noailles, arehbiihop of
Paris, whom he accompanied to Rome in the year 1700,
and into the conclave which ekaed Clement XI. to the
papal dignity. While he remained in that city, the Gollec-
tions of the Vatican furnifhed him with new matter relating
to the oriental churches, and revived an intention, which he
had long before encouraged, of preparing for publication
fome pieces which ferve to illuilrate their hiilory and opi-
nions. In this delign he was affifled by the new pope, who
perfuaded him to remain in Rome feveral months after the
departure of cardinal de Noailles. His hohnefs would
gladly have conferred upon him fome valuable benefices,
but he refufed to accept of any thing beyond a fmall priory.
The abbe Renaudot afterwards went to Florence, where
he met with moil flattering reception from the grand duke,
who affigned him apartments in his own palace, loaded him
with prefents, and on his departure directed that he (hould
be conveyed on board one of his own veilels to Maifeilles.
At Florence, likewife, he was made a member of the Aca-
demy de la Crufea. Soon after his return from France, he
was roufed by an attack upon father Nicole's " Perpetuity
of the Faith of the Catholic Church refpeifting the Eucha-
rift ;" and in 1708 he publilhed " A Defence of the Perpe-
tuity of the Faith againil the Calumnies, &c." He after,
wards entered more fully into the fubjeft which he defended,
and difplayed all his erudition and ingenuity in endeavouring
to fnew the conformity between the doftrine of the Greeks,
and all the oriental Chriilians, with that of the Latin
church. What he wrote upon the fubjedl extended to two
vols. 4to. wiiich were pubhfhed in 171 1 and i7i3> by way

of

R E N

R E N

of fupplcment to father Nicole's work. During the re-
gency of the dwlie of Orleans lie made frequent efforts to
obtain his encouragement of tlie plan for eftablilliinrr print-
in(r-pre(i^'S for the oriental tonj^ues, and was promiled, hut
never obtained effettiial hipport. Tiie latter years of his
life he ipent in completing numerous very learned and im-
portant publications, among which may be mentioned,
" Hillm-ia Patriarch;rrum Alexandrinorum Jacobitarum :"
" I\,iturgiarum Orientaliuni Colleetio," in 2 vols., accom-
panied with very learned differtations : " Ancient Accounts
of India and China, by two Mahometan Travellers in the
(jth Century, tranflated from the Arabic." Renaudot died
in the year 1720, at the age of 74 years, greatly regretted
by the literati of that age, to whom lie was a communicative
and moll agreeable companion, and lamented by the poor,
to whofe relief he iiad dedicated a large portion of his
income. Moreri.

RENAY, or RoNSE, in Geography, a town of France,
in tlic department of the Jemappc, with a magnificent
chateau ; 7 miles S. of Oudenarde.

RENCHEN, a town of the duchy of Baden ; 4 miles
N.N.W. of Oberkirch. — Alio, a river of Baden, which
rifes in the Ortuau, and runs into the Rhine, 10 miles N. of
Oberkirch.

RENCOUNTER, formed from the Frdnch, rencontre,
meellng, m the Military Art, tlie encounter of two little
bodies or parties of torces.

In which fenfe, rencounter is ufed in oppofition to a
pitched battle.

Rkncoixtkr, in fingle combats, is ufed by way of con-
tradiilinttion to duel.

When two perfons fall out, and fight on the fpot, with-
out having premeditated tlie combat, it is called a ren-
counter.

RENCOUNTRE, or Rencontre, in Heraldry, is ap-
plied to animals when they fhevv the head in front, with
both eyes, &c. or when the face ftands right forward, as
if they cgme to meet the perfon befcn-e them.

Indeed, in deer, this is called m^T/acrf ; and, in > the leo-
pard, it is the natural fituation. He bears fable, in ren-
countre, a golden fleece.

RENDE, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Citra ; j miles N.N.W. of Cofenza.

RENDER, in I.axv, a term ufed in levying a fine.
A fine with render, is that by which lomething is rendered
back again by the cognizee to the cognizor.

The lawyers alfo fay, there are certain things in a manor,
■which lie in premier, I. e. which may be taken by the lord,
or his officers, when they plcafe, witliout the tenant's leave ;
and others which lie in render, that is, mull: be rendered or
anfu'ered by the tenant, as rents, reliefs, heriots, and other
lervices. See Prexder.

Some fervice confifts in feifaiice, fome in render.

RENDERING, \n Buildwg. See Pargeting.

Rkndeking, in Sea Language, is generally underltood to
'be the effeft of yielding or giving way, without relillance,
to the efforts of fome mechanical power. It is ufually ex-
prefl'ed of a complicated tackle, laniard or lafhing, when
the efteft of the power applied is communicated with facility
to all the parts, without being interrupted in its paflage. It
16 therefore ufed in contradillinClion to jamming. -

RENDEZVOUS, or Rexdkvois, a place appointed
to meet in, at a certain day and hour.

The word is French, and is found fo commodious, that
moll nations ufe it in its purity, for want of a word of
equal import in their refpedtive languages.

Thus, in a military fenfe, the rendezvous is the place ap-
VoL. XXIX.

pointed by the general, where all the troopi that compofe
the army arc to meet at the appointed time, in cafe of an
aiirm ; and the regiments have their particular rendezvous,
called their quarters of aflembly.

In a naval fenfe, it denotes the port or place of deflina-
tion, where the feveral fliips of a fleet, or fquadron, are
appointed to rejoin the whole, in cafe of a feparation, occa-
fioned by tcmpefluous weather, or other unforefcen accident.

Rendezvous Bay, in Geography, a bary on the S. coaft
of Antigua, W. of Falmouth harbour.

Rendezvous, IJland of, an ifland, or rock, in the fouthern
Indian ocean, difcovered in 1773 by M. de Kerguelen, near
the N. coall of Kerguelen's land, and called by captain
Cook " Bligh'3 Night-cap."

Rendezvous Key, a fmall ifland in the bay of Honduras?
near the coall of Mexico. N. lat. 16" 59'. ' W. long. 88°
40'.

RENDS, in a Ship, are the fame as the fcams between
her planks.

RENDSBORG, in Geography, a town of Germany^ in
the duchy of Holflein, feated on a canal which communi-
cates with the Baltic, on the borders of Slefwick, fuppofed
to be one of the llrongell towns in the Danifli dominions,
and generally well garrifoned. Tlie number of inhabitants
is about 3600; 15 miles W. of Kiel. N. lat. 54^ 22'. E.
9° 52'.

RENE', a town of France, in the department of the
Sarthe ; 15 miles N. of Le Mans.

RENEALMIA, in Botany, a new genus of Mr.
Brown's, has lately received that name from him, in jufl
commemoration of Paul Reiiealmus, or Renaulme, a phy-
fician at Blois, who publiflied, in 161 1, a thin quarto vo-
lume at Paris, entitled Speeimen Htjlnriec Platitarum, with
exprefTive, but flift, and not neatly finiflied, engravings in
copper, in which each plant is diflinguifhed by an appro-
priate Greek name, mollly of the author's invention. Mr.
Brown obferves, that this author was the firft who paid at-
tention to the differences in the number, fituation, and pro-
portion of the llamens. Linnasus, in his own copy of the
work, has expreffed a well-founded furprize, at its being
never quoted by the Bauhins. Plumier was the author of
the firfl Renealmia, now funk in the Linnasan Tillandjia.
Linnseus, or his fon, dedicated a monandrous genus, in the
Supplementum Plantarum, to the memory of this meri-
torious botanill ; but it proved not diftincl from a more ge-
nerally-received genus, of the fame date, Alpinia. We wifh
the prefent Renealmia may be found fufficiently different
from Si/'yrinchium, to which its fpecies were originally re-
ferred by its learned author. — Brown Prodr. Nov. HoU.
V. 1. addend. (Sifyrinchium ; ibid. 304.) — Clafs and order,
Monailelphia Triandria. Nat. Ord. Enfatte, Linn. Irideg,
Jufl. Brown.

Efl. Qt. Calyx none. Petals fix, regular ; three inner
ones largtH, contraftcd at the bafe. Style one. Stigmas
three, thread-fnapcd, involute, acute. Capfule inferior,
obovate, of three cells. Seeds angular.

The fpecies are herbaceous, fmooth, inhabitants of woods.
Roots fibrous, fometimes tuberous. Leaves grafiy, lax,
ribbed. Stem roundifh, fometimes divided. Flowers in al-
ternate umbellate bunches, with fliort permanent fheaths.
Corolla regular, white, Ipreading, foon falling off; the
outer petals generally greeuifh at the back ; the inner often
furnifhed with claw^. Filaments either combined below, or
dillindt ; their upper part fpreading. Capfule membranous.
Seeds in two rows, black.

l.R. panieulata. Panicled Renealmia. Brown n. i. — Stem

panicled. Leaves ribbed ; roughifh at the edge. Outer

4 R petals

REN

petals linear-lanceolate ; inner fcarcely twice as large, obo-
vate-oWoiig. Filaments united half way up.— Gathered by
Mr. Bro.vn, ntar Port Jackfoii, New South Wales. Tlic
Icava are all iTo;.T ten to eighteen inches long, and for tlie
moft part rough-edged.

2. R. ■^randiflora. Large-flowered Rencalfnia. Brown,
under the former.— Stem panicled. Leaves ribbed ; roughifli
at the edge. Inner petals four times as large as the outer.
Filaments' united half way up. — Gathered by the Rt. Hon.
fir Jofeph Banks, in New Zeeland. Akin to the former,
but differing in the proportion of its inner petals, which are
four or five times the fize of the outer.

t.'K. puhhella. Elegant Small Rcncahnia. Brown ;i. 2.

Stem nearly fimple. Leaves with fmootli edges. Outer

petals oval-oblong ; inner obovatc, with (hort claws. Fila-
ments diftintt. — Gathered by Mr. Brown near Port Jack-
fon. Tlie haves are only three or four inches long.

RENEGE DK France, in Biography, duchefs of Fr rrara,
born at Blois in 15 lO, was daughter of Lewis XII. and
Anne of Britanny. She was affianced, when very young,
to Charles of Aullria, afterwards emperor, and fome years
after was fought m marriage by Henry VIII. of England,
but neither of thefe matches took place, and Francis I.
gave her to Hercules II. of Efte, duke of Ferrara. This
princefs is celebrated for her talents : file had a great ca-
pacity, and an infatiablc third for knowledge, and her
ftudies were not limited to hillory, the languages, and ma-
thematics, but embraced various other topics, efpecially
aftrology and theology. The religious controverfies of the
time greatly interelted her, and (lie became zealoufly at-
tached to the tenets of the reformers ; her court at Fer-
rara became the refuge of all who were fufpefted of herefy ;
and her condufl gave fo much offence to the court of France,
that Henry II. lent a dodor to the duke with the following
inllruftions : " If the duchefs perfift; in her errors, flie mull
be feparated from all converfation : her children mull be
taken from her, and all her domeflics who are fufpefted of
herefy, and who are to be profecuted ; with regard to the
princefs herfelf, the king refers to the prudence of her huf-
band to proceed agaiait her as he fhall judge proper, avoid-
ing, neverthelefs, what might occafion too much fcandal."
After the death of the duke, in the year 1559, this princefs
returned to France, and refided at her callle of Montargis.
In the religious w-ars the duke of Guife fumnioned her to
deliver up Tome partizans who had taken fhelter with her, (he
replied, " I will never deliver up thofe who look to me for
proteftion ; and if you attack the caftle, I will be the firfl
to appear in the breach, to fee if you will have the audacity
to kill a king's daughter." She was, however, at length
obliged, much againtl her will, to fend away 460 perfons,
to whom file had afforded an afylum. She parted with them
in tears, after providing for the expences of their journey.
At the maffacre of St. Bartholomew fhe was the means of
faving the lives of a gieat number of Proteflants. Her
four childrea were taken fucceffively from her, and brought
into France, to be educated in the principles of the Catho-
lic church. She died at Montargis, in the year 1575.
Moreri.

RENEGADO Reef, in Geography, a rocky flioal in
the bay of Honduras, near the coail of Mexico. N. lat.
i6^ 16'. W. long. 88' 50'.

RENEGATE, Renegado, a perfon who has apofla-
tized, or renounced the Chriftian faith, to embrace fome
other religion, particularly Mahometanifm.

They are the renegadoes who prove tiie moft barbarous
to the Ch.rillians when they fall into their hands. The rene-
gate is thus called, quaji n-r.egat Chri/lum.—Hoyeien men-

REN

tions this in the year 1 192, under the name of renirr, from
the Frencli, renter, to deny again.

RENDLE, in Geography, a river of France, which runs
into the Seine near Rouen.

RENDLING Cukd, in Rural Economy, a term ufed
provincially to fignify the broken curd in cheefe-making.
See Cheksb and Dairying.

RENES, in Anatomy, the Latin name for the kidnies.
See Kidney.

Renes Succenliiriati, the two fmall bodies, of which one
is placed above each kidney. The literal tranflation of the
exprefiion, referve hldnies, fcems to indicate a notion, en-
tirely unwarranted by our knowledge of their organifation
and fundtions, that they might fuppTy the place of the kid-
nies if they failed in their office. Thefe bodies are alfo
called capfulfE renalcs or atrabilariae, and glandulse fupra-
renales. They are defcribed in the article Kidney.

RENESBONA, in Geography, a river of America,
which runs into lake Erie, N. lat. 41° 47'. W. long.

8'" 55'-

RENETTE, in the Manege, is an inflrumcnt of polifhed
fteel, with which they found a prick in a horfe's foot.

RENEWING of Lenjes and Lives. See Reversion,
AxNurry, Political Arithmetic, &c.

RENFORCER, Fr., in Mufc, to reinforce, to pafs
from foft to loud, from loud to very loud, not all at once,
but by degrees, fwelling and augmenting the found, whe-
ther a fingle note fuflained, or a feries of notes, till the
order to rcinfcu-cc the note or padage is fulfilled, and then
return to the common degree of force.

RENFREW, in Geography, a royal borough-town in
the county of Renfrew, Scotland, is fituated near the fouth
bank of the river Clyde, at the diftance of fix miles from
Glafgow, and 49 miles W. by S. from Edinburgh. Though
much inferior in magnitude and population to Paifley, it ii.
the head-town, or capital of the county. This dittinftion
it derives from its fuperior claims to antiquity, and from the
circumflance of its being incorporated ui:der a royai charter,
originally granted by king Robert II., who had a palace in
the immediate vicinity. In virtue of that deed it is governed
by a provoft, two baillies, and fixteen counfellors. Infor-
mer times it fent one reprefentative to the parliament of
Scotland, and is now a contributary royal borough with
Rutherglen in returning a member to the Britifh legiflature.
About 200 years ago the Clyde pafTed clofe to the town,
but the river afterwards deferted its ancient courfe, which
has been converted into a canal communicating with its pre-
fent channel. By this canal veflels of 200 tons burthen are
enabled to reach the town in fpring tides ; but notwith-
flandnig the advantage of that conveyance, the trade of
Renfrew is very inconfiderable ; owing, as Mr. Forfyth
juftly remarks, " to the pernicious effedls of borough poli-
tics, m withdrawing m.en' from induftrious habits and pur-
fuits." A fmall manufa&ure of thre.id, and fome foap and
candle works, on a confined fcale, conftitute the chief fup-
port of the town ; but many of the lower orders are like-
wife employed in weaving for the manufafturers of Paifley
and Glafgow. With refpedl to building?, Renfrevp confifts
chiefly of one principal flreet, about half a mile in length,
with feveral lanes diverging from it. The houfes are
wholly conftrufted of flone, but are extremely irregular as
to fize, form, and pofition. The public buildings are the
church, which is parochial, the town-hall, and a grammar,
fchool. The laft is under the patronage of the town-
council, and is at prefent condufted with much ability.
There is no regular market held here, but provifions of all
kinds may always be obtained at a r.'nfonable price. The

fairs

REN

fairs take place on the third TuefdaT in May and July,
the 29th of September, and the iiril Friday in December.
A general poll-office is eftabliflied at Renfreiv. The reve-
nue of the corporation exceeds 500/. per annum, arifing from
the rents of lands, cultoms, a falmon iilhery on the Clyde,
and the profits of a public ferry over that river. This ferry
is perhaps the objeiit moll worthy of notice of any con-
nefted with the town. There is a ferry-houfc on each fide
of the river, the property of the corporation ; and a ferry-
boat conllrufted in fo convenient a manner, that a carriage,
with a pair of horfes harnelTcd, can be ferried over and de-
livered by one man in five minutes. This is accomplilhed
by fi.xing, on both banks of the river, a rope which runs
upon rollers at each end of the boat, and being pulled by
the boatman puts it in motion. Renfrew, as the fhire town,
is the place where all county meetings are ailcmblcd, and
where the county quarter feflions of the peace are held.

Renfrew parifh extends betwec'n three and four miles in
every direftion. The whole is level, iiiclofed, and in a high
ftate of cultivation. The foil is a rich loam, and the climate
is peculiarly healthy, though fubjed to occafional heavy
rains. The burgh lands confiil of about a hundred acres.
This parifh is interfefted by the great road between Glafgow
and Grjcnock. Ecclefiallically confidered, it is within the
prefbytery of Paifley, and the fynod of Glafgow and Ayr.
According to the parliamentary returns of 181 1, the number
of its houfes is eflimated at 344, and its inhabitants amount
to 2305. Beauties of Scotland, 8vo. vol. iii. Carlide's
Topographical Dictionary of Scotland, 4to. 18 1 3.

RENFREWSHIRE, a county in the fouth-weftern
divifion of the kingdom of Scetland, is bounded on the eall
by Lanarkfliirc, on the weft, north, and north-eall by the
river Clyde, and on the fouth-well by tlie hills of Ayrfhire.
This county is of fmall extent, and of irregular iliape ; and
contains, according to the parliamentary returns of 181 1,
8409 houfes, and a population of 92,596 perfons. In ge-
neral, and efpecially along the northern parts of it, the
iurface of the ground is level ; but there are neverthelefs
feveral ridges of hills within its boundaries, fome of which,
upon the borders of Ayrdiire, are of confiderable elevation.
The hills of Balagich and of Dunware rife to the height of
1000 feet above the level of the fea ; and the ifolated hill,
called the Craig of Neilllon, to 820. This lad is covered
with fine grafs to its very fummit. Thofe adjoining to Ayr-
iliire, however, are bleak and barren, but command very
fine views. On the fouth and weft fides, the fertile vale of
Cunningham, which feems at a diftance to be wholly covered
with wood, ftretches itfelf to the fhore of the Clyde; while
on the north and north-eail are beheld th.e level parts of
Renfrew and the city of Glafgow, with the lofty Ben-
Lomond towering above the clouds, in the back ground.

The rivers and lakes of this county are not of very con-
fiderable confcquence in relation to themfelves, but by the
induftry of the inhabitants on their banks, they have been
rendered of great importance and utility to fociety. Un-
like the romantic waters of Ayrfhire, adorned with wood
and exciting interell by the veltigts of ancient magnificence
which they every where difplay, the llreams of this diftritl
are made fubfcrvient to the purpofes of human indullry.
If they defcend from a height, it is not to add to the charms
of the furrounding fcenery, but to give motion to extenfive
machinery, inclofed within immcnfe piles of building, where
hundreds of mortals toil in the fervice of luxury, or form
the materials which are to furnilh clothing to diftant nations.
Here, if a ftrcam fpreads abroad its waters, it is not to
embelhfh a park, but to afford convenience to a bleach-field,
-or to ferve a rcfervoir for the mills in cafe of drought. In

It E N

proportion as Glafgow is approached, every thing afTumcs
an afpeft of aftivity, of entM-prife, of arts, and of induilry.
The principal llreams are the White-Cast, the Black-Cart,
and tke Grif, which fall into the Clyde below Inchinnan
bridge. The White-Cart, which generally receives, by way
of eminence, the Cart, runs in a diicdion from fouth-ead to
north-welt, nearly parallel with the Clyde. It takes its
rife in the moors of Eall Kilbride, Lanarkfliire, and is par-
ticularly celebrated in ancient record for its fine large pearls.
Thefe, however, have long difappeared ; but the river is
become a fource of more certain aiid beneficial wealth by its
utility to the manufafturing iiiterefts of the couiitv. Above
Paifley, whick ftands upon its banks, it winds its way
through a variety of fmall hill^i capable of cultivation to
their fummits ; fometimes difappcaring altogether, and again
fpreading its waters abroad into the plain. Below the town
it is navigable for fmall vcflels, and is thus beneficial to
commerce and trade by facilitating the conveyance of goods.
The Black-Cart rifes out of Caille-Semp'le loch, in the
parirti of Lochwinnoch. From that beautiful lake it de-
fcends northward, and receives in its courfe the waters of
the Grif. This lafl ftream has its fource in the elevated
territory above Largs, which looks down upon the angle
formed by the frith of Clyde. After its union with the
Black-Cart, thefe conjoined rivers flow into the White-Cart
at Inchinnan bridge. The lakes in the county, befides that
of CalUc-Seraple above mentioned, are Queenfide loch, in
Lochwinnoch parilh, two lochs in Neilllon parifh, and
various other fmaller ones, all of them appropriated to ufeful
purpofes.

The mineralogy of this county, though not fo important
as that of lome others in Scotland, is neverthelefs deferving
of attention. In the pariflies of Eaglefham and Kilbarchaa,
the mineral called the ofmund Hone is frequently found.
This remarkable ftone is of various colours, and when newly
quarried, is fo foft that it may be cut with a chiflel ; but
afterwards becomes much harder. It breaks in all direc-
tions with unequal and harfli furfaces, readily abforbs water,
and if recently heated, the abforption is attended with a
hiffing noife. Acids do not aflFeft it, nor is it rent or melted
by a itrong heat. Hence it is much ufed for paving ovens,
furnaces, &c. When burnt, it aflunres a darkifli colour,
and lofes three ^fr cent, of its weight, but afterwards regains
it by abforption. Some of it is confiderably porous, and
almoft femivitrified, in which cafe, when llruck, it emits a
clear and ftrong found. It is found in large mafles in the
form of rocks, having the intervening fpaces filled with
filiceous or calcareous fpar, and occafionally with zeolite,
fl:eatitcs, and barytes. This laft mentioned fubilance is
touad in abundance at Balagich hill m the parilh of Eagle-
(hara, where are likewife two very noted mineral fprings.
But the chief field of minerals in Renfrewfliire is that in the
vicinity of Paifley, which extends on the one fide into the
parifli of Kilbarchan, and on the other towards Glafgow.
That part of it which is molt fingular is the coal at Quarrel.
town, which is undoubtedly one of the moft extraordinary
mafles of that mineral hitherto dilcovered in the Britifh
dsminions. Its thicknefs, meafured at right angles, is fifty
feet ; and it confifts of five layers or ilrata in contaft with
each other. In confequence of its enormous depth, it is
wrought in different floors, in the mode praftifed in great
open quarries. It is diflScult to form a jufl conception of
the manner in which this fingular mafs of coal lies. In a
field of fifteen acres, it is found to dip in various direftions.
At lealt, conceiving a nearly circular area of thefe contents,
the coal, from the north, the caft, and fouth quarters of
that circl?, dips pretty uniformly towards the centre. This,
4 R 2 however.

RENFREWSHIRE

however, is in fomc incalui-e iiiteriupted by levcial hitches,
at one of which tlic niafs of coal is iuildeiily thrown up
about fifty fft-t, at another above thirty. 'J'liefc liitches
interrupt not only the dircAion, but the degree of tlie dip.
On one fide at" the northern hitch, it is about one foot in
three ; on the other (Ide, only one in fix. Some years ago,
this bed of coal having taken lire, the pillars gave way and
the ground funk, leaving. the furface in a very rugged ilatc.
The difhculties thus produced, however, have been fur-
mounted, and this nuneral treafure reflored to all its utility.
The otlier coal-mines in tlie county of Renfrew, are thofe
of Hawkfhead, Cathcart, and Kilbarchan. The firft has
been wrought above 200 years. In the fame neighbour-
hood, lime is quarried in great quantities, alfo in Cathcart
parifh. Iron-llone accompanies all the coal llrata, but is
more particularly abundant along tlie (hores of tlie Clyde.

On the agricitlture of Renfrcwfhire, it will be unneceffary
to offer many remarks. Almofl every portion of the county
is inclofcd and cultivated, but grafs lands are far more pre-
dominant than arable fields. This ariles from the great
demand whicli exills for the produfts of the dairy, tlie gar-
den, and the fold, in confequenee of the vicinity of trading
and manufafturing towns, and the vail importation of grain
which takes place from other parts of the country, or from
abroad. Here the farmers are more fenlible than to objed
to a free commerce in that article ; becaufe they do not
envy the inhabitants of lefs populous dilbicts, who find no
better employment for their lands than that of fcourging
them by endlefs crops of grain. One would imagine that
the praftice in tliis dillrift alone ought to decide the prin-
ciple of the corn laws. Here, free importation, fo far from
injuring the farmer, augments the value of the foil in every
refpeft, fimply by increafing the ratio of population.

The lands here differ according to their vicinity to the
Clyde, or in the lower part of the county, according to
their proximity to the waters of the Cart. In the parifhes
of Eaft-Wood and the abbey of Paifley, the lands are beau-
tifully interfpcrfed witli fmall rifing hills, although the foil
i« generally of a thin clay. Here the farmers keep one
half of their grour.ds in grafs, which they confider as the
moil important crop. Iii'the upper diflrift of the county,
which comprehends -the parifhes of Mearns, Englefham,
Neililon, Lochwinnoch, Kilbarchan, Erfkine, and Kilmal-
colm, the lands are peculiarly adapted for palhiring fheep,
but none of them are fo flocked, excepting fomc mclofures
about gentlemen's feats, and a few parks in Neilfton parifli.
The parifh of Mearns is perhaps unequalled in Scotland for
numerous fmall hills. The farmers here make large quan-
tities of butter. The cows are fmall, of a brown and white
colour, and arc chiefly of tlie Ayrfhire breed. Twelve of
them afford, during the fummer months, about fixty Eng-
lifh gallons of milk daily. Towards the northern part of the
county, in Kilmalcolm parifh, the enclofures are generally
formed of ilones piled up to the height of four feet. The
rotation of crops is three fucceflive crops of oats, and fix
years of pafturage. Farm fervants are ufually unmarried,
and live in the farmers' houfes. The horfes are of the beft
kind, and draw, in a fingle horfe cart, from 17 cwt. to a
ton. Farm<; throughout the whole couifty are on a fmall
fcale ; few of them exceed feventy acres.

Renfrewfhire contains one borough-town, Renfrew, and
three large manufafturing and commercial towns ; viz.
Paifley, Greenock, and Port-Glafgow, all of which are
noticed under their refpeftive names. Here are llkewife
feveral populous and thriving villages, fuch as Pollock-
(havvs, Bridge of Johnlton, and Lochwinnoch, which arc
chiefly inhabited by weavers, who derive employment from

the manufaftories of Glafgow and Paifley. The principal
manufactured products are thread, filk-gauze, and different
kinds of cotton goods.

Various remains of anti(juily are Hill vifible in this county.
At Paifley was a celebrated abbey for monks of the order
ot Clugni, the ruins of which are much admired. Here in
alio an old chapel, in tlie early pointed Ityle, which is noted
as the burial place of Margery Bruce, and feveral of the
earls of Abercorn. In the parifh of Kilbarchan, near
Caftle-Semple, is one of thofe monflroua maffes of wliin-
ilone, believed to be a druidical altar. It is twelve feet in
height, and fixty-feven feet in circumference ; and is known
by the name of Clochodrigflone, a corruption of the Gaelic,
Cloch-a-Drugh, the Druid's flone. It is compofed of
the fame fort of wliinllone of which the neighbouring hills
are formed, and has probably been hewn from an elevated
rock to the eaflward, on which is a farm-houfe, called alfo
Clochodrig ; but by what mechanifm it was conveyed can-
not, in the preieiit application of the mechanical arts, be
eafily determined. It reils upon a narrow bafe ; but the
lower part of it has been covered with ftones gathered from
tlie land. At fome dillance are feveral large grey floncs,
fuppofed to have '^een jiart of a facred circle lurrounding
the altar. The parifh of Cathcart is noted for being the
fcene of the battle of Langiide, the lall conteftcd by the
unfortunate queen Mary, to regain Iicr authority. The
place where the action was fov.ght is an eminence rifing
rapidly on the north and well fides, and defcending very
gradually on the fouth and well fides. On the fummit is
an elliptical intrenchment, commonly called queen Mary's
camp ; but which is undoubtedly of much higher antiquity,
and probably of Roman origin. On an lull, oppofite to
Langfide, is the old caflle of Cathcart, near which queen
Mary flood during the battle, and witneffed the difcomfi-
ture of her friends, and the annihilation of her hopes. On
the other fide of this range of hills is another ancient
caflle, now in ruins, which belonged to the anceflors of the
great reformer Knox ; and at a fhort dillance from it, on
an elevated rock, may be feen one of thofe green artificial
hills, ufually called moats. It is of a fquare form, the
fides facing the four cardinal points ; the weflward refls on
the precipitous edge of the ileep rock ; and the remaining
fides are defended by a deep trench, cut out of the folid
Hone. Each fide of this mount meafures fixty feet in length
at the bafe, and nineteen at the fummit ; and is twenty-one
feet high. The top appears to have been a hollow fquare,
furrounded by a parapet, with en entrance on the eaflern
fide. No fewer than five other artificial mounts can be feen
from the one defcribed ; alfo a Roman encampment near
Paifley, diflant about five miles. On the top of Barhill
are the remains of a rude encampment, which occupies the
fummit of a precipice, formed of a perpendicular rock of
a bafaltic appearance, which defends it on the north ; and
on the fouth it has a parapet of loofe floncs. The tradi-
tion in the neighbourhood is, that it was an encampment of
the celebrated fir William Wallace. The pinnacle of rock
is Ihewn where they fay Wallace fat while he enticed the
Enghfh forces into a bog at the bottom of the rock, where
they were all deftroyed ; but no hiflorian confirms this
llatement. In an ifland of Caltle-Semple loch is ftill to
be feen the Pail or Peel, an old caflle, to which the lairds of
Semple were accuftomed to retreat in times of unufual dan-
ger. In the lake, canoes hollowed out of fingle trees, like
thofe of the Indians, have been occafionally difcovered.
Lower down the country the ruins of the caflle of Newark
chiefly claim attention. It Hands on the eailern point of the
bay, on which the town and harbour of Port-Glafgow is
I fituatcd.

II E i\

li E N

lituati'd. When entire it confiftcd of a fquare court, with
a tower at one angle, whieli i» by far more ancient than any
other portion of the building, When, or by whom it was
created, is unknown : this calUe was long the property of
the Dennieftouas of that ilk, and aitorvvards came into the
pofleflion of the family of Maxwell. In this county is a
variety of objedts bearing the name of the renowned and
patriotic Wallace, who was a native of the village of El-
derflie, in the neighbourliood of the town of Paifley. See
Wallac li.

The only other objedls of antiquarian intcreft we fliall
mention, are four communion cups. Hill preiervcd in Kil-
malcolm parifli, and which were \ifed by John Knox in ad-
miniltering the facrament of our Lord's fupper. They ap-
pear to have been originally candieiticks ; and it was perhaps
only from the neceflity of the times that they were converted
to this pious purpofe. They are of the pureft lilver ; and,
whether from the allociation of ideas, or their adtual falliion,
have a very antique and venerable appearance. Beauties
of Scotland, vol. iii. 8vo. 1 806.

RENGAH, a town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia ; 30
miles N.N.W. of Umea.

RENGO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Tavall-
land; 8 miles S.S.W. of Tavailhus.

RENI, GuiDO, in Bici^raphy, the principal painter of
the Caracci fchool, was born at Bologna in 1574. At an
early age he became the dilciple of Denis Calvart, a Fle-
ming of great reputation, but afterwards ftudied under the
Caracci, preferring the ilyle ot Ludovico to that of An-
nibal, becaiife there appeared more of grandeur and of
grace in his compofitions than in thole of the others.

When he left the Caracci, he went to Rome ; and with
a mind intent upon forming a Ilyle of art for himfelf, itudied
the works of Raphael, with which he feemed enraptured ;
but the vigour and force with which the recent works of
Caravaggio were conducted attracted him, and for a while
he attempted to follow it. Happily he was diverted from
it by an obfervatiun of Annibal Caracci ; vl-z. that tlie
beft mode of rivalhng the renown of Caravaggio might
perhaps arife from a different mode of art, by contraftmg
his confined and lamp-like efiefls with a broader and more
ample light ; and for liis vulgar forms, and obfcure outline,
fubllituting clearnels in the parts and forms, built upon the
pure models of antiquity. This remark, made in fpleen
by Caracci, operated powerfully on the mind of his fl<il-
ful pupil, and induced him to try its truth. He immedi-
ately devoted himfelf to the iUidy of what was graceful and
agreeable in form, colour, and effeci ; and his fuccels is tef-
tified by numberlefs beautiful productions, of which we
pofTefs many in England ; and France is ftill more rich in
theni.

His compofition is not, however, fo free from affeflation
as the nature of the fubjefts he chofe demanded ; the very
attempt to make them graceful, too frequently militated
againil its objeft, and he lubftituted the grace of the thea-
tre for that oi nature. In his female heads and proportions,
his model was the antique : and the character and features of
the daughter of Niobe is difcernible in moft of them. He
drefled them with becomina elegance, and executed the dif-
ferent parts with great freedom and truth of pencil ; not un-
frequently, however, in a tone of colour too light, or too
leaden for ilefh ; with a greenifli hue, which rather cha-
rafteriies the hand of death, or the coldnefs of marble,
than the glowing warmth of life, and the flexile foflnefs of
I nature.

His difpofition of draperies was elegant ; judicieufly ap-
plied to the filling up of voids in the grouping of limbs,

or figures, and was wrought with the greatelt freedom ;
yet imiflied with alnioll mnuite attention to the foldings.
Thefe he arrangtd in a grand ll)le, but they not Hnfre-
qnently exhibit the lludy which he bellowed upon them ;
and appear to arile rather from the neeeditics of art, than
tlie adtions of the figures. Tlie execution of his piftures
is of the moft free and agree able kind ; manifefting a pcr-
feft underftanding of nature ; the touch being light, full,
and delicate ; and though they are tiniftied very highly, yet
there remains no appearance »f labour. In exprefTion, he
fometimes attained the greateft perfeAion ; as in the head of
our Saviour in tiie Louvre, and of which the prefidcnt
Weft has a very fine duplicate : but, in general, it was ra-
ther the grace and artifice of the theatre which guided
him ; and his ligure^ appear to aft more than to feel. Such
was the refpedt paid to his abilities, that he was crowned
with honour and riches ; but it is lamentable to add, that
one vice, in which he indulged after he had paffed the meri-
dian of life, viz. gaming, robbed him of both, and re-
duced him to poverty and difgrace ; from which he was
not able to free himfelf during the remainder of his life,
which continued till he had attained the age of 67.

In the gallery of the Louvre there are between ^o and
40 of the works of Guido, large and fmall, and in his va-
rious manners ; and as he there comes in immediate competi-
tion with his maftcrs, connoifTeurs have an excellent oppor-
tunity of judging of his comparative merit. We have alfo
a great many of his eafel piftures in England, but they are
fcattered about in various coUedtions.

Rem, in Geegmphy, a town of European Turkey, in
BelTarabia, on the Danube ; 40 miles W. of Ifmail. N.
lat. 45''2y. E. long. 28° 44'.

RENIFORME Folium, in Botany, a kidney-ftiaped
leaf. See Leaf.

RENITENCY, Rexitentia, or Renifus, among Phi-
lofophers, that force in folid bodies, by which they refill
the impulfe of other bodies; or re-adl as much as they are
afted on.

RENKY, in Rural Economy, a term provincially figni-
fying tall or high, v.hen applied to animals, &c.

RENNEBAUK, in Geography, a river of America, in
the province of Maine, which runs into the Atlantic, N.
lat. 43^ 20'. W. long. 70" 27'.

RENNEBO, a town of Norway, in the province of
Drontheim ; 36 miles S. of Drontheim.

RENNEL's SovsD, a bay of the North Pacific ocean,
on the W. coaft of Queen Charlotte's illand. N. lat. 53°
28'. W. long. 133°.

RENNERSDORF, a town of Silefia, in the prmci-
pality of Neiife ; 8 miles E. of Neiffe.

RENNES, a city of France, and chief city of the de-
partment of the Ille and Vilaine ; and, before the revolu-
tion, the fee of a bifhop, and capital of Bretagne ; fituated
on the Vilaine, by which it is divided into two parts. It is
large and populous, containing eight parilh churches, be-
fides the cathedral and feveral convents. The four parts
which it comprehends are denominated the north-eaft, fouth-
eaft, fouth-weft, and north-welt The hrft contains 5950
inhabitants, and its canton 13,147, on a territory of 14277
kiliometres, in 7 communes; the fecond contains 5253 in-
habitants, and its canton i 2,064, °" ^ territory of 97A kilio-
metres, in 4 communes; the third contains 3081 inha-
bitants, and its canton 12,254, on a territory of 142^7 kilio-
metres, in 9 communes ; and the fourth part contains 1 1,620
inhabitants, and its canton 14,332, on a territory of 377:
kiliometres, in 3 communes. N. lat. 48^ 7'. W. long.

^6'.

RENNET,

R K N

HEN

RENNE'l'i !•■. Rural Economy, a term applied to the
coagulum tor making chcefe. It is prepared from the bag,
maw, or llomacli, of the young ealf, by a fort of fait
pickle. It is of valt advantage in the art of cheefe-making
to have good fweet rennet, the particular mode of managing
which may be fecn under the heads Cheese, Daiky, and
Daikying.

The preparation is formed in different modes, in different
cheefe diltrifts, in the different parts of the kingdom ; but
moffly either in the manner of a folution, or that of a dry
ikin. As there is, however, much variation in the quahty
or ftrength of the different (kins, it is probably the belt me-
thod to reduce them into tlie ffate of a folution ; as, by that
means, the neceffary quantity, in every cafe, may be the
bell afcertained.

In fome places, it is found the nioff certain praftice to
prepare the whole of the dried maw Ikins, whicli are re-
quired for a feafon, at one time, by pickling and deeping
them in different feparate quantities of pure fpring water
and fait, in an open veffel, or vediils, mixing the different
iiifufions together, and then paffmg them through a fine
linen heve, afterwards adding rather more ialt to the whole
than can be retained in the ihite of folution, as ffiewn by the
appearance of fome at the bottom of the veliel. The ex-
traneous fcmnmy matter, that comes to the furface, is con-
tinually to be removed as it rifes, and frefh portions of fait
occafionally fupplied, as they may be wanted. In this flate
it is ready for ufe, about four ounces being fufficient for a
large cheefe.

In other parts, the maw llcins are fimply well falted, and
fteeped in fait pickle for fome length of time ; then well
dried, by being ipread out by means of fmall pieces of
fticks ; in which itate they are made ufe of, by cutting
pieces from the lop and bottom parts of them, about the
fize of a half-crown for a middling-fized cheefe, as thofe
parts are in general the ftrongeft.

And the foUewing method of preparing rennet is praclifed
in the northern parts of the ifland, and defcribed as the
moft approved method in the Repoi-t on Agriculture for
Argylefhirc. Take the maw {[an of a calf, which has fed
entirely upon milk : after it is cold, wafh it gently in wa-
ter, fill it nearly with fait, and place it on a layer of fait in
the bottom of an earthen mug. One or two more, with fait
between, and a good deal above them, may be put in the
fame mug, and kept in a cool place, with a flate on the
top, for fix or eight months, or till cheefe-making time
next year. The ll<ins are then taken out, and the brine al-
lowed to drain from them ; after which they are diftended
on fm.all hoops or fplinters put crofs-wife within them, till
they drj-. Put the flvins then in an open veffel, with three
pints of pure fpring water for each (liin. Let them ftand
twenty-four hours ; after which take them out, and infufe
them other twenty-four hours in other water, but not more
than a third of the former quantity. Mix thefe two infu-
fions together, pafs them through a fine linen fieve, and
give them fait till the water is more than faturated, and fome
remain undiffolved at the bottom. Rather lefs than a gill
will ferve for thirty-eight pounds of cheefe. It is re-
marked, that, inftead of two infufions, fome ufe only one,
giving four Engliffi pints to the ikin, and diredt the water
to be firit boiled, and mixed with fait into brine that will
fwim an egg, and then to let the heat go off till it is luke-
warm, before the lliin is put in twenty-four hours to
fteep.

It was formerly the praftice to mix different kinds of
aromatic herbs with the rennet ; but the cullom is much
laid afide at prefent. The manner of doing it is this :

when the maw (Itin is well prepared, two quarts of fof-
pure water fhould be mixed with fait, in which ihould L-
put fweet briar, role-leaves, and flowers, cinnamon, mace
cloves, and, in fliort, almoll every fort of fpice aiid arc
matic that can be procured. Boil tiicm gently till the li-
quor is reduced to three pints, taking care it be not fmoked.
Strain it clear from the fkins, and, when milk-warm, pour
it into the maw ; a lemon may then be fliced into it, and re-
main a day or two, after which it fhould be llrained, and
put in a bottle well corked, and it will keep good for a yeiir
or more. A fmall quantity will turn the milk, and give the
cheefe a pleafing flavour.

RENNO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Corfica ;
3 miles N.E. of Vico.

RENO, a river of Italy, which rifes a little to the N. of
Piltoia, and runs into the Po, 4 miles above Ferrara.

Reno, a department of Italy, fo named from the above-
mentioned river. It confifts of part of the Bolognefe,
and contains 199,300 inhabitants, who elect 15 deputies,
The capital is Bologna.

RENOGRUND, a fmall ifland on the E. fide of the
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 59'. E. long. 23'-' 3'.

RENOVATOR, in Horology, is a watch that has the
property of renewing the power of its main-fpring, or of
winding itfelf up, by periodic jerko that it receives from the
human body in motion. Recordon of Charing- Crofs, Lon
don, took out a patent for this contrivance fome years ago,
which is more ingenious than uleful : for, while it profelles
to keep the watch going, without the ufual winding up, fo
long as the watch is worn in the pocket, it foregoes the
more ufeful property of the fufee, and renders the maintain-
ing power very unequal at different times of the day. And
fhould the watch remain fufpended, or laid down in a (late
of relt, for more than 24 hours, it will ceafe to perform ;
fo that inftead of being a watch that will go without wind-
ing, it requires to be wound many hundred times in the day,
by fmall fucceffive quantities, before it will continue, to
perform throughout the night. We have been favoured
by the inventor with a copy of fo much of the fpecification
as will fuffice to give our readers an idea of the mechanifm,
and of its mode of action ; both which we have examined,
and found corr^fponding with the fpecification. Others have
varied the conflruftion ; but the original, we conceive, will
be deemed fufficient for us to particularize, which we will
do by a reference to Jigs. I, 2, and 3, in Plate XLIII. of
Horology, which are copied from the inventor's drawing.

Exah Copy of the Specijication, N° I " Letter H repre-

fents a weight of filver, or other metal, which is in equi-
librium in the pofition it is viewed, being fullained fo by a
fpiral fpring fixed to its arbor, as defcribed by Jig. 3. In
wearing the watch, or by any external motion that lifts the
watch up, it lofes its ftate of relt ; and by its vis-inertiae
(matter) overcoming the itrength of the fpring, it yields to
the laws of gravity, and falls upon the lower fpring, marked
ee. When the watch, by the motion of the body, defcends,
the fpring ee, and the aforefaid fpiral fpring, are left at li-
berty to exert themfelves, and return the weight upwards,
till it touches the other fpring ee ; and thus, by the motion
of the body, is this weight alternately thrown i>p and down,
which turning the ratchet-wheel, marked C in Jig. 2, which
is fixed on the arbor of the weight juft below the fpiral
fpring, gathers a few teeth every motion in the wheel P,
and being prevented from returning by the chck M, carries
forward the wheel with a pinion of 10, marked E, which
turns the wheel B ; which having a pinion of 12 at G, takes
into and turns a wheel under the barrel A, which is fixed on
the barrel arbor, and by that means is the fpring wound up.
6 The

11 E N

li E N

The upper part of tlic barrel arbor, marked h, has a tootk,
which gains a tooth in the wheel, <7, every revolution ; anJ
that brings the pin c nearer to the centre, which, when it
arrives in a certain pofition, raifcs tlie piece K (fig. i.);
of which the centre, B, (not feen in the figure) is conical,
in order that when the faid pin c comes near it, it raifes it
with eafe, and forces it into the holes, marked N, N, N, in
the weight marked H {fi^. i.)) vvhich effeftually ftops its
motion, and prevents the ill confcquence of over-winding.

L is a cock that carries the pivot of the barrel's axis.

I is a cock that carries the pivot of the wheel H.

A is the barrel which carries a wheel, that catches the
pinion D, which carries the minute-hand."

The patent was obtained in July 1780; and part 2d of
the fpecilication contains drawings, and a plan for applying
the fame principle to the fufee ; but we do not underftand
that it has yet been made to anfvver.

RENRITH, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Henneberg ; 3 miles S. of Schlfrufingen.

RENS, Rense, or Rees, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Rhine and Mofellc ; near vvhich, in the
Rhine, is a remarkable monument of antiquity, called the
" Kijniglluhl," or " Thronus regalis," confiding of a
round vault, built of free-ftone, and reiling upon nine -'.one
pillars, one of which Hands in the middle. This vault is 80
feet in circumference, furnifhed above with feven feats,
agreeable to the number of eleAors at that town. The
alcent to it is by flairs of ftone, confilling of 28 iteps, and
it has two ftrong doors. On this regal chair the eleftors
formerly held previous confultations for fome time, con-
cerning the eleftion of a king and emperor ; and when that
eleftion could not be performed at Francfort, it was done
at this place ; and here were alfo tranfafted the notification
and elevation of the elefted perfonage, and alfo the confulta-
tions of the eleflors concerning the weighty matters of the
empire, as well as a folemn confirmation of their privileges
on the part of the emperors. Hero alfo was eflablifhed, in
the year 1338, the eleftoral league. Maximilian I. is
thought to be the laft emperor who was brojght hither ;
5 miles S. of Coblentz. N. lat. 50^ 18'. E. long.

7° 37'.

RENSEN, a lake of Pruffia, in the palatinate of Culm ;
10 miles N.N.E. of Culm.

RENSSELAER, a county of New York, bounded
N. by Wafhington county, S. by Columbia, E. by part of
the Itates of MafTachufetts and Vermont, and W. by Hud-
fon river. It contains eiglit townfhips, viz. Troy, Green-
bulh, Schodack, Stephentown, Peterfburg, Hofick, Pittf-
town, and Schaftekoke. It contains 36,309 inhabitants.

RENSSELAERVILLE, or Rensselaerwick, a
townfhip of Albany county, New York, bounded S. by
Columbia county, and W. by Hudfon river. In this town-
fhip, oppofite to the city of Albany, is a medicinal fpring,
combining mofl of the valuable properties of the celebrated
waters of Saratoga.

RENT, Reditus, in Laiu, a profit, fuch as a fum of
money, or other confideration, ifTuing yearly out of lands
or tenements, alienated on that condition.

The word rent, or render, reditus, fignifies a compenfa-
tion, or return ; it being ni the nature of an acknowledg-
ment given for the pofTelfion of fome corporeal inlseritance.
Co. Litt. 144.

It is thus called from the corrupt I^atin, reiulita, for red-
.dita, oi redditus ; becaufe, as Fleta tells us, relroit, et quo-
tiannis redit.

The original of rents is to be fought for in the conflitu-
ition of the ancient feuds, which were of a military nature,

and in the hands of military perfons ; liowever, the feuda-
tories, being under frequent incapacities of cultivating and
manuring tlieir own lands, foon found it nccefiary to com-
mit part of them to inferior t<-nants, obliging them to fucli
returns in fcrvicc, corn, cattle, or money, as might enable
the chief feudatories to attend tln-ir military duties without
dilfraftion ; which returns, or reditus, were the original of
rents.

Under the pure feudal fyllem, this reditus, return, or
rent, confifled, in chivalry, principally of military fervices ;
in villcnage, of the mod flavifli offices ; and in focage, it
ufually confilts of money, tliough it may flill confilt offer-
vices, or of any other certain proHt.

Rent is regularly due and payable upon the land from
whence it illues, if no particular place is mentioned in the
refervation (Co. Litt. 201.) ; but, in cafe of the king, the
payment mult be either to his officers at the exchequer, or
to his receiver in the country. (4 Rep. 73.) And ftriftly
tlie rent is demandable, and payable before the time of fun-
fct of the day in winch it is relerved ; though fome have
thought it not abfolutely due till midnight. I Saund. 287.
Prec. Clianc. 555. Salk. 578.

The ufual remedy for non-payment of rent is diflrefs ;
however, by the common law, dillrefl'es were incident to
every rent-fervice, and by particular refervatien to rent-
charges alfc, but not to rent-feck, till the flatute 4 Geo. II.
c. 28. extended the fame remedy to all rents alike. More-
over, by this flatute it is enadted, that every landlord, who
hath, by his leafe, a right of re-entry in cafe of non-pay-
ment of rent, when half a year's rent is due, and no fufHcient
diftrefs is to be had, may ferve a declaration in ejectment on
his tenant, or fix the fame upon fome notorious part of the
premifes, which fhall be valid, without any formal re-entry
or previous demand of rent. And a recovery in fuch ejeft-
m.ent fhall be final and conclufive, both in law and equity,
unlets the rent, and all cofls, be paid or tendered within fix
calendar months afterwards. Other remedies are aftion of
debt, an affife of mort d'ancefler or novel diffeifin, the writ
de confuetudinibus et fervitiis, which compels a fpecific pay-
ment of the rent, the writ of ceflavit, and the w rit of right
fur difclainv?r.

For an account of the rental of England and Wales, fee
Political Economy.

The lawyers ordinarily reckon three forts of rents, vix.
rent-fervice, rent-charge, and rent-fee.

Re^t Service, is where a man holds lands of his lord by
fealty, and certain rent ; or by fealty-fervice, and certain
rent ; or that which a man, making a Icafe of lands to
another for term of years, relerveth to be yearly paid for
them.

Rent-fervice is fo called, becaufe it hath fome corporal
fervice incident to it, as at the leaft fealty, or the feudal
oath of fidelity. (Co. Litt. 142.) For, if a tenant holds
his land by fealty, and los. rent ; or by the fervice of
ploughing the lord's land, and 5^. rent : thefe pecuniary
rents, being connedled with perfonal fervice, are therefore
called rent-fervice. And for thefe, in cafe they be behind,
or in arrear, at the day appointed, the lord may diftrein
of common right, witliout relerviiig any fpecial power of
diflrefs ; provided he hath in liimfelf the reverfion, or
future ellate of the lands and tenements, after the leale or
particular eflace of the IcfTee or grantor is expired. Litt.
5 215.

REV:T-Charge, is where a man makes over his eflate to
another by deed indented, either in fee, or fee-tail, or for
term of life ; yet referves to himfelf, by the fame indenture,
a fum of money yearly to be paid to him, with a claufe of

diltreft

R ]•: N

R K V

diftrefs for nonkpaymeiit : fo called, becaule, in this man-
ner, the land is charj^ed with dlllrefs for thi' payment ot it.
Co. Litt. 143.

Rkst-Scc, or Dry-Ren/, or B.in-en-Rfnl, is that which
a man, making over his citate by a deed ijidentrd, refcrveth
yearly to be paid to him, without any claufe ot diftrefs
mentioned in tlie indc-ntnro. There are alfo oth"r fpccics
of rents, which are reducible to thcfe three.

Resits of A£ir.t, are the certain edablifhed rents of the
freeholders, and ancient copyholders of a manor ; thus
called, becaufe aflized and certain, in oppofition to rcdltus
mobiles.

Thofe of the freeholders arc often called rbief rents,
reditus ciipitaks, and both forts are indifferently denominated
quit rents, becaufe by them the tenant goes quit and free of
all other fervices. When thefe payments were relVr\ ed in fil-
ver or white money, they were anciently called 'white rents,
or blanch-farms, reditus albi ; in contradiflinClion to rents,
referved in work, grain, or baler money, which wore called
reditus nigrti, or black-mail. 2 Inll. 19.

Rent, Fee-farm, is a rent-charge ifluing out of an cllate
in fee ; of at leail one-fourth of the value of the lands at
the time of its refervation. (Co. Litt. 143.) /^i7f^-rent is
only a rent of the full value of the tenement, or near it. For
a grant of lands, referving fo confiderable a rent, is indeed
onlv letting lands to farm in fee-fimple, inllead of the ufual
method for life, or years.

Thefe are the general divifions of rent ; but the difference
betvceen them (in refpedl tn the remedy for recovering
them) is now totally aboliflied ; and all pcrfons may Iiave
the like remedy by dillrefs for rents-fee, rents of aflize, and
chief-rents, as in cafe of rents referved upon leafe. Stat.
4 Geo. II. c. 28.

Rents Refilute, are reckoned among the fee-farm rents
to be fold by the flat. 22 Car. II., being fuch rents or
tenths as were anciently payable to the crown from the
lands of abbeys and other religions houfes ; which lands,
upon the diffolution of abbeys, being demifed to others,
the faid rents were flill referved, and made payable to the
crown.

Rf.nts, nffart, ehautitry, chief, gold, pafchal, rack, quit,
and -white. See the fcveral adjettivcs.

Rent, in ylgrirulture, the price paid for lands as farms
by the tenants of the proprietors. The rents of lands are
fo extremely various, according to the nature of the fod,
fituation, markets, the ftate of the fences, buildings, and
other conveniences, the eafe of obtaining manures, and
many other circumftances, as to be ahnoft incapable of
having any general fpccitic prices affixed to them. Thcv
were formerly, efpeciallv in the northern parts of the ifland,
paid in produce and perfonal fervices ; but at ])relent, ac-
cording to Mr. Donaldlon, over the greatell part of the
ifland, they are paid in money, and at two periods or terms
in the y(?ar. In England, Michaelmas and Lady-day are
the cuftomary terms of payment ; the firll payment com-
mences fix months after entry to the pofleffion of the farm.
But that in Scotland, the ordinary terms are Martinmas and
Whitfuntide, or Whitfuntide and Martinmas, the tenant
being allowed twelve months' credit of the firll half oi the
rent m the one cafe, and in the other eighteen. And he
obferves, that this difference in the terms of the payment of
rents is material in the purchale of landed property, being
in general nearly one year's purchafe in favour of England.
And it is farther ftated, that it was the cuftom of former
limes, in various parts of Great Britain, for the tenants to
pay what was called fore-hand rents, that is, paying the
iialf, and in fome cafes, the whole year's rent immediately

on entering to the farm, and before any benefit was derived
from the poffeflion of it. This pradtice is, however, now
geuerally dilufed, although Itill kept up in fome parts of
S'taffordihiiv and Perthfliire, in fome degree. And we be-
lieve that it ffill prevails in fome places in Ireland. It i.-
likewiie added, that letting lands for a term of years at the
former rent, but making the farmer pay a confiderable fum
in ready money by way of fin», war, alfo a very common
cullom ; but ia now chiefly confined to the crown and
church lands in England. This mode was evidently attended
with bad confequences. By draining the tenant of all, or
greatell part of his ready money, he was prevented from
improving his farm. I^eafes of lands are confidcred in law
as heritable property ; therefore, in the event of the demife
of the tenant, foon after having completed a tranfaclion of
this nature, his eldeft fon fucceeded to the leafe, and the
widow and other children were of courfe, in many inftanceg,
reduced to poverty ; all that was left to them being their
proportion of the flock on this farm, and often thereby the
heir was rendered incapable of keeping poli'efiion of the
farm. In a word, in nine cafes out of ten, it was robbing
the tenant of the well-earned reward of his induflry, during
the exillence of the former leafe, and depriving him of the
means of turning his new acquililioii to the befl account ;
without giving any folid advantage in return for it.

It is remarked alfo, that along tlie greatell part of the
eafl coall of Scotland, which is the principal corn country
in the kingdom, a confiderable proportion of the rent of
almoll every fann is paid in grain and oatmeal. Thefe
articles being lefs flucluating in their value than money,
this appears the mofl equitable mode in which the rents of
corn farms can be paid. It may indeed affecl the farmer's
interefl when any fudden and unexpefted rife takes place in
the price of grain ; but if a judgment can be given from ex-
perience, it will be found this very fcldom happens. On
the contrary, for thefe lall twenty years, with only twu
exceptions, 1783 and 1795, the price of grain, owing to
the operation of the corn laws, has been extremely mode-
rate, while every other produftion of a farm has been
doubled in value, and in many cafes tripled. Since thefe
periods, the price of this article has, however, rifen, and con-
tinued high. The ])ublic are often effcntially benefited by
fo great a proportion of the rents being paid in this way.
Many of the proprietors have granaries eredled on their
cftates, where, in times of plentv, they i^ore the grain and
meal whicli thev receive from their tenants. And every
perfon, who is in any degree acquainted with the agricul-
tural exports and imports which take place between fome
diflricts in Scotland and others, mull, he thinks, know that
the fupphes afforded on many occafions from thefe ilore-
houfes have been the means of preventing fcarcity, and an
unreafonable advance in the price of thefe articles in the
large manufaciuring towns and other populous places. In
Eafl Lothian, according to the agricultural report of that
dillrifl, it has been fuggefled by fome proprietors, that
one half of the rent fhould only be paid in money, the
other in kind ; and affigned as a reafon, that the profit or
lofs arifing from any material, as the rife or fall in the price
of grain, would, in that way, be c-qually divided between
the landlord and tenant. This is a mode probably founded
on equity and jullice. And it is further Hated, by the firft
writer, that in the moll northern parts of Scotland, the
rents are, to a certain extent, paid in perfonal fervices. The
tenants are bound to plough and harrow a certain portion
of the landlord's farm, to reap, carry home, threfh, drefs.
and mill a certain quantity of the crop. They are alfo
bound to pay poultr)-, eggs, butter, checfe, fheep, fwine,

linen

RENT.

linen yarn, fi(h, &c. ; in a word, they are more the (laves of
the landlord than their own mailers.

Thefe are (liameful feudal prafticcs, which tlic proprietors
of fuch lands fhould remove as foon as poffible, a:; without
it their interells mull fuffer greatly from the lands remaining
without improvement. Beiides, it is a fpecics of bondage
highly uifgracefid to civilized fociety. The able author of
the Agricultural Report of the county of Argyle in Scot-
land, thinks that all fervices, whether paid to the mailer or
to any under him, fliould be entirely abolifhcd ; and all
rents formed into one fum of money, including public
burdens, fuch as minilters' llipends, fchoolmallers' falary,
road money, &c. Thus, fays he, the tenant would have
always a clear view of the amount of his rent, and fave time
and trouble, and perhaps expence, by having to fettle with
one only inftcad of many. His time is precious, and fhould
never be thrown away without neceffity.

In regard to the parliamentary and parochial taxes, they
may be faid to be paid, the firft writer fays, by the tenants
over the greated part of botli kingdoms ; and many leafes
contain a claufe, he obferves, binding the tenants to pay,
not only all the taxes that are impofed, but alfo all that
may be impoled. But, he thinks, that it appears abfurd
that the proprietors, whofe interell it is to attend to tiie
increafe or decreafe of all fuch taxes as more immediately
concern their property, (liould devolve the payment of thofe
taxes on their tenants. They mud know, that whoever pays
them in the lirll ixftance, to them the lands are of lefs value,
in confequence of fuch taxes iiavmg been impofed. Tlicy
ought alfo, he thinks, to confider that their influence might
be the means of keepnig the mod extravagant of them, fuch
as the tithes and poors' rates, within more reafonable bounds,
than it is to be expefted the utmoll exertions of the tenants
can be able to effett. And that, further, proprietors could
afcertain the value of their property with more minute
exaftnefs, were they, on the one hand, to receive fi-om
their tenants the full rents which their lands are wortli, and,
on the other, pay all taxes to which they are fubjc&cd.
The interell of agriculture, and the eafe and comfort of the
farmers, would at the fame time, he thinks, be effentially
promoted, were they relieved from thefe teafmg exactions
and compoficions with wlrich they are fo frequently molefted,
particularly in this part of the kingdom.

And he fuggelU, in refpeft to the general price of rent-
ing lands, that when 'it is confidered how many circum-
ilances operate in determining' the rent of land, and how
much thefe frequently vary in the f?.me parifli or lordfliip,
it will be found impolTible to form any correft idea in regard
to the renti payable by the acre for the various kinds of
foil over the whole illand. Any conjedlure that may be
formed (for the fubjeft admits, he fays, no more) muft
be vague and incorreft. It is fuppofed, that the remark-
able change that has taken place in the iituation of the
kingdom and the manners of the people, by the abolition
of the feudal fyllem, the increafe of commerce, manufac-
tures, and agricultural improvements, with the immenie
additional quantity of paper-money introduced within thefe
few years into circulation, have had the ctt'efi oi enhancing
both tlie value and rent of lands. While thefe flourith, and
paper-money fupports its nominal value, lands in property
or leaie mult neceflarily, he tlunks, continue to advance.
But that, fliouId any crols accident interrupt the tormer,
or deprefs the value affixed to the latter, the recent great
advance in the rent of lands, in various parts of the ifland,
would render fuch calamities more univerfal in their eftefts,
and of courfe of more ferious confequence to the country.
The rent of land is kept up by a great varietv of local
Vol. XXIX.

caufes, as the particular nature of tlie farm*, their extent!,
the goodnefs of ilie roads and markets, the convenience of
canals and other forts of water carriage, and many other
circumllances of a fimilar nature. In dairy and grafs dillridts,
as well as fome others, rents arc kept up by the particular
modes of occupation, m many inftanccs. Many little advan-
tages are connefted witli the former; while the latter has
not any heavy expences to contend with. Small farms are
conilantly higher rented than thofe of the larger kind.
Convenient carriage and large markets are always favour-
able to rents. Local convenience has invariably great in-
fluence in raifing the rent of land. In Ihort, it has been
fuggelled by an able writer, that every fort of improvement
in agriculture, as well as manufaflures, has a tendency to
advance the rent of land ; and that, if, to the practical ex-
cellence of the former, improvements in the latter fliould be
added, with a more extended conuncrce, rents may be raifed
to an extraordinary degree. While the contrary of thefe
matters is calculated to reduce the quantity of wealth, and,
of courfe, to lower the rent of land ; confequently rent
rifes and falls with the profperity or dechning ilate of the
agriculture, the manufactures, and the commerce of the
country, the former of which is only to be preferved by
peace.

But though the rents of land have been greatly increafed
within thefe few late years, it is probable that they muft
leel the efleds of the vail load of taxation and other charges
whicii bear fo hard upon agriculture at prefcnt.

But the afcertaining of the rents of lands in the different
dillridts of the kingdom is a point of confiderable import-
ance both in a pohtical and agricultural view, as by fuch
means the produce of them may be better and more certainly
calculated.

Mr. Smith, in his valuable Agricultural Survey of Ar-
gylefliire, flates, tliat the quality of the foil is there ex-
tremely different ; fo that fuch valuations as have been lately
made, differ, fometimes on the fame farm, from 2s. to izs.
the acre of arable ground. The pafture, too, being partly
green hill, but moflly heath, diners no lefs in its quality
tiian the arable land. Some of it is valued below 4^. and
fome above 4J-. the acre. In the neighbourhood of Camp-
belton, a few fpots of arable land let from 2/. to 3/. the
acre. But this price may be faid to be put, not altogether
upon the land, but partly upon the accommodation. B-ut
what proportion the rent of a farm fliould bear to its pro-
duce, depends fo much on foil, climate, fituation, and
other circumftances, that no general rule can, he thinks, be
laid down on the fubjedt. In regard to arable lands more
particularly, it is a common, though perhaps not a juft re-
mark, that one-third of the produce fliould go for rent, one-
third for expence and management, and one-third -for the
farmer's profit, interell, &c.

But Mr. Middieton remarks, that the method pxactifed by
fome gentlemen, of eftimating the produce of land by
trebling the rent, is very fallacious : three times the rent is
not by any means equal to the value of the produce of the
land under the belt fyllem of hultandrv now in ufe ; tliough
under the old exploded courfe of tallow, wheat, oats, in the
fcanty produce of common fields, and when taxes and the
expences of living were at one-half of the prefent amount,
it was not very dillant from the truth. But under the
more improved courfes of hufbandry on land, at and under
twenty fliillings an acre, the produce is now, he thmks, more
generally worth from five to feven times the rent.

In the North Riding of Yorklhire, as Hated in the report of
that dillrict, the average rent of farm? of pretty good fod is
from 15^-. to 21s. fit acre, in winch there may be land rated

4S at

RENT.

at from ^s. to 35^. per acre, fo that the average value of a
farm will vary accordmg to its proportion of good and bad
land. Some farms of the latter kind may be let as low as 5/.
per acre, and fome let cheaper at 30J.; fo great is the inequa-
lity of the foil, that nothing accurate on this head can be
ftatcd. Near large towns, land for convenience in fmall par-
cels, and in the aggregate to no great amount, is let at 3/. or
4/. per acre.

But in the weftern diftrift of that county, as about Skip-
ton and Settle, the lands were found to let as high as 40X. and
50J-. the acre ; while from the beft information in the corn
part of the county at the fame time, 20s. and 30^. were con-
fidered as a liigh rent, and in many places it was ftill much
lower.

In Shropfliire, the rents of lands, where the roads are bad,
and the grounds little improved, are from 8/. to 12s. the fta-
tute acru, and in more favourable dillrifts and fituations, from
Ijj. to 20^. the farm together. But near towns, the price is
much higher, as from 21. to 61. the acre.

And in Norfolk, according to Mr. Young, in the light
fand diftrift, as marked in the Survey, the average price of
letting is 6s, the acre ; the various loams at 1 6s. ; the better
fands at 12s.; the rich loams 26s. and the marfli land clays 28^.
In Suffolk the feveral foils are ftated to be rented as below,
the whole county included, fheep-walk, wafte commons.
See. which are very large deduftions from the rate of the cul-
tivated lands :

Strong, wet loam, per acre ^ - -

Rich loam - - - - -

Sea diilrift of fand . . -

Weftern dillrift of ditto
Fens .....

But in all the diftrifts, with the exception of the fen,
there are trafts that are let at 20s. to 2p. and even higher,
efpecially meadows.

In the county of Eflex, the average rent of good landed
farms may be ilated at about 2cs. or 25X. the acre. They
have lately increafed very much in fome places.

In Suflex, good land is rented at from zo^. to 30^-. the
acre, but there is a great deal let at much lower rents.

s.

d.

13

0

14

0

10

0

?

0

2

6

Land has rifen much of late years in many parts of the
country.

In the county of Oxford, the rent of land is very va-
rious. The red land lets on the average at 30J., the mifcel-
laneous loams at 25/.; the ftone-brafh at 20J.; and the Chil-
tern at i6j. the acre. Tiierc are, however, large portions of
land let at (till lower rents in differeut parts.

In Chefhire, the land averages full 30J. the acre in rent
as farms ; and iu Lancafhire, the rent of land is equally as
high, if not higher.

In tlu; very fouth-weftern diftrift of Cornwall, the rents
of land fluftwate very greatly, as from 5/. to 50X. the acre in
farms properly fo named. The circumltanccs affecling rents
here, befides the quality of the foil, and the afpeft or fitua-
tion, are the vicinity to fea fand, and to market towns.
There are initances of land letting very high in particular
fituations, as at 1 3/. the acre about Penzance. And in the
fame parilhes the rents of land fometimes vary from 8/. to
5^.; nay, even on the fame farm, not exceeding 1^0 acres,
i'ome parts are worth 50J., and others not ^s. the acre.

The neiglibourhood of towns and large markets, as well
as of extenflve manufaftories, has, in all cafes, a tendency
to raife the rent of land, whether as farms or otherwife, in
every part of the kingdom.

In all parts of Scotland, even in the Highlands, the rife
of rents has been gradual and progreffive for many years, and
in fome places they have been more than doubled within
thefe lafl twenty-five or thirty years.

It has been Itated by Mr. Colhngfworth, of Daventry,
in the fourth volume of Communications to the Board of
Agriculture, that in refpeft to the principle of increafing
rents, where liberty is given to break up old grafs or pal-
ture lands that are under leafe, that he has known, within
this five years part, a double rent given for leave to plough
up an old palture for cropping for three years ; and that
confequently it appears to him that a ftatement of the ex-
pences and profits upon arable and pafture lands ihould be
Severally made out, to afcertain by how much the balance
of profit of the one exceeds that of the other. He there-
fore ftates them, upon a probable calculation, in the follow-
ing manner :

Table of Expences,

I.

2.

3-

4-

5-

6.

7-

Pcafe.

Wheat.

Peafe.

Wheat.

Be;ins.

Sp. Wheat.

Total.

Rent and taxes
Seed ....
Ploughing ...
Harrowing ...
Manure and carting
Frightening birds
Weeding .iiid hoeing
Reaping and mowing
Cocking and raking
Carrying and flacking
Thatching . - -
Threfhing and winnowing
Carrying to market -
Contnigencies

£ s. d.
I 15 0

0 18 0
0 12 0

026
000
020
0 I 6
c 6 0
020
040
010
060
040
040

£ s. d.
I 15 0
0 16 0
0 12 0
026
000
020
0 I 6
0 10 6
000
040
0 I 0
090
040
0 40

£ S. d.

1 15 0
0 18 0
0 12 0

0 2 0

2 10 0
020
016
060
020
040
0 I 0
060
040
040

£ s. d.
1 15 0
0 16 0

0 12 0

026
000
020

1 6 0

0 10 0
000
040
010
090
040
040

£ s. d.

1 IJ 0
0 10 0
0 12 0
026

2 10 0
020
036
060
0 I 0
020
010
076
040
040

£ s. d.
I 15 0

0 14 0

1 4 0
026
000
020

0 1 6

0 10 6
000
040
0 I 0
090
040
046

£ s. d.

10 10 0
4 12 0
440
0 14 6
500

0 12 0

Olio

296

050!

1 2 0 j
060
266

^ 4 ° j
140

4 18 0

5 I 6

7 7 6

5 I 6 1 7 0 6

5 II 6

35 0 6

Produce.

R^NT.

Produce.

t. Peafe, three quarters, at 48/. . . . _

2. Lammas wheat, three quarters and a half, at jlx.

3. Peafo, three quarters, at 48X. - - .» .

4. Lammas wheat, tlirce quarters and a half, at 52^.

5. Beans and turnips ; five quarters of beans, at 30X.; turnips, 30,;.

6. Spring wheat, three quarters, at 48^. ...
Straw ---....

£ s.
7 4

9
7
9
9
7
5

Tillacre produce
Ditto expences

54 o o
35 o 6

d.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

54 o

6)18 19 6(= 3/. 3x. %d. profit /^r acre for the fanner.

Grazing Expences.

Rent and taxes per acre
Labour ditto

£ X. d.
I 15 o

o 10 o

Grazing Profit.

A bullock and a half to three acres, at 5/. per head
Three flieep upon ditto, at 2^s. per head

£ /. d.
7 10 o
3 15 o

Grazing produce of three acres
Ditto expences of ditto

1150
6 15 o

3)4 10 o(=: i/. 10/. 0(/. profit ^«<'r acre to the grazier.

Then fay, grazing profit />fr acre ...

To which add for grafs feeds ....
The additional rent to make up the fum zsper contra, will be

£. J. d.

I 10 o

I o Q

o 13 5

3 3 3

By this means the rent that can be afforded to be given
may be afcertained with tolerable correftnefs in many in-
ftances of farming. See Grass Land.

The author of the Argylefhire Agricultural Survey, after
remarking that there is very little arable land in that county
but which is capable of higher cultivation, befides the great
quantity of wafte ground that may be improved in almoft
every farm, fays, that the land is therefore capable of being
made to yield a much higher rent when better cultivated ;
though not a great deal of it, as is generally thought, can
bear much more, in the prefent ftage of improvement, than
what is laid on already, unlefs it be under a different manage-
ment, which in (heep lands might be by the introduction of
better woolled breeds, and in arable lands by adopting a
better fyftem of hufbandry.

It is conceived, that the idea of high rents being a fpur to
improvement and exertion, is a common, and, to a certain
extent, a juft maxim. No doubt there may be fome who,
if they had the land for nothing, would be ruined by their
indolence. But the more common cafe is, that when a
tenant fees that all his exertions will not do, he becomes
difpirited and defperate, and allows himfelf to be carried
along by the ftream which he cannot ftem. The land

fuffers, the tenant fails, the farm gets a bad name, and the
rent muft be iowered. Thus the landlord, as well as the
tenant, fuffers, by raifing the rent higher or fafter than the
improvement of the land will bear. But he adds, that a
fubftantial tenant is generally cautious of engaging to pay
a rent that is exorbitant. He fees the fuccefs of thofe who
inveft their money in other branches of bufinefs ; and he
follows their example, if he has not the profpeft of a farm's
yielding him full intereft for his money, and an adequate re-
turn for his diligence and labour. Whereas he who has leaft
to lofe, is often the mofl forward to offer, and the landlord
is often tempted to accept the offer, without confidering that
a capital is neceffary for paying the rent, and improving the
land. Inftances of ruin to the tenant, and lofs to the land-
lord, from too high rents, are not unfrequent, efpecially on
fome of the fmaller eflates. Mofl of the fanners toil hard,
live poorly ; and for one who has a trifle for his pains, per-
haps two give their pains for nothing. Many who have old
leafes obtained before the late rife in land, and in its produce,
took place, are very well, as are alfo many of thofe who
have fheep flocks ; as their poffeflions are managed with lefs
expence, and the value of fome of them was not well known
till they were tried under the fheep fyilem. But even bad
482 bargain*

REN

bargains aic become good by the Ute rife on every article of
produce ; and mod of thole who have leafes are at prefent
at their eafe.

It is concluded that the occupiers of land, whether in
pafturage or tillage, ougiit certainly to be able, like la-
bourers or tradefmen, to live by their occupation, and^to
fupport their families by their daily care and labour. The
inlerell of money invefted in their ilock, with the proper
allowance for tear, wear, and riik, they fhould be able to
fave as a provifion for their families, and for old age ; as the
money fo invelled v/ould give this return, if laid out on in-
terelt, witliout any trouble whatever. It cannot be confi-
dered as any part of the produce of the ground i and there-
fore no part of it ought, in equity, to enter into the payment
of the rent ; and yet not one ui ten, perhaps, is able to
fave it ; nor do they commonly advert that fo much ought
to be faved in jullice. They are generally fatisfied if they
can keep their ftock undiminilhed ; fo tiiat the bullnels,
in general, returns much lefs to thofe engaged in it than al-
moit any other. A happy predikaion in favour of the
occupation in which they were brought up, is, he thinks,
what induces fo many to follow it. Perhaps it may be alfo
faid, that there is implanted in the human mind, for wife
purpofes, a certain innate dilpofition, or iuftinft, which
leads it to delight in rural occupations.

Thefe remarks (hould be well attended to by the pro-
prietors of farms, as their advantages, as well as that of their
tenants, may be greatly promoted by fuch means.

In regard to the receiving of rents where they are of dif-
ferent kinds, as for cottages, tithes, in the form of compo-
fitions, chief rents, quit rents, and fome other forts, befides
thofe of the farm kind, they require fome attention and
method, fuch as the fixing of diiUnft times in the fame, or
different days, for the reception of each, when on a large
fcale, fo that the exaft times of attendance for each may
be known to thofe who have any thing to fettle. So far as
farm rents are concerned, the fixing of proper periods for
receiving them is of great importance, though the matter
has hitherto been little attended to, there being often no
fixed time known to the holders, until fignitied by the pre-
cept of the receiver. And that is, in many cafes, liable to
alteration." This is very inconvenient to the farmers in many
inftances, as they muil either fell their corn and live-ffock
to s^reat difadvantage, many times, before it was neceflary,
und'have large fums of money lying ufelefsly by them, or
meet the receiver, perhaps, with only part of the rent.
The propriety and neceflity of having certain exa£l times
for receiving rents are therefore evident, and, of courfe,
the moft fuitable times for thefe are to be afcertained, as
whatever enables the holders of land to turn their produce
to the moft advantage, inci eafes the profperity of the farms,
and ultimately benefits the proprietor.

In this country it ii faid, by the author of the work on
Landed Property, farm rents moftly become due at Lady-
day and Michaelmas. But the proper times of paying
them depend on the marketable produce of the land, and
the feafon of the year at which it goes, and can be belt lold
in the markets. The holders of farms Ihould never be
forced to improper regulations in thefe refpetts, or be fuf-
fered to withhold the payment of their rents when they have
obtained the money for their produce.

Upon corn farms, which are numerous in moft parts of
this country, Michaelmas is the moft improper time in the
whole year to call upon tenants for their rents. It is at the
clofe or height of harveft, as the fituation may be, when their
pockets are drained by extra expenfive labour, and when the
£rain cannot be tlurefiied out to replenifti them ; alfo when

11 E IS!

much of the oft-going livc-ftock is not ready for the
market.

In the county of Norfolk the above writer paid great
attention to this matter, and found that there, the latter
end of February, or beginning of the fucceeding month,
was the moll proper feafon for Michaelmas farm rents to be
paid ; and the month of June for tliofe of Lady»day. And,
by correct examinations, thofe moll proper in other places
may be found, keeping the above principles conftantly in
view. Farmers Ihould never be obliged to do any thing im-
proper in the difpofal of their articles at unfuitable feafons
or markets, or to raife money in any improper ways ; nor
be led into fpcculations with money while it lies idly by
tliem.

The bell feafons having been afcertained, the exadt periods
are to be fixed on, from the particular nature of the farms,
the cuftoms of the dillridts in rel'peCt to fairs and the dealers
in different forts of produce, which may generally be readily
managed without much difficulty.

Rent Accounts, fuch as are kept on eftates, whether of
farms, cottages, chief rents, or any other forts of annual
payments, by the managers. They Ihould be clear and
comprehenfive, containing every thing of importance about
them, as their different circumicances may direft.

Thf management of the farms, in rent accounts, whether
yearly or half yearly, muft be the fam.e as in the receiving
rentals, as they appear on the general map ; and as they
naturally lie on the face of the eftate, according to the ideas
of the writer of the work on Landed Property. See Map
of EJlates.

The parilhes, or manors, lying wholly or partially within
the eitate, are to be firft geoc^raphically arranged, and then
the farms on the fame principle Jc they lie within the relpedtive
parilhes. In this way it is conftantly the fame, and has the
advantage of not being I'sble to be difturbed by changes
of any fort, which affords much facility and convenience
in all fuch accounts on many occafioiis.

Rent Charges, the fixed payments to which an eftate or
farm is fubjedt to, fuch as chief rents, quit rents, annuities,
endowments, fchoolmafters' falari'^s, charitabledonations, &c.

Rent Days, the particular days or times when the rents
of eftates or farms become due. They fhould, in all cafes,
be exactly and properly fixed as to feafon and other circum-
rtances. See Rent.

RENT-i?o//, a general ftatement of the grofs annual in-
come of an eftate, or receiverfhip, whether it arifes from
farms, woods, lands, quarries, cottages, or any other fimilar
things ; or from tithes, quit rents, or any other fort of
rents, &c.

In forming rent-rolls, this fort of general view of income
is beft arranged, according to the writer of the work on
Landed Property, in columns, as being the moft plain and
perfpicuous ; and for a fchedule of farms, the followinj^
heads are proper. Firlt, the numerals identifying the feveral
farms in the general map.. Secondly, the names of the
farms. Thirdly, tiie contents or admeafurement of each.
Fourthly, the names of the prefent holders. Fifthly, the
amount of the exilling rents. Sixthly, the amount of the
outgoings, if any payable by the proprietor. And, feventhly,
the expirations of the terms, if any. The farms IhoiJd be
arranged according to their fituations.

In the receiving of rentals, they are the particulars.
Thefe are few where the rents are regularly paid, the farms
under proper management, and the holders pay the taxes
and repairs. But it may be necellary to fee in the receiver,
at one view, the name of the farm, and the name of the ■
holder, as well as the amouat of his half year's rent-

Aad

REN

And where arrears are fuflfercd, and, of courle, accounts
created, more particulars are neceflary, fuch as the name of
the farm and the tenant, his arrear at the lall payment, his
lialf year's rent, and any otlicr charge that may be againft
him, as well as any allowance which is to be made to him,
and the neat fum that is receivable — a blank being left for
the fura received, and another for the arrear left. Thefe
things fliould be done in the manner of the bell accountants,
the arrangements being made in the fame way as the rent-
roll with an alphabetical index.

RENTA, in Gc'of;n!phy, a lake of Albania, near Scutari.
RENTAL, a roll in wiiich the rents of a manor are
written and fet down, and by which the lord's bailiff coUefts
the fame ; it dillingniflies the lands and tenements, and tlie
names of the tenants, the feveral rents arifing, and for what
time, ufually a year. See Re^t-RoH.

RENTER Wakden, an officer in mofl; of the com-
panies of London, whole bufinefs is to receive the rents or
profits belonging to the company.

RENTE REACH, in Geography, a river of Saxony,
which runs into the Elbe near Wittenberg.

RENTERIA, a town of Spain, in Guipufcoa ; three
miles S.E. of St. Sebaftian.

RENTERING, Fine-drawing, in the Mannfaaones,
the fevving of two pieces of cloth, edge to edge, without
doubling them ; fo as that the feani fcarcely appears at all :
hence it is cA\eA jine-dratviiig.

The word is formed from the French, rentralre, which
fignifies the fame thing ; and which Menage, after Salmafius,
derives from the Latin, rdrahere, of re, in, and trahere, by
reafon the feam is drawn out of fight, and covered.

Serges, &c. are to be fewed : cloths fine-drawn. Tlie
author of one of the Let. Edif. et Cur., fpeaking of the
great dexterity of the fine-drawers in the Eaft Indies,
alTures us, that if you tear a piece of fine muflin, and give it
one of them to mend, it fliall be impoflible for you to dif-
cover the place where it is rejoined, even though you had
made a mark to know it by.

The dexterity of our own fine-drawers, though inferior
to that above-mentioned, is neverthelefs fuch, as puts them
in a condition to defraud the king, by fewing a head or flip
of Enghfh cloth on a piece of Dntch, Spanifh, or other
foreign cloth ; or a flip of foreign cloth on a piece of
Englifli, fo as to pafs the whole, as of a piece ; and by that
means avoid the duties, penalties, &c. Ths trick was firft
difcovered in France by M. Savary, author of the Diftion.
de Commerce.

To renter, in Tapejlry, is to work new warp into a piece
of tapeftry damaged, eaten by the rats, &c. and on this
warp to reftore the ancient pattern, or defign. The warp
is to be of woollen, not linen. Among the titles of the
French tapeftry -makers, is included that of renterers.

Fine-drawing is particularly ufed for a rent, or hole, hap-
pening in the drefling or preparing of a piece of cloth, art-
fully fewed up or mended with filk.

All fine-drawings are reputed defefts or blemiflies ; and
ought to be allowed for in the price of the piece. Hence,
M. Savary eftabliflies it as a rule, which is certainly founded
on natural equity, that every manufacturer mark the fine-
drawings of his cloth with a piece of packthread tied to
the lift ; to diredl the draper to the fpot : and that the
draper apprize the taylor, or other perfon to whom he
fells it, of the fame, that he may not come to damage
in the cutting ; there being inftances of drapers condemned
to take back their cloth, when cut to pieces, for omitting
to mention the fine-di'awings, and other flaws.
On this occafion, M. Savary extols the procedure of an

R E N

Enghlh merchant, who, fending a piece of cloth damaged
in one fpot, to his corrofpondent at Paris, put a piece of
gold in the damaged place, to make up the damage. But
as this example is perhaps \.\v: only one of its kind, that
author recommends it to the merchant, or draper, to unfold
all the pieces entirely, as they come to him ; to difcover the
fine-drawings, and other flaws, in order to make the clothier
accountable for them.

RENTE RSHAUSEN, in Geography, a town of the
ducliy of Wnr/.burg ; 7 miles E. of Lauringen.

RENTOWN, a town of Scotland, in Dumbartonftiire,
confiderable for its manufaftures ; 5 miles W. of Dum-
barton.

RENTRE'E, Fr. in Mufc, a return to the fubjeft of a
mufical compofition, after a paufe, or fome excurflon or
deviation from the theme ; or in a fugue, an imitation of
fome particular paftagc or defign.

RENTY, in Geography, a town of France, m the depart-
ment of the ftraits of Calais, on the Aa ; 9 miles S.S.W.
of St. Omer.

RENTZ, a town of the ifland of Rugen ; 11 miles
S.S.W. of Bergen.

RENUENTES, in Anatomy, a pair of mufcles of the
head, thus called as being antagonifts to the annuentes ; and
ferving to throw the head backward, with an air of refufal.

From their fituation they are alfo called reftus capitis,
major et ramor.

RENVERSE', Fr. in Mnfu. With refpea to intervals
inverted, this term is oppoled to direft. (See Direct.)
With refpeft to chords, it is oppofed to fundamental ; which
fee.

Renverse', inverted, in Heraldry, is when any thing
is fet with the head downward, or contrary to its natural
way of ftanding : thus, a chevron renverfe is a chevron
with the point downwards.

The fame term they alfo ufe when a beaft is laid on its
back.

RENVERSED Volte. See Volte.

RENVERSEMENT, Fr. in Mufc, an inverfion in
the order of founds which compofe the chords, and in the
parts which conftitute the harmony : which is done by
fubftituting, by oftaves, treble notes for the bafe, and bafe
notes for the treble. It is certain that every common
chord has a fundamental and natural order pointed out by
the harmonics of a fingle fl;ring, a great bell, or organ pipe.
(See Harmonics, and Resonance.) But the circum-
Itances of the fucceflion, tafte, expreflion, feleftion of notes
for melody, variety, approximation of the harmony, fre-
quently oblige a compofer to change this order, by invert-
ing the chords, and confequently the difpofition of the
parts. As any three things may be arranged in fix different
ways, and four things in twenty-four ways, it feems at firft
as if a common chord was fufceptible of fix changes, and
an accompanied difcord of twenty-four ; as the one is com-
pofed of three founds, and the other of four ; and that
the inverfion only confifts in the tranfpofition of oftaves.
But it muft be remembered, that in harmony a change in the
upper parts is not regarded as an inverfion, provided the
bafe or fundamental found remains the lowelt. Thus, thefe
two orders of founds, C;-^, or Cge, are not regarded as
inverfions of the harmony. And in the chord of the 7th
no change in the upper parts conltitutes an inverfion.

As long as the fundamental found is the loweft part, the
order is direft. But when this order is changed, or the
fundamental found is given by tranfpofition to one of the
upper parts, the harmony is inverted. In whatever part
a difcord is prepared, it mull be refolved by the fsrae part ;

a /h»rp

R E P

a fnarp 7th muft afcend, a flat 7tli mud defccnd ; falfc
relations mud be avoided. This is the key to the chief
inyfteries of compofition. Binding notes in fyncopation in
the treble and bafe nniit: be differently treated : in the 9th
the chord is diredl ; iw the 2d it is inverted, the difcord
being in the bafe.

Upon the organ, and other keyed-inftruments, iiivcrfions
are neceffarily made for the convenience of tlie hand, in
giving different faces to the fame chord. See Face.
RENVERSING. See Reversing*.
RENUKA, or Renuci, in Mythology. See Runeka.
RENUNCIATION, Renunciatio, the ad of re-
nouncing, abdicating, or relinquifhing any right, real or
pretended.

Renunciations are fometimes exprefs, as by contrafts,
&c. ; fometimes tac'tt, as by contrary afts.

To renounce an inheritance, a community, &c. is to
pafs a folemn aft before a notary, or public officer, by
which a perfon declares he will not intermeddle in an inhe-
ritance, or profit in a company ; but furrenders his part,
and quits all pretenfions.

RENVOI, Fr. in Mujic, a reference to a drain, or part
of a ftrain that is to be repeated ; either implied by dots
in the fpaces of the llaff, or by an •^. dotted, which is the
initial oi fegno, Ital. a fign. See Repeat.

RENWEZ, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Ardennes, and chief place of a canton,
in the diflrift of Mezieres ; 7 miles N.W. of Mezieres.
The place contains 1202, and the canton 6061 inhabitants,
on a territory of 140 kiliometres, in 16 communes.

REOLLE, La, a town of France, and principal place
of a diilrift, in the department of the Gironde. N. lat.
44° 35'. E. lonej. 0° 2'.

REORDINATION, Reordinatio, the aa of con-
ferring orders on one already ordained.

The ceremony of ordination imprefles what the divines
call an indelible charadler ; and cannot, therefore, be re-
peated : yet is reordination praftifed in England, with re-
gard to the diffenting minifters, who conform to the church ;
the bifhops pretending that they alone have a right to
confer holy orders, and that every priefl or miniiler, who
does not receive them at their hands, has no lawful or re-
gular vocation.

This has formerly proved a great obftacle to the re-union
of thofe minifters to the church of England ; many of
whom, otherwife difpofed to conform, have fcrupled to
be re -ordained ; infomuch as re-ordination implies their
former vocation to be null ; that they had adminiltered the
facraments without any right thereto ; and that all their
miniflerial afts were invalid.

In the I ith century; the crime of fimony having been
very flagrant, many people fell into the error to believe,
that the fimoniacal bifhops could not ordain validly, and
thofe who had received orders at their hands Ihould be re-
ordained. The people of this opinion made a party of
themfelves, and were diftinguifhed by the title of " Re-
ordinantes."

REORTHE, La, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the Vendee ; 1 3 miles W. of Chataig-
neraye.

REPAIR a Statue, To, or other piece of fculpture, is
to touch up a ftatue, &c. (caft in a mould) with a chiffel,
graver, or other inftrument, to finifh the places which have
not come wrll off.

To Repair a Cajl, figure, or the like, they clear off the
barb, and what is redundant in the joints and projeftures.
See Statue.

16

REP

To Repair a Midal, is to retouch it ; fo as, from rufty
and defaced as it was, to render it clean, neat, and perfeft.
In order to this, they take off the ruft with a graver,
t juch up tlie letters, polifh the ground, and raife and re-
flore the figures which before were fometimes fcarcely feen.
When the figures are eroded or broken, they fit a piece of
cement on the fpot ; and on this cut with a graver fa
dexteroufly, that the figures appear entire, and well kept ;
yet nothing fpoils medals fo much as repairing them. See
Medal.

To Repair a Ship, is to amend any injuries, or fupply
any deficiencies, which a fhip may have received by age,
battle, tempefluous weather, &c. The repair is neceffarily
greater or fmaller in proportion to the lofs or damage the
veffcl has fuflained. Accordingly a fuitable number of the
timbers, beams, or planks, or a fufficient part of either
are removed, and new pieces fixed in tlieir places. The
whole is completed by bnaming, calking, and paying the
body with a new compofition of fluff.

REPAIRERS, artificers who chafe figures and beautify
fword-hilts, &c.

REPAIRING, in Building, &c. See Reparation,
and Restauration.

The repairing of large walls, doors, ceilings, coverings,
&c. belongs to the proprietor or landlord : the tenant is
only charged with fmall repairs, as glafs windows, locks,
&c. by the French called locati-ve repairs.

REPAIRS, in Hunting, are the haunts and places which
the hare runs to.

Repairs of Farm Buildings, in Rural Economy, the ne-
cefiary means of putting and keeping them in proper order.
This properly belongs to different forts of workmen, as
mafons, carpenters, &c. It is a bad praftice to let build-
ings of this nature fall much into decay, as by fuch negleft
a great deal of expence is frequently incurred that might
otherwife have been avoided. See Y AKM-Buildings.

REPANDUM Folium, in Botany, z leaf whofe outline
is undulating, without the furface, or fubftance, being
otherwife than even. See Leaf, where, for nyphaoides, read
riymphieoides.

REPARANDIS Pontibus. See Pontibus.
REPARATION, Reparatio, the aft of repairing, re-
ellablifhing, retrieving, or mending a building, or other
work, damaged, or gone to decay.

The enemy repaired the breach as foon as it was made.
The eftablifhment of turnpikes is for repairing of the roads.
An eccleCaflical patron is by ancient cuftom obliged to re-
pair the choir or chancel of a church, and the parifhioners
the nave.

REPARATIONE Facienda, in Law, is a writ
which lies in divers cafes , e. gr. where there are tenants in
common, or joint tenants of a houfe, &c. which is fallen to
decay, and the one being willing to repair it, the other two
will not ; in this cafe, the party willing fhall have this writ
againfl the other two.

REPARO, in Geography, a fmall ifland near the coaft
of Brafil. S. lat. 29° 23'.

"REPART, in the Manege, is to put ahorfe on, er make
him part a fecond time.

REPARTEE. See Reparty.

REPARTITION, Repahtitio, a dividing or fharing
a thing a fecond time.

REPARTY, or Repartee, a ready, fmart reply:
efpecially in matters of wit, humour, or raillery.

The word in the original French, repartic, has the fame
fignification.

Wicquefort obferves, that there is a great difference

between

REP

between a free, fprightly reparty, and an oKcn^wa farcafm ;
which fw.

REPAST, Repastum, a meal or refedlion, talcen at
a Hated hour.

In old law-books repaft is particularly uRxl for a meal's
meat given to fcrvilc tenants, while at work for their lord.

The French call their meal r^/jiT/?; the Latins, ^a/?;vj ; the
Italians and Spaniards, paflo.

In antiquity the repalts were frequently facrifices ; for
which reafon wo find them often prepared by kings them-
felves.

REPEALING, in Law, the revoking or annulling of
a ftatute, deed, or the like. See Abrogation, Revoca-
tion, &c.

No aft of parliament (hall be repealed in the fame feflion
it was made in. A deed or will may be repealed for a part,
and ftand good for the red.

Brook uies the word repellance in the fame fenfe.
REPEAT, in Mafic, a charafter (hewing that what was
laft played or fung muft be repeated, or gone over again.

The repeat ferves inllead of writing the fame thing twice
over. There are two kinds of repeats ; the great and the
fmall.

The great repeat is only a double bar, dotted on each
fide ; or two parallel lines drawn perpendicular acrofs the
ftaff; with dots on either hand. See its form under Cha-
racters of Mufc.

This mark (hews, that the preceding ftraiu is to be re-
peated ; that is, if it be near the beginning of the piece,
all hitherto fung or played is to be repeated ; or, if towards
the end of a piece, all from fuch another mark.

In gavots, we ufually (ind the repeat at about the third
part of a piece ; in minuets, borees, courants, &c. towards
the end.

Some make this a rule, that if there be dots on each fide
the bar, they direft to a repetition both of the preceding
and the following (train ; if there be only dots on the fide,
then only the drain on that fide is to be repeated.

The y/?!fl// repeat, is where only fome of the laft mcafures
of a ftrain are to be repeated : this is denoted by a charafter
fet over the place where the repetition begins (fee Cha-
racters, in Mufic), and continues to the end of the (train.
When the fong ends with a repetition of the firll (train,
or part of it, inftead of a repeat, they ufe the word ila capo,
i. e. from the beginning.

REPEATING Circle, an inftrument ufcd in Naviga-
tion, Aflronomy, and Surveying. This inftrument derives its
name from the property it has of giving the average of
feveral repeated meafui-es of an angle, made round the whole
circle, fo as to diminifti the errors of divifion and of excen-
tricity ; which is a very ufeful property, where the art of
dividing is not brought to that perfeftion which it is in
England. When the lunar method of determining the
longitude, by the help of improved tables of the moon's
motion, ivas propofed to be put in praftice, M.tyer of-
fered a conllruftion of the circle, which, by repeating the
meafure of a lunar diftance, promifcd to increafe the accuracy
with which fuch diftance could be meafured ; and after
him, Borda went a ftep farther towards the attainment of the
defired objecl, both whnfe contrivances we have defcribed
under our article Circle. Thefe inltruments, like Hadley's
oftants, meafured the angles by refleftion, and were confe-
quently ufed at fea ; but the principle of repetition is not
confined to reflefting inftruments ; and Borda conftrufted,
or contrived the conitruftion of, a repeating circle, which
will meafure either vertical or horizontal angles without re-
fleftion, with a degree of accuracy that has placed it high

REP

in the eftimation of the French, among whom accurate divid-
ing is yet a defideratum. 'This inftrument we have alfo
defcribed, and likewife Troughton's improvement on it, in
the article already referred to.

But the repeating principle was extended by Jofeph de
Mcndoza Rios in the reflefting circle, fo as to meafure both
backwards and forwards, and to give a'ouli/e refults by means
of a moveable or fying circle, which we have likewife
defcribed under the article Circle, together with our ob-
fervations on the peculiarities of its conftruftion. It re-
mains, therefore, that we now defcribe a recent conftruftion
of a reflefting and repeating circle, contrived by profeflbr
Hafsler of Philadelphia, who is a native of Switzerland, and
who has refided feveral months in London, for the purpofe
of collefting fuperior aftronomical and furveying inftruments,
at the expence of the American -government. The objeft
of this ingenious foreigner was to unite the repeating prin-
ciple of Borda, with the firm conftruftion of Troughton's
reflefting circle, fo that his new inftrument might be free
from the objeftions of the repeating circles that preceded
it, arifing from (hallow centre-work, and clamping after the
contafts were made in an obfervation ; and in the conftruftion
he iias adopted, by the aid of Troughton, he has rendered
his inftrument free from thefe objeftions, and given it every
advantage which its original contriver contemplated : we
cannot, however, admit, that in praftice it h fuperior in ac-
curacy, and certainly not in fimplicity, to Troughton's re-
fed'ing circle, which we have before defcribed, as giving the
average of fix readings at two operations, in inverted pofi-
tions, at the different fides of zero on the fixed circle.
The iinion of Borda's and Troughton's conftruftions is thus
effefted by Hafsler ; the circular border of Troughton's in-
ftrument is made moveable round the centre, like his three
armed verniers, and is graduated like his, while a pair of
oppofite verniers move round the fame centre, above the
plane of the moveable or flying circle, having a clamping
apparatus for flow motion at one of the two oppofite verniers,
fo that the pair of verniers may bs made to revolve with or
without the graduated flying circle ; another pair of verniers,
fimilar to the former, and having alfo a clamping apparatus
for flow motion, are made faft to the frame, and have the
extreme ends of their connefting diametrical bar united by
a graduated femicircle, that lies under the flying circle, and is
hid thereby when the graduated face of the circle is uppermoft;
the ufe of this femicircle is, to receive a pair of Aiding pieces
of brafs that aft as ftops to the indices, when they are pro-
perly placed at the rough angle, to the right and left of
zero on the flying circle, by a previous operation ; fo that,
when the bar of the verniers comes in contaft with either of
thefe ftops, it is known, even in the dark, that the place where
a contaft is to be made is nearly afcertained, and the ver-
nier-bar may be made faft, for the (crew of flow motion to be
brought into aftion to complete the contaft. The principle
on which the meafurement is efiFeftcd is this ; the revolving
verniers move forward from zero of the graduated circle,
when the ftops are previoufly fet to the rough angle, till
the index or vernier-bar touches the ftop to the left, when
the graduated face is uppermoft, and is clamped to the fixed
verniers ; the clamping apparatus then fixes the verniers, and
the tangent-fcrew completes the contaft ; the two revolving
verniers might now give the angle, by two readings, but the
repeating principle has not yet been introduced, and confe-
quently no advantage is yet derived from this firlt obferva-
tion, over a common circle with a double vernier ; the
fixed verniers are in the next place undamped, but as they
have no motion, the flying circle and revolving verniers are
brought back to the ris-ht together, acrofs the point zero,

till

REPEATING CIRCLE.

till the vernier -bar touches the fecond flop, and during this
motion, the revolving verniers have moved backwards juft
double tlic rough diftance with the attached circle, that they
did forwards before without it ; confequently the fixed ver-
niers will now read the fame angle at the riglit of zero, that
the revolving verniers did on the left, when the clamping is
again made and the contaft completed ; but Hill this is only
a fecond mode of reading a fingle meafure of the angle,
and nearly all that is yet gained in accuracy, is the exter-
mination of the index error, and that of the dark glafs, if
ufed ; thefe errors having been alternately pofitive and nega-
tive, if any exilted. Thefe two meafures, feparately read,
are equivalent to Borda's crojfcd obfervation, as he calls it,
becaufe the motion of the vernier-bar croffes the point zero
in his fixed circle : here it is prefumed that the two obje£ls,
that include the angle, are equally luminous ; but if not, it
will be neceflary to invert the face of tlie inltrument before
each fecond, fourth, fixth, &c. contaCi, and then the mo-
tions will all be forward, or from right to left, which other-
wife would be alternate : the iecond reading, however, may
be omitted ; the revolving verniers, being unclamped, muft
be moved again to the firll ftop in the original pofition,
where, the contatt benig complete, they will give a double
meafure if examined ; but the readings are yet omitted : the
fixed verniers are now unclamped, the inftrument again
inverted, and the contaft completed, when thefe verniers, if
examined, will alfo give double meafures ; and thus treble
and quadruple meafures mull be had fuccefllvely at both the
revolving and fixed verniers, or even more, if the circle has
not been palled over by each pair of verniers, before the
readings are required to be examined, and then the average
of all the meafures by the fixed verniers, added to an aver-
age of aU the meafures by the revolving verniers, will
afford the means of getting an average of the whole number
of meafures.

FroQi this defcription of Hafsler's mode of applying the
repeating principle, it will be obvious to the reader, that
the diametrical bars of the two pair of verniers muft not be
contiguous to each other, when the glafles called the horizon-
glafs and index-glafs are parallel ; and accordingly we find,
on examining an inftrument of this conftrudlion,that thefe bars
crofs one another at right angles before the operations begin ;
but as there is but one zero in the circle, one pair of the
verniers muft neceflarily begin at 90°, when the other pair
begins at o ; confequently ninety degrees muft be deduAed
from the fum of the meafures of this pair before their aver-
age is taken : otherwife, if neither pair of the verniers begin
at zero, the two numbers from which they refpeftively com-
mence muft both be dedufted before the averages are taken,
in W'hich cafe it will be of no importance at what part of
the flying circle the operations begin. Should the reader
find any difficulty in comprehending this defcription of
Hafsler's repeating circle, without a reference to a drawing,
we recommend that he refer to our account of reflefting cir-
cles, defcribed under the article Circle, where he will find
the account of the two feparate inftruments of which this
forms an union ; and at the fame time will fee how it differs
from Mendoza's, which gives double refults.

By way of illuftrating the ufe of Hafsler's repeating cir-
cle, we will fuppofe that fome known ftar is to the eaft or
weft of the moon, and that the longitude of the place of
obfervation is required from an aftual meafurement of tlie
diftance of the faid ftar from the moon's limb, when com-
pai'ed v.-ith its computed diftance as given for a certain hour
on the fame evening at Greenwich, in the Nautical Almanac :
•we will fuppofe the glufles of the circle adjufted, and the
fmall telefcope fcrewed into its fockct, and fo adjufted both

14

for diftinA vifion, and comparative brightnefs of both objefts,
that the ftar can be brought to touch the moon's limb, and
have a fenfible contaft ; in the firft place, hold the plane of
the circle in fucli an inclined pofition that it may pafs
through both objects, and get the ftar into the field of view,
while the revolving verniers are at zero, and the fixed onefl
clamped at 90° ; in the next place, move the revolving
verniers with an equable motion, and let the eye follow the
ftar, or rather the image of it, till it comes to the edge of the
moon, which it may be made to approach by a proper motion
of the body ; then clamp the index there till the ftop is put
on the femicircle very nearly to touch the edge of the index,
where it muft remain ; the fecond ftop muft alfo be put to
the fame divifion on the femicircle at the other fide ef its
zero, provided this zero be co-incident with the zero of the
circle ; or, which is the fame thing, the diftance between
the ftops muft be fomewhat more than double the angle
to be meafured ; the contaft may now be completed by
the tangent-fcrew ; let the fixed verniers be unclamped, and
the releafed circle and revolving verniers be made to recede to-
gether till the fecond ftop gives them a check, there they mull
be clamped and the circle inverted, when the ftar will again be
feen nearly in contaft, which muft now be made entirely fo
by the fcrew of flow motion ; in the next place the move-
able verniers, being firft unclamped, muft be carried again
to the tirll ftop and clamped, to make the contaft as before,
after the inverCon of th.e circle has again taken place ; and
in this manner the revolving verniers muft be moved to the
firft ftop, and the verniers and circle together to the fe-
cond ftop, before each inverfion and contaft, till five, fix,
fevcn, or more alternate operations have been gone through,
and the whole circle has been travelled over, which may
always be known from the pofition of the ftops. The ex-
aft times muft be noted at the beginning and end of thefe
operations, which by an expert obferver will be gone
through in a few minutes, and the mean time will be
had of the moment correfponding to the mean of the re-
peated obfervations : at thefe times the affiftants muft alfo
take each their two altitudes. Say now that the ftops
were required to be nearly at 40° at each fide of zero of
the femicircle, or that the diftance between them was So°,
^vithin a few minutes over, and that there were nine ob-
fervations thus made with the revolving verniers, and
eight with the fixed ones, which numbers fuppofe the firft
and laft meafures to be taken with the fame pair of verniers,
or with the fame face of the circle uppermoft ; fay alfo,
that the final readings by this pair of verniers were refpec-
tively i*^ 10' 20", and 181° 10' o", or rather 361° 10' 20",
and 541° 10' o", becaufe thefe verniers completed the entire
circle ; then if we diminifh the latter reading by 180°,
its diftance before the other, we fhall have 361 "' 10' o",
and the average of the pair of oppofite verniers will be
361° 10' 10", which quantity divided by 9, the number of
meafures taken by them, will give a quotient of 40° 7' 8".9
for the firft average of the diftance, refulting from the oper-
ation of the revolving verniers alone ; again, let the final
readings of the fixed verniers be refpeftively 50° 57' 20"
and 230° 57' 30" ; but if we increafe the firlt reading by
360°, we fliall have 410° 57' 20", which muft be di-
rainifhed by 90°, becaufe it ftarted from this number, and the
remainder will be the correft reading, namely 320° 57' 20' ;
alfo 230° 57' 3c" increafed by 360^ is 590° 57' 39",
and this number diminiihed firft by 90°, as before, and
tlien by 180°, the diftance by which it precedes its fel-
low-vernier, will be 320'' 57' 30", and coniequently the
average of the two final readings of the fixed verniers will
be 320° 57' 25", which fum divided by S, the number of re-
peated

11 E P

REP

pcated moafures in the inverted pofition, will give a quo-
tient of 40' 7' lo".6 for the diilance averaged by the fixed

, , „. 40° 7' 8".9 + 40° 7' io".6 ^

verniers ; and lallly '- '—^- — = 40^ 7'

9".75, the exaft apparent diftance, which may be converted
into tlic frue diftance by any of the methods ufed for clear-
ing it of tlie joint cffeA of parallax and refrailion. See
Longitude, and Lunak Ohfei-vatlons.

Repeating Mechamfm, in Horology, is a mechanical con-
trivance that, when adted on by a pull or puQi, will make
the ilriking part of a clock or watch repeat the hours
and quarters of cxifting time, fo that a perfon in the dark,
or even in bed, may know Avithin a quarter of an hour
what it is o'clock, as well by night as by day. The iirll
contriver of the repeating mechanifm of a clock was Bar-
low, a London clock-maker, who in the year 1676 pro-
duced to the world liis fpecimen of ingenuity, which alto-
nifhed all the admirers of the mechanical arts, and excited
in others a defire to vary the conllruftion, with a view to
the improvement of the original contrivance ; and the con-
fcquence has been, that Quare, Tompion, and others in
London, as well as after them Julien le Roy, Thiout,
Collier, Lar9ay, Berthoud, &c. on the continent, liave
given fo many different kinds of repetition, for both clocks
and watches, that a particular defcription of each conttruc-
tion would require feveral plates, and a whole volume to
give the details. Under our article Clock we have al-
ready explained at confiderable length the particulars of the
repeating mechanifm of two feveral clocks, as it is conftruftcd
at this time, from which the reader will fee how the ailing
parts may be varied in many ways to anfwer the fame pur-
pofe ; but in moft of the modern contrivances the rach and
tlvifnail conllitute the bafis of the plan, and regulate the
adlionof all the metallic parts employed. For the repeating
mechanifm of a watch, fee our article Watch.

REPELLENT Medicines, are thofe which prevent
fuch an afflux of fluids to any part as would excite tumour
or inflammation, or which tend to diminifh fuch an afflux,
when it is already produced. Medicines of this quality
are principally refrigerants and aftringents, efpecially the
former. The moit effeftual repellent is cold ; and thofe
applications, therefore, which moft efteftually obltruft the
heat, are the moft ef&cacious repellents ; and many of the
drugs, which are applied in combination with cold liquids,
are of little value ; the cold menftruum, that is the water,
being the principal agent in the curative procefs.

REPELLING Power, -uls repelkns, in Ph^us, is a
certain power or faculty refiding in or exerted by the mi-
nute particles of natural bodies, by which, under certain
circumftances, they mutually fly from each other.

Thii power is the reverie of the attradlive power.

Sir Ifaac Newton having ellabliftied the attraftive power
of matter from obfervation and experiment, argues, that,
as in algebra, where pofitive quantities ceafe, there nega-
tive ones commence ; fo in phyfics, where the attractive
force ceafes, there a repelling force muft begin ; and adds,
tliat there is fuch a force, does likewife appear from ob-
fervation.

As the repelling power feems to arife from the fame
principle as the attractive, only exercifed under different
circumftances, it is governed by the fame laws : now the
attraftive, we find, is ftr,onger in fmall bodies than in great
ones, in proportion to the malfes ; therefore the repelling
is fo too. But the rays of light are of all others the moft
minute bodies we know of ; therefore, of all others, their
repelling force muft be the greateft.

Voj.. XXIX.

Sir Ifaac Newton computes, that the attraftive force of
the rays of light is above i ocooooooooooooo times ai
ftrong as the force of gravity on the furface of the earth :
hence arifes that inconceivable velocity with which light
(if it confift of rc:il panicles) muft move, to reach from
the fun to our csrth in fevcn minutes. For the rays
emitted from the body of the fun by the vibrating motion
of its parts are no fooner got without the fphere of attrac
tion of the fun than they come within the aftion of the re-
pelling power.

The clafticity or fpringinefs of bsdies, or that property
by which, after having their figure altered by an external
force, they return to their former figure, follows from the
repelling power. See Repulsion'.

REPENTANCE, in Theology, is a change of fentiment*
followed by a change of conduft : or repentance denotes
fuch a conviftioii of the evil and danger of a fmful courfe, as
is fufficient to produce fhame and furrow in the review of it,
and effeftual lefolutions of amendment. This definition ex-
preft'es the fenfe of the two words iJt^lxjjL'.Xua. and /isWoia,
which are commonly ufed by the evangelical writers to
fignify repentance.

REPENTIGNY, in Geography, a town of Canada, on
the river St. Laurence. N. lat. 45 48'. W. long. 71^ ic'.

REPERCUSSION, in Mechanics. See Reflection.

Repercussion, in Mujic, iteration, a repetition of the
fame note or found.

This often happens in the modulation, where the effential
chords of each mode, or of the harmonical triad, are to be
ftruck oftener than the reft ; and of thefe three chords, the
two extremes, «. e. the final and the predominant one,
(which are properly the repercuffions of each mode) oftener
than the middle one.

REPERNDORF, in Geography, a town of the duchy
of Wurzburg ; 7 miles S.E. of Wurzburg.

REPERTORY, Repertorium, a place in which things
are orderly difpofed, fo as to be eafily found when wanted.

The indices of books are repertories, ftiewing where the
matters fought for are treated of. Common-places are a
kind of repertories, very ufeful to the learned.

Repertorium Anatomicum, denotes a large hall near an
amphitheatre of diffeftions, where flceletons, both human
and brutal, are orderly preferved. Such is the repertory
in the French king's garden at Pari'i.

REPETEND, in Arithmetic, is ufed for that part of an
indetermininate or infinite decimal fraftion, which is continu-
ally repeated ad infinitum.

Thus, in the indeterminate decimal fradlion 317.45 316
316,316, &c. the figures 316 are called the repetend.

Thefe repetends often arife in the reduftion of vulgar frac-
tions to decimals, thus \ = 0.3333, ^^* f ^= 0.142857,
142857, &c. tV = 0.09 09, 09, &c.

Decimals of this kind are called repeating or circulating
decimals, (which fee,) on account of this continual repetition
or circulation of the fame figures. Infinite decimals are of
two kinds, which may be dillinguifhed by the general deno-
minations of certain and uncertain. A general infinite deci-
mal is fuch whofe numerator runs into intinity by a continual
repetition of one or more figures, as 44, &c. 033, &c. Un-
certain decimals are fuch, whofe numerator goes on for ever
without a conftant circulation of figures. The eflential
difference between thefe two kinds is this ; that the certain
infinite decimals have a determinate, finite, and certain value,
in that there is a certain determinate vulgar frad^ion, which
expreffes the true and complete value of that infinite deci-
mal, whereas the uncertain have no fuch finite and aflignable
value : and hence the reafon of the names.

4T

Repetend,

REP

REP

Repetend, Sinj(le, is ihat where only one figure is repeat-
ed, aa in o. 3 3 ^, Sec.

Repetend, Compound, is that where two or more fifrures
are repeated, as in 0.09 09, &c. or in o. 142857 142857,
&c.

Decimals with repetends may always be reduced to vulgar
fraftions ;' for either the repetend begins with the decimal,
or not.

If the repetend begins with the firft place of decimals,
or if the decimal is a pure circulate, make it the numerator
of a vulgar fraftion, and make the denominator conlill of
as many 9's as the repetend has figures ; or if there be
cyphers between the point and repetend, with as many cy-
phers to the right hand of the denominator, then will this
rulgar fraftion be equal to the decimal.

Thus, if the repetend be fingle, as in o. 3 3 3 3, the vul-
gar fradlion equal to it will be = -J- = \. So if the repe-
tend be compound, as in o. 09 09, &c. the equivalent vul-
gar fraftion will = -^ = ^ = ^.

And in hkc manner o. 142857 1428.57, &c. = -tA4^^r

The reafon is obvious from this confideration, that the
decimal o. 3 3 3, &c. is = -rV + -rrn- + -n>'uTs» &c. the
fum of which will be equal to -i?j divided by i — Vo- = -i
= i ; and lo of the rert.

If the repetend does not begin with the firft place of de-
cimals, but at fome place farther on towards the right, or
if it be a mixed circulate, as in the decimal o. 8 3 3 3, &c.
where the repetend does not begin till the fecond place of
decimals, obferve, that o. 8 3 3 5 + &c. = tV + ttu +
-n^ + &C. = -rV + rV X ,\ + A -■ + &C. But ^\
+ .,>r, 4. &c. = f = 4, as before: therefore the pro-

... 24 -t- 1
pofed decimal is = -^- -[- Vr X -i = A + iV =

IS — s

"STT — ly'

Thus alfo if the decimal o. 2 27 27, Sec. were propofed,
we ftiall find it = tV + tV X t'oV + toV' + Sec. And
-nrV + -tV-t.' + Sec. being t|- = -At the decimal will be —

+

= tV +

The reafon

_22J-3 _ ,

of which is obvious from what has been faid.

It may, perhaps, be worth while to obferve, that if tlie
numerator of a vulgar frattion be unity, and the denominator
any prime number, except 2 and 5, the decimal equal to the
propofed fradlion will always be a repetend, beginning at the
firft place of decimals ; and this repetend muft neceflarily be
a fubmultiple, or an aliquot part of a number exprefTed by
as many nines as the repetend has figures ; that is, if the
repetend have fix figures, it will be a fubmultiple of 999999 ;
if four figures, it will be a fubmultiple of 9999, &c. From
whence it follows, that if any prime number be called^, the
feries 9999, &c. produced as far as is neceflary, will always
be divifible by^, and the quotient will be the repetend of the

decimal fraftion = — • For the manaprement of decimals

P
of this kind, fee Malcolm's Arithmetic, book v. chap. 4.

REPETITION, Repetitio, the reiterating of an ac-
tion. See Reiteration.

Habits arc acqiured by the frequent repetition of aftions.

School-philofoplicrs call the repetition of the fame nume-
rical effeft, in another place, the replication of that effe<S.

Repetition. The Freixh make ufe of this word for a
rehearfal, which the Itahans call a pro'va. " Rehearfals
(fays Roufleau) are neceflary for compofitions that are
to be performed in public, in order to prove whether the

feveral parts are correctly copied, and for aftertaiiiing tin-
entrances and tlic exits of the foveral charafters, as well at.
to fee that they fcizc the Ipirit of their parts, and of the
entire drama. Rehearfals are likewife of ufe even to the
compofer himlelt, to enable him to judge of effefts, and tO'
make fuch changes as may feem necetfary."

Repetition, in Muju, denotes a reiteration or playing
over again the fame part of a compofition, whether it be a
whole ftrain, or part of a ftrain, or a double ftrain. The
repetition is denoted by a charafter called a repeat ; which
is varied fo as to exprefs the various circumllances of the
repetition.

Repetition, R'plyy is alfo ufed when, after a little
filence, one part repeats or runs over the fame notes, the
fame intervals, tTle fame motions ; in a word, the fame
fong, which a firft part had already gone over during the
filence of this.

Repetition, Ripiy, is alfo a doubling or trebling, &c.
of ail interval, or reiteration of fome concord or difcord.

Thus, a fifteenth is a repetition ot the otlave, ». e. a double
octave, or feoond oftave.

Repetition of Pajfages. See Rosalia.
Repetition, in Rhetoric, is a figure by which the orator
rchcarfcs the fame words or phrafes over again.

Of this there are two kinds. In the firft, the word is
repeated precifely iu the fame fenfe : as. Oh, Jerufalcm, Je-
rufalem, ivho k'dlejl the prophets, &c. My God, my God, ivhy
hnjl thru forfalen me?

Such repetitions have the fame cfFedt in difcourfe, with
fecond ftrokes of the pencil in painting ; they render the
colours more ttrong and lively.

Sometimes the orator begins again and again with the
fame word, of which we have an inftance in the beginning of
Cicero's firft oration againft Catiline : N'thUne noHurnum pm-
Jidium palatii, nihil urbis I'igilix, nihil timor populi, nihil con-
fenfus bonorum omnium, nihil hie miinitijjimus habendi fcnatus
locus, nihil horum ora •uultufque mo'veruni ? Where the word
tiihd fo often reiterated gives an admirable force and vehe-
mence to the difcourfe. Again, the fame author : Ouem
fenatus damndrit, quern populus R. damnarit, quern omnium ex-
yiimatio damndrit, eum "vcs Jententiis tiejlris abfolvetu '4 Again,
Non feram, non patiar, nonfinam.

The fecond kind of repetition, called TOXoi<r, place, (which
fee,) is a repetition of the fame word in the fame phrafe ;
but in fuch a manner, as that fome new idea or charafter is
added to the word in the fecond, which it had not in the
firft.

As, Cory don is always Cory don : E< illo Cory don Corydon
efl tempore nobis ; by which we fignify, that Corydon is no
ordinary perfon ; and that nothing can diftinguifh him but
the repetition of his own name : as if we fhould fay, he it
Corydon, that is enough. By the fame figure our Saviour
fpeaks, when he fays : Let your language be yea, yea ; and
nay. nay. See Recapitulation.

REPETITUM, or Vetitum Namium, in La-ai. See
Namium.

REPHAM, or Reepham, in Geography, a market-town
and parifh in the hundred of Eynsford, and county of Nors.
folk, England, is fituated at the diftance of 13 miles N.W.
by N. from Norwich, and 112 N.E. by N. from London.
The charter for its market, which is held on Saturday week-
ly, was obtained by fir John de Vaux, iu the fifth year of the
reign of king Edward V. An annual fair, on the 29th of
June, was granted at the fame time. At one period thk
parilb was remarkable for having three churches fituated
within one fepulchral inclofure ; -viz.. Reepham, Whitwefl,
and Hackford ; but only two of thefe are now ft.anding.
5 The

R E P

The church of Rcephani {ervcs alfo for the village of Ker-
dellon, which belongs to the lame lords. In this edifice was
formerly a " famous image of the Virgin Mary," which, hke
the fhriiie of Diana at Ephefus, was produftive of jio fmall
gains to its poifedors ; nnmerous pilgrimages having been
made to it by perfoiis of rank and affluence. Here are
feveral monuments to the memory of diflerent branches of the
Kerdefton family. One of them, placed againil the north
wall of the chancel, bears the figure of a knight templar
in armour, with his hands and legs eroded. It has no in-
fcription, but is traditionally laid to have been raifed in ho-
nour of fir Fulk de Kerdefton, who died in 1270. Blome-
fit'ld'a Hiltory, &c. of Norfolk. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. xi. by John Bntton, F.S.A.

REPIN, a river of Poland, which runs into the Dnieper,
near Kiev.

REPITZ, or RoriT7., a town of Saxony, in the mar-
gravatc of Meiilen ; 2 miles N. of Torgau.

REPLANTING, in Ganlemrg, the aft of planting a
fecond time.

The gardeners ufed to difplant their tulips every year,
and replant them. Lettuces mult be difplanted and re-
planted yearly, to make tliem head and knit. If llraivber-
ries, &c. be not difplanted and replanted once in a few years,
they degenerate.

REPLEADER, Replacitare, in Law, is to plead
over again what was once pleaded before.

If, by the mifcondudl or inadvertence of the pleaders, the
ifi'ue be joined on a fa^l totally immaterial, or infuflicient to
determine the right, fo that the court upon the finding
cannot know for whom judgment ought to be given, the
court will after verdift award a repleader, cjuod partes re-
plachetit ; unlefs it appears from the whole record that
nothing material can poflibly be pleaded in any fhapc what-
foever, and then a repleader would be fruitlefs. (4 Bur.
301, 302.) And whenever a repleader is granted, the plead-
ings muil begin de novo at that ftage of them, whether it be
the plea, replication, or rejonider, Sec. in which there ap-
pears to have been the firii defedl, or deviation, from the
regular courfe. Raym. 453. Salk. 579.

REPLEGIANDO Homine, Jl^nt d^. See Homing.
REPLEGIARE d- Jveriis, a writ brought by one
whofe cattle are difiralned, and put in a pound, by another ;
upon fecurity given the (herift to purlue, or anfwer the aflion
at law againil the diltraincr.

REPLETION, in the Canon La'UJ,ii where the revenue
of a benefice or benefices is fufficient to fill or occupy the
whole right or title of the graduate who holds them.

When there is a repletion, the party can demand no more
by virtue of his degrees. In England, where benefices are
not appropriated to degrees, repletion, Itriftly fpeaking, has
no place.

In France, by the old conflitution, 600 livres, or 45/.
iierlmg per annum, made a repletion, when the benefice was
obtained othcrwife than by a degree ; and 30/. per annum,
when it was obtained by virtue of a degree.

Rr.PLETiON, in Medicine, fometimes fignifies the general
fnlnefs of the habit, which is czMcd pleth^^ra ; and fometimes
tJie temporary overloading of the llomach with food and
drink, wliieh occafions particular attacks of difeafe, fuch as
a fit ot apoplexy, or of the gout, or a diarrhoea.

REPLEVIN, Plevin'A, in Lati', a remedy granted on
a diflrefs ; being a re-deliverance of the goods diilrained to
the firll pofleiTor, on fecurity or pledges given by him to
try the right with the diltrainer, and anfwer him in the
courfe of law.

If a perfon diffrain another's goods or cattle for rent, or

K E 1'

damage feafant, Sic. the owner, upon giving fecurity to tlie
fherifl", that lie will profecutff his action againil the parly
dillraining, and return the goods or cattle again if the fei---
ure Ihall be adjudged good, may have a writ of replevin, or
replegian facias. .See Disi i{i;ss and Replevy, infra.

REPLEVISH, is to let one to mainprife upon furety.
See Maini'UIse.

REPLEVY, Rep/.f.vik, (from the Latin replegiare, to
re-dchver to tiie owner upon pledges of furety,) is the
bringing of a writ of replevin, or replegiari facias, iffiring
out of chancery, by iiim whofe cattle or goods are diltrahied
by another upon any caufe ; having lirll given fecurity to
the fheriff, that, on the delivery of the thing diilrained,
he will profccute the aftion againil the perloa who made
the diflrefs.

In the Itat. 24 Henry VIII. we read of cams reph-
giati, or hmnds replevied, in a cafe between the abbot of
St. Alban's and Geoffery Childwic.

Goods may be replevied two ways ; viz. by writ, wliicli
is that ufcd by the conimoii law ; and ly plaint, whicli
is that by ilatule law, tor the more fpeedy havirg again
the cattle and good-; j and is brought in the flieriiF's
court.

Accordingly, the ilatute of Marlbridge (52 Hen.. III.
cap. 21.) direfts, that (.without fuing a writ out of chan-
cery) the (heriif, immediately upon complaint made to
him, ftall proceed to replevy the goods. And, for the
greater eafe of the parties, it is farther provided by ftatute
I P. & M. cap. 12. that the flieriff (hall make at leaft four
deputies in each county, for the folc purpofe of making
replevins. Upon application, therefore, either to the (herifl,
or one of his faid deputies, fecurity is to be given, in pur-
fuance of the ftatute of Weftm. 2. 13 Edw. I. cap. 2.
I. That the p.irty replevying will purfue his adlion againd
the diftreinor ; for which purpofe he puts m pdegios deprofe-
qucndo, or pledges to profccute : and, 2. That if the right be
determined againft him, he will return the dillrcfs again ; for
which purpofe he is alfo bound to find plegios dc retorna ba-
heiido. Befides thefe pledges, which are merely difcretion-
ary in the fticrifT, the ftatute ii Geo. II. cap. 19. requires
that the officer, granting a replevin on a diflrefs for rent, Ihall
take a bond with two lureties, in a fum of double the value
of tlie goods diftraincd ; which bond (hall be afiigned to the
avowant or perfon making cognizance, on requeft made to
the fheriff; and, if forfeited, may be fued in the name of the
afiignee. The (hcriff, on receiving fuch fecurity, is imme-
diately, by his officers, to caufe the chattels taken in diflrefs
to be reftored into the pofl'eflion of the party diftrained upon ;
unlefs the diftreinor claims a property in the goods fo taken.
If this be the cafe, tlie party replevying muft I'ue out a writ de
proprietale probanda. But, if no claim of property be put in,
or if (upon trial) the flieriff 's iiiqnell determines it againft
the diftreinor, then the fheriff is to replevy the goods, if they
be f.Hind within his county. When the goods are delivered
back to the party replevying, he is then bound to bring the
aclion of replevin, which may be prole .-uted in the county-
court ; but either party may remove it to the fuperior courts,
Blackll. Comm. book iii.

REPLICATION, Repi.icatio, in Logic, the afTuming
or uting the fame term twice in the fame propofition ; other,
wife called rediiplicali^ii.

Some philofophers ufe the phrale r-'plicativ wundl, repli-
cation of the world, for its converfion, or turning round.
The human foul is faid to be in a place repUcatively, repli-
calive, when conceived to be all in the wiiole, and all m
every part of it.

Rfj'Lication, in Law, is an exception of the fecond de.
4 T 2 gree,

U E P

REP

gree, made by the plaintiff to the plea or firlt anfwer of the
detendant.

The replication is particulaily that which the plaintiff
replies to the defendant's anfwer in chancery ; and which
is either general or fpecial. The fpecial is grounded upon
matter arifing out of the defendant's awfvver, &c. The
general is fo called from the general words ufed in it.
See Rkjoinder, and Confess and avoid.

REPLIQUE, Fr. in Mufic. This term, which implies
an oftave, has been, not very happily, rendered into Englifh
by replicate, in the wretched trandation of Ramcau's trea-
tife ; but though it has been generally adopted, it has never
feemed properly naturalized to our language. Sir Francis
Bacon has ufed the word recurrence for tlic fame purpofe,
which is much more congenial with our idiom. There is
neceffarily a repetition of the fame found, or its oftavc, in
every compofitioa of four parts.

REPLOT, in Geography, one of the Quarken itlands, in
the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 6,?^ 15'. E. long. 21" 7'.

REPOLON, in the Manege, is a demivoltc, the croupe
in, doled at five times. The Italians are extremely fond
of this fort of manege. In making a demivoltc, they ride
their liorfes fliort, fo as to embrace or take in lefs ground,
and do not make way enough every time of the demivoltc.

REPOLOVSKOI, in Geography, a town of Ruflia, in
the government of Tobollk, on the Irtifch ; 171 miles N. of
Tobollk.

REPONSE, Fr. in Mufic, the anfwer to a fubjea of
fugue. The anfwer to a fugue, and the time when it is to
be introduced, are difficulties in the art of regular fugue,
concerning which young contrapuntifts are long doubtful.
See Fugue and Counter-subject.

REPORT, the relation made upon oath, by officers or
perfons appointed to vifit, examine, ftate, or eilimate any
thing.

Damages, repairs, &c. are judged from the reports of
experienced perfons. Provifions for perfons wounded are
only granted on the reports of furgeons, &c. : in cafes of
rapes, a report of matrons is to bo had.

Report, in Law, is a public relation, or bringing to me-
mory, of cafes judicially argued, debated, refolved, or ad-
judged, in any of the king's courts of juffice, with the
caufe and reafon of the fame delivered by the judges. They
are hiftories of the fevcral cafes, with a (hort fummary of
the proceedings, which are prefcrved at large in the record,
the arguments on both fides, and the reafous the court
gave for its judgment : taken down in fhort notes by per-
fons prefent at the determination : thefc fcrve as indexes to,
and alfo to explain, the records.

Thefe reports, which in matters of confequence and
nicety the judges direft to be learched, are extant in a
regular feries from the reign of king Edward II. inclufive ;
and from his time to that of Henry VIII. were taken by
the prothonotaries, or chief fcribes of the court, at the ex-
pence of the crown, and publifhed annually ; whence they
are known under the denomination of the " Year-books."
And it is much to be wiihed (fays judge Blackftone) that
this beneficial cuffom had, under proper regulations, been
continued to this day ; for though king James I., at the in-
ftance of lord Bacon, appointed two reporters, with a hand-
fome ftipeod, for this purpofe, yet that wife inllitution was
foon neglefted ; and from the reign of Henry VIII. to the
prefent time, this ta(k has been executed by many private and
contemporary hands ; who fometimes through hafle and inac-
curacy, fometimes through miftake and want of Hcill, have
publifhed very crude and imperfeift (perhaps contradiftory)
accounts of one and the fame determiaation. Some of the

moft Taluable ancient reports are thofe pubhfiied by lord
chief jullicc Coke, which are fo highly cflcemed, that they
are generally cited without the author's name ; and arc
filled XZ.T i^oxm, the reports. The reports of judjre Croke
are alfo cited in a particular manner, by the name of thofe
princes in wliofe reigns the cafes reported in his three
volumes were determined, wz. queen Elizabeth, king .lames,
and Charles I., as well as by the number of each volume,
Blackil. Com. book i. &c.

Wlieii the chancery, or any other court, refers the Hating
of fome cafe, or comparing an account, &c. to a mailer in
chancery, or other referee, his certificate therein is alfo
called a report.

Repohts, in Military Matters, are daily, weekly, and
monthly reports of the llate of the companies or regiments,
relative to their being prefent or abfent, on duty, fick, con-
fined, &c.

General officers report to the commander-in-chief only.
The commander-in-chief's guard reports to himfelf by one
of his aid-de-camps. Reports of cavalry are given in to the
fenior generals of cavalry ; and reports of infantry to the
fenior general officers of infantry. On a march the field officer
of the piquet reports to the general of the day who leads
the column ; and in camp to the next fuperior officer to
himfelf. A provofl martial gives in his return of prifoners,
and reports to the general of the day.

Deputy judge advocates, afting in ditlrifts or garrifons,
&c. fend in the minutes of courts martial, and report to the
judge advocate general, without going through any general
officers. Regimental furgeons report to their commanding
officers, and furgeons in diitrifts, &c. to the medical board.

The life-guards report, through the Gold Stick, to the
king direft, from whom they receive the parole.

The foot-guards- report, through the lield officer of the
day, to the king direft.

All other troops belonging to the Britifh fervice, the
marines excepted, who report to the admiralty, report
through their leveral commanding officers, &c. to the adju-
tant-general and fecretary at war, and to the cgmmander-in-
chief.

h. fpecial report is faid to be made when the name of an
officer is tranfmitted by his commander to the general of a
dillrift, independent of the regular returns ; and fome fpe-
cific initance of mifcondudl is laid before him. It mull be
generally remembered, that every officer, on his arrival from
abroad with a regiment or detachment of troops, muft report
himfelf to the governor or commanding officer of the fea-
port at which he arrives ; and every officer who takes his
patfage for foreign fervice, mufl do the fame previous to
his departure.

I'he fenior officer in each recruiting quarter reports
weekly to the field officer of the diitrift, the number and
ilrength of tiie parties therein. The field officers command-
ing recruiting parties in diltrifts, report to the infpedlor-
general, to whom all returns and reports are to be tranf-
mitted by them, and not direft from the recruiting officers.

The various fubordinate reports are thole of a rear-
guard, of a barrack-guard, of a quarter-guard, of a main-
guard and its dependencies, &c. &c.

In the column of remarks which mult accompany each of
thefe reports, it is neceffary, for the perfon wiio figns, to
fpecify all cafualties and extraordinary occurrences accord-
ing to the particular nature of each report. The different
hours at vhich the grand rounds, vifiting rounds, and
patroles went, mull likewife be put down.

Report, Pinion of. See Pinion.

REPOS, Fr. in Muftc, a repnfe, or paufe. It is the

termi-

Il E P

termination of a phrafe or period. The repofe here meant
refembles a hyatus in veiiification ; it is a cadence more or
lefs pcrfeft as the bafe falls a third, a fifth, or riiee to the
fixth of the key. It is a kind of rolling place, determined
by the fenfe of the palFage, and by feeling. See Cadence
and Cadenza.

REPOSE, in Poetry, &c. Sec Rii>T, Pauw;, &c.

Repose, in Painting, is applied to certain malFes, or large
fyitems of -ifTcmblages of light and fliade ; which, being
well conduiflod, prevent the confiifion of objcdts and
figures ; by engaging and taking up the eye fo as it cannot
attend to the other parts of the painting for fome time ;
and thus leading it to confider the feveral groupes gra-
dually, and, as it were, to proceed from ftage to llage.

Repose, In, in Military Language, is a phrafe that applies
to troops which are allowed to be ilationary for any given
period, during an a£live campaign, either through ficknefs,
or from fome other caufe.

REPOSITION of the Foreji (formed from re, and ponere
to lay again), an att by which certain grounds, before made
purlieu, are, upon a fccond view, laid to the forell again.

Reposition, in Surgery, the reduAion of a bone.

REPOSITORY, Repositouium, a itore-houfe or place
■where things are laid up and kept. In which fenfe we fay,
the repofitory of the royal fociety, the royal repofitory at
Woolwich, containing models of every fort of warlike
ftores, &c. See Museum.

Repository of Farm Manure, in Rural Economy, the
place where it is put or laid up. See Receptacle of
Stall Manure.

REPOSO, in Geography, a fmall ifland near the coaft of
Brafil; S. lat. 19° 36'.

REPPELE, a town of Hinder Pomerania ; 7 miles
W.S.W. of Zachau.

REPPIN, a town of Brandenburg, in the New Mark,
on the Eylang ; fix miles S.S.W. of Droil'en, N. lat.
52° 25'. E. long. 15° 2'.

REPREHENSION, in Rhetoric. See Parrhesia.

REPRESENTATION, Reprtesentatio, in the
Drama, the exhibition of a theatrical piece ; including the
fcenes, machines, recitation, &c.

Sir Richard Steele's principle is, that the defign of a play
is not to be read but reprefented ; fo that it is on the
ftage, not in the prefs, it is to be judged of ; and that the
pit, net the public, are the proper judges.

Representation, in Laiv. See Descent, Right of
Crown, Intestate, Administration, and Parlia-
ment.

Representation, in Infurance, is underftood to mean
a collateral flatement, either by parol or in writmg, of fuch
fafts or circiimftances relating to the propofed adventure,
and not inferted in the policy, as are neceflary for the in-
formation of the infurer, to enable him to form a jull efti-
mate of the riik. Such reprefentations are often the prin-
cipal inducement to the contract, and afford the bell ground
upon which the premium can be calculated. A reprefen-
tation may be nntrue, either wilfully and fraudulently ; or
inadvertently and innocently.

A wilful mifi-eprefentation, or allegatio falft, in any faft or
circumllance material to the ri/h, is a fraud that will always
avoid the contraft. As if an agent, knowing that a (hip
had failed from Jamaica for London on the 24th of Novem-
ber, effeft an infurance on the voyage, and tell tte under-
writer that the fliip failed in December : this is a fraud,
and the policy is void.

And fuch mifreprefentation fo completely vitiates the
policy, that the infurcd cannot recover upon it, even for a

REP

lofs arifing from a caufe unconneftcd with the faA or cir-
cumllance inilrcprcfented. As if the infurcd reprefent that
the fhip or goods infured are neutral property, when in fadl.
they are enemy's property ; he (hall not recover even for a
lofs occafioned by (hipwreck.

So it would be if the broker or agent were to adert that
a fliip or goods were neutral property, without knowing
whether this were true or falfe, and they arr, in faft, enemy's
property ; for, though it may not, perhaps, be equally
criminal Inforo confcuntix for a man to aver that to be true
which he knows nothing of, as to aver that to be true which
he knows to be falfe ; ftill it is unqueftionably a fraud, and
in the cafe of an infurance, equally injurious to the under-
writer ; becaufe he is induced by the deception, however
occafioned, to compute the ri(k upon falfe principles. The
fame reafoning holds even in the cafe where the perfon him-
felf making the rcprefentation believes it to be true.

But if he were only to fay that he believes the (liip to be
neutral property, knowing nothing on the fubjeft, and
having no rcafon to believe the contrary ; there, though
the (hip be not neutral, the reprefentation will not avoid the
policy ; becaufe the under-writer may inform himfelf of the
grounds of this belief, before he enters into the contraft ;
and if lie neglect to do fo, he takes upon himfelf the rifk
of its being unfounded.

For the fame reafon, if the word expeBed be ufed, this
will not amount to a reprefentation : as when a broker in
getting infurances effected on feveral (hips, belonging to the
fame owner, and fpeaking of them all, faid, — ' Which
vcffels are expeBed lo leave the coaft of Africa in November
or December,' when, in faft, they had all failed in the May
preceding: this does not amount to a reprefentation, being
only an expedalion, the ground of which the under-writer
might have enquired into.

There is a material difference between a reprefentation
and a warranty. A warranty, being a condition upon
which the contract is to take eft'ed, is always a part of the
written policy, and muft appear on the face of it : whereas
a reprefentation is only matter of collateral information or
intelligence on the fubjedl of the voyage infured, and makes
no part of the policy. A warranty, being in nature of a
condition precedent, muft be JlrlBly and literally complied
with"; but it is fufficicnt if a reprefentation be true in fub-
fiance. By a warranty, whether material to the ridv or not,
the infured flakes his claim of indemnity upon the precife
truth of it, if it be affirmative, or upon the exaft per-
formance of it, if executory ; but it is fufficient if a repre-
fentation be made without fraud, and be not falfe in any
material point ; or if it hcfubjlantially, though not literally,
fulfilled. A falfe warranty avoids the policy, as being a
breach of a condition upon which the contract is to take
efTcft, and the infurer is not hable for any lofs though it
do not happen in confequence of the breach of the war-
ranty. A falfe reprefentation is no breach of the con-
traiS, but if material, avoids the policy on tlie ground
oi fraud, or at leail becaufe the infurer has been mifled
by it.

It has already been fhewn that a warranty muft appear
upon the face of the pohcy, and make a part of the writ-
ten contrail ; and therefore a written paper, wrapped up
in the policy, or even wafered to it, is only a reprefent-
ation- For the fame reafon, the written inftrudtions for
effedting the policy, unlefs inferted in it, cannot be deemed
a warranty, but only a reprefentation ; for the under-writer,
by not infilling on having thefe inftrudtions inferted in
the policy, (hews that he is content to take them as a re-
prefentation.

But

REPRESENTATION.

but it behov(?s all agfnts and brokers concerned in the be engaged, &c. ought to bo fully diiclofed ; and tlie kecp-

cffeain-"- of policies, to keep correft entries of ihefe in- iiig back of any part of this fadt will be fatal vo the contract,

ftruftiotis, and indeed of all reprefentations made to the In fuch cafe, the conceahneiit fo vitiates the policy that

wnder-writers : for the whole queftion between the infured it will afford the inlured no remedy, even for a loff arifing

and the und6r-vvriters often turns upon thefe inftruftions. from a caufc unconnefted with tiic faft or circumdanc-

Befides, they are anfwerable to the infured for the confc- concealed ; for a concealment is to be confidered, not with
quences of any reprefentation made by them witliout au

thority, as well as for thofe of omitting to make fuch re-
prefentations as they have been inftrufted to make.

By an cxtenfion of equitable rehef in cafes of fraud, it
feems to be now fettled that if a falfe reprefentation be
made to the firft under-writer on the policy, in a material
point, this {hall be confidered as a mifreprefentation made
to every under-writer, fo as to infeft the whole policy,
otherwife it might be a contrivance to deceive many ; for
■when a refpeftable under-writer (lands firft on the policy,

reference to the event but to its efiect, at the time of mak-
ing the contraft. A well-founded fufpicion of concealment
will amount in the courts to proof of fraud. As it is in
foine cafes necelfary to (lalL- to the under-writers the nature
of the fervice in which the ihip is to be employed ; if this
be attended with any extraordinary danger, the concealment
of it will avoid the policy. A material concealment is fatal,
though the faft concealed was not difclofed, becaufe the
broker thought it immaterial. Doubtful rumours refpect-
ing the fafety of a fhip which it is intended to infure

the reft fubfcribc the policy without aflcing a queftion ; and " loft or not loft," ought to be faithfully difclofed to every

if the firft under-writer be impofed upon, the reft are en
trapped by the fame fraud.

But the infurcr muft avail himfelf of this fort of objec-
tion in the firft inftance; for after a vcrdidl has been ob-
tained, the court will not fet it afide upon an affidavit of
the firft under-writer, that a material miiVeprefentation had
been made to him. The defendant, in fuch cafe, knows
what has been rcprefented to himfelf, and might have
known what had been reprcfentcd to the firft under-writer ;
and he (liall not lie by till after a trial, in order to make the
objeftion, if the vcrdift ftiould be againft him.

If the infured ftate his computation as faB, inftead of

under-writer ; and the withholduig of fuch information will
avoid the contract. The obligation of a ftricl obfervance
of good faith is equally binding on both parties in all con-
tradts ; and in that of infurance, the under-writer, as well
as the infured, is bound to difclofe all circumftances within
his knowledge aftetting the rlfk. It, therefore, it (houM
appear, that at the time when he underwrote the policy, he
knew that the fliip was arrived fafe, the contraft will be void
as to him, and an adtion will lie againft him to recover back
the premium.

There are, however, many matters, which are open to
both parties, and upon which they may both exercile their

the information on which he founds his com.putation, and judgments, with regard to which they may be innocently

it prove untrue, it is a mifreprefentation ; and if material,
it will avoid the policy.

A mifreprefentation in a material point equally vitiates
the contradl, whether it be the mifreprefentation of the
infured himfelf or of his agent, and whether it proceed
from fraud, miftake or negligence; for the infurer is
thereby led into an error, and computes the ri(k upon talfe
grounds.

As a reprefentation is only matter of collateral informa-
tion, it is fufficient if it be true in fuhjlance ; and its not

I'llent. The infured need not difclofe what the under-writer
knows, or what he ought to know. The under-writer needs
not be told what leffens the rifle agreed upon, and is under,
ftood to be comprifed within the terms of the polic)^. He
is bound to know every caufe which may occafion natural
perils, as the difficulty of the voyage, the variation of feafons,
the probability of lightning, hurricanes, &c. He is alfo
bound to knew every caufe which may occafion political
perils, from the rupture of ftates, from war, and its various
operations ; and he is bound to know the probability of

being inferted in the policy in the form of a warranty, is fafety from the continuance and return of peace, from the
looked upon as a proof that the infurcr does not require it imbecility of the enemy, the weaknefs of their counfels, or
to be ftriaiy and literally true. Although the voyage be their want of ftrength. There are other circumftances
reprefented as being lefs than the voyage defcribed in the which the under-writer ought to know ; and, particularly,
policy, yet, if there be no fraud, and the voyage aftually it is not neceftary to communicate to him, that the iliip is
^ , . .1 foreign built, though this enabled her to fail without con-

performed be within the policy, it will be protected by the
policy. Even if a reprefentation as to the courfe of the
voyage be literally untrue, yet if it be made in conformity
to an ettablilhed ufage of trade, and no perfon be deceived
by it, and the voyage meant to be performed be within the
policy, it will not avoid the contratt.

Every reprefentation refpefting the ftate of the fhip, and
the time of her failing, is material ; and therefore if it be
ftated that a fhip was ready to fail on a certain day, when,
in faft, (he had failed the d'ay before, this is both a mifrepre-
fentation and a concealment, and will avoid the poHcy.

Concealment, or " fuppreffio veri," is nearly allied to
mifreprefentation, or " allegatio falfi," and confifts in the
fraudulent fuppreffion of any faft or circumftance material
to the rilk ; and this, bke every other fraud, avoids the con-
tTuQ. ab inilio, upon principles of natural juftice. But it is
not merely on the ground of fraud that a concealment avoids
the contraift ; for even a concealment which is only the effedl
of accident, negligence, inadvertence, or miftake, will be
equally fatal to the contrafl, as if it were intentional and
fraudulent. Whatever refpefts the ftate of the ftiip, the
time of her failing, the nature o£ the employ in which ftie is to

voy, and without a licence to do fo, being within the ex-
ception in the ftat. 38 Geo. III. c. 76. ^ 6 ; it being the
bufinefs of the under-writer to obtain this information for
himfelf. In cafes of concealment, the queftion muft always
be, whether there was, under all the circumftances, at the
time when the policy was underwritten, a full and fair ftate-
ment, or a concealment : fraudulent, if defigned ; or, though
not defigned, varying materially the object of the policy,
and changing the rifk underftood to be run ; and in both
cafes avoiding the contract. It is not neceffary that there
fhould be any previous reprefentation as to the itate of the
fhip, that being covered by the implied warranty that fhe is
fea-worthy. For a variety of other particular fafts and
documents, relating to the fubjefls of reprefentation and
concealment, we refer to Marfhall's Treatife on the Law of
Infurance, vol. i. b. i. ch. 9 and 10. See Warranty.

REPRESENTATIVE, one that perfonatea, or fup-
plies the place of another ; and is invelted with his right
and authority.

The \y.ord reprefentative is equivalent to procurator or
proxy.

The

R K r

The commons are the people's reprefeiU.itives in parlia-
ment; which fee.

There is this defcft in the conditution of our parhamcnt ;
that whereas all Eiigliflimen who have coiifiJerable ellates
ought not to be taxed without their own confeut in par-
liamei.!:, by themfclvf-s, or their rep;rtfentalives ; copy-
holders, of whom foine have a thoufaiid pounds a-year, have
no voice in the eleiition of knights of the (liire. Sec Par-

r.IAMENT.

Repkeslntativi; CharaSer, in Folilical Economy, thus
denominated by way of excellence, or in contradiltindtiun
to other kiiids of reprefentatioii, conditutes the anibailador,
or ininiflcr of the full rank, who reprefents his mailer in
his very perfon and dignity. It places him above all other
miniilers, who are not invefted with the fame chara£ter, and
prcc'udes their entering into competition with the ambada-
dur. (Sec EMBASSAnoii.) Envoys are minifters of tlie fe-
coud rank, and are not invelted with the reprcfentative
character, properly fo called, or in the firll degree. See
Envoy.

RkpreskntatiVE Poiucr, in Metnphyjtcs, a term intro-
duced by Leibnitz, to fignify that power of the human foul,
by which it reprefents to itfelf t!ie univerfe, according to
the fttuation of the body in the univerfe.

Woifius calls this power "vis reprefentaliva, to denote its
beiniT an aftive power, or rather a force actually exerting
itfelf. For he exprefsly fays, quod vis conjijhit in conlinuo
ngcndi conaln. And he thinks that from this principle of a
"vis repreffiilaliva, every phenomenon of the human mind
may be accounted for. See his Pfycholog. Ration, art. 529.
But it may be prefumed, that many will find this princi-
ple too obfcure'to be admitted.

When it is faid, that our ideas are reprefentative of things
without us, or of the univerfe ; it may be afked in what
fcnfe this is to be underftood ? Do they reprcfent it, i. As
a picture does its original ? Or, 2. As an effeft of a caufe ?
Or, 3. As a fign reprefents the thing fignitied ? Tlie firft
opinion is explodi'd in part by Locke and the Cartelians,
and totally by Dr. Berkeley, late bifhop of Cloyne. The
fecond is admiued by Hobbcs, but den.iei.by Leibnitz him-
felf and the idcalills. The third (hould feem to be the
opinion of Leibnitz, but he is not fufSciently explicit.

Dr. Berkeley admits ideas to be figns ; but according to
him they are arbitrary figns, depending on the immediate
will of the Deity : hence the vifual language ; and ideas
only fignify or fuggell each other, and fpirits ; but not
bodies, the exiftence of which is totally unknown.

REPRIEVE, or Reprive, from reprendre, to tahc hack,
in l.aiu, a fufpending or deferring the execution of the law
upon the prifoner for the prefent time.

A reprieve is properly a warrant from the king, for fuf-
pend.-ng the execution of a perfon condemned.

This may be, fird, ex arbitrio judicis, either before or after
judgment ; as, where the judge is not fatistied with the ver-
dift, or the evidence is fufpicious, or the indiftment infuf-
ficient, or he is doubtful, whether the offence be within
clergy ; or fometimes, if it be a fmall felony, or any favour-
able circumdances appear in the criminal's charafter, in order
to give room to apply to the crown for either an ablolute
©r conditional pardon. Thefe arbitrary reprieves may be
granted or taken off by the judices of gaol-delivery, al-
though their fedion be finldied, and their commidion ex-
pired ; but this rather by common ufage than by drift right.
(2 Hal. P. C. 412.) Reprieves may alfo be ex necefjitate
icgis, as where a woman is capitally convifted, and pleads
htr pregnancy ; which is referred to a j«>jr o/'OTa/renj'. An-
othtr caufe of regular reprieve is, if the offender become

REP

non cornpos between the judgment and the award of execU-
tion. See Lunatic.

REPRIMAND, a diarp authoritative reproof. Such a
perfon was reprimanded in court by tlie bench, &c.

Rei'IUMAnd, a military pnnidiment at the head of a
regiment, is fometimes ordered by a court-martial, and
iometimes only m the prefeiice of the officers of the corps :
it IS generally given by one of tlie field-officers, and ufually

in fnch terms as thefe : " Cantain. or !;,>■, to,,, r.t A n

have been tried for —

Captain, or lieutenant A. B., you
-, and are, bv tlie fentence of a ge-
neral court-martial, found guilty thereof, and fentenced to
be reprimanded at the head of tiie regiment : the difagree-
able talk of doing it is adigned to me : I therefore do hereby
reprimand you, and hope, that it may prevent your falling
again into the like error." Non-commiffion officers are
iometimes, though not frequently, ordered to be repri-
manded.

REPRISALS, or Repkizai.s, Reprlfdia, in the Civil
Laiu, a right which princes have to retake from their ene-
mies fuch things as they unjudly detain from them ; or other
things equivalent to them.

The word is formed from the Italian rrprefngUa, which
fignifies the fame thing.

When a place is taken or held from a prince, he feizes
another by way of repnfal. Sometimes he takes men of the
oppofite party, by right of reprifals.

The Romans called this f/a/7^(7<;'(3 ; and the Greeks had
fomething like it under the name of androltpjia.

Reprifals are ufed between nation and nation, to do juf-
tice to themfelves, when they cannot otherwife obtain it.
If a nation has taken poffeffion of what belongs to another ;
if it refufes to pay a debt, to repair an injury, or to make a
juft fatisfaftion ; the other may feize what belongs to it,
and apply it to its own advantage, till it has obtained what
is due for intereft and damage, or keep it as a pledge till
full fatisfadion has been made. Tlie law of nations per-
mits reprifals only upon a caufe that is evidently jud, as for
a debt that is extremely clear. For he who forms a doubt-
ful pretenfion, can at fird demand only an equitable examin-
ation of his right. In the fecond place, he .diould, before
he proceeds lo far, have in vain demanded judice, or, at
lead, have the utmod reafon to believe that it would be in
vain for him to dem.and it. Then alone he may right him-
felf. It would be too contrary to the peace, to the repofe,
and fafety of nations, to their mutual commerce, and to the
duties which bind them to each other, for any prince fud-
denly to apply to force, without knowing whether the other
is dilpofed to do him judice, or to refufe it. It mud be
obferved, in order perfeftly to undcrdand this article, that
if, in a litigious affair, our adverfary refufes the means of
bringing the right to proof, or artfully eludes it ; if he does
not, with good faith, apply to pacific meafures for ter-
minating the difference ; and, above all, if he is the firll
who begins afts of hodility, he renders the caufe jud, which
was before doubtful : we may then make ufe of reprifals, or
leize his effetls, to obhge him to embrace the methods of
reconcihation, which the law of nature prefcribes. This is
the laft attempt before coming to an open war. Ajs the
wcakh of the citizens forms a part of the total wealth of a
nation, and between date and date, whatever is the pro-
perty of the members is confidered as belonging to the
body, and is anfwerable tor the debts of the body; it fol-
lows, that in reprifals they feize the goods of the lubjeft, in
the fame manner as thofe of the ftate, or fo\ereigD. Every-
thing that belongs to the nation is fubjeft to reprifals, as
foon as it can be feized, provided it be not a depoiit truded
lo the public faith. This depofit is found in onr hands,

only

REP

only in confequence of that confidence wliich tlie proprietor
has put in our good faith ; and it ought to bo reipcfted,
even in cafes of open wr.i'. Thus it has been uliial to be-
have in France, England, and elfewhcre, witli reipc6l to
the money which foreigners have placed in th.e pubhc funds.
He, however, who makes ufe of reprifals againil a nation,
on the goods of its members indifcriminately, cannot be
taxed with feizing the wealth of an innocent perfon for the
debt of another ; for, in this cafe, the fovereign is to re-
compenfe thofe of his fubjefts on whom the reprifals fall :
this is a debt of the ilatc or nation, of which each citizen
ought only to fupport hi? quota. It belongs only to fove-
reigns to ufe and order reprifals, in the manner now Hated.
This is a meafure of too great confequence to be abandoned
to private pcrions. In all civilized Hates, a fubjeft who
thinks himfclf injured by a foreign nation has reeourfe to
his fovereign, in order to obtain the permiflion of making
reprifals. This is wliat is called defiring " letters of
marque." See the next article.

We may ufe reprifals againft a nation, not only for the
aftions of the fovereign, but alio for thofe of his fubjefts.
Accordingly the fovereign demands juftice, or makes re-
prifals, not only for his own affairs, but alfo for thofe of
his fubjefts, whom he ought to proteft, and whofe caufe is
that of the nation. But to grant reprifals againil a nation,
in favour of foreigners, is to fet himfelf up as a judge be-
tween that nation and thefe foreigners, which no fovereign
has a right to do.

As we may feize the things which belong to a nation, to
oblige it to do jullice, v/e may, for the fame reafon, arreft
fome of the citizens, and not releafe them till we have re-
ceived entire fatisfaftion ; the fubjefts thus detained being
only regarded as a fecurity to oblige a nation to do juilice,
if their fovereign is obftinate in refufing it. We cannot take
away th=ir lives, nor inflift any corporal pain upon them,
for a refufal of which they are not guilty. But the fove-
reign may make ufe of force againil thofe who refill the ex-
ecution of tliis right, and ufe as much as is neceffary to fur-
mount their unjutt refiftance. In this cafe, the true and
juft welfare of the ilate is the grand rule : moderation is al-
ways laudable in ilfelf ; but the conduftors of nations ought
to exercife it only fo far as it is confiftent with the happi-
nefs and fafety of their people. A fovereign, however, has
no right to oppofe force, or to make war againft him, who,
in fuch a cafe, by ordering the making of reprifals, only
exercifes his juft right. Whenever a fovereign can, by the
way of reprifals, procure a juft recompence, or a proper
fatisfaftion, he ought to make ufe of this method, which is
lefs violent and Icfs fatal than war. Thofe who run to arms,
fays the excellent Vattel. without necefiity, are the fcourges
of the human race, barbarians, enemies to fociety, and
rebels to the law of nature, or rather to the common father
of mankind. There are cafes, however, in which reprifals
would be julUy condemned, even when a declaration of war
would not be fo ; ajid thefe are precifely thofe in which na-
tions may with juftice take up arms. When it relates to
differences, not on an aft of violence, or of an injury re-
ceived, but of a conterted right ; after having in vain at-
tempted ways of reconciliation, or pacific meafuves of ob-
taining juftice, it is a declaration of war which ought to
follow, and not pretended reprifals, which, in fuch a cafe,
would only be real aftsof hoftility, without a declaration of
war, and would be contrary to the public faith as well as to
the mutual duties of nations.

There is one kind of retortion fometimes praftifed in war,
under the name of reprifals, which we muft here mention.
If a general of the enemy has, without any juft reafon,

tl2

REP

caufed fome prifoners to be hanged, a like number of his
men, and of the fame rank, will be hung up ; fignifying to
him, that this retaliation will be continued for obliging him
to obferve the laws of war. It is a fad cxtremily thus to
put a prifoner to dtath for his general's fault ; and if this
prifoner was before promifed his life, reprifals cannot be
made on him with any colour of jullice. Yet as a prince,
or his general, has a right of facrinc.ing the life of his enemies
to his fafety, and that of his men, if he is engaged with an
inhuman enemy, who frequently commits fuch enormitioj,
he appears to have a right of refufing life to fome of the
prifoners he may take, and of treating them as his were
treated. But Scipio's generofity is rather to be imitated.
That great man, having reduced fome Spanilh princes, who
had revolted againil the Romans, declared to them, that on
a breach of their faith, he would not call the innocent hcf-
tages to an account, but themfelves ; and that he would not
revenge it on a difarmed enemy, but on tliofe who ftiould
be found in arms. (Liv. 1. 28.) Alexander the Great,
having caufe of complaint againft Darius for fome m.al-
praftices, lent him word, that if he continued t« make war
in fuch a manner, he would purfue him to the utmoft, and
give HO quarter. (Quint. Curt. 1. iv. c. I, and 11.) It is
thus an enemy, violating the laws of war, is to be puniftied,
and not by canfing the penalty due to his crimes to fall on
innocent viftims. Vattel's Law of Nations, b. ii. ch. 18.
b. iii. ch. 8.

Reprisals is alfo ufed for a letter or permiflion, which a
prince fometimes gives a lubjeft, upon a full cognizance of
the caufe ; authorizing him to retake from the nrft perfons
he meets of the oppofite party, as many effefts as make an
equivalent to what have been violently forced from him,
and for which the oppofite prince has refufed to do him
juftice.

Thefe permiffions are alfo called letters of marque, or
mart; and in the ftat. 27 Edw. III. la-M of marque ; in
regard a perfon denied juftice in another man's territory,
redrelfes himfelf by goods belonging to men of that terri-
tory. See Letters of Marque.

Reprisals is alfo ufed in the fame fenfe with recap-
tion.

REPRISE, or Reprize, in the Commerce by Sea, a
merchant-fhip, which, having been taken by a corfair, priva-
teer, or other enemy, is retaken or recovered by a veffel of
the contrary party.

The word is Frencli, and fignifies a refumption or re-
taking.

When a veffel, thus retaken, has been twenty-four hours
in the hands of the enemy, it is deemed a lawful prize. If
the reprize has been made within twenty-four hours, the
veflel is to be rellored to the proprietor, with ever)' thing
in it, upon his allowing one-third to the veil'el who made the
reprize.

If the reprize has been abandoned by the enemy, either
in a tempetl, or from any other caufe, before it have been
led into any port, it is to be rellored to the proprietor.
See Recapture.

Reprise, in the Manege, is a leffon repeated, or a ma-
nege recommenced. Thus we fay, to give breath to a
horfe upon the four corners of the volte with only one re-
prife, that is, all with one breath.

Reprise, Fr., in Mufic. Every part of an air or ftrain
that is to be repeated, without being written or printed
twice over, is called by the French a reprife. There are
various ways of marking repetitions in mufic : firft by a
double bar dotted ; if on both fidgs, both parts or ftrains

II E,P

REP

ire to be repeated ; if only one fide of the double bar is

dotted, that fide only is to be repeated. This fign '^\ , and
fometimes da cnpo al fegno 'S^,t imply a repetition of parti-
cular portions of a melody ; as do, likewife, dots in the
fpaces of the (lafl. (See Renvoi and Refkrbnce.)
Gretry, in his Mcmoires, fays that the repeating of the firlt
and fecond pans or ftrdins of a movement is a barbarous
cuftom.

Repulses, iai Law, are dcduftions, drawbacks, or
duties, paid yearly out of a manor, or lands. Such are
rent-charges, pcnfions, fees of llewards or bailiffs, &c.
The manor of Doll yields 40/. per annum, ultra reprlzas, be-
fides all reprizes.

REPROBATION, Repuobatio, in Theology, a decree
or refolve, which God hat. taken from all eternity to punifh
finners, who fliall die in impenitence.

Reprobation Itands in direft oppofition to e/cSien.

Divines hold it a fymptom of reprobation, when a finner
is hardened fo as not to feel any farther reraorfe or mii-
givings of confcience.

The cafuiils diftinguifli two kinds of reprobation, po/iti've
and negali've. Pofitive is that by which God is fuppoied to
create men with a pofitive and abfolute relolution to damn
them eternally. This opinion of reprobation is coun-
tenanced by St. Auguiline, and others of the fathers ; and
is ftrongly maintained by Calvin, and moft. of his followers.
Something like it is alfo found in the thirty-nine articles of
the church of England ; but it is now generally exploded,
as injurious to the jullice of God. Negative or conditional
reprobation is that by which God, though be creates all
men with a fincere defire to fave them, and furnifhes them
with the neceffary means thereto, fo that all may be faved,
it they will ; yet fees there are fevcral who will not do it,
witii the aids he {hall afford them, how powerful loever ;
and fees, at the fame time, they would do it with certain
other aids, which he fees, but will not give them. 0 alti-
tudol &c.

By comparing one part of feripture with the other,
fays Dr. Doddridge in his " Leftures," (Prop. 142,
fchol. I.) there feems to be this remarkable difference be-
tween the predeftination to life and that to death (here
called reprobation), that, in the former C'lfe, God deter-
mines by the influence of his grace to work fuch a change
in the hearts of his eleA, as that their falvation fliould on
the whole be afcribed to him, and not unto themfelves ;
whereas he determines to bring others into fuch circum-
ftances, that though their ruin fhould in facl happen, yet
they themfelves fhould be the authors of it, and the blame
lie as entirely upon themfelves, as if it had not been fo
much as foreknown. (See P>.om. ix. 22, 23. Matth. xxv.
34, 41.) But the oppofers of this dodlrine allege, that
this kind of reafoning is an evalion and not a folution of
the difficulty. This learned divine, adverting to the ob-
jeftion, that the above-ftated doftrine tends to make the
petfons whom it concerns defpcrate, obferves, thai if it
be granted, xYntX Jiifficient affiftances are given to all-, none
will have reafon to defpair, nor will any have an excufe to
plead before God, in confequence of his i'ecret purpofes,
which will not be made a rule of liis final judgment. It
it be faid, that neverthelefs thofe who are not predeiUnated
to life are left under a nccefllty of -perilling, and an im-
poffibility of falvation ; it muft be owned, that it is dif-
ficult to fay, how the doftrine, as explained by fome,
can be freed from this objeftion ; but that this confequence
does not necelTarily follow from it, according to his llate-
» Vol. XXIX.

ment. See Election and PiiEDESTiNATroN. See alfo

SuBLAI'SAIilAN and Sui'UALAPSAlUAN.

REPRODUCTION, in Phyfiology. In fpeaking of
the growth of organic bodies, we mull notice their power
of reproduftion ; that wonderful property of rcftoring or
renewing parts that have been mutilated or entirely loft.
This is one of the moil important provifions of nature, in-
almuch as it guards animals and plants againll the multi-
plied dangers to which their bodies are expofed. Hence,
when viewed in connexion with the fyftem of nutrition alto-
gether, it forms one of thofe decifive and grand charaftere,
which diftinguii'h at once the machines that proceed from
the hand of the Creator, from all, even the moft ingenious
and boalted, prodr.Aions of human flcill. The difference is
recognifed at the firll glance ; the dillancc is imir.eafurable.
The fprings and wheels of mechanical inflruments have no
power of repairing tliemfelves, when they are bent, broken,
worn, or fpoilcd ; but fuch a faculty is enjoyed in various
degrees by every animal and by every plant.

At different periods of the year, feveral organifed beings
lofe, by a fpontaneous and natural procefs, certain parts of
their body, w'lich arc fubfequently renewed. Examples of
this occur in the fall of the (tag's horns; in the moulting
of birds ; in the renewal of the cuticle of ferpcnts, «nd
other ampliibia, of the larvK of infefts, and of the (hell of
the crultacea ; the fall of the leaves of trees> &c. This
may be called ordinary or natural reproduftion. The (lag's
horn, or antler, as it fhould be more j-roperly called, is a
mafs of true bone, pofTelfing the llrufture and charafters
of ofl'eous fubftaiices. In its early ftateyflX.-is foft, and
traverfed by large veffels, which mull be rep>{»duced every
time the new horn is formed. This annual reproduclion
conflitutes, in many points of view, one of the moft re-
markable phenomena of animal phyfiology. It affords a
moft ftriking proof, I ft, of the power of the nutritive
procefs, and of the rapid growth, which is dependant on
this in warm-blooded animals. For the horn of a ftag,
which may weigh a quarter of a hundred, is completely
formed in ten weeks. 2dly. Of a limited duration of life in
a part of an animal, entirely independent on the life of the
whole animal, which in the ftag extends to about thirty
years. 3dly. Of change of calibre in particular veffels.
For the branches of the external carotid, which fupply the
horn, are furprifingly dilated during its growth ; a'd re-
cover their former area, when that procefs has ceafed.
4thly. Of a peculiar fympathy, which is manifelled between
the growth of the horns, and tlie generative fuiiftions. For
caftratioii, or any ellential injury of the organs of genera-
tion, impedes the growth, alters the form, or interrupts
the renev/al of the horns. See the articles Cervus, and
HoRK, in Comparative ./Anatomy.

The cuticle of the fiiake is feparated every year, and
comes off as a complete fheath, excepting the aperture,
through which the animal efcapcs : the covering of the
cornea is fhed with the reft of the external integument.

Cruftaceous animals (the crab, lobfter, &c; ) have a
ftteleton, which furrounds and contains their foft parts, and
which ferves, at the lame time, the purpofes of a fliin.
When it has attained its perfeft conhftence, it grows no
more ; but, as the foft parts ilill increafe, the fhell feparates,
and is detached, being fucceeded by a larger one. The
calcareous bodies in the flomachs of thefe animals, per-
forming the office of teeth, are fhed v^ith the fhell. See
the article Cancer, in the account of the fpecies ruricoldt
and gammarus,

The larvas of infefts caft their cuticular covering feveral

times before their transformation. An interefting account of

A U the

REP

the particulars may be ieen in the article Entomology, in
the divifion « of the larva Jlate," under the fubdivifion
«< hpiJopkra."

The fecond, or extraordinary kind of reproduftive power,
is that by which wounds, fraftures, or any accidental
mutilation or lofs of parts of an organifed body, are re-
medied or reftored. Thisexills in very different degrees in
different departments of the animal kingdom. In man, and
fuch animals as are nearly allied to him, the property is very
limited, although fufSciently aftivc to be capable of re-
medying the effefts of great injuries. If a bone be broken,
a mufcle or tendon divided, or a piece of flvin dellroycd,
procefTes are fet up in the parts by which reiteration is ac-
complifhed. The ends of the bone arc joined by an offeous
fubftance, which gives to the part its original folidity ; the
tendon regains its firmnefs and power of refillance ; the
mufcle can contradt again and move the points of its at-
tachment ; and the furface of the body is covered by a new
piece of integument. The funflions of the parts are re-
itored ; but the newly formed matter can be always diilin-
guifhed from the original compolition of the body, and
poffefles a weaker vitality. For, in fome cafes, old ulcers
have broken out afrefh, and even fraftures have beeu dif-
united in dates of great general debility. A divided nerve
is reunited, even if a fmall portion be removed : and the
fuuftion of the part, fufpended for a time, is thus reftored.
The cafe is different in the blood-ved'els : the proceffes con-
fequent on wounds of thefe tend to ftop the hemorrhage,
which in general can be effefted only by the obUteration
of the tube.

The power of repairing the effefts of injury is modified
by various circumilances. The health and ftrength of the in-
dividual, the age, the air, and other circumilances, which
the furgeon muft attend to, have great influence.

In the cafes which have been juft mentioned, the re-
ftorative power repairs injuries ; but it goes no further.
Neither in man, nor in any warm-blooded animals, are en-
tire organs ever reproduced. If a limb be cut off, or a
piece of flefli taken away, the wound is healed, the chafm
is filled up ; but the loft parts are never formed again.

In the lower orders of the animal kingdom, on the con-
trary, fuch are the ftrength and perfeftion of the repro-
duftive energy, that confiderable members are formed again,
and we can hardly aflign a limit to the power in fome in-
ttances. The lower we defcend in the fcale of beings, the
more furprifing are the manifeftations of this repi-oduftive
faculty. It is famiharly known, that the claws of the
crab and lobfter, and the entire limbs or tail of the newt,
can be reftored ; the fame holds good of the rays of the
ftar-filh (afterias), and the arms or tentacula of the cuttle-
fifh. It was aflerted by Bonnet and Spallanzani, that the
entire head of the fnail can be reproduced ; but the afl'er-
tion was fufpefted, becaufe other experimcntalifts did not
fucceed in repeating the trials. Hence Blumenbach was
led to obferve, " that fome experiments on this reproduftive
power require a hand exercifed in fuch employments, to-
gether with various precautions, and a favourable combina-
tion of circumftances, for their fuccefs. Hence perfons
muft be cautious in concluding againft the truth of any
ftatement, beca\ife their own experiments do not fucceed.
After feveral fruitlefs attempts on this fubjeft, I have lately
fucceeded in obferving tlie reproduction of the whole head
of the fnail (helix pomatia) with its four horns, which oc-
cupied about fix months." Comparative Anatomy, tranf-
lated by Lawrence, p. 219.

The fame phyfiologift has given us a remarkable inftance
of reprodudlion in an animal of more complicated ftrudture.
01

R.E V

" I preferve," fays he, " in fpirits a large water newt
(lacerta paluftris), from which I extirpated nearly the
whole eye feveral years ago : all the humourb were dif-
charged, and then four-fifths of the emptied coats were
cut away. In the courfe of ten months an entirely new
cyc-ball was formed, with cornea, iris, cr)ftalline lens, &c. ;
and this is only diftinguifhed from the fame organ on the
oppofite fide by being fmaller." Ibid.

Not only are amputated tentacula fpeedily replaced in
the aftinix (fea anemones!, but, if the animal be divided
by a vertical or horizontal feftion into two halves, each of
thefe becomes an entire aftinia. See the article Anemone.
The frefh water polype exhibits very furprifing powers
in this way. If it be cut into two or more pieces, thefe
become pcrfeft animals. If it be flit half way down, the
two halves are rendered perfeft, remaining united below :
thefe may be flit again with the fame refuTts. The oppo-
fite ends of two polypes may be made to grow together, &c.
See Polype.

See the memoirs on animal re-produftions in Spallanzani's
tracts: alfo the works of Bonnet.

REPROOF, OjsJGiiGATio, in Rhetoric, is diftinguifhed
from inveflive ; which fee.

REPS, in Geography, a town of Tranfilvania ; 16 miles
N. of Fogaras.

REP-SILVER, money anciently paid by fervile tenants
to their lord, to be quit of the duty of reaping his corn.
REPTILES, in Comparative Anatomy and Phyfwlogy.
Although the animals, whofe ftrufture we are about to
explain, are perfectly fimilar to each other in their princi-
pal charaftcrs, and ought therefore to be united in one clafs,
naturalifts have experienced a real difficulty in difcovering an
appropriate name for the clafs. That of amphibia, employ-
ed by Linnaeus and his difciples, although deduced from a
ftrikingcircumftance in the economy of the more generally
known reptiles, namely, the power of exifting for a long
time in water, as well as in air, is vague and uncertain in its
fignification. If we regard as amphibia ihofe aquatic ani-
mals, which are able to bve for fome time on land, or thofe
land animals, which can remain for a certain time under
water, all animals are amphibious ; for even the human fub-
jeft and the mammalia can dive. If, on the other hand,
the word amphibious be taken etjanologically, and under-
ftood to denote an equal power of fubfifling in air and
water, it is applicable to no animals. Although reptiles can
remain much longer under water than the mammalia, or birds,
they are obliged, as their refpiratory organs are only calcu-
lated for breathing air, to come fooner or later to the fur-
face for this purpofe ; and they are drowned, like any warm-
blooded animal, if detained in the water beyond that time.
To enable an animal to exift equally in air and water, it
fhould have lungs and gills ; that is, it fhould have the power
of breathing air, like the mammalia and birds, and of breath-
ing water, like filhes ; and it fhould be able to ufe either of
thefe methods, to the exclufion of the other. But we know
of no fuch animals. The larvs of frogs and falamanders,
the proteus anguinus, and the firen lacertina ( fee the latter
part of this article), have indeed branchije and lungs ; but as
far as our knowledge hitherto goes, none of thefe could live
out of the water. The lungs of the tadpole, and of the
larvae of falamanders, are defigned for the fervice of thofe ani-
mals in their fubfequcnt ftage of exiftence ; but do not give
them the power of living in air : and the lungs, either of the
proteus or firen, do not feem fufficient to enable them to dif-
penfe with the office of the branchial appendages. In its
etymological fenfe, then, the term amphibious is not applica-
ble to any animals we know of.

Liniixut

REPTILES.

Linna-us places amono; Iris amphibia rcptilcr, who never go
into the water, and lomc fiHies which never cpiit it. He
could not fail to experience great diiricultics it\ naming a
clafs fo ill conceived as that of his ampliibia ; confequently,
this appellation is objeftionable, as being vague and obfcure ;
the genera comprehended in the Linnsan clafs amphibia, arc
too ill allorted to admit of their having a common name
fuitable to all. Daubenton divided them into two claflcs,
naming one oviparous quadrupeds, and the other ferpcnts.
Lacep^de adopted thefe two clafl'es, and placed between
them a third, that of oviparous bipeds. Hermann of Straf-
bourg, in his " Tabuls affinitatum Animalium," propofed to
fubttitute, for the term amphibia, that of cryerozoa. " Si
in novorum nominum impolitione gloriam more nuiltorum
quiereremus, et ea re fcientia promovcretur, cryerozoa apte
vocari pofle putaremus, quia omnem fere naturam eorum ani-
malium vox ilia exliaurire videatur. Kfv;f'^; enim non modo
frigidum, fcdet horridum luridumque fignificat." Hermann,
Tab. afiin. Anim. p. 218.

Without entering further into the objeftions againR the
appellations jull enumerated, we adopt that of reptiles, al-
ready employed by many modern naturalifts, and particular-
ly by Cuvier, in his " Tableau Elementaire d'Hiiloire Natu-
relle." In faft, in the progreflion of the oviparous quadru-
peds, as well as in that of ferpents, the belly moves againft
the furface of bodies, over which they pafs.

Genera/ Oi/ervations. — Referring to the article Classj-
FICATION for a view of the genera comprehended under thefe
divifions, we prefix to the more detailed furvey of the anatomy
of reptiles, a (hort fummary of the principal anatomical cha-
rafters of the four orders into which the clafs is divided.

1. The Chelonian order ; Teiludines. Body inclofed
in a bony fhell. They refemble birds in having the mafti-
cating lurfaces of their maxillary bones covered by ftrong
cutting horny plates. Body fupported on four limbs,
terminated by a tail, and covered in almoil all by fcales.
They copulate ; fecundation takes place internally : the fe-
male lays eggs, covered by a firm calcareous iliell : the young
animals come out without incubation, merely by the heat of
the atmofphere ; and they undergo no metamorphofis.
Stomach larger than in the other reptiles, and inteilinal canal
furnifhed with a caecum. The heart has two auricles.

2. Saurian order, or Lizard kind. They refemble the
former very nearly in the ftrufture of their principal internal
organs. They have firm bones, like thofe of the mammalia :
curved and long ribs, and a fternum. Teeth fet in the
jaw. The two branches of the lower jaw confolidated.
A trachea compofed of cartilaginous rings, an os hyoides
and larynx, capable of producing founds, at lead in fome
individuals. Heart with two auricles. A fimple penis in
the male. There is a real internal copulation ; the female
lays feparate eggs, generally covered with a firm fhell, de-
pofiting them on dry ground, or in holes. The young ones
come out of them, and undergo no metamorphofis. The
lliin is furniihed with numerous plates or fcales. Body
elongated, and ending with a tail. Feet, often high, and
ftrong enough to fuflain the body above the ground in pro-
greflion. Some are quadruped ; others biped, having either
fore or hind feet. Toes furniftied with nails : generaUy five
in number ; but there may be four, three, two, and even
one.

3. Ol'HiDiA>7 order ; Serpents. They agree with the two
former orders, in having firm bones, curved and long ribs,
a larynx and trachea, capable of producing a flight hiffing io
moft. An external organ of generation in the male. A
real internal copulation : the female lays eggs covered with a
calcareous ihcll, which (he depofits m holes filled with leaves,

under the roots of trees, in warm and rather moift fituations.
The young ones, when they quit the egg, are like their pa-
rents. They differ from the preceding orders, in having a
long, ecl-fliaped, flexible body, covered with a fkin, either
furniflied with fcales or plates, or naked, unprovided with
feet, and terminated by a tail, often very long. Numerous
long curved ribs, not united together, as there is no fter-
num. The branches of the lower jaw not united in front.
Upper jaw confiding of four branches. Simple, fharp, and
numerous teeth ; and long, curved, tubulated fangs, in ad-
dition to thefe, in the venomous kinds. They creep along
the ground by undulations of their body. Excepting the
ophifauri, they have no external auditory openings. Heart
with a finglc auricle. Double penis. Eggs covered with
loft calcareous fliells.

4. Bai iiAciAN order ; Frog kind. They refemble the
preceding orders in having a tail ; excepting the frogs and
toads in their pcrfeft ftatc : a trachea and larynx, capable of
producing found. Like the chelonian and faurian reptiles,
tliey have feet, and fimple jaws, ;. e. not formed of two
branches, moveable on each other. In common with the
faurian and ophidian orders, they pofFefs teeth fixed in the
jaws ; and with the ophidian, a heart with a fingle auricle.

Many charafters diftinguifh them from thefe three orders.
Their naked fliin, which is warty or tubercular, more or lefs
moift, and nearly fimilar to that of the cecihs, the laft se-
nus of the ophidian order. Softnefs of the bones ; a fter-
num without ribs in the frogs and toads : rudiments of ribs
and no proper ilernum in the falamanders : true curved ribs
funounding the body in the proteus and firen. Four feet,
or two only. They all fwim ; thofe with long hind legs and
no tail leap ; the tree-frogs attach themfelves to leaves
by the round tubercles of their toes : thofe with four equal
limbs, or two only, crawl and fwim, but do not leap. An
external tympanum in the tree-frogs, frogs, and moft toads ;
no external ears in the others. No external organ of genera-
tion in the males, nor any internal real copulation. The fe-
male lays eggs in the water, or humid earth, and the male fe-
cundates them as they pafs out ; or in the ovo-viviparous fpe-
cies, as the land falamander, the feminal liquor of the male is
abforbed by the fexual organ of the female. The ova are
without fhells ; from them proceed fmall animals, called tad-
poles, which undergo various changes, before reaching
their perfeft ftate. They have branchix in their tadpole
condition, and thus approach to fifhes.

Notwithftanding the obvious differences of organization
in the different reptiles, as the turtle, lizard, ferpent, frog,
and falamander, we may remark that their ftrufture does not
deviate elfentially in its general plan from that of the human
fubjetf. They have a bony vertebral column, and all the
prnicipal organs found in man, but with more or lefs ftriking
modifications.

Reptiles have fome relations, in their organization and
habits, with other vertebral animals, particularly with fifhes.
This is feen in the true branchia of thebatracian larvae and
firen ; in the fcales of the fkin in lizards and ferpents ; in the
polygonal horny plates of the teitudines, correfponding to
thole of fome cartilaginous fiflies ; in the elongated form
and habits of the firen, like thofe of the eel-fhaped fifhes.

The form of the body prefents great differences in the
reptiles ; nearly all the chelonians, faurians, and batracians
have four feet ; and there are only two faurians with two
feet. In the chelonians, the body is orbicular, more or lefs
convex, inclofed in a bony cafe, and terminated by a fmall
tail ; the toes are feparate and diftincl in fome, palmated
and fin-like in others. All the faurians h^ve aa elongated
body, covered with various kinds of fcales, and terminated
4.U ; by

REPTILES.

by a very flexible tail, often compofcd of articulated rings.
In the very elongated form of then- body, the chakides re-
femble ferpents, though, in other refpetts, they are true
faurians. The (kin is quite naked in all the batracians ;
they have four feet ; fome have no tail, a llout, thick
body, and the hind legs longer than the front ; others have
the fliape of a lizard, being fnrniflied with a tail, and having
feet of equal length. LalUy, ferpents have a very long,
cylindrical body, covered with fcales, and without limbs.
Tliefe variations of figure niuft necedarily be attended with
modifications in the form and pofition of organs; the in-
ternal arrangements will correfpond with thefe outward
figns.

Although the animals of this clafs differ very confiderably
in outward form, as well as in tlie general bulk of their
bodies, tliey agree very nearly in the eilential points of their
organization, and more particularly in the funftions of their
animal economy. We may inflancc the mode of taking their
food ; the long abilinence of which they are capable ; their
oviparous generation ; the length of time, for which they can
bear an interruption of refpiratiou ; their tenacity of life
and extraordinary power of reprodnftion ; and the low tem-
perature of their bodies. The laft points, of animal heat
and reprodudtion, two exceedingly interefting fubjedls of
inquiry, which have been invefligated of late years with
great indullry, form the moll linking differences between
cold and warm-blooded animals ; the latter alone pofl'efling
that remarkable property of maintaining in themfelves a
temperature confiderably exceeding that of the medium in
which they live, while the former are diftinguifhed by the
wonderful extent of their power of extending or reproduc-
ing injured or loit prrts.

An accurate knowledge of the flruflure of reptiles is not
only important from its fubferviency to the claffilic arrange-
ments of natural hiftory, and highly interefting from ex-
pofing to us new and rich fcenes in the vaft domains of
nature, new forms of life, and frefli modifications of organiza-
tion, accompanied with fingular changes of funftions already
famihar to us in other fhapes ; but it acquires additional in-
tereil from the great ufe which phyfiologilts have made of
different reptiles in their experimental elucidations of the hu-
man economy. We muft furvey in a general view the flruc-
ture and economy of thefe animals, and compare them with
thofe of ths warm-blooded dalles, before we can determine
how far the cunclufions, drawn from experiments on reptiles,
concerning the heart's motion, irritability, the aftion of the
nerves, the effeds of opium, &c. &c. can be transferred to
the human body.

Organs concerned in the Vital FunBions. — The mouth is fitu-
ated at the extremity of the fnout, and direded tranfverfely.
If we fancy the head to be divided by a horizontal cut, ex-
tending from before backwards, to its very poi-terior part,
we (hall have a juft idea of the mouth of a reptile. The
cranium is very fmall in this clafs, and the head confifts almofl
entirely of the two jaws. The lower is articulated towards
the back of the head, and thus allows the opening between
the two mandibles, conllituting the mouth, to be very con-
fiderable. Alniolt all reptiles fwallow entire animals, and
thus require this cxtenflve opening. The margins of the
aperture coiifiil fimply of the maxillary arches, which are
not covered or enclofed by any thing deferving the name
of lips. In no cafe is there any maftication ; and the food
or prey is taken by the teeth or tongue, fo that a move-
able covering of the jaws, fimilar to the lips and cheeks of
the mammalia, is not necellary either for confining fub-
ftances lubjefled to the aftion of teeth as organs of maftica-
tion, 01 for the purpofe of reaching or feizing food.

The horny coverings of the mandibles, completely naked,
and not concealed even by the Imalleft fold of (kin, form tlie
fides of the entrance into the mouth in the clielonian reptiles.
Their food confifts of marine vegetable productions, tcftacta,
infedts, &c. and does not require fo large an opening for
its introduftion, as when confiderable animals are fwallowed
whole. The mouth is confequently fmaller in this than in
either of the other orders ; and does not extend completely
to tiie back of the head.

The family of tortoifes, which Geoffroy has called trio-
nyx, offers a remarkable exception to what we have itated
about the abfence of lips : they have thefe folds, and
a moveable probofcis at the end of the fnout. " The
cxillence of lips in thefe tortoifes is an anomaly, the more
likely to furprife u^, inafmuch as the affinity of thefe reptiles
to birds feems to affign a motive for the abfence of lips, and
alfo for the exiftence of the horny coverings of the mandi-
bles." Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Mem. fur les Tortues moUes ;
Annales du Mufeum, v. 14. pi. i. p. 9.

In the faurians, the flit of the mouth goes to the very
back of the head, far behind the ear. Its appearance is very
formidable in the crocodile, where the hard Itrong jaw?
projeft into a large fnout, and are armed with (harp power-
ful teeth, dellitute even of gums : thefe jaws open to the
very back of the head, and difclofe a tremendous throat.
The mouth is as large proportionally in the other faurians ;
but their fize is too infignificant and their habits too harm-
lefs to allow of their infpiring that terror, which the formi-
dable weapons of the crocodile fo juftly caiife. The ophi-
dians have not only a mouth equal in its tranfverfe mea-
furement to the diameter of their body ; but they pofTefs alfo
tiie means cf enlarging this aperture, fo that they can fwal-
low creatures whole diameter exceeds their own. The ba-
tracians have an opening as large as the fize of the head will
allow. In the latter, as well as in the ophidian, and iroft
of the faurian reptiles, the integuments make a fmall fold at
the edge of each jaw ; thefe folds meet when ihe mouth is
clofcd, fo as to hide the edge of the jaws, but they pofi'efs
no power of motion.

In the tadpole, in the proteus and firen, the mouth is
much fmaller than in the other reptiles ; and they pofTefs
folds more deferving the name of lips. In the former there
is a kind of horny apparatus within thefe lips, forming fome-
thing like a beak. In the fmallnefs of its mouth, and in
thefe hornyjaws, the tadpole is remarkably diffimilar to the
perfcft animal.

The Ja-ws. — In confidering' the jaws and their mufcles,
the teeth, and the tongue, we muft bear in mind that thefe
organs are calculated merely for feizing their food, and
conveying it to the throat ; in no cafe does the food undergo
any mallication, as in the mammaha.

No reptiles have an upper jaw moveable on the head, like
that of birds : the fuperior maxillary bones are in truth ar-
ticulated moveably with the head in ferpents, and may be
extended and retrained, or moved laterally, as we (hall de-
fcribe prefently ; but, in general, the cranium and upper
jaw are united into one piece, fo far as their motions are con-
cerned.

Tlie moil; oppofite opinions have prevailed refpeiling the
crocodile, even down to the prefent time. Herodotus firft
obferved, that it is the only animal poflefling an upper jaw
moveable on the lower, which remains fixed. The fame
opinion was generally held by the ancients, as Ariftotle,
Pliny, &c. ; and feveral moderns fpeak in the fame way, as
Marcgrave, Marmol, Jacob=;us, Vefaliue, and the Jefuit
Miffionaries at Siam, who had opportunities of obferving
the hving animal. But the anatomifts of the Academy 'of

Sciences

KEPTILES.

Sciences (Perrault and Duvcrney) undertook to demon-
llrate the falfehood of the opinion of Herodotus. Geoffroy,
one of the French favans, who attended the Egyptian army,
has given us an account of the maUer, wliicli fettles all theie
difputes, by provnig that the Itatement of Herodotus is al-
molt rigoroudy true ; and that tlie crocodile is the only
known animal, whofe upper jaw, inc'uding within its
branches the cranium, is moveable on the h)wer jaw, which
poiledes only an almoft infenfible degree of motion. " No-
thing can be more paradoxical liian the head of the croco-
dile : every thing which is placed laterally in other animals,
as the moving powers of the jaw, &c. is thrown Ijeliind.
The temporal bone itfelf extends backwards far behind the
cranium, is elongated, and transformed into a double con-
dyle. We have in faft nearly delcribed the crocodile's
head, when we fay that it confifls of two mandibles ; for the
cranium is fo fmall, and out of place, that it efcapes notice
at firlt. We find it below, and a little in front of the oc-
cipital criita. The brain is fo far forwards, that the eye
and ear are above and a little behind it.

" The lower jaw is one-fixth longer than the upper, with
the cranium : it prefents a cavity with a double iurface, in
wiiich the condyle of the temporal bone is articulated by
ginglymus. The occipital condyle is in the fame line as
the temporal condyles : thus the head is really held at its
articulations, like the lid of a box by the hinge, and is con-
fined entirely to motions upwards and downwards. When a
living or fluffed animal is examintd, it is difficult to believe
that the head ends at the extremities of the jaws. There is
a regular fuUnefs of the front of the neck, which might be
regarded as the frontal part of tlie head : this arifes from
the enormous temporat mufcles, winch lie between the refti
and obliqui. The latter, arifing from the cervical vertebra,
and inferted in the occipital crifta, elevate the head upon
the neck, making it defcribe an arc of 45°. The fl-in be-
hind the occiput being thin, yields to the motions of the
head ; while the lower jaw, on the contrary, is inclofed in
a kind of (heath of hard, rugous flcin. If there were a muf-
cular force capable of drawing it down, this covering would
impede its defcent, while it is (lill further confined behind :
the long procefs fituated beyond its articular furface, de-
fcribing a curve, approaches the fkiu exaftly at the point
where it is armed with a long fcale, which offers an almoll
invincible refiftance to the elevation of the condyle, and
confequently to the depreffion of the jaw. Yet it is not en-
tirely fixed, as Marinol imagined, who itated that it forms
a fingle bone with the fternum. Two fmall mufcles have
tlie power of moving it flij^htly." (Annales du Mufeum,
toni. ii. p. 38, et feq. ) This defcription is accompanied
with an excellent figure of the flcull, in the elevated ttate of
the upper mandible. An analogous figure or the whole
head is given by Humboldt, Recueil d'Obf. de Zool. &.
d'Anat. comparee, torn. i. pi. 4. From the figures of the
Nilotic crocodile, in Blumenbach's Abbildungen Natur
Hillorifcher gegenft'ande, N° 26 ; and of the St. Domingo
crocodile, in the Annales du Muf. torn. ii. it appears, that
the animal mod frequently exhibits this elevation of the
upper jaw. It cannot be necelTary to point out how the
raifing of the entire cranium and fuperior mandible, jull de-
fcribed, differs from the motion of the upper jaw upon the
craniun: : this has been already done by Blumenbach. See
SyUem of Comparative Anatomy, p. 111, note 8.

The length of the lower jaw is much more confiderable in
comparifon to that of the upper in reptiles, where it is ar-
ticulated far back, and is even prolonged beyond its arti-
culation, than in mamn.-alia and fifhes, where this articulation
is placed more forwards. Its compofition is more compli-

cated in the reptiles, than in any other order. In the green
turtle (telludo mydas) it confilts of feven diftinft pieces, a
middle one firming the arch, and three others on each fide,
forming a continuation of its branches. The fartiiefl of the
three penetrates like a wedge between the two others, and
forms a great part of the articular cavity. In many of the
fauriaiis the number is ftiil greater: the lower jaw of the
Nilotic crocodile, and of the caiman (croc, alnericaiius), has
no fewer than twelve pieces, arranged as follown. As the
two branches are diftinft, and united by a future, each of
them mull be compofed of fix pieces; i, one, in which all
the teeth arc implanted j 2, another, lying along tiie inter-
nal furface of the former, without reaching to its anterior
extremity ; 3 and 4, two others articulated with the pre-
ceding ; -viz,, an inferior one prolonged to the pofterior ex-
tremity of each branch, a fuperior extending as far back as
the other in the Nilotic crocodile, but not fo far m the caiman,

5. The greatelt part of the articular cavity is excavated in
a fifth piece within the two former, and coiiflituting the inner
and fuperior part of the portion beyond that cavity.

6. Ladly, a fixth piece forms the front and inner part of
the orifice of the dental canal. The lower jaw of the tupi-
nambis (lacerta monitor) is alio compofed of twelve pieces,
two of which form the coronoid procefl'es, while the other
ten are analogous to thofe defcribed as entering into the
formation of the lower jaw of crocodiles, excepting the laft.
There are eight or ten in mofl of the other faurians. We
find four in each branch in the genus anguis ; an anterior one
united to its correiponding piece in front, and three pofterior
ones joined to the former. There are only four altogether
in the amphifbxna. Tlie two lafl mentioned generaare the
only ophidian reptiles, in which the jaws are not feparated
in front. In all the others there is a feparation, and each
branch has only two diflinft pieces ; an anterior, in which the
teeth are implanted, and a pollerior ; they are united by
future, and vary in relative length, according to the number
of teeth. The very open arch, compofing the lower jaw
of the batracian order, is made up of fix pieces ; the middle
of which are the moll flender.

The anterior angle, formed by the union of the two
branches, depends on the form of the fiiout in general, on
the figure of the two branches, the prefence or abfence,
number and fize of the teeth. Sec. It is rounded and very
open in the chelonian reptiles, and more fo in the batracian.
In the ophidian order, which have the branches of the jaws
moveable, it is fufceptible of change, according as their
extremities are approximated or drawn afunder ; indeed in
the former cafe only can it be properly faid to exiil at all.
It is rounded in the amphifbjena ; more angular in the anguis ;
llill very obtufe in the geckos (lacerta gecko), which have
wide jaws, with the branches of the lower curved only in
the horizontal diredlion ; it is lefs fo in the cameleon and
flellio (lacerta flellio), the fcinks (lacerta fcincus), and the
lizards, although in all thefe the two branches are only
joined by their extremities. It is acute in the tupinambis and
iguana, in which the branches, fomewhat curved in the ver-
tical diredlion, are approximated for a longer fpace. The
Nilotic and Gangetic crocodiles differ very much in this
refpeci. The two branches are united in the latter in the
greatelt part of their extent, as in the cachalot, and confe-
quently form a long bill, in the edges of which the two rows
of teeth are implanted. In the former, on the contrary,
the branches remain feparate, and only approximate towards
their extremity, increafing a little in thicknefs at the fym-
phyfis.

The portion of the bone, which is incurvated towards

the cranium in mofl of the mammalia, and conftitutes

4 the

REPTILES.

the nfccndin;^ branch of the jaw, iloes not exift in rep-
tiles.

Molions of the Jciivs. — Reptiles may be divided into two
orders, according to the conformation of their maxillary
bones, and the kind of motion of which they are fufceptible.
In the firll would be placed thofe which have the lovver jaw
only moveable, as the li/.ards, tiie telhidincs (tortoife and
turtle), the frogs, the falamanders, and the genera aiiguis
and amphiiba-na among the ferpents. The fccond would in-
clude the colubres, and the venomous ferpents, which cnn
move both jaws.

The general difpofition of the articulation is nearly the
fame in reptiles as in birds (fee Bihds, in Comparative Ana-
tomy). Inftead of a condyle at the pollerior extremity of
the iawj an articular furface is excavated to receive an emi-
nence bearing conllderable analogy to the os quadratum of
birds, and differing from it only in not being fo moveable ;
often, indeed, it is only a fimple prolongation of the tem-
poral bone. To this mod inferior point of the cranium,
and to an articular furface nearly tranfvcrfe in its direftion,
and (haped like a condyle, the lower jaw is articulated by a
glenoid cavity, of which the middle part fometimes prefents
a rifmg line, converting it into a kind ot pulley. Behind
this articular cavity there is often a more or lefs confider-
able bony procefs, affording attachment to a mufcle ana-
logous to the digaftric.

'^The moll remarkable differences requiring our notice here
are, the form of this prominence or condyle of the tem-
poral bone ; the greater or lefs prolongation of the procefs
behind the articulation ; the fituation and extent of the tem-
poral foffa ; and, laftly, the exiftenceor abfence of the emi-
nence occupying the fituation of the coronoid procefs.

In proportion as the temporal eminence is carried back-
wards, the jaws approach more nearly to each other in their
longitudinal direftion. We fee this in the crocodile, fala-
mander, frog, turtle, and tortoife. When, on the contrary,
it defcends vertically, or very obhquely, and is very elon-
gated, as in the cameleon and iguana, it forms a kind of
pedicle to the lower jaw, which, by feparating it from the
cranium, produces a much more confiderable interval between
the jaws. Several kinds of lizards, as the lacerta agilis,
draco, &c. occupy the intermediate fpace between thefe
two extremes.

The crocodile has the largeft procefs for the attachment
of the digaftricus. It is fenfibly diminifhed in the cameleon,
the gecko, the tupinambis, and the teftudines ; and we fee
nothing of it in the pipa, the toad, frog, and falamander.

All four-footed reptiles have very deep temporal foffa; ;
they are united to the cavity of the orbit. In fome fpecies,
the two cavities are feparated in front by a bony circle, as
in the teftudines, the crocodile, the dragon, and the other
lizards ; but in the pipa, the frogs, and falamanders, there
is no orbital circle.

There is, in the crocodile, a confiderable excavation on
each fide of the cranium, behind the orbit, terminating
below in the temporal foffa, and wanting in the crocodile
with bony eyelid (Crocod. palpebrofus, Cuvier). It is
bounded externally by a bone correfponding to the iqua-
mous portion of the temporal, which joins the lateral frontal
bone, and thus forms a tccond kind of zygomatic arch.
The fize of this excavation differs much in the different
fpecies. No doubt it contains mufcles. But we find no
exprefs and fatisfaftory defcription of it and its mufcles,
nor of the mufcles of the jaw in the writings of the French
naturalifts already quoted, on the fubjeft of the crocodiles.
The coronoid procefs of the lower jaw is not prominent
JQ reptiles. There is a mere rudiment of it in the teiludincs,

the cameleon, and fome li/ards, at, thf iguana, but there is
no trace of it in the crocodile, the frogs, and falamanders.

The mufcles of the jaw, in the oviparous quadrupeds, are
analogous to thofe of the mammalia, and referable them in
number.

The maffeter is large and diflinft in the tupinambis, occu-
pying all the fpace comprifed between the polterior edge

of the orbit and the meatus auditorius. It is direfted ob-
liquely from behind forwards, fo that it raifes and carries the
jaw backwards. This mufcle is fmall in the agame marbre
(lacerta marmorata), and the turtle. It is fo flender, that
'it can fcarcely be dilUnguifhed from the lower part of the
temporal.

The temporal mufcle is very large in the turtle, occupy-
ing all the temporal foffa, and forming the back of the
orbit. It is much fmaller in the tupinambis and common
lizard, in which it is almoft entirely concealed by the maf-
feter.

The pterygoidei are, in general, but imperfeftly diftin-
guidied from each other. They envelope the whole branch
of the jaw towards its extremity in the tupinambis ; their
fibres are in a manner twilled. They elevate the jaw and
carry it forwards ; thus they aft in an oppofite direftion to
the two preceding mufcles. The fame mufcles are flat and
thill in the turtle ; their fibres are nearly tranfverfe, fo that
they can move the lower jaw more direftly from fide to fide. .

In all thefe reptiles the mufcle analogous to the digaftric
is flat and triangular ; the broad portion is fixed to the cer-
vical ligament behind the occiput, and the point terminates
at the extremity of the jaw, behind its articulation, and near
the pterygoid mufcles.

After defcribing the mufcles employed in moving the jaws
of the turtle, Perrault aiferts, in his " Memoires fur les Ani-
maux," that it has more power in its jaws than moft other
animals, that it can cut very hard and flrong fubftances, and
that the head of a fmall turtle has been feen, half an hour
after it was cut off, to flrike its jaw^s together with a noife
like that of caflagnettes. Daudin relates the following cir-
cumftance, communicated to him by a Dutch naturalifl, who
refided feveral years in India. " When we landed in Table
bay, we took feveral hawk's-bill turtles (tcftudo imbricata),
whofe flomachs were filled with marine plants, and thick
fhells, which they eafily break down with their horny gums.
Three, which could not be brought on board, were tied to
the trunk of a tree, with a thick cable, but when the failors
returned on the following morning, they found that thefe
turtles had contrived to turn over on their bellies, and had
then cut, with their gums, the cables with which they had
been faftened." Hill. Nat. des Reptiles, in the edition of
Buffon, by Sonnini, t. i. introduftion, p. 38.

The two jaws are not moveable in all the ferpents. They
may be divided into three orders. I. Thofe with the
branches of the lower jaw confolidated, and confe-
quently not pofleffing any power of thrufting forward the
upper jaw, or moving it laterally. 2. Thofe with the
branches diftinft, and united in the recent ftate by an elaflic
ligament. There are two modifications of the latter ; they
may either have merely the power of feparating the two
jaws ; or they may, at the fame time, feparate the jaws,
and carry forwards a part, or the whole of the upper. We
fhall fpeak of the motions of the jaws according to this divi-
fion, firfl defcribing the bones, and then the mufcles.

The Bones. — In the ferpents, with the lower jaw confoli-
dated, the head is fhaped nearly as in the hzards. This is
the cafe in the anguis and amphilbma, the csecilia, acro-
chordus, and hydrophis. In the genus anguis the head very
clofely relerables that of the iguana. The arch of the upper

jaw

REPTILES.

jaw is uninterrupted, and correfponds to the curve ot the
lower ; the concavity ot the palate is nearly complete in
front. The palatine arches are dircdled backwards, and
united to the condyloid pedicle of the temporal bone. This
pedicle is Ihort, and nearly vertical, and excavated behind
for the attachment of the digallric mufcle. The lower jaw
has a fm-j.ll procefs behind its articulation for the attachment
of the mufcles, whicli deprefs it ; and another towards its
polterior third portion, analogous to the coronoid, for the
elevating mufcles.

In the amphifbxna, although the general configuration is
a little changed, nearly the fame arrangement is met with.
The whole upper jaw is lefs feparated from the cranium ;
the concavity of the palate is nearly complete. The pala-
tine arches are much larger. The condyloid pedicle of the
temporal bone, inllead of being vertical, is continued nearly
horizontally forwards. In proportion to the cranium, the
lower jaw is much (horter ; and it is articulated to the con-
dyle by its pofterior extremity. It is very wide behind, to
produce the coronoid procefs. The orbit and temporal
folfa are completely confounded ; they are bounded by pro-
minent bony criftse, as in the carnivorous mammalia ; hence,
on tirft view, the head of an amphifljina might be fuppofcd
to belong to one of the cheiroptera.

The ierpents of the fecond kind, whofe lower jaw is
formed of two diftinft branches, and in which the upper
is capable of being feparated, but not carried forwards, are
all the non-venomous colubres, and the boas. The con-
formation of the upper jaw, in the latter, is very different
from that of the lizards, although the bones are nearly the
fame, as we fhall explain in the olleology of the head. The
offa incifiva are not always furnilhed with teeth ; fometimes
even, as in the boas, they do not unite tlie fuperior maxil-
lary bones. All the other bones of tlie jaw are moveable on
the cranium, which ferves merely as a point of fupport.

The fuperior maxillary bones are two long branches, in
which the teeth are implanted ; they form the outer edge
of the palate. They are articulated by two points ; firit
towards their middle, as a lever of the firft kind, on a fmall
bone analogous to the os make, and forming the anterior
edge of the orbit : nearly at the fame point, but towards
the inner fide, the fuperior maxillary bone has a procefs,
which Aides in a groove, and refts on the palatine arch. It
moves on thefe two furfaces, playing backwards and for-
wards. The anterior extremity of this upper maxillary bone
is free : the pofterior receives the end of a particular bone,
ferving to unite it to the palatine arches.

The palatine arches arc the two internal bony branches
themfelves, formed of two parts. An anterior, which is
free in front, and articulated by three points ; behind, with
a bony branch, which proceeds towards the extremity of the
lower jaw within its articulation, and appears to form a
continuation of it ; on the outfide, with a particular bone,
uniting it to the maxillary arch ; and above, with the bafis
of the cranium, in front of the orbits. The pofterior por-
tion of the palatine arch is analogous to the pterygoid
aliE or laminx. It is articulated by three points; ift,
in front, with the pofterior extremity of the iirft portion ;
2d, behind, with the lower jaw towards the infide ; 3d, on
the outfide, and towards its anterior part, with the bone
uniting it to the maxillary arch. Laftly, the third pa-
lato-maxillary is a piece nearly cylindrical in its middle,
flattened and widened at its two extremities, by which it
is fupported, being articulated, on the outfide, to the pof-
terior extremity of the maxillary arch, on the infide, to-
wards the middle and outfide of the pterygoid portion of
the palatine arch.

In coiilequciice of this fmgular torination, the whole
upper jaw is, as it were, fufpended and diftinft from tlie
cranium, and influenced by the motions of the lower jaw.
When the pofterior extremities of the latter are feparated,
the pterygoid arches are moved apart. They carry with tiiem
the pofterior extremities of the palatine and maxillary arches,
while at the fame time the anterior extremity is moved in-
wards. On the contrary, when the two internal edges of
the pterygoid lamiux are brought togctiier, or, what is the
fame, when tlie articular extremities of the lower jaw tend
to approximate, the anterior ends of the palatine and
maxillary arches are carried outwards, and feparate from
each other.

The ferpents of the third order, which have jaws fuf-
ccptible of feparation, and which at the fame time can carry
forwards the fuperior maxillary booes, properly fo called,
exhibit but a flight modification of the llruiftiire defcribed
as belonging to tlie preceding divifiou. Their pterygoid
arches are articulated with the lower jaw, toward.! its ex-
tremity, on the guttural afpeft. They alfo receive the
bone which is to join them to tlie palatine arches ; but the
latter are very fhort, direftcd forwards, and only containing
venomous teeth. Tliis intermediate bone, therefore, goes
above the fuperior maxillary, which is itfelf articulated in
the front of the orbit, or the fhort and moveable cheek-
bone. When the lower jaw is moved forwards, the pala-
tine arch, carried in the fame direftion, drives before it the
bone which joins it to the maxillary. The latter, extremely
moveable, is immediately turned up, or carried forwards, by
moving on the cheek-bone, which caufes a complicated
feries of motions.

The articulation of the lower jaw is the fame in the whole
family. The temporal proceffes are prolonged pofteriorly :
they receive an intermediate bone ; analogous to that defig-
nated by the name quadratum in birds. This bone is very
fhort, and pofTefTes little motion, in the fpecies which have
the upper jaw fixed, and the inferior confolidated.

It is direfted forwards in the amphifbxna towards the
lower jaw, which is fhorter than the cranium by nearly one-
third ; — a circumilance which belongs only to this fpecies.
In the anguis, the os quadratum defcends much more ob-
liquely forwards.

In all the other fpecies the bone laft-mentioned is much
longer. It fometimes defcends perpendicularly, as in the
boas ; but it is commonly direfted backwards, as in moft of
the colubres. The temporal extremity is generally widened
and excavated by a fmall depreflion. The inferior extre-
mity is rounded hke a condyle, and received into an exca-
vation of the pofterior extremity of the correfponding
branch of the inferior maxillary bone.

From the nature of its articulation, the lower jaw of either
fide is not only fulceptible of elevation and depreflion, fo as
to open and ihut u.e mouth, by playing on the 03 qua-
dratum, as is the cafe only in the genera amphifbsna and an-
guis ; but it may alfo be carried outwards, and take with
it the OS quadratum, as is the cafe in the colubres and
venomous ferpents, whenever the pterygoid arch is moved
outwards. That is to fay, whenever the upper jaw is
widened, the inferior mufl follow its dilatati.in, becaufe the
pofterior extremities of the pterygoid arches, being arti-
culated with the internal part of the lower jaw, it mull
move together with them. The arrangemeni of the mufcles
accords very well with this formation, as we Ihall proceed
to defcribe.

Mufcies of the Jaius. — The maxillary mufcles of the
genera anguis and amphifbiena, and probably of all the fer-
pents with a confolidated under jaw, relemble ihofc of the

commou

REPTILES.

common lizard : but they are very different in tliofc whofe
lower jaw coiififts of two dilUnft pieces : we fliall defcribe
them in the rattlefnake.

Here the niufcles of the lower jaw are concealed in the
lips, and go round the mouth on each fide. That which
forms the anterior edge of the commiirure of the lips is the
ftrongell, and feems to hold the place of the mafleter. It
arifes by firm aponeurofes from the tendinous flicath, which
contains the venomous gland. Its fibres form a confiderable
cord, which conftitutes the whole thicknefs of the lower lip,
and are inferted in the upper edge of the inferior maxillary
branch for almoft two-tiiirds of its length.

The mufcle immediately behind is analogous to the tem-
poral, and is much flenderer than the preceding. It is a
mufcular fafciculus, of which the fuperior extremity is fixed
to the temporal excavation behind the orbit, and the in-
ferior, after going backwards beliind the commifTure, is
confounded with the infertion of the lall mufcle. It is
obvious that the contraclion of thefe two mufcles muft
approximate the jaws, and thus clofe the mouth.

In the commiiTure of the lips, and behind the two laft
mufcles, we fee another refembhng them in form, but much
(horter. It occupies the inferior part of the os quadratum,
and about the pofterior third of the javif, at tlie outer edge
of the denta! canal. It is an acceffory mufcle to the tem-
poral and mafleter.

The mufcle correfponding to the digaftricus occupies the
whole length of the back of the os quadratum, and ter-
minates at the poilerior apophyiis of the maxillary branch
beyond and behind its articulation.

The mufcles moving the upper jaw are more numerous.
One arifes, by aponeurotic fibres, from the capfule of the
joint, between the maxillary branch and the os quadratum,
and pailes forwards and upwards towards the flieath of the
venomous teeth, being partly expended on that fhcath, and
on the pofterior apophyfis of the fuperior maxillary bone.
Its ufe is evidently to draw down the venomous teeth, when
they have been elevated.

Two other mufcles aft on the pterygoid and palatine
branches. Both are fi uated between the middle line of the
bafis cranii and the palatine arches. The lovver, lituated
immediately under the (kin in the palatine foffa, is a plane
of elongated fibres, occupying the whole middle line of the
cranium, and going backwards to the internal furface of
the bony pterygoid plate, which it will carry inwards and
forwards, fo as to protrude the fuperior maxillary bone,
and elevate the venomous fangs, at the fame time contraft-
ing the mouth by the approximation of the two internal
arches.

The other mufcle, flenderer, and placed above the pre-
ceding, towards the bafis of the fliull, extends from the
anterior portion of the palatine arch, and the whole length
of this arch, to the middle of the bafis 'cranii, crofling the
direction of the laft mufcle, on which it is placed. When
it contrafts, it carries backwards the whole mafs of the
upper jaw, at the fame time approximating its two branches.

By means of this mechanifm, ferpents can twill their
mouths in feizing objefts, and dilate them extraordinarily,
fo as to fwallow animals larger than themfelves. Their
teeth ferve merely for holding their prey ; and the mufcles
moving the bones, in which thefe teeth are implanted, can-
not move them in fuch a way as would be neceffary for
maftication, but merely deprefs, elevate, approximate, fepa-
rate, protraft, and retraft them.

Lac^pede thus defcribes the motions of the jaws in fer-
pents. " While the teeth of one fide are fixed in the prey
which the animal has feized, and are therefore motionlefs,

thofe of the other fide are carried forwards penetrate ilie
animal, drag it tov/ards the throat, and there fix it in
their turn ; when the oppofite ones arc again advanced to
repeat the fame procefs on their fide. By thefe repeated
alternate motions of the two fides of the jaws, combined
with their lateral expanfion, ferpents are enabled gradually
to fwallow animals of a diameter exceeding their own."
Hift. Nat. des Serpens.

T/je Teeth. —Their ftrufture has nothing peculiar in rep-
tiles. The bone is compact and hard ; the enamel thin ;
and, as they are always thin, there is none of the third fub-
ftance called by Cuvierthe cement. We are not acquainted
with any fafts concerning the fucceflion of the teeth in
reptiles ; — w^hcther they have two ftts, or that the firft
grow conftantly, or that the jaws are elongated ante-
riorly, &c. The crocodile forms an exception to this re-
mark ; we are indebted to Cuvier for a very interelting ac-
count of the fucceflion of their teeth, wliich we (hall fl.ate
prefently.

The chelonian reptiles, like birds, have no teeth, pro-
perly fo called: the horny fubftance encafing their jaws, and
fupplying the place of teeth, will be defcribed at the end of
this account of the teeth of reptiles.

The faurian, ophidian, and batracian reptiles may be
compared to the cetacea ; as they do not mafticate their
prey, the teeth are calculated merely to hold, and not to
divide it : hence they have much lefs influence on their
economy than thofe of viviparous quadrupeds. They ac-
cord, however, tolerably with the natural genera and fub-
genera.

Tiiey are almoft always the fame in all parts of the jaw,
fo that they admit of divifion into different dalles, ac-
cording to their configuration, only in very few fpecies.

Sometimes they are attached to the two jaws only, as in
the mammalia : this is the cafe with the faurians (excepting
only the iguana, which has palatine as well as maxillary
teeth) ; lometimes they are implanted alfo in the palate, as
in the ophidians, with the fiugle exception of the amphil-
baena. Their number is of lefs importance ; firft, becaufe
it is confiderable, and > ot accurately determined ; fecondly,
becaufe they fall out without any hitherto afcertained re-
gularity, either in fituation or time.

Teet/} of the Saurians. — In the crocodile the enamel is more
or lels ihiated longitudinally. The upper and lower teeth
crofs when the jaws are fliut. They are all conical, hollow,
generally a little curved, and marked with two longitudinal
projecting lines ; an anterior and a pofterior one. The five
or (\\ pofterior teeth on each fide are more obtufe and com-
prelled than the others.

In a living crocodile, which Perrault obferved at Ver-
failles in 1681, he found that all tlie teeth were flightly
bent towards the throat, and that this curvature was the
moft confpicuous in thofe near the end of the fnout. When
the jaws were drawn together, the teeth of each jaw pafled
into the intervals between thofe of the other, fo that an
uninterrupted feries was vifible, as there are no lips to hide
them. He fays further, that the points of the upper teeth
entered into excavations of the lower jaw.

The following account is derived from Cuvier's Obf. fur
I'Ofteologie des Crocodiles vivans, in the icth volume of
the Ann. du Muf. " Tke number of the teeth does not
chnnge with the age of the animal : a crocodile quitting the
egg has the fame number as one twenty feet long. I have
afcertained this faft in a feries of heads from an inch to
two feet long. The back teeth may be a little concealed
by the fltin of the gums. The interior is always hollow,

although

REPTILES.

although the teetli, as in all other cafes, are formed by fuc-
ceflive ilrata.

" The capfule containing the new tootii is not cncloftd
in a feparatc cell of the maxillary bone, as in the mammalia,
but it lies in the bottom of the fockct of the tooth which
it is defigned to fucceed. This little (lic-U is tirft (5n the
internal fiirface of the root of the tooth in place ; it occa-
fions a groove in this part, by which, as it increa-fes in
length, it penetrate? into the hollow of the latter, and then
deftroys by its prelTure the pulp that filled its cavity, and
furniihed the materials of its increafe. Hen:e, at what-
ever age we may remove a crocodile's teeth, we Ihall find,
either in the alveolus, or in the cavity of the tooth itfelf, a
fmall tooth, either in the form of a thin and fliort (hell, or
more advanced and ready to occupy its place, when the
old and enveloping tooth fiiall have been difcharged. This
fuccefiion loems to be repeated as long as the animal lives :
hence the teeth always appear (liarp and frefli, and although
larger, they are not much more worn in old than in young
crocodiles. I have alcertained all thefe fatls in a recer.t
head, and in others preferved in fpirits of wine : and I
could didinguiili very clearly pulps and capfules fimilar to
tliofe of quadrupeds.

" Tliis procefs was tolerably well underftood by Per-
ranlt and Duvcrney ; Mem. pour fervir a I'Hiftoirc des
Animaux, v. iii. p. 167.

"As the teeth of the crocodiles are generally nearly
perfeft cones, and enlarge to their very bafis, how can
they come out of the alveoli, of which the entrance is
much narrower than their bafe ? The new tooth, as it is
developed and fills the cavity of the old, comprefles its
fubftance againlt the focket, deftroys its confidence, makes
it crack, and thus difpofes it to be feparated on the flighteft
ftiock at the level of the gum. The fragments are eafily
thruft out of the fockets. We often find in the fockets of
crocodiles, when changing their teeth, rings formed by the
relics of the old teeth left behind, through which the new
are making their w.iy : and fuch are alfo found in the fofiil
jaws of true crocodiles.

" The bafe of the cone is generally not entire, but
exhibits a more or lefs deep fiil'ure on its internal fide : it
has been already mentioned that this is caufed by the pref-
fure of the germ of the new tooth. Wiiile the germ is
very imall, this fiffure does not exift, and the germ itfelf
never exhibits it.

" Although the teeth may be faid to be all alike, and
arranged in an uniform feries, fome are rather larger than
the reft ; and the greater this inequality, the more irre-
gular is the line of the jaws.

" Thefe larger teeth are either received into grooves of
the oppofite jaw, or into holes, or they perforate it com-
pletely.

" In the caimans or alligators, the firft: of Cuvier's
fubgenera, (containing the American fpecies,) there are
from nineteen to twenty-two teeth on each fide below, and
nineteen or twenty above. The two firit of the lower
jaw penetrate at a certain age the front of the upper jaw,
and go completely through it. The foin-th of the fame jaw
are the longeft, and go into the holes of the upper jaw,
in which they are entirely concealed v>'hen the mouth is
(hut. The five front in the upper jaw are intermaxillary
teeth.

" The firft; and fourth of the lower jaw are long in all
the three fubgenera ; next to thefe come the eighth and
ninth of the upper, the eleventli of the lower jav,' in the
true crocodiles and caimans. The caiman with bony eye-lids
(crocodilus palpebrofus) has the twelfth below and the tenth

Vol. XXIX.

above the longeft. After the fourth in the gavials (Ion.
giroftres) they are all nearly equal, fo that the jaws in
thefe have not fo waving a line as in the other fub-
genera.

" The fourth tooth below might be called canine, from its
fupcrior length, and bccanfe it correfponds to the future
between the maxillary and intermaxillary portion of the
upper jaw.

" In the fecond fub-gcnus, or proper crocodiles, there
arc fifteen teeth on each fide below, and nineteen above.
The firft of the lower jaw penetrate the upper; the fourth
pafs into grooves, and arc not lodged in cavities of the
upper jaw.

" The gavials (longiroftres) have 25—27 on each fide
below, and 27 — 28 above. The two firft and the two
fourth of the lower pafs into grooves, not into perforations
or cavities of the upper."

In the tupinambis ot the Nile we find fixteen above, of
which five are intermaxillary, thirteen below ; all conical,
and nightly bent backwards : the pofterior are the largell
and moft obtufe. In a tupinambis from the Moluccas
there were fix above, and feven below, all comprefled and
pointed.

The teeth of the common lizard, the iguana, and agame,
are cutting, and more or lefs fcrrated on the edges ; they
are all fo in the iguana, where feveral have fix or eight
denticulations, and there are twenty or twenty-one teetti on
each fide. The common hzard has twenty-one or twenty-
two, but the anterior are not fenfibly denticulated, and the
others have merely a groove. The agame has nineteen or
twenty, all with three denticulations. In thefe three genera
they increale in fize from before backwards.

They are triangular, with a little groove before and
behind, in the ftelHo : there are fixteen or feventeen fuoh
on each fide, and two large conical canine teeth. There
are, moreover, two fmall conical intermaxillary teeth above,
to which nothing correfponds beloAV.

The dragon correfponds to the ftellio in its teeth, except
that the canine are proportionally longer than the incifors :
the number is the fame. There is a good reprefentation of
them in Blumenbacli, Abbildungen Natur-Hiftorifcher ge-
genftande. No. 98.

The gecko has thirty-five or thirty-fix teeth on each fide,
all of equal fize, clofe, fimple, flender, and pointed. The
flat-headed gecko has feventy or feventy-four on each
fide. There are twenty-two on each fide, above and below,
in the fcink, all conical, ftiort, clofely fet, and of equal
fize.

The cameleon has, on each fide, eighteen above and nine-
teen below ; of which the anterior are very fine, the pofte-
rior much larger, and furniftied with three points.

Teeth of the Batracians All thefe have teeth in the

palate ; as to the jaws, the falamanders have them in
both, the frogs in the fuperior only, and the toads in
neither.

The palatine teeth form, in the toads and frogs, a tranf-
verfe line, interrupted in the middle. They are implanted
in the palate bones. They form two lang parallel lines in
the falamander.

The maxillary teeth are fmall, pointed, and clofely fet.
The frog has about forty on each fide above, eight of
which are intermaxillary ; the falamander fixty, both above
and below, and thirty on each fide of the palate.

Teeth of the Ophid'mns. — The ferpents are di\-ided firft into

two families, thofe which can, and thofe which cannot,

feparate the two halves of the upper jaw. The former

have no incifor teeth ; but they have palatine, maxdlary, and

4 X mandibular.

REPTILES.

mandibular, or teeth of the lower jaw. The latter, having
all the edge of the upper jaw furnifticd with teeth, poffcfs,
confequcntly, a kind of incifors.

The fecond family includes only the angues and amphif-
bsnx. The former, betides the conical fliglitly curved teeth
of uniform fize, which they have in both jaws (eighteen
or twenty above, and fifteen or fixteen below on each fide),
poffefs others, very fmall and (hort, arranged in two rows,
on the pollerior half of each palatine arch.

The other family is fubdivided into two tribes, the venom-
ous and the non-venomous. In the latter there arc conical.

curved, and very pointed teeth, direfted backwards along
each maxillary, palatine, and mandibular arch ; confequently
tl ere are four rows in the upper, and two in the lower jaw,
all nearly longitudinal.

On the maxillary liranch of the venomous ferpents there
arc oidy the hollow fangs, attached to the anterior extre-
mity only ; confeijucntly, with the exception of thefe fangs,
there arc only the two palatine rows above, and the two
rows of the lower jaw below.

The following is a table of the numbers of teeth on each
fide in fome ipecies.

Namf8.

Incifor Tceih.

M^xilUry.

Palatine.

Mandibular.

Boa conftriftor.

2

i8

H

Coluber molurus.

O

i8

24

20

Coluber nafica.

0

i6

of which the ante-
rior are the largeft.

25

of uniform fize ;

very fmall.

'8 .
the anterior

largeft.

Coluber nati-ix (common fnake).

o

i8

the pofterior

largeft.

28

24

Rattlefnake (crotalus horridus\

o

I
and feveral rudi-
ments not fixed.

14

5 or 6

Coluber haje.

0

the fame.

25
and a parallel row

of fmail ones.

12 — 14

Coluber naja.

0

the fame.

the fame.

Anguis fragihs (blindworra).

Amphilbsena fuliginofa.

on each fide, and
a middle one.

5

0

8

To this table, which is derived from the Le5ons d'Anat. America, and whofe obfervations on ferpents are inferted
comp. of Cuvier, we add a fecond, drawn up by Palifot by Daudin in the fifth volume of his Natural Hiftory of
Beauvois, a French naturalift, who fpent many years in Reptiles.

Comparative

REPTILES.

Comparative Table of the Teeth of fcveral Serpents of North America, by Palifot Bc^uvois.

Naities ol" llie Species.

Upix.!- Jaw.

Lower Jaw on
each Side.

Total Nunibi-r
ofTeeih.

External Branch.

Internal
Branch otl
each Side.

F,wd.

Fangs ()[i
cacli Sitlc.

Common Tc-lh on each
Side.

Crotalus durifl'us.

I

O

6

5

24

Squirrels, various birds, rats,
mice.

1 Cr. rhombifer.

I

o

Hares, fquirrels, birds, rats,
mice.

1 Cr. miliaris.

I

o

«

Grafshoppers and other in-
fers, vrorms.

Vipera berus.

I

o

10

10 — 12

44-48

1 Coluber hetorodon
(hognofe-fnake).

O

13
the two lower ones

three times larger.

•4

12-15

80 86

InfetSls, worms, field-mice,
flirews.

Col. erytrogram-

mus.

o

10

15 — 16

10 — 12

70-76

Birds, young turtles, frogs,
falamanders, the amphibi-
ous rat.

Col. conftriiSor.

o

12

28-30

16—18

112 — 120

As the lall ; alfo fquirrels,
lizards, tree-frogs.

Col. getulus
(chain fnake).

0

8

18—20

10 — 12

72—80

Lizards, a ferpent with red
and black bands, col. ful-
vius ?

Col. fafciatus.

o

8

20—24

12—15

80 — 94

Small fifties, frogs, infetSs,
worms.

Col. fulvius.

the teeth net
afcertained.

Grafshoppers and other
infefts.

Col. faurita.

the fame.

Tree-frogs, infefts, worms.

Venotnous Teeth and Gland. — We have ftated that the
innocent ferpents have teeth along the maxillary edge of
the upper jaw, and in the palate ; that is, four parallel
rows, two external or maxillary, two internal or palatine.
The venomous kinds, inftead of the maxillary rows, have
the venomous fangs at the anterior end of each fuperior
maxillary branch ; and they pofiefs the palatine rows, as
well as the innocent ferpents. There is no difference in the
teeth of the lower jaw. The venomous fangs are much
longer and thicker than the other teeth : they are conical,
(harp-pointed, and perforated by a fine tube. They are
moveable at the will of the animal, and can be drawn up
from the jaw, or laid down at pleafure. They are contained
in a kind of cavity formed in the gums, from which their
point projefts.

At the end of his account of Indian ferpentB, Rufiel has
given two finely engraved plates, reprefenting the appear-
ances of the teeth in the venomous and innocent fpecies.
In the coluber catenularis (tar-tuttahi, an innocent ferpent,
there are two marginal or maxillary rows of fimple teeth,
and two palatine rows. The vipera elegans (katukah-
rekula-podah) has alfo two palatine, but no marginal or

maxillary rows. The teeth are furrounded by a fringed
membranous covering, whi.-:h almofl: conceals them. The
points alone appear, when the membrane is not entirely de-
preffed. At the anterior end of the maxillary bone, on
each fide, is a large membranous fac, wrinkled, and con-
taining the fangs. The vipera naja, or fpetftacle fnake, has
the palatine teeth, and two venomous fangs, like the laft ;
but the teeth are fmaller, the fangs fliorter, and the mem-
branous fac lefs apparent. The bungarura-pamah, a fpecies
of bungarus, has the palatine teeth, two fangs ftill fmaUer
than in the fpeftacle fnake, and at the edge of the mouth,
behind the orifice of the bag inclfifing the fangs, three
fmall teeth on each fide, which may be confidered as an
imperfedt maxillary row.

In the vipera elegans, the fang is fixed to a bony bafis,
which is attached to the fuperior maxillary bone : tliis bafis
is much longer in the fpeftacle fnake, and has attached to
it the three fmall fimple teeth already mentioned.

Behind the venomous fangs in the vipers and other fer-
pents, are other fmaller fangs, faid to be defigned to replace
the former when they are loft.

Blumenbach has given an excellent deliueation of the
4X3 mouths

REPTILES.

mouths of the bon conftriflor and tlie crotalus horiidus, in
his Abbilduiigcn Natur-Hillorifcher gcgenftandc-, No. 37,
to fliew the difference between the venomous and innocent
kinds; an objeft of the greatell importance, both with
rcgnrd to the fewer fpecics of the former, and the much
more numerous of the latter kind, in order to warn mankind
againil real danger, and preferve them from groundk-fs
terrors. " All ferpents (fays Blumenbach), whether ve-
nomous or not, have the double internal row of palatine
teeth, and the inferior maxillary teeth, in common. But
the innocent fpecies have moreover the whole outer edge of
the upper jaw furniflied with teeth : in the venomous kinds,
this is toothlefs. But the latter have, at each anteriur
corner of the mouth, attached to the upper jaw, the long
hollow fangs with a flit at their point. Thcfe are connected
with the venomous glands, of which they may be regarded
as bony excretory dufts, to convey venom into the wound
made by the bite.

" When, therefore, we fee in any fnako four rows of
teeth in the upper jaw, i<iz. belides tlie two internal palatine
rows, an external row on each fide running to the corner of
the mouth ; we may be ftire that the fpecies is poifonlefs,
and fo far innocent."

The poi/unous gland, peculiar to the ferpents with fangs,
and faid to be of the conglomerate kind, like the falivary
glands of the mammalia, is fituated on each fide, behind the
crbit, clofe to the branch of the fuperior maxilla, and almoil
immediately under the fliin. It is covered by a membranous
or aponeurotic femitranfparent flieath, fixed to the bones of
the head in front of the gland. The excretory duft extends
from ihe anterior part of the gland, immediately under the
erbit, to the bony bafi< of the fang, and opens into a canal
excavated in the fang, running through it from above down-
wards, and terminating by an oblique aperture on its ante-
rior furface. Two mufcles dcftined to elevate the fangs, to
deprefs the fuperior maxillary bones, and confeqnenlly to
clofe the mouth, pafs along thefe bones from before back-
wards ; one on the outer, and the other on the inferior fide
of the gland. Thefe cannot adt without comprefTing the
gland, and expelling its fecretion into-the excretory dad.
See a reprefentation of the gland and the furrounding
mufcles in the coluber naja, Phil. Trani. 1804, pi. 2. pi. 8.

In the article Poison of this work, there is an account
"•of the appearance and fcnfible properties of the fluid fecreted
by the venomous gland of the viper, and of its efTcas on
animals. We have a few additional points to mention on
this fubjeft, as well as concerning the poifonous properties
of fome other ferpents.

Fontana ali'erts, that the noxious qualities of the fecre-
tion are retained for a long time, even in a dry flate ; and
that perfons have fufFcred from wounds inflicted by the fangs
of vipers, and other venomous ferpents, preferved in fpirits
or dried, even years after the death of the animal. The
venom retains its colour and tranfparency in the dead tooth,
and is Hill adive enough to kill animals, if it be rendered
fluid by immerfion in warm water. He alfo found it aclive
after many months, when dried and powdered.

Leeches, fnails, and flugs, were not injured by the venom
of the viper. The blindworm and common fnake were not
affefted. Of tortoifes, fome were infenfible to the bite,
others died at the end of fome hours, when bitten by fcveral
vipers.

The bites of the vipers of thele climates produce more or
lefs alarming fymptomsin the human fubjeft, but are not at-
tended witli danger. A pcafant, bitten by a viper in the
httle toe, had the foot, leg, and thigh fwoln in fix hours ;
the pulfe fmali and intermittent ; tliere was head-ache, pain in

fio

the abdomen, laJTitude, and ojiprefrion ; he cried frequently
and had no appetite. He gradually recovered in two days,
under the ufe of vegetable decoflions and poultices, whicii
probably did not contribute mucii to hifc relloration. Dau-
din. Hill. Nat. des Reptiles, 8vo. iiitrod. p. 138.

Lcpechin mentions the circjmflani.c of a young Bafchkir,
ten years old, being bitten by a black viper (coluber prcller,
L.) in the foot. " Son pied enfla extrememcnt en moin*
d'unc demi-heure, et il eprouvoit tant de douleur dans la
partic bleflce, qu'il ne pouVoit pas remuer le piad fans ctre
force de crier : la paleur extreme de fon vifagc, fes yeux
troubles, et fa refpiration gence, annonijoient tres-fortement
k danger que couroit ce jeune homme, fi I'on n'y apportoit
un prompt remcde." Olive oil externally, and volatile
alkali by the mouth, were the fuccefsful remedies. Daudin,
v. 6. p. 168 ; (quoted from Lcpechin, Tagebuch einer
Reife, Sect. 2. p. 105).

While Charas was engaged in refearches for his work on
the viper, he was bitten in the fore -finger. He immediately
fucked the wound, made a ligature on the root of the finger,
and another on the v\Tiil. The bite gave him but little pain.
He took fome fudorifics, which operated in a few hours, and
he was cured.

Boyle fays that he cured a man bitten by a vip'-r, by hold-
ing a red-hot iron near the wound for a quarter of an hour.
The truth feems to be, that the effcfts of the bite are not
confiderable in the human fubject ; and this accounts better
for the recovery of perlons bitten, than any virtues in the re-
medies employed.

The wounds inflicted by thefe animals are not, however, al-
ways fo free from danger. The viper cherfea (coluber
cherfea, L.), fays Daudin, is very venom.ous, and its bite is
often mortal. Linnaeus employed olive oil in the cafe of a
woman who had been bitten ; but flie died, although the re-
medy had been fuccefsfuUy employed in the bite of the
black viper (vipera preiter). Dacdin. v. 6. p. 148.

The wounds of many Indian, African, and American fer-
pents, are, liowever, fatal to the human fubjecl. The vi-
pera cornuta of foulhern Africa, is defcribed by Paterfon as
very virulent, infomuch, that the Bosjefmen and Namaquaws
employ its venom for poiloning their arrows. Daudin, ibid,
p.' 189.

A captain Hall made fome experiments on the poifonous
powers of the rattlefnake, of which he has recorded the re-
fults in the Philofophical Tranfaftions. Tke firft dog- bitten
by this animal died in fifteen leconds ; the fecond at the end
of two hours; and the. third of three hours. He recom-
menced his experiments with the fame ferpent on the follow-
ing day : the firll dog died in thirty feconds ; another in
four minutes. Three days after, a frog died in two minutes,
a chicken in three minutes. A httle time after, an amphif-
baena was bitten, and died in eight minutes ; and the fer-
pent, having fubfequently bitten himfelf, died in twelve
minutes.

Su- Everard Hume has defcribed at full length the cafe of
a man, who was bitten on the thumb and fore-finger by a
rattle-fnake between four and five feet long in this country.
He died eighteen days after the accident. Great fwelUng
of the whole limb up to the axilla enfued ; the tumefaction
did not extend to the neck, but there was a fuUnefs down the
fide, and blood was extravafated as low as the loins, produ-
cing a mottled appearance. A full trial was given to the
volatile alkali, both externally and internally, and to other
medicines of the like nature, as ether, brand), &c. alfo to
opium. The cellular fubilancc had floughed over the whole
fwelled part of the limb, fo that the ftin was feparated uni-
verfally from the mufcles. For a further account of this cafe,

and

KEPTILES.

and of fomc other cafes of bites of Eall and Weft Indian
ferpents, fee tlie Pliil. Tranf. for 1810, p. 75.

Riillel, in his account of Indian ferpents;, has furniftied
U" with the moll ample and iuterelling details concerning the
Indian poifonous ferpents. Of thefe the cobra de capello, or
ipedtacle fnake (coluber naja), and the katiika-rekula-poda 1 vi-
pera elegans', are the moll dangerous. It appears, from a
comparifon of the effefts of the venom of the Indian ferpents,
the rattlcfnakes, and the viper in the mammalia, that the fymp-
toms are nearly the fame in all, but that the term of their du-
ration dillcrs. The bite of a rattlefnake dcftroyed a dog
in England in two minutes ; while that of the nioft venomous
Indian fnake has never been fatal to this animal in Icfs than
thirty-feven minutes. A chicken bitten by the gedi para-
goodoo (bungarus CKruleus) was immediately attefted with
itupor ; in ten minutes, it was incapable of remaining up-
right ; a quarter of an kour after it was ftretched on the
ground, as if afleep ; it made fome efforts to rife, turning
the head to one lide and the other, became convulfed, and
perilhed in half an hour.

A llout dog was bitten in the thigh by a ferpent of the
fame fpecies : he howled much from the bite, but walked
about freely. He lay down in a quarter of an hour, and
howled : when an attempt was made to make him Hand by
railing him up, it was found vhat the hind limbs were para-
lyfed. He grew worfe, ceafed to howl, and vomited
abundantly : he became benumbed, and remained lying on
the lide. He died in two hours, having had very bad con-
vulfions.

A lean bitch, having been bitten near the groin, remained
fifteen minutes without exhibiting any fymptomsof fuffering.
In fifty minutes fhe lay down, and appeared much afFefted :
on attempting to make her iland, it was difcovered that the
limbs were paralyfed. She vomited a little, and was con-
vulfed till death, which occurred feventy minutes after the
bite.

Wounds infliftcd by the fpeiStacle fnake, or coluber naja,
had the fame eflefts ; alfo thofe of the katuka rekula poda.
Death did not always follow in the latter cafe, particularly
in a dog, who was bitten fix times, and once inoculated with
the poifon. A horfe was bitten by the lall-mentioned (nake
on each fide of the nofe. Prodigious fwelling enfued, and
extended to the throat ; the animal rcfufed his food, vomited,
and appeared greatly affefted. He liad an emollient fo-
m.entation, and recovered on the third day.

Experiments with the bodrou pam had the fame refults :
fwelling, numbnefs, paralyfis, convuliions, and death.

Riidcl tried inoculation of^the venom with needles, thread,
5:c. Of fix trials on dogs, none proved mortal. Eight
out of twenty-four were fatal in chickens and pigeons.

Several venomous and innocent ferpents were expofed to
the fpeiitacle fnake : it would not bite them until inftigated
to do it, and they died without attempting to retahate. But
Ruffel found, in repeated trials, that two of thefe animals
did not hurt each other ; they would fight, and wound each
other, but thefe wounds were not mortal.

Many circumftances modify the refults of wounds in-
ffidled by venomous ferpents : w'z. the quantity of venom,
the condition of the ferpent as to vigour or wcaknefs, the
number of bites he has infhfted, the fituation and nature
of the part bitten, the fize of the animal, &c.

There are many fafts to prove, that the lecretion of the
venomous gland, which is fo adtive a poifon, when intro-
duced into a frefh wound, is quite innocent, and probably
inoperative, if taken into the llomach. The pfylli, or fer-
pent charmers, fo celebrated among the ancients for curing
perfons who had been bitten by vipers, fucked the wound

llrongly and repeatedly. Recent wounds made by the fer
de lance (vipera lanceolata) of Martinique, the venom of
which is very atlive, are alfo fucked with impunity. Fon-
tana fwallowed the poifon of the viper, both mixed with
water, and pure ; it had even a mild taftc, inftead of pro-
ducing a caullic and burning fenfation, as fome have ftatcd.
The heads of vipers, with their fangs and glands entire,
have been eaten by dogs witliout any ill effcdts ; and even
the head of the terrible rattlefnake, with all its venomoua
apparatus, has been employed, with the reft of the body, in
making foup, which has been drunk with perfect im-
punity.

Having thus defcribed the inftruments with which nature
has furnifhed the venomous ferpents, for the purpofe of at-
tacking, killing, feizing, and fwallowing their prey, we
cannot be at much lofs to underllaiid how thefe objects are
effctled ; yet the prevailing notions on the fubjeft are calcu-
lated, inllead of elucidating, to involve a plain matter in ob-
fcurity and myftery. Thefe will be moll efledlually dif-
pelled by the following Itatement of Palifot Beauvois, who
had confiderable opportunities of obferving the habits of fer-
pents in America. " Much has been written on the manner
in which ferpents feize their prey : fome afcribe to them a
kind of magical power, the effedl of which is to charm and
enchant the animals on whom they fix their looks ; others,
lefs fond of the marvellous, pretend that they infpire them
with cxceflive alarm, that, not knowing what they do, they
run from one fide to the other, fly, return, and at lall preci-
pitate themfelves into the jaws of the monller ; a third
opinion is, that ferpents diffufe around a fetid odour, by
the aid of which they fuffocate birds, fquirrels, rabbits, and
the different animals on whicli they feed. It mult be diffi-
cult to determine the means employed by thefe animals in a
Hate of nature, for the purpofe of feizing their prey ; and
It would probably be wrong if we were to fuppole tliat the
fame means are adopted in all inllances. Can we believe, for
example, that the black ferpent (coluber conllriilor), which
creeps with aflonifhing quicknefs, climbing flirubs, and not
at all venomous, fhould employ the fame means as the boi-
quira (crotalns durillus), a llow moving animal, never afcend-
iiig the fmallell plant, and furnifhed, like all tjie venomous
ferpents, with two fangs, the wound of which is fo quickly
fatal ? Yet, if we may judge of thefe reptiles in a flate of
liberty, by what goes on when they are prifoners, they cer-
tainly create only a common alarm, fuch as any creature will
feel, when endeavouring to efcape from its enemy. The
animals experience no enchantment, nor any attack of mad-
nefs, when a ferpent fixes his eyes on them. Serpents pro-
duce no bad fmell, ftill lefs a fetid vapour, capable of fuffo-
eating animals. The boiquira eats indifcriminately all the
dead birds brought to it. It will not eat frogs, which the
black ferpent, on the contrary, feems to prize highly. Faf-
ciiiation and charms are repugnant to reafon : forcerers and
magicians exilf no more among animals than men : cunning,
addrefs, and force, are in both cafes a fufficient, as well as the
only charm and power, to render the weak tributary and vic-
tim to the llrong.

" I made, in conjunftion with Peale, the following obfer-
vations on a boiquira, which he had preferved alive for five
years, and on a black ferpent.

" A living bird (idferus pheniceus) was put into the cage
with the rattlefnake, and remained there two days, without
any offenfive proceeding on the part of the ferpent. The
bird did not feem at all uneafy. As far as we could judge
from the countenance, the air which it breathed was the
fame as it would be in an ordinary clofed cage. During
the two days, the reptile ate a dead bird of the fame fpecies

as

REPTILES.

as that in the cage, which he never offered to touch.
Another hving bird, the loxia cardinaUs, intlcad of being
frightened by tinding himfelf in company with the boiquira,
amufed himfelf with pecking at the cage, and eating millet-
feed thrown into him ; he changed his fitu^.tion frequently,
and would even perch on the reptile'a back ; but he moved
off at the found of the rattle. Several kinds of frogs,
living and dead, were prefented to the fame ferpent ; but he
touched none. The black ferpent, on the contrary (coluber
conltriAor), attacked the frogs immediately, and feemed
to prefer the tree-frogs. He alfo fwallowed flies and other

infefts. _ ■,,.■•

" A common rat was put mto the cage with the boiquira,
who immediately appeared animated ; the rat, frightened, ran
towards the fide oppofite to the reptile. The chafe lafted a
few feconds, the animal uling every effort to efcape, when the
reptile, perceiving a favourable moment, flew at his prey,
and bit it. The rat continued to run round the cage, but
the ferpent remained quiet : the former, in about a minute,
fweiled, became convulfed, died, and was fwallowed by his
enemy. Thefe convulfions were probably confidered by
old obfervers as the effedl of the charming power of the
ferpent, or of extraordinary fear ; but they are a regular
fyniptom of the aftion of the poifon.

"Perhaps thefe experiments do not determine exaftly the
means which ferpents employ for feizing their prey, fo likely
to efcape them by running or flying : but they feem fufhcient
to authorife us in rejedling all ideas of fafcination, or charm,
of extraordinary terror or fuffocating vapour. On the
latter point, I can flate, that nine boiquiras were kept
for three weeks in the fame box ; when it was opened, at
the end of this time, no particular odour was obferved."
Daudin's Hift. Nat. des Reptiles, in the edition of Buffon,
by Sonnini, v. 5. p. 55. ct feq.

Thofe ferpents which have not this quick and effeftual
means of deftroying their prey by the poifonous appa-
ratus, accomplifh their objett in another manner. They
throw themfelvcs on the animal which they attack, twine
round his body and lim^bs, and exert, in this manner, a com-
preflive force capable of breaking the bones. When he is
thus difabled from refiftance, they fmear him over with a
mucous faliva, and fwallow liim gradually in the way al-
ready defcribed. The enormous ferpents of Africa and
America, thirty or forty feet long, are ftrong enough to
attack and overcome the larger animals, and can then
fwallow them entire. See the account of the boa aboma

ene

ra with poifonous fangs.

Genera without poifonou
fangs.

I.

Bungarus.

I. Boa.

2.

Acanthurus ?

2. Python.

3-

Crotalus.

3. Coralius.

4-

Scytale.

4. Hurriah.

5-

Lachefis.

5. Coluber.

6.

Cenchris.

6. Enhydrus.

7-

Vipera.

7. Erpeton.

8.

Platurus.

8. Eryx.

9-

Langaha.

y. Anguis.

10.

Clollionia.

10. Ophifaurus.

1 1.

Hydrophii.

11. Pelamides.

12. Acrocliordus.

13. Amphilbsena.

14. Caeciha.

See his Hill. Nat. des Reptiles, v. 5. p. 22.

The following is given by Humboldt as a comparative
enumeration of the venomous fpecies in the old world, and
in America.

In the old continent.

Bungari
Crotalus -
Scytalie
Lachefis -
Cenchris -
Viperx-
Platuri
Clothonia
Langaha -
Hydrophes

ent.

In the new

continent.

Species.

Species

2

0

Bungarus -
Crotali

0

- 7

■ 3

0

Scytalae -
Lachefes -

2
2

0

Cenchris -

I

• 44
2

Viperx
Platurus -

- 10
0

I

Clothonia -

0

I
- 5

Langaha -
Hydrophis

0

0

58

22

See the Recueil d'Obfervations de Zoologie et d' Anatomic
comparee, v. 2. p. 5.

Horny Co'vering of the Jaws in the Chelon'tan Order. — This
fubftance is fimilar in its nature to that which compofes the
hollow horns of animals (fee Horn) ; and there is no
eli'ential difference between it and that of the bill in birds.
(See Birds, in Comparative Anatomy.) As in birds, this

by Stedman, in his voyage to Surinam and Guiana ; and of horny covering is fpread over the oppofed furfaces of the

the boa conllridlor, in Adanfon's Voyage au Senegal,
p. 152. et feq.

Proportion of the venomous to the harmlefs Serpents. — The
number of ferpents poffeffmg venomous fangs is more con-
fiderable than has been generally fuppofed. " Ne telis hor-
rentibus," fays Linnsus, " execrabili veneno nimium fsvi-
rent, decimam quamque tantum fpeciem armavit impcrans,
et verfipelles eos voluit, ut dubii omnes metuerentur ab
omnibus." Yet Dr. Ruffel found feven venomous fpecies
among forty-three, which he obferved ; and the proportion
of the venomous to tlie non-venomous kinds, among the
ferpents defcribed by Daudin, in his Hiftory of Reptiles, is
as 80 to 233. Tiiere are not more than 14 or 16 genera
of ferpents indigenous in Europe, yet among thefe are
five vipers. Of the fpecies defcribed by Daudin, 201 be-
longed to the ancient, and 112 to the new continent : the
venomous kinds formed a fourth in the former, and a fifth
in the latter.

Daudin gives the following lifts of the poifonous and
harmlefs kinds.

two mandibles ; but the organ fo covered is much lefs fuf-
ceptible of motion in the teliudines, as the upper mandible
is always fixed in them. In general it is fenfibly fibrous in
its texture, but fometimes it appears homogeneous. It is
very hard, fo as to enable thefe animals to break fhells with
facility. In this refpeft, it is analogous to the horny bills
of the birds of prey, and the refemblance is fo ftriking in
one fpecies of turtle, that it has received the name of hawk's-
bill. It is formed on a vafcular fubftance covering the bone,
as is the cafe with the hollow horns and the bill of birds.
The edges are fometimes fimple, fometimes ferrated, fome-
time« divided into large unequal teeth ; the extremity is
either entire and rounded, or grooved, or brought to a
(harp point. The edge of the upper jaw is terminated by
a thin (harp plate of horn, within which the lower paffes
to fome height, being rather narrower in its tranfverfe
nieafurement : hence any fubftance may be cut by them as
with fciffars, for the outer margin of the lower jaw is alfo
brought to a (harp edge. Be(ides this (harp edge, there
is a covering of fome breadth in the upper jaw, forming

a ric ge

REPTILES.

a ridge towards the anterior part, received into a cor-
refponding concavity of tlic lower jaw.

Safmnry Glands. — We liavc already obfervcd, tliat no-
tiling defcrvinjT the name of mallication takes place in
:iny reptile. They live on other animals, and almolt uni-
vciHiIly fwallow them whole. Some teitudines feed on
liiell-fini, and break the teftaceons coverings witli their
horny mandibles, but they do not chetu the contained ani-

i.ils. The falivary apparatus mult, therefore, be very dif-
' rent from that of the mammalia.

Several reptiles, however, require the afliftance of fluids
poured into the mouth for feizing and fwallowing their
prey. Some, as the frog and cameleon, dart out the tongue,
covered with a vifcid matter, upon infefts, which are en-
tangled in the flimc, and thus captured. Serpents fpread
a frothy flaver over the animals which they fwallow, to
facihtate their paflage.

In fome reptiles the tongue is compofed, in great part,
of a thick glandular mafs, formed of numerous fmall tubes
united at their bafes, and feparaling towai-ds the furface of
the tongue. They are fo many papilla, giving a bridly
appearance to the organ, or rendering it villous, when they
are very fmall. The fides of the mals are perforated by
numerous pores, thiough which the fecreted fluid cfcapes.
This gland refts on the mufcles of the tongue, and follows
the motions, which they communicate to the organ. The
gland in qucftion exifls in the chelonians ; in the teftudo
grasca the llru£lure juft defcribed is very evident. It exifts
alfo in feveral fauriaiis, as the flat-headed gecko (G. fim-
briatus), the common iguana, and the Schneiderian fcink.

In the agame umbra (iguana umbra, Linn.) the gland
is furmounted in front, inftead of papillx, with tranfverfe
plates clofely arranged. Thefe lamina; cover the whole
furface in the cameleon.

The tongue feems to be covered by an analogous glan-
dular fubllance in the batracians.

Where the tongue is fcaly, or fmooth, asd covered with
a fimple membrane, the place of this gland is fupplied by
two others, elongated and glandular, fituated under the
Ikin, along the external furface of the branches of the
lower jaw-bone, and pouring out their fluid at the outfide of
the teeth of the fame jaw. In this direftion they are in
contaft with the palatine membrane. Thefe glands are
ftrongly marked in the tupinambes, the colubres, and the
boas. In the amphifb;enae the glands are not fituated in
the fame place, although they have the fame apparent ftruc-
ture. They lie immediately under the tongue, between the
genio-glofh and genio-hyoidei.

The conglomerate gland lecreting the poifonous fluid of
the venomous ferpents is fpoken of in the defcription of
the teeth.

The OS hyo'ides varies in the different orders of reptdes,
but it approximates in general very nearly to that of birds,
from which it does not differ elTentially in the faurian and
ophidian orders. As in birds, its connections with the
larynx are very inconfiderable : there is no niufcle pafling
between them : a ilmple membrane is the medium of union.
They are, in faft, completely feparated in fome genera of
faurians ; as, for example, the cameleon : and the fame
obfervation may be extended to all the ophidians which
have a tongue included in a fheath. This circumftance
completes the proof of what is rendered very probable by
many other reafons, that the eflential fur.ilion of the OS
hyoides is to fupport the tongue, and affift its motions.

The form of the os hyoides varies much in the chelo-
nians : fometimes the body is nearly fquare, thin, and flat-
tened, then the pofterior cornua are ftraight, articul.iti.d to

13

the poilerior angles of the body, feparating from each
other as they pafs backwards, and liaving the larynx placed
in their interval. The anterior coniua are confolidated to
the body, a little behind tlie anterior angles, directed back-
wards, and curved upwards beliind the occiput. In front
tliebody is prolonged into a point, under the tongue, which
it fupports. Such an os hyoides is feen in tlie teltudo
gracca. But in the matamata (teftudo fimbriata, Gmcl.)
tlie body is very folid, bony,, and pyramidal, with the bafis
turned forwards. The anterior cornua, forming angles to-
wards the front, are articulated behind eacli angle termi-
nating the bafis ; while the poflerior, more flcnder, and bent
like an arc, are fixed near each other to the apex of the
pyramid.

Ufually the os hyoides confifls merely of cartilage in the
faurians, as in molt other reptiles ; its parts are generally
flender, elongated, and confolidated with each other. Yet
it preferves in the crocodile that flattened (hield-like figure,
which we have defcribed it to poffefs in the chelonian order,
and which we (hall difcover alio in the batracians. There
are only two cornua, articulated nearly in the middle of the
fides of the cartilaginous plate. They feem formed of two
portions united together, but diftinguiflicd by a kind of
angle projecting poileriorly.

In the common iguana (I. dtlicatifTima, lacerta iguana,
Linn.) the body may be confidered merely as the point of
union of the feven cornua compofing the os hyoides An
anterior one is continued under the tongue, without being
fixed to it. The fix others are behind. The two loweit
are the longeft ; they are contiguous, flightly curved, and
enter the goitre, without affording attachment to any muf-
cles or ligaments. The four others are true cornua of the
hyoid cartilage. Two pafs firft forwards, but quickly
bend backwards, and then upwards, to reach the occiput.
The others are bent backwards and upwards, fo as to re-
main nearly parallel to thefe. They are analogous, in their
form and ufe, to the correfpondmg parts in birds. The
cornua belonging to the goitre are found alfo in the fcinks,
agamcs, and dragons. In the dragon raye (draco lineatus)
their extremity is attached to the large bag forming the
goitre, and will draw it inwards, when the tongue paffes
out of the mouth. Thefe cornua are not found in the other
faurians. Sometimes there are only two hyoideal cornua,
as in the gecko fimbriatus. They are always perfeftly
analogous to thofe of birds.

The OS hyoides of the cameleon has four ; of which two
are ftraight and dircdted obliquely forwards. The two
pofterior go behind the head. The body is prolonged to
nearly the anterior third of the tongue, when that organ is
in the ftate of repofe ; it is cylindrical .ind flender in the
whole of this part, which is between one and two inches
long.

In the lizards and tupinambes, the number of cornua is
alfo four. The anterior are formed of two pieces, confo-
lidated, or moveable ©n each other, of which the firfl is
direfted forwards, while the fecond turns backwards, and
is curved towards the occiput.

In the ophidians, with a tongue inclofed in a (heath, the
hyoid cartilage is compofed of two parallel threads, direfted
from before backwards, approximated to each other, fepa-
rated in their anterior half by the fheath of the tongue, and
in the reft of their extent by the two hyogloffi. The two
threads are united in front, nearly between the pofterior
extremities of the branches of the jaw, being bent into a
femicircle under the flicath of the tongue ; from the con-
vexity of their union a fhort point is continued under the
ilieath. In the other ophidians, as the amphifbsnae, &c,

the

REPTILES.

the hyoideal cartilage' lias a triangular figure : the two pof-
terior angles are elongated to form the cornua.

The OS hyoides forms a broad nearly fquare plate, im-
mediately applied to the inferior parietes of the palate and
back of the mouth, in all the batracians, except the fala-
manders. The anterior cornua go off towards the front
from the anterior angles, feparate more widely before they
turn backwards, then are continued towards the angle of
the jaw, and curved from below upwards, in front of this
angle, to be fixed to the poflerior part of the cranium.
The pofterior horns are Itraight, ilrong, bony, not confo-
lidated with the fquare plate, but articulated to its pofterior
angles, and direfted obliquely backwards and outwards.
The larynx is placed between them. The hyoid cartilage of
the falamanders has a triangular form : the corr.ua go off from
the pofterior angles, and afcend at the fidt-s of the neck.
Their pofterior edge is confolidatcd to a thread of the
fame nature, bent in the form of a handle, and having its
acterior extremity united to that of the oppofite thread in
the middle of the pofterior concavity of the hyoid cartilage.
On each fide of the branches of this cartilage, towards tlie
front, there is a broad cartilaginous plate, nearly parallel
to them, and only joined by mufcles which go from one to
the other. It feemsto hold the place of an anterior horn.

In the thirty-fourth plate of the fifth volume of the
Legons d'Anat. comparee, there are figures of the os hyoides
of the iguana, the Nilotic crocodile, the Nilotic tupinambis,
the lacerta agilis, the gecko fimbriatus, aiiiphifbtena, an-
other ferpent, the teitudo grasca, the falamander and frog.

Mufcles of the Os Hyoides In thofe faurians, which have

a more or lefs protraftile tongue, theie mufcles contribute
greatly to its elongation, by carrying the bone forwards.

We find in reptiles ; ift, a mufcle analogous to the mylo-
hyoideus. It is compofed, in the two firft orders, of feveral
portiors; vi%. an intermaxillary, fixed to the lower edge
and internal furface of the branches of the lower jaw ; a
fecond very thick, afcending behind each angle of the jaw,
upon the digaftricus, and attached to the occiput ; a third
pafling to different diftances in the neck, fixed to the fliin
above, and embracing the neck like a girth. It is analo-
gous to the cutaneus colli ; and embraces the whole extent
of the neck in the chelonians. In the common iguana the
intermaxillary portion does not extend to the arch of the
chin ; and in the gecko there is only a thin aponeurofis
reaching fo far. But, in general, the mylo-hyoideus is fixed
to the OS hyoides in thefe two orders, which is not the cafe
in the batracians ; in which the mufcle feems to exift merely
for the purpofe of filling the wide interval between the
maxillary branches, and fupporting and elevating the parts
above it. Its fibres are direfted tranfverfely from one
branch to the other ; they are divided in feveral fpecies by
a median line, and attached to the internal furface of the
maxillary branches, which enables them to elevate more
advantageoufly the fubjacent parts. In the rana ocellata the
pofterior edge is feparated on each fide, to afcend within
the angle of the lower jaw as high as the palatine membrane.

2. The mufcle analogous to the flerno-hyoideus is at-
tached in the chelonians, between tlie two cornua of the fame
fide, and to the pofterior cornu ; it defcends along the
neck, paffes within the firft bone of the fhoulder, and is
inferted on the infide of the neck of the fecond bone. It
refts, in this courfe, againft the fides of the cefophagus,
and is Itrongly attached to the pharynx towards its anterior
extremity.

The fame mufcle, in the faurians, is attached on the out-
fide of the fternum, between the fterno-maitoidei, and is
filled to the pofterior cornu of the hyoid cartilage. In the

iguana, it is fixed to nearly the whole pofterior edge of tlie
firft part of thefe cornua ; in the gecko fimbriatus, to t^ie
middle of this edge. In the caiman, after toucjiing the os
hyoides, it is continued to the lower jaw, and inferted far
back in its lower edge.

It is much elongated in the cameleon, and carried far
backwards on the outfide of the fternum, /orming a point
in the fame direction. This mufcle covers another, thinner
and broader, but of the fame length, equally contiguous to
its fellow of the oppofite fide in the two pofterior thirds,
and inferted in the extremity of the pofterior cornua of the
OS hyoides. It might be named fterno-ceratoideus. In the
agame umbra (iguana umbra, Linn.), the fame mufcle ex-
tends equally backwards on the outfide of the fternum.
The fterno-hyoideus has two portions in the crocodiles,
which are only feparated beyond the fternum : the lower
one is thinneft, and inferted in the edge of the hyoid plate ;
the outer, broader and thicker, reaches the pofterior edge
of the cornu, and after a flight tendinous interfeftion,
which ferves to attach it to this cornu, is continued in the
fame dircdlion to the jaw, and forms the firft layer of the
cerato-maxillary mufcle.

In the ferpents, the place of the fterno-hyoideus is fup-
plied by a cofto-maxillary mufcle, extending from the an-
terior ribs to the lower jaw. Its internal fibres go from the
jaw and the ribs to the hyoid cartilage.

It is prolonged, in the batracians, except the falamanders,
within the fternum, to the fartheft end of this bone, where it
is fixed ; or it only reaches the middle of the fternum. Many
of its fibres are expanded on the pleura. In front it is di-
vided into feveral portions, inferted fucceffively in the ex--
ternal edge of the hyoid plate. One of thefe goes as far as
the anterior cornua, and is fined to it by a flender tendon.
In the falamanders, the fterno-hyoideus is continuous with
the reftus abdominis, and partakes in its motions.

3. The omo-hyoideus does not exift in the ophidians.

In the chelonians it ends in the ftieath of the mylo-hoideus,
which inclofes the extremities of the anterior cornua of the
OS hyoides. This mufcle is vei-y confiderable in fome
faurians. In the gecko, for example, it is widened, to be
inferted in the greateft part of the pofterior cornua : it
covers the greateft pare of the fterno-hyoideus in front.

In the iguana it is contiguous to a mufcle, which has the
fame direction : it is attached to the clavicle behind, and
above the body of the hyoid cartilage in front. In the cai-
man it is alfo compofed of two portions. The external,
which is foon detached from the following, is fixed to the
palatine membrane near the lower jaw. The internal is at-
tached to the angle of the hyoideal cornu.

It is long and flender in the cameleon ; it pafles on the
outfide-of the fterno-ceratoideus, and is fixed to the body of
the OS hyoides, on the outfide of the fterno-hyoideus.

The omo-hyoideus of the frog is mentioned in the account
of the mufcles of the ftioulder.

4. Mufcle analogous to the ftylo-hyoideus. Tliis has
only been noticed in the frogs and toads. It comes from
the back of the head, behind the ear, where it is attached
at the fide of a mufcle analogous to the fterno-maftoideus.
It is divided into two portions in the rana ocellata, and into
three in the common frog : they are all attached to the pof-
terior cornu.

5. The genio-hyoideus. The chelonians have only one, the
tendon of which is fixed to the arch of the chin : the two
fleftiy portions feparate as they go backwards, and are fixed
to the bafis of the pofterior hyoideal cornua. In feveral
faurians the ftrudlure is nearly the fame ; as in the common
iguana, and the caiman, for example. It confifts of two

portions

REPTILES.

portions in the cameleon ; an internal long and flendcr one,
infcrted in the body of the os hyoides ; an external broader
and itronger, contiguous to the former, and attached to the
poderior cornua in their whole length : it has an attachment
alfp to the anterior cornua.

In the ophidians the genio-hyoidei are continuous behind
with the cofto-hyoidei. They are only obferved in thofc
whofe tongue is not inclofed in a Iheath.

The genio-hyojdei arc divided bihind into two portions,
in the batracians. The external and fliorteft is inferted on
the fide of the hyoideal plate above its edge ; the internal is
prolonged on the pollerior cornua, and furniflics a flieath
to the hyogloflus. The fterno-hyoideus penetrates between
thefe two portions, to be fixed to the plate.

6. The cerato-maxillary mufclcs. Tliefe are analogous
in their attachments and ufe to the conical mufcles of the
OS hyoides in birds : they only differ from them in not being
turned round the cornua. They are found in the three firft
orders, but do not exift in the batracians. They arife from
the pollerior third of the internal furface of the branches of
the lower jaw, and proceed backwards and inwards to the
pollerior cornua of the os hyoides. There arc two on each
fide, attached to the four cornua, in the iguana. This
animal has, moreover, a tranfverfe mufcle of the cornua,
the fibres of which go obliquely outwards from the anterior
to the pollerior cornu of the fame fide.

In the agame umbra the laft mufcle is long and (lender,
continued from the extremity of the pollerior cornu to the
angle of the anterior.

In the chelonians, the cerato-maxillary are inferted into
the extremities of the anterior cornua.

The tongue varies confiderably in this clafs of animals : it
is employed, in many inftances, as the means of procuring
their food, by thofe reptiles which feed on infefts. But as
none of this clafs mafticate their aliment, or fwallow it like
the mammalia, the form of the organ is very different from
that which it exhibits in the mammiferous animals.

The chelonians have a fmall pyramidal tongue, with the
bafis turned backwards, the apex forwards.

A larg'j part of the faurians and ophidians have a tongue
capable of confiderable elongation. The moll remarkable
example occurs in the cameleon, where it is not larger than
a quill, but five or fix inches long : it is expanded at its ex-
tremity, which is covered with a vifcous fecretion. This
weapon lies commonly in a Iheath at the bottom of the
mouth, contracted to the length of about an inch, or lefs.
The animal can dart it out at pleafure, when the vifcous
fluid at its end entangles the prey, which is taken into the
mouth with great celerity. " Quand les cameleons veulent
manger," fays Belon, " ils tirent leur langue, quafi d'un
demipied, ronde comme la langue d'un oifeau nomme pic-
vferd, femblable a un verre de terre ; et a I'extremite d'icelle
ont un gros noei'd fpongieux, tenant comme glu, duquel ils
attachent les infeftes, favoir ell fauterelles, chenilles &
mouches, et les attirent en la gueule. Ils pouffent hors
leur langue, la dardant de roideur auffi vitement qu'un
arbalete ou un arc fait le traift." Pierre Belon, Obferva-
tions, &c. liv. ii. ch. 34.

In the common lizards, the tupinambes, &c. the tongue
is fmooth, extenfile, and terminated by two long flexible
points, although femi-cartilaginous and nearly horny : it
refembles perfeftly that of the ophidians, excepting the
anguis and amphiftaena, and perhaps alfo the caecilia, which
have it flat, and merely forked at the end, without the
power of elongating it.

In moll of the ferpents, the tongue, when contrafted, is
contained almolt entirely in a membranous (heath. The
Vol. XXIX.

mcchanifm belonging to thcfc projeClilc tongues partakes
both of that which is found in fome mammalia, as the
echidna and the ant-eaters, and of that of birds. (See
Mammalia and Birds, in Comparative y/nalmny.) It de-
pends on mufcles afting on the os hyoides, and alfo on the
mufcles of the tongue.

The llellios and iguanas have a flelliy tongue, villous on
Its furface, and puffeding about the fame mobility as that
of the mammalia. In the fcinks and geckos it differs from
the former only in being fiffured .it the end ; and it re-
fembles, in this refpcdt, that of the angues, between which
and the fcinks there is in all points much analogy.

The tongue of the batracians is not only different from
that of other reptiles, but alfo from that of other animals.
It is flelhy, of a flattened figure, fmooth, and covered,
in all of the frog and toad kind, with a tenacious mucus.
It is villous in the falamanders, and covered with very long
papillae in the horned frog (bufi) cornutus, rana cornuta,
Linn.). The great peculiarity of the tongue is its being
attached by the bafis to the front of the mouth, to the
fympJiyfis of the lower jaw. This is its ihickell part : it is
continued backwards in a thinner form, fo as to end in two
loofc and flat portions, reprefenting the apex, and lying in
the back of the mouth. This loofe part, ordinarily turned
back towards the throat, is projefted from tlio mouth, co-
vered by its vifcous fecretion, upon the fmall infefts which
the animal feeds on, and which are thus entangled and fwal-
lowed.

Mufcles of the Tongue. — They pofl'efs nothing peculiar in
the chelonian reptiles, which have not an extenfile tongue :
they conllfi: merely of two pairs. The hyogloffi come from
tke anterior half of the pollerior cornua, and penetrate into
the tongue at the fides of the bafis.

The genio-gloffi are very fl:rong and broad in the vertical
diredlion : they come from the front of the lower jaw,
and enter the tongue more outwards and forwards than the
preceding, with which their fibres are interwoven. The
apex of the hyoid cartilage penetrates between them : they
are alfo feparated by a fmall cylindrical cartilage, to which
each mufcle is fixed ; which is prolonged behind under the
body of the hyoid cartilage, extending in front to the apex
of the tongue.

The faurians have in general three pairs of mufcles
going to the tongue from the os hyoides or the arch of the
chin, and a proper mufcle attached to the organ only.

I . The hyogloffus comes from the cornua of the hyoid
cartilage. In the common iguana it is attached to the pof-
terior cornua, oppofite the omohyoideus. In the gecko fim-
briatus it is fixed to the middle of the cornua, at the fide
and within the cerato-maxillaris ; it forms, with the llraight
genio-gloflus, the bafis of the tongue, and mixes its fibres
with thbfe of the proper mufcle. The hyogloflus is long
and cylindrical in the lizards and tupinambis : it comes
from the extremity of the pollerior cornua, approaches the
oppoiitc mufcle as it advances forwards, becomes contiguous
to it at the bafis of the organ, towards the extremity of
which it terminates in forming the two portions of cylinders,
of which this tongue confifts. In the cameleon it is fixed
to the whole anterior edge of the pollerior cornua, and is
very thick at that part. Beyond the angle formed by the
two cornua of the fame fide, it is curved and continued
direftly forwards. The fafciculi of fibres, of which it con-
fills, are inferted in the pollerior half of the (heath of the
tongue, which it ferves to draw backwards.

2. The llraight genio-glofli come from the inferior

edge of the arch of the chin, and are continued to the bafis

4Y of

REPTILES.

of the tongue ; where they meet the hyoglolfi, with which
their fibres are interwoven.

5. The tranfvcrfc genio-glofli are attached to the arch
of the chin, and to the anterior part of the inferior max-
illary branches, on the outfide of the preceding. Inftead
of being narrow and elongated, tiiey are broad and (hort.
Their fibres pafs obliquely from without, inwards and back-
wards upon the membrane of the mouth, as far as the fides
of the tongue ; which they will draw outwards and for-
wards. The two laft pairs of niufcles do not exift in the

cameleon. ^ r •

4. The proper mufcle is found in thofe faurians
only, whofe tongue admits of elongation. It is compofed,
in general, of annular fibres. In the gecko fimbriatus,
which has a broad tongue, this mufcle is divided in front into
fix or eight fmall portions, whicli arc united into two to-
wards the middle third of the tongue, and then into one on
fach fide, which form the two pieces of the bafis of the
tongue.

In the cameleon the annular mufcle is very thick, and
forms a flefty cylinder furrounding the anterior three-
fourths of that part of the os hyoides which penetrates into
the tongue. Towards the front it is divided on the fides
into two portions, a fuperior and an inferior ; the latter is
folded back towards the iheath of the tongue, to which it
adheres. There is, moreover, a mufcle proper to this (heath,
which may be called the retradtor mufcle. It comes from
below the -dandular part, and is continued, on each fide, as
far as the part that i< puckered up. When the hyogloifus
throws this latter part into wrinkles, and Ihortens it, and
the OS hyoides is carried backwards by the fterno-hyoidei
and ceratoidei, the retraftor mufcle caufes the end of the
fheath to remain applied to the extremity of the annular
mufcle which recedes, becaufe then its poilerior attachments
are the moft fixed : on the contrary, when the extremity of
the OS hyoides and the annular mufcle pulh the (heath for-
wards, the anterior attachments have a point d'appui ; the
pofterior portions of the retractor draw forwards the (heath,
and unfold it.

By putting together what we have faid concerning the os
hyoides and its raufcles in the cameleon, in a former part
of this article, and what we have juft faid of the mufcles of
its tongue, it will be eafy to underltand how this organ
can be elongated, and withdrawn into the mouth. The
firft office is performed by the annular mufcle, with the
cerato-maxillary, and the genio-hyoidei. The fterno-cera-
toidei and hyoidei carry backwards the os hyoides, at the
fame time that the hyogloflus ftiortens die (heath and puck-
ers it up.

In moft of the ophidians the tongue is inclofed in a mem-
branous fheath, which opens behind the interval of the
branches of the lower jaw, and is continued backwards be-
tween thofe ofthehyoid cartilage, under the trachea. It
is Hned internally by the membrane of the mouth. This
fheath is carried forwards by a pair of mufcles analogous to
the genio-glofli. They derive their origin by two portions,
one of which comes from between the two branches of the
lower jaw, the other from their extremity ; they come toge-
ther and are fixed to the fides of the liieath to its moft
diftant extremity. The hyogloffi are two elongated muf-
cles, contiguous, and even united together by fine cellular
laminas. They exadly fiU the interval of the cornua of
the hyoid cartilage, and ara even doubled backwards round
their extremity. Thefe mufcles go to the bafis of the
(heath, and dra^v it backwards, when it has been carried
forwards by the two firft pairs.

The proper mufcle is farmed of two cylinders, firft lying
6

together, and feparated towards the anterior third of the
tongue, for the two portions of which its apex confiftt ;
hei'e they become confiderably dimini(hed, and are reduced
to a mere thread at the end.

This fimple apparatus, combined with that of the os
hyoides and its mufcles, gives to the tongue of the ferpent
that wonderfully quick power of extenfion and retraction.
Carried forwards by the genio-vaginal mufcles, brandiihed
by its proper mufcles, it re-enters the fheath in confequence
ot the elafticity of the hyoideal cornua, which tend to reftore
themfelves, and of the action of the hyogloffi. One or other
of thefe adtions is afiifted by the cofto-maxillary mufcles,
according as the portion analogous to the fterno-hyoideus,
or that which correfponds to the cerato-maxillary, con-
trails. The extenfion of the tongue out of the mouth is
fo much the greater, becaufe it is eifefted through an
orifice near the extremity of the fnout, and becaufe its
bafis may be brought near to this part.

In the amphifbaena;, which have a flattened tongue, not
inclofed in a fheath, nor fufceptible of extenfive motion,
there are, i ft, two genio-gloffi attached to the arch of the
lower jaw, more internally than the genio-hyoidei ; 2dly,
two hyogloffi ; and 3dly, two cerato-gloffi, wliich prelent
nothing worthy of particular notice.

The tongue of the batracians, as we have already
defcribed, is fixed in front to the arch of the lower jaw,
and free behind. In pafTrng out of the mouth, and going
back again, it turns upon the fixed point of its attachment
to the jaw. Two pairs ot mufcles, the genio-gloffi, and
the hyogloffi, execute thefe motions. i. The hyoglolfi
form, in the rana ocellata, two cylindrical maU'es, lying on,
and attached to, the pofterior cornua. They foon unite
into a fingle raais, which refts on the hyoideal plate, and
penetrates the tongue in front of this plate, expanding into
fmall fafcicuh, which reach to the loofe edge of the organ.
2. The genio-glofli form at firit two fmall fpherical
mafies, placed at the arch of the chin on the fmall tranfverfe
mufcle ; they are fubfequently elongated into two conti-
guous cylinders, of which the fibrous fafciculi leparate from
each other, decuffate with thofe of the preceding mufcle,
and go to the loofe edge of the tongue. While the tongue
is in the mouth, the hyogloffus is folded on itielf, and the
genio-gloflus is ftraight. The latter mufcle is folded, and
the former ftraight, when the tongue has been projefted.
In the common frog, thefe two pairs of mufcles are not fo
minutely divided in the tongue, and the genio-gloffi do not
form fpherical maffes towards the arch of the chin : in other
refpefts they are fimilar.

Tongue of the Crocodile. — Humboldt has obferved a pecu-
liar mechanifm in the tongue of this animal, bearing an evi.
dent relation to its wants and habits, of which the following
is a defcription in his own words.

" From the moft ancient times difputes have exifted
concerning the tongue of the crocodile ; fome naturalifts
pretended that it was entirely wanting, others affirmed that
it was very (hort, and placed at the entrance of the cefo-
phagus. According as one or the other of thefe opinions
prevailed, the fculptors and antiquaries of Rome amufed
themfelves with deftroying or reftoring the tongues of
their crocodiles. When we examine attentively the os
hyoides of this animal, we find that it is in confequence of
its form and fmall iize that a part or ratlier a fold of the
tongue has been confounded with the whole organ. There
ii in this animal a peculiar mechanifm, by which a valve is
formed, interrupting the communication between the mouth
and throat. AVheii the crocodile appears motionlefs on
the bank of the river, with the jaws opened at an angle of

95%

REPTILES.

95°, tlie whole mouth appeam yellow : the valve is elevated,
and the opening of the fauces is not fecn. If we furprife
him, the valve is generally deprcffed ; and if a pcrfon runs
the rifle of approaching fufficiently, a round body of a
beautiful red colour, which is the opening of the glottis,
jrvay be perceived. This valve enables the crocodile to
feize his prey under water without running the rifk of being
inundated by the great quantity of fluid that would pals
into the oefophagus. When he Iwallows, the valve mud
be deprefled, and the animal on dry ground. The os
hyoides of the crocodile of the Orinoco is a membranous
fpatula, broad, concave, and terminated by two fhort horns.
The OS hyoides of the Egyptian crocodile, as delijieated by
Mr.Duvernev, is altogether different from that of the South
American animal ; another proof ot the dillinftion between
the crocodiles of the old and new continent. In an animal
of eighteen feet, the tongue is twenty- five inches: it is
yellow, flelhy, and covers the wiiolc jaw ; but it is attached
on all fides, fo that the os hyoides cannot elevate it to the
end. The anterior or fpatula-fhaped portion of this bone
enters the membranous fubftance of the tongue, which it
can elevate at a right angle. As the fides and extre-
mity of the organ are fixed, this motion of the, bone can
only carry with it the membranous part of the tongue,
which forms the fold prefenting itfclf like an elevated valve.
The OS hyoides is depreffed, and the valve im.mediately dif-
appears. Three conditions are neceflary to the execution
of this meehanifm, a tongue attached to the lower jaw ; a
dudlile and flexible membrane covering it ; and an os
hyoides broad in front. The yellow fubftance in the ante-
rior part of the mouth belongs to the tongue as well as the
fold covering the entrance oi the oefophagus. Humboldt
found that the tongue fwelled very much, when fubjefted
to Galvanic influence, by means of zinc and filver. See
Recueil d'Obfervations d' Anatomic comparee e; Zoologie,
faites dans le Voyage de Humboldt et Bonpland, t. i.
pag. 9. pi. 4._

Geoffroy gives a fimilar defcription of the tongue, os
hyoides, and their meehanifm, in the Nilotic crocodile. He
defcribes it as a yellowifli, (hagreened fliin, exaftly like the
fubltance of the palate, pierced by numerous fmall holes, the
excretory dufts of the glands fituated on its upper furfuce,
and adhermg on all fides to the branches oi the lower jaw. He
fpeaks of the broad anterior part of the os hyoides forming,
by its elevation, a veil, which covers, all the back of the
mouth. Thus, the animal can remain under water with the
jaws open, and receive air through the nollrils, the only part
above the fnrface, without the water entering the throat or
trachea. Annales du Mufeum, vol. ii. p. 42, et fcq.

Epiglottis. — In moll reptiles the opening of the glottis is
neither covered by a valve, as in the mammalia, nor armed
with papillre, as in birds. Yet a kind of epiglottis may be
obferved in the common igiuna, and in the Schneiderian fcink.
Tliere is a rudiment in tha crocodiles ; it does not appear in
feveral other animals of the lame order, nor in the chelonian,
ophidian, and batracian reptiles. The cylindrical larynx of
the dragon, and its fimple opening behind the root of the
tongue, are very well reprefented in Blumenbach's Abbil-
duiigen Natur-Hiftorifcher gcgenitande, N" 98. Is the
abfence of the epiglottis conntdled with the peculiar mo-
dification which refpiration undergoes in this clafs ? or
with their deglutition ? On the former point we may ob-
ferve, that, as they breathe only at confiderable intervals,
there is no danger of the glottis being opened during fwal-
lowing, and its edges may confequently be kept cloU'ly ap-
proximated. Again, as they fwallov? their food whole, it
is not likely to pafs into the larynx.

Fauces. — The openings of the nollrils exc fituated very
forwards in reptiles, and are not clofed by any moveable
curtain, as in the mammalia. A kind of immoveable valve,
attached to the anterior edge of the opening, and leaving
the orifice free behind, may be fcen in the gecko fira-
briatus.

There is fomething analogous to tlie velum palati in th^
crocodile. The nollrils open far back, contrary to what
we have mentioned concerning other reptiles. They form
a round aperture in the moll diftaiit p.irt of the arch ot
the palate. The membrane lining this concavity forms
a loofe production a little in front of the opening in
queflion, which defcends on the fides, growing a Ettle
broader, until it meets another elevation behind the bafis of
the tongue. Thcfe form together, by their loofe edge, the
ifthmus faucium, or entrance of the throat. The firft af-
fords iome proteflion to the opening of the nollrils, but can-
not entirely clofe it ; the latter contributes, with the rudi -
ment of the epiglottis already mentioned, to cover the glottis.

The entrance of the throat is large in all reptiles, and
capable, in many, of ilill greater fize, by the expanfion of the
lower jaws. There is nothing deferving the name of ilth-
mus. They fwallow entire animals, which cannot pafs into
the nollrils, and hence do not require a velum palati.

Pharynx. — As the nollrils open forwards in reptiles, the
pharynx has not the fame relation to the nafal cavity, as in
the mammalia and birds. The mouth and larynx communi-
cate with it, and there is ufually a large aperture correfpond-
ing to the Euftachian tube.

The pharynx can hardly be diftinguilhed from the com-
mencement of the cefophagus in reptiles. Their diameter is
ufually the fame ; and there is abfolutely no difference in the
afpeft of the membrane forming their internal parietes. It
prefents a great number of longitudinal folds, which arc
effaced when a prey of large fize is fwallowed. There is no
exterior mufcle enveloping the entrance of the canal.

Deglutition maybe affilled, in the chelonians, by the aftion
of the ilerno-thyroidei, which relt on the oefophagus in the
whole length of the neck ; and even adhere in front to its
parietes, and to the part which may be regarded as belonging
to the pharynx. The os hyoides may alio contribute to de-
glutition, by means of the mufcles which elevate it.

This office is particularly evident in the batracians, and
efpecially in the frogs and toads. The hyoideal plate, which
fupports in thefe animals the extenfive parietes of the back
of the mouth and palate, is put in motion by the mylo-
hyoideus and the mulcles analogous to the llylo-hyoidei, only
for the purpofe of elevating thefe pai'ietes, and applying
them to the concavity of the palate. There is alfo another
mufcle coming from the upper and back part of the head,
in front of that which correfponds to the Itylo-hyoideus ; it
is narrow at its origin, but expands as it pades forwards and
downwards, and as it covers that part of the throat which is
prominent behind. It is continued to the edge of the hyoi-
deal plate, in which it is inferted, its fibres adliering alfo to
the membrane of the throat, on which they lie. Their aftion
will elevate the hyoideal plate, and apply the membrane
which they cover to the oppofite furface of the cavity.

The longitudinal fibres, belonging both to the pharynx and
oefophagus, are more or lefs ftrongly marked.

CEfephagus and Stomach. — The former tube does not pre-
fent thofe dilatations which we notice in birds : it retains
nearly an uniform diameter throughout, or the change, if
any, is gradual. But this diameter is, in moll cafes, much
more confiderable, in comparifon with that of the ftomach,
than in the two preceding clafl'es. Under certain circum-
(lances, indeed, the cefophagus is larger than the (tomach
4 Y 7 in

REPTILES.

in the ophidians ; for example, when the latter is not dif-
tonded with food, becaufe its parietcs contraA fooncr after
enlargement than thofe of the oefophagus. The membranes
are the fame in both, and, when the tube increafes in fiz.e
infcnfibly to the ftomach, it is often very difficult to aflign
the limits of the two parts, and confcquently the fituation
of the cardia. Tlie llomach is generally without any cul-
de-fac, oval and elongated : its parietes ufually thia. The
mufcular coat is then hardly perceptible, at leaft in fome
part of its extent, and the cellular is confounded with the
mucous or internal. The pylorus is ufually without any
valve ; it is marked by a fimple contraftion, by the ^rreater
thicknefs of the parietes of the llomach, and by the different
ilrufture of the inteftinal membranes.

In the turtle, the internal furface of the oefophagus is
befet with long, hard, conical papillx, of which the points
are direded backwards, with the effed, apparently, of pre-
venting the return towards the mouth of the matters fwal-
lowed by the animal. Such, at leaft, is the notion generally
entertained of the end or purpofe of this fti-udlure. But the
abfence of fuch provifion in all other animals where the ne-
ceffity feems equally to exift, cannot but render us fceptical
on the fubjeft, more particularly as we know no fads con-
cerning the nature of the food, the mode of its deglutition,
nor any peculiar modification of furrounding or conneded
organs, to which this fingular llrudurc might be fuppofed
to bear fome relation. The llomach is gradually dimi-
nifhed in fize from the cardia to the pylorus : it is bent on
jtfelf, and the portion beyond the curvature is thicker than
the reft, in confequence of the mufcular fibres being more
copious. The internal coat has longitudinal folds in this
part, but hardly any in the other. The fituation of the
cardia is well marked, and the oefophagus is diftinguilhed
from the ftomach by the fuddcn dilatation of tlie latter. The
pylorus has no valve.

Among the faurians, the crocodile has a peculiarly (haped
ftomach ; it is very diftind from the oefophagus by its glo-
bular figure. Near the infertion of this canal there is fe-
parated from it below a fmall cul-de-fac, opening into the
mteftine by a very fmall orifice, and having its cavity fepa-
rated from the great fac of the ftomach by a kind of ftrait.
Confequently the general cavity of the ftomach is a large cul-
de-fac, of which the parietes are very thick. The internal
membrane forms confidcrable plaits arranged in a Terpentine
form, like the convolutions of the brain. The cellular coat,
which is not very diftind from the mucous in the oefophagus,
becomes more fo in the ftomach. The mufcular nearly
equals the two others in thicknefs ; the coats are altogether
much thinner in the fmall cul-de-fac.

In the other faurians there is no cul-de-fac. The ftomach
is oval and very elongated in the iguana, witliout curvature ;
the oefophagus dilates gradu.-illy to form it. The only mark
that can guide us in determining the fituation of the cardia is,
the ceffation of the longitudinal folds of the internal cefo-
phageal membrane. The ftomach is fuddenly contraded,
and bent a little before its termination at the pylorus. Its
parietes become thick and opaque at fome lines from this
i^perture, from an mcreafe of the mufcular fibres, of which
thp tranfverfe are ftrongly marked. The internal opat forms
no fold ; there is no valve at the pylorus, which is very

fmall.

In the tupinambis monitor the ftomach forma a long tube,
bent into almoil a complete circle.

In the Schneiderian fcmk we again meet with the fame
«k)ngated form, tranfparent parietcs, and difficulty of diftin-
guiftiing the ftomach from the oefophagus, except by the
ioniritudiiial folds of its inner membrane, and the thicknefs

of its mufcular coat. But the pofterior part of the ftomach
contrads fuddeidy, is bent towards the right, and a little
elongated in this direction before it terminates. The pa-
rietes of the latter portion are more thick and opaque, and
its internal membrane is folded longitudinally.

The ftomach begins by a fmall dilatation in the camcleon,
then it aftumes a cylindrical and elongated form, and is bent
on itfelf J it is conliderably contraded before it terminates,
and forms a fmall cylindrical canal, of which the internal
membrane is folded longitudinally. The mufcular coat is
thicker in this contraded part than elfewhere. It forms a
prominent ring at the pylorus.

In the dragon the ftomach is fhaped like a pear, of which
the large end correfponds to the cardia ; it has no curvature ;
its parietes arc tranfparent ; they become thicker and opaque
near the pylorus ; and thefe charaders are the only circum-
ftance, by which we can diftinguifti it from the beginning of
the inteftinal canal, which has thin and tranfparent coats.

The ilomach is alfo pear-ftiaped in the gecko ; the oefo-
phagus makes a curve before it ends, and is inferted at one
fide of the bafis. It is narrnw, with thick coats, a ftrong
mufcular covering, and broad longitudinal folds of the in-
ternal or mucous coat. The fides of the organ are thicker
at its extremities ; and the pyloric end is a little bent. The
internal membrane is fmooth.

In the ophidian order the ftomach is (haped like an in-
teftine, hardly larger than the oefophagus, and without cur-
vature. The internal membrane is folded longitudinally.
When the ftomach is empty, thefe folds are thicker than
thofe of the oefophagus, which are not always obferved.

The oefophagus of a fnake, examined by Spallanzani,
formed a cylindrical tube like an inteftine, for about nine
inches : it then became gradually narrower, fo as to con-
ftitute a funnel of the length of four inches and a half. This
funnel was the true ftomach. The fides of the ftomach
were thicker than thofe of the oefophagus : no glands or
follicles could be feen in the latter ; but the ftomach was
abundantly fupplied with them throughout its whole length ;
they difcharge part of their liquor on being prefled, and the
internal coat is moiftened with it. Diftertations relative to
the Natural Hiftory of Animals and Vegetables, v. i.
p. 1 12 and 1 13.

In frogs and toads the ftomach is ftiaped nearly as in the
chelonian reptiles. At firft confiderably dilated in compari-
fon with the oeiophagus, it is gradually contraded, then
curved fo as to form an inteftine-like canal, with thick coats,
ending at the pylorus.

It is nightly curved only near its pofterior extremity in
the falamanders. Its figure is elongated and not much
fwoln ; the parietes thick ; and the internal membrane ex^
hibits fmall ruga. There is a fold near the pylorus, in the
fituation of the curvature. Figures of the ftomach and
inteftines of various reptiles are given in Cuvier's Legons,
pi. 41.

Intejlinal Canal. — Its length, in proportion to that of the
body, is greatell in the mammalia, and diminifhes fucceffively
in birds, reptiles, and fifties. In reptiles it is often hardly
twice the length of the body, taken from the extremity of
the fnout to the anus. But tadpoles exhibit in this refped
a remarkable peculiarity. Their inteftinal canal is nearly
ten times as long as the fpace between the fnout and anus,
while in the frog it is not more than twice the length of the
correfponding fpace. Other important differences, which
will be noticed fubfequently, exilt in the two cafes. This
ftiortnefs of the alimentary canal correfponds to the nature
of the food in reptiles, which is derived from the animal
kingdom.

The

REPTILES.

The following table of the length of the intcftinal canal in various reptiles, is taken from the third volume of Cuvier'a
Lemons d'Anatomio comparee, p. 457.

Names.

l,rl,f;lll i>l' llli-

I,CM^'tll of ill-

LfTi^th of [lit-

lytnglh i)f ihc-

I'ro|Kjrllon to the

liody.

fniall iiiu-rtiii'-.

Idrgfiiiteltine

whole CJriJii.

I'-nglli ol' llir body.

Tefludo gr.Tca ...

0.210

0.680

0.014

0.694

'■'■ ' • 3-3

Nilotic crocodile (adultl

1.690

5-384

0.406

5.790

:: I : 3.4

Nilotic crocodile (young)

0.240

0.710

0.036

0.986

:: 1 : 4.1

Gangetic crocodile (gavial)

0.360

1-3.50

0.040

1.390

:: I : i.i

Cameleon ...

0.130

O.I 80

0.040

0.220

:: I : 1.7

Gecko a goutelettes (gecko guttatus)

0.125

0.120

0.053

0.173

:: I : 1.3

Schneiderian fcink

0.150

0.230

0171

0.401

:: 1 : 2.8

Iguane ardoife (iguana cacrulea)

0.180

0.175

0.062

0.237

:: I : 1.3

Common iguana

0.220

0.400

0.230

0.630

:: I : 3

Lacerta agilis . - .
Common fnake (coluber natrix) *

0.088

0.050

0.017

0.067

:: 1.3 : i

0.500

0.530

0.050

0.580

:: 1 : 1.2

Toad ....

0.065

0.1 10

0.028

0.138

:: I : 2

Frog ....

0.070

O.I 00

0.034

0.134

:: I : 2

Tadpole of the frog

0.035

0.300

0.030

0-330

■■■■ ' : 9-7

Salamander - . -

0.040

0.080

0.022

0.102

:: I : 2.5

* In a co'^moii fnake of four feet in length, Blumenbach
found the inteftinal canal about three feet, nearly llraight,
or at leaft very fligiitly undulatcil .- its proportional length
was therefore different from that exprelied in the table.
Specimen Phyfiol. Comp. p. 30.

The inteftinal canal of reptiles has in general no appendix
to mark its divifion into large and fmall intellincs ; this divifion
exids neverthelefs in moil of them. All the chelonian.i, moll
of the faurians, the ophidians, and the batracians, with the
exception of the fuen lacertina, have a long and flender in-
telline, inferted into a large and fhort intelUne, and com-
monly prolonged into the cavity, fo as to form a circular
margin of a valve-like form. The fides of the large intef-
tine are almoit always thicker and ftrongcr than thofe of
the fmall. Tiie membranes differ too ; the mufcular in re-
fpeft to its longitudinal fibres, and the internal in its folds.
The iguana is the only aiTimal of this clafs, in which a true
cscuiri has been noticed.

0/ the Intcjllnal Canal. — All reptiles have the inteftinal
canal very fliort, but not of the fame diameter in its whole
length. In the firft and moft confiderable portion, tlie ca-
pacity is much inferior to that which it is found to poilefs
near its termination ; fo tliat it may be divided, as in the
mammalia, luto fraall and large inteftines. A circular valve
is moft frequently found feparating the two divifions ; it is
formed by a prolongation of the fmall inteftine, which be-
comes dilated, and fometimes is extended into a kind of fac,
projefting more or lefs into the cavity of the large inteftirie,
and rendering tlie parietes double at that part. It is thus
found in the fcJchneiderian fcink.

In tortoifes, the diameter of the fmall inteftine gradually
diminlfhes from the pylorus to the point of its infertion into
the large : the area of which is four times greater than tliat
of the fmall, and its parietes have the fame Itrufture as in
the other reptiles. The cavity is regular throughout, there
being no partial dilatations or facculi. The internal mem-
brane has folds, more or lefs broad, and of a membranous
llruclure, in different fpecies, fometimes conneifted in a re-
ticular form at the commencement of the fmall inteftine,
having a longitudinal and parallel direction in the reft of its
extent, and arranged more or lefs irregularly in the large.
The large inteftine proceeds in a ftraight direction to the
anus, whilft the fmall makes many irregular turns in its
«mrfe.

Blumenbach found the inteftinal canal of the hawk's-bill
turtle (teftudo caretta) five times as long as the whole ani-
mal. The (mall inteftine, as it is called, was larger than
the ftiort portion of the large inteftine ; the wliole internal
furface was covered internally with an abundance of mucus.
Syft. of Compar. Anat. p. 173.

The internal coat of the inteftine of the turtle is covered
with innumerable thin longitudinal procelies, lying clofe to-
gether, and increafing the furface of the gut to a vaft ex-
tent. They are moft numerous in the upper part of the
canal, and gradually diminidi in number, until they ceafe al-
together, below. In the latter relpe«it they refemble the
valvula; conniventes of man, and the villi of all animals.
For thefe ftruAures are always moft diitinft at the com-
mencement of the canal, where abforption goes on to the
greateft extent. The alimentary matter is deprived more
and more of its nutritious parts, as it defcends in the intef-
tine ; and hence a lefs extenfive abforbing furface is fuffi-
cient, in the lower part of the canal, for taking up the re-
mains of really nutritious particles. Yet Blumenbach fays
that he found thefe folds fo numerous in the rcftum of the
hawk's-hill turtle, that a feftion of the gut refembled a
broad radiated band. Lib. cit. p. 173, note.

In the crocodile of the Nile, the linall inteftine may be
diltinguiftied into two portions, the one more capacious,
having thinner coats, and making lour turns in fuch a man-
ner as to form four permanent angles ; tliL- other, more con-
tratfted and having thicker parietes, inclofes between its in-
ternal and mufcular coats a layer of glandular fubftance,
femi-tranfparent, of a grey colour and pulpy confiftence.
In the internal membrane lining the ghandular lubftance,
there are feen longitudinal folds arranged in a zigzjg form,
and connetted together laterally, by lu^aller folds, fo as to
form a reticular furface. In ttie firft portion of the fmall
inteftine, where the glandular fubftance is not manifeft, the
folds arranged in a zigzag form are replaced by fine villous
eminences. Near the termination of the imall inteftine there
are only feen fome waving folds, connected by a few, pro-
ceeding tranfverfely. In the large inteftine, the folds are
arranged irregularly, forming a velvet-like furface.

The form of the rcftum (under which term is included
the large inteftine of filhcs and reptiles) is cylindrical in the
crocodile of the Nile ; and the fmall inteftine, where in-
ferted into it, is nearly of equal diameter. In the gavial

(Gangetic

REPTILES.

(Gangetic crocodile), the large iiiteltine lias a pyriform
figure, the termination of the fmall being infertcd into its
broadell part.

In the lizards, the reftum is cylindrical, and much broader
than the fmall intelline which is infcrted into it ; the latter,
after having turned forwards from the pylorus, is folded
backwardB, and proceeds in a tortuous direftion as far as
the reftum, which purfues a flriipjht courfe to the anus. The
parietes of the iuteilinal canal are thin and tranfparent ; the
internal membrane has folds arranged in a zigzag form.

In the cairieleon, the coats of the inteftine have the fame
ftrufture ; the capacity of the fmall is not much inferior to
that of the ftomach and large intelline, in the greatell part
of its extent ; but it becomes much coiitrafted a little before
its infertion into the latter. There is no valve indicating the
feparation between the difl'erent portions ; the internal mem-
brane has waving folds, the loofe edges of wliich have a
fringed appearance ; they are diredled longitudinally, and
contratling as they approach the reftum, difappear at fome
dillance from that intelline, where the internal membrane be-
comes fmooth and without any folds. The mufcular coat
is thicker in the redlum than in the fmall intelline, where it
is indillindl. The cellular coat is not manifeft.

In the dragon, the inteftinal canal forms two turns and a
half before it arrives at the anus ; the commencement is dil-
tinguifhed only by the different appearance of its coats,
which are much thinner than thofe of the ilomach.

In the iguana, the parietes of the inteftinal canal are
thin and tranfparent, gradually contrafling from the pylo-
rus to the infertion of the fmall intelline into the rectum ;
the latter is of an elongated form, but contrafted at one
part, by which it becomes divided into two portions almoft
of a cylindrical (hape. The internal membrane has fome
folds direfted longitudinally in the fmall inteftine. In the
common iguana, which has the inteftinal canal long and very
capacious, there is a true cscum, diftinguiftiable from the
large inteftine by the greater thicknefs of its coats, and by
a partition feparating their cavities, fo that it is through a
very narrow orifice that the fecal matter pafles from the
CECum into the fucceeding part of the large inteftine. The
infertion of the fmall into the former takes place near its
middle. The coats of the caecum have in fome degree a fac-
culated form. The internal furface is fmooth and without
folds. In the large inteftine the internal membrane has the
fame ftrufture, except at the commencement, where there are
found about fix tranfverfe valves, which do not extend around
the whole tube of the inteftine. In the fmall inteftine there
are longitudmal folds. The pouch formed by the cicum
is about three-fourths of an inch in length, and twice as
fhuch in breadth.

In the gecko a gouttelettes the parietes of the inteftine
are alfo tranfparent, the fmall has but little capacity, but
IS unequal at different parts ; it is inierted into the centre of
the firil portion of the large inteftine, which is of a globular
form ; and is feparated, by a contraftion in its coats, from
the fecond portion, which is elongated and oval, the fmall
extremity correfponding to the anus. In the Schneiderian .
fcink the thin and tender coats of the inteftinal canal are much
dilated at the commencement of the fmall inteftine, and con-
trafted at the part where it is introduced into the large.
We have already mentioned that it is dilated into the form of
a bladder, and enveloped by the firft portion of the large
inteftine, fimilarly dilated. The excrements, which pafs
through the fmall aperture in the velicular dilatation of
the fmall inteftine, find their way partly into the interval
between the latter and the internal furface of the large. Be-
yond the firlt portion the redlum becomes cylindrical. The

fmall inteftine is divided into many pouches by contraftionj
which pretty nearly correipond to its different turns.

In the ophidian order the inteftinal canal purfues a fer-
pentine direftion as far as the reftum, and preferves nearly
the fame diameter throughout, dilating but little in the
large inteftine. In the fmall, the internal membrane form,
broad longitudinal layers, folded in the manner of ruffles ; it
is rugous, and in the reftum forms thick, irregular folds,
which are continued to the anus. In the coluber natrix,
according to Blumenbach, the whole length of the intefti-
nal canal does not equal that of the animal. The fmall in-
telline forms a very confiderable valve at its entrance into
the large. Lib. cit. p. 174.

In the falamanders, the fmall inteftine is very narrow in
companion with the reftum, where the internal membrane
forms thick and fimbriated folds. In toads and frogs,
we find a nearly analogous conformation and itrufture, there
being only a flight variation in the form of the reftum,
which is more or lefs of a conical or pyriform fhape, as in
many frogs, or cylindrical, as in toads. But in the tadpoles
of both, the inteftinal canal is altogether very different from
that of the fame animal in the perfedt ilate. Long, narrow»
and nearly of uniform diameter in the fmall intelline, mak-
ing irregular turns in its courfe, its volume augments at the
reftum, which becomes of a facculated form, and makes
two fpiral turns upon itfelf, before it proceeds to tlie anus.
There is no valve feparating the two portions of the in-
teftine.

In the firen lacertina the inteftinal canal proceeds almoft
in a ftraight courfe from the pylorus to the anus, making but
one fmall turn near its middle, from which it proceeds ftraight
to its termination. Its coats are tranfparent, and its diame-
ter nearly equal throughout, not admitting of any divifion
into fmall and large inteftines.

Phylwlogy of the digejll've Or^anj.— Blumenbach afferts
that moll reptiles are omnivorous, while fome are confined
to one fpecies of food, as the bufo or rana calamita, which
feeds on a few fpecies only of infefts, and tliofe ahvc. (Spe-
cimen Phyfiol. Comp. p. 29. ) We cannot help doubting the
accuracy of the firft part of this flatement ; the foodfeems
to us almoft entirely animal. Serpents, frogs, and lizards,
live on the fmaller animals or infefts ; and even the turtles,
which eat particular kinds of marine plants, feed alfo on
the moUufca. The fimple ttomachs, the fimple and (hort
alimentary canals of the whole order, correfpond very clearly
to what we underftand concerning their carnivorous habits.
Newts feem to care for living infefts and worms only, which
they feize with their jaws, and fwallow whole.

Two apparently contradift ory circumllances have been
noticed in this order ; great voracity in many inllances, but
in all a wonderful power of abftinence. Salamanders fome-
times devour their own excrement, and earth. Serpents
often take in a quantity of food, which diftends their bodies
inordinately, and leaves them inaftive, and hardly capable
of motion. The falamanders will fometimes fluff them-
felves to fuch a degree with worms, that they crawl up
again out of their ftomachs. See Spallanzani's Differtations,
vol. i. p. 1 10.

" A newt," fays Bonnet, '■' having devoured a large earth-
worm, I fupplied it with another above four inches long,
and thick in proportion. It immediately fwallowed the
whole, except a line or two that hung out of the mouth ;
but the worm was foon throvirn up, and the fame repeated
twice, but the worm ftill lived." Spallanzani's Trafts,
vol. ii. p. 366.

The inftances which are recorded of the abftinence of
reptiles feem at firil almolt incredible. Not to mention the

toads.

REPTILES.

toads which have been found inclolcd in blocks of Rone,
and which probably have been in a torpid ftate, nor the
more common iiiltances (fee L. Th. Groncvius ad Pli-
nium de Aquitilium Natura, p. 38.) we have the refpcc-
table authority of Caldcfi for the fart of tortoiies having
remained without food, and not in a torpid Itate, for a year
and a half. Blumcnbach reports of a tortoifc, which lie
kept for three quarters of a year, that the harnilefs crea-
ture never ate any thing the whole time, although every
thing that the houfe and garden afforded was offered to
him. For the lalt three months (from November to Fe-
bruary) he exiiibited the loweft degree of vitality, mani-
feffed, in addition to extremely flow locomotion, with
almoft clofed eye-lids, merely by the fingle fenfe of touch
or feeling, particularly of warmth and drafts of air. When
he died, the mufcles were as flefliy and frefh-coloured as in
the befl nouriflied tortoifes. Abbildungen, &c. No. 66.

Redi had a land tortoife live eighteen months, a came-
leon eight, and vipers ten, without food. (Spallan/.ani's
Trafts, Introduction, p. 42.) Toads were quite lively
at the end of fourteen and eighteen months, incloled in
pots. Ibid.

Blafius mentions, in his " Anatomia Anitnalium," that a
land tortoife which he kept ten months would take no food
during the whole time.

Boimet, fpeaking of newts, fays, " tliele animals can
fupport the want of food very long. Some of mine have
lived two months without it. Sign. Spallanzani had re-
marked the fame ; and obferved, that although long de-
prived of nutriment, they reproduced their members
equally well as thofe plentifully fupplied with fuftenance."
(Spallanzani's TraAs, v. 2. p. 364.) Blumenbach has kept
falamanders eight months without taking food, or appear-
ing to fuffer from the want of it. (Handbuch der Natur
gefchichte, p. 220.) Daudin afferts that fnakes and vipers
may be kept for fix months without food, yet feem to lofe
none of their aftivity : t. i. Introd. p. 270.

Some protei, which Dr. Schreibcrs of Vienna had
kept in his poffeflion for two years, had taken no food,^
and were quite well. (Cuvier, Rech. fur quelques Rept.
douteux ; i'Anat. du Prote.) Bruce Hated that he had
kept the ceraftes in a bottle for two years without food,
and Lacepede reports, on the authority of Shaw, that a
Venetian apothecary kept two of thefe fading for five
years. (See Daudin, vol. vi. p. 186. ) This power of faff-
ing belongs, in a greater or lefs degree, to tlie whole order.
For a comparifon between the power of abffinence of warm-
blooded animals and reptiles (the ftate of torpidity being
excepted), fee Diff. Academ. Inftit. Bonon. ap Bene-
diiftum 14. Pont. Max. de fervor. Dei Beatificatione,
lib. 4. p. I. pag. 328. ; alfo Beccarius in Comm. Inftit.
Bonon. t. 2. p. I. pag. 223.

No reptiles mafticate : the herbivorous amphibia gnaw off
the veget?i)le produftions on which they feed, but they do
not chew them. The llrufture of their jaws, teeth, and
tongue, gives them the power of fwallowing entire animals :
this procefs of deglutition, being often exercifed on animals
as broad as themfelves, and broader, is very flow, and oc-
cupies even hours. The cefophagus muff of courfe poffefs
a great power oi dilatation. In his account of the newt,
Bonnet fays, " that worms are feized with a fudden motion-
of the animal's jaws, and Iwillowed alive, with gentle Ihocks
of the whole body, and particularly of the anterior part.
The prey is always fwallowed without maffication : the mi-
nute teeth, which are not employed in chewing, ferve to
prevent the efcape of the animal, which twiils itfelf about
moff aftively. Long worms are devoured entire, notvnth-

ftanding all their exertions to efcape. Tiiey twine round
the neck of the newt like a fcrpeiit : every moment they
become flaorter, and gradually difap'pear. Thus have I
feen a newt fwallow a worm more than fix inches long in
lefs than five minutes. A large worm, feized by llic middle,
is feldom Iwallowcd in the fame ])ofition, bccaufe it is too
large, if doubled in the moutii, and the newt gradually
fhakes it out, until it can feizc one of the extremities -
which being accomplilhied, the worm is fooii devoured.
However, I have obferved a large one fwallow a worm
taken by the middle, without feizing an extremity ; but a
quarter of an hour was occupied in the meal. The fuc-
ccflive motions of deglutition are very feiiiible ; it is per-
formed by repeated (hocks. Though they have flexible
jointed fingers, they make no ufe of the hand, either to
feize their prey, convey it to tlie mouth, or retain it there."
Spallanzani's Trails, v. 2. p. 364.

The length and eap.icity of this tube, and its large com-
munication with the (tomach, are well fuitcd to the nature
of fcrpcnts. The prey, always fwallowed without maffi-
cation, is often too long to pafs entirely into the llomach :
it remains in the cefophagus until room is made for it.
Travellers have even alferted that one end of an animal
iometimes hangs out of a ferpent's mouth, while the other
is in the ftomach.

As there is no maffication in this clafs, nor any provi-
fion like the gizzard of birds, for comminuting the food
when fwallowed, the procefs of digeftion muff be effected
by the aftion of the itomach alone on the prey fwallowed
entire. The juices of the organ are fully adequate to this
effeift ; and the procefs has been demonffrated by experi-
ment in feveral genera by Spallanzani. He inclofed food
in tubes, and conveyed them into the ffomach of the frog,
the newt, and different ferpents ; and always found that
it was diflblved in a longer or fliorter time : it thus appears
that the effential nature of digeffion is the fame as in the
warm-blooded animals : but the procefs exhibits fome modi-
fications, as the different nature and habits of the animals
would naturally lead us to expeft. The chief difference is
that the folution requires a confiderably longer time than in
warm-blooded animals. The flefh in the tubes, conveyed
into the ffomachs of frogs, was not completely diffolved
until the third and even the fifth day. (Dill'ertations, v. i.
p. 102.) Yet although the gaftric liquor of frogs adls
fo flowly, it is capable in time of diffolving even bone :
Spallanzani met with a moufe in the ftomach of a frog ;
all the foft parts of the limbs were gone, fo as to have
only the naked bones, which were confiderably wafted, and
converted into a femi-gelatinous fubftance. (Ibid. p. 102.)
Earth-worms enclofed in tubes were converted into a whitilh
pulp in thirty hours, in the Itomach of the water newt ;
p. 104. He found numerous finall white worms in the
itumachs of three-fourths of all the newts he examined,
from five or fix in number to a hundred and more. Thefe
were fo delicate that they would not bear even flight pref-
fure ; and thus afford a proof that nothing like trituration
can go OH in the ftomach, but that digeftion is fimply folu-
tion by the gaftric liquor ; p. 104 — III. In ferpents the
procefs occupied from two to five days. The tibise of
trogs vvere almoft completely diflolved in five days; § 118
— 122. As the animals fwallo\Ted by ferpents often lie iii
part in the cefophagus, a quettion arifes, whether they
undergo any digeftion in that tube, or whether this func-
tion be the exclufive attribute of the ftomach. A viper,
fays Charas (Defcrip. Anat. de la Vipere,) vomited a lizard,
which had been fwallowed twelve days before. All the
front of the body, which had been in the ftomach, had

merely

REPTILES.

merely the bones remaining, wliile the other parts were
nearly as perfeft as if they had been fwallovvcJ the fame
day. Spallaiizani confirmed this want of digeilive power
in the oefophagus, by direiit experiment; ^ 125. Natii-
raliils, fays this indefatigable inquirer, were already ;ip-
pri^ed of tiic tardinefs of digeftiuu in fcrpents. Bomare,
in his Dia. d'Hilt. Naturelle, gives an account of a fer-
pent at Martinique, which retained a chicken m its ilomach
for three months, and did not con.plctely digefl it. « It is
remarkable that flefli does not become fretid from rcmam-
ing long in the llomachs of thefe cold animals, which I
had occafion to obferve particularly in a viper. A lizard
was retained in its Ilomach for fixtecn days, at the end of
which time it had no odour but that of the gallric juice. Yet
fuch was the iieat of the feafon, that another lizard, which I
had placed in a clofe veffel, containing a little water, emit-
ted an infupportable llench before the expiration of the third
day ; j 127. The galtric liquor of a fnake approaches in
colour to that of foot ; it had the fluidity of water, and
evaporated very (lowly ; it had both a fait and bitter tafte,
and was not inflammable. It ftrongly refembled thegaftric
fluid of other animals, and this refemblance extended to the
odour, which was exadly like that of the correfponding
juices of birds of prey ; ^i 123.

The idea of Blumenbach, tiiat the venom of the poifon-
ous ferpents fuppHes the place of maltication, and promotes
digeilion by fome feptic power, feems completely unfounded.
It is a provifion calculated merely for purpofes of off'ence.
Where is this feptic power, or wliat fupplics its place in
the harmlefs ferpents, and in all other amphibia ?

The whole alimentary canal of the amphibia abounds
with a vifcid tenacious mucus, the abode of feveral genera
of worms.

Blumenbach failed completely in very numerous and
di.verfified attempts to cram frogs and lizards with madder
root, and thus to produce in their bones that beautiful rofe
colour, which is fo quickly produced in the mammalia of
birds, when thus fed. Specimen Phyfiol. p. 31.

Jbforbing Vejfels. -This fyllem has been very httle exa-
mined by anatomifts, probably on account of the minute-
nefs of the tubes, and the confequent difiiculty of injefting
them. We have nothing to add to the account given by
Hewfon, who firfl defcribed them in the Philofophical
Tranfadions, 1769.

No lymphatic gland has been yet feen in a reptile : birds
ha-ve none in their mefentery, but they are feen connefted
to the large lymphatics of the neck.

It has been afl'erted that the chyle is colonrlefs, and hence
anatomifts have explained why the vell'els were fo long un-
difcovered. In animals which have white chyle, the ap-
pearance of this fluid through the tranfparent coats of the
lafteals fupphes the place of injecfion, and affords an eafy
method of demonftrating them. Mr. Hewfon ftates that he
faw white chyle in a crocodile.

The diftribution of the lafteals (if that term may be
employed where the chyle, inftead of being like milk, is
tranfparent) on the inteitine of the turtle, forms one of the
moll elegant preparations in comparative anatomy. By
fixing the injedting tube in a veffel near the inteftine, and
waiting with a little patience, the quickfilver will gradually
find its way into the minute ramifications of the lafleals.
The large trunks on the mefentery contain valves, fo that
we cannot fucceed in filling the abforbents of the inteftine
from them ; but the ramifications on the inteftine itfelf are
deftitute of thefe folds, fo that when once the quickfilver
has reached the furface of the gut, it will run forward with-
fcint ^\\\. obftacle. The peritoneal furface of the gut is com-

pletely covered with ftraiglit parallel branches, running-
according to the length of the inteftine. Its inner furface
is no lefb thickly covered with lafteala of a d'ftereiit appear-
ance. When dried it feems as if the quickfilver were con-
taiiiL-d in fmall cells, covering tlie whole internal furface of
tlie inteftine fo completely, tliat the point of a pin could
fcarcely be placed between them. Mr. Hewfon ha* parti,
cularly defcribed this appearance, and was doubtful whether
it ought to be referred to extravafation or not. But we are
convinced, from frequent examniations of this cellular ftruc-
ture, that it is a part of the natural organization ; becaufe
the cells are reirular and uniform in their fize and arrange-
ment ; no force is ufed in the experiment ; and a real extra-
vafation prefents an appearance altogether different. The
extent of the abforbing fyftem, as demonftrated in this way,
is beyond any thing we could form an idea of from injedlions
in man or warm-blooded animals.

After leaving the inteftine, the lafteals accompany the
blood-velfels on the mefentery, running at their fides, and
communicating acrofs them. Eacli artery has two veins,
and there is a lafteal or more at each fide of each of the
three veffels ; fo that their number confiderably exceeds that
of the blood-vefl'els. A coarfe reprefentation of them, on
the mefentery, is exhibited in Monro's Phyfiology of Fifhes,
tab. 30.

Near the root of the mefentery the large lacfeals anaf-
tomofe, fo as to form a net-work, from which feveral large
branches go into fome confiderable lymphatics on the left
fide of the fpine. Thefe laft can be traced downwards
almofl to the anus, and belong to the parts fituated below the
mefentery, and particularly to the kidnies. At the root of
the mefentery, on the left fide of the fpine, the lymphatics
of the fpleen join the lafteals, and immediately above this
union a fort of plexus or net-work is formed, which lies
upon the right aorta. Flom this plexus a large branch arifes,
which pafles behind the right aorta to the left fide, and
gets before the left aorta, where it aflifts in forming a large
receptaculum, lying in front of that artery. The thoracic
dufts arife from this receptaculum. From its right fide goes
one trunk, which is joined by that large branch which came
from the plexus to the left fide of the right aorta, and then
paffes over the fpine. This trunk is the thoracic duft of
the right fide ; for having got to the right fide of the fpine,
it runs upwards on the infide of the right aorta, towards the
right fubclavian vein. And when it has advanced a little
above the lungs, or within three or four inches of the fubcla-
vian vein, it divides into branches, which, near the fame place,
are joined by a large branch that comes up on the outfide of
the aorta. From this part upwards, thofe veffels divide and
fubdivide, and are afterwards joined by the lymphatics
of the neck, which likewife divide into branches before
they join thofe from below ; fo that between the thoracic
duft and the lymphatics of the fame fide of the neck a very
intricate net-work is formed. From this net-work a branch
goes into the angle made by the jugular vein, and the lower
part, or trunk, of the fubclavian : this branch, therefore,
lies on the infide of the jugular, whiltt another gets to the
outfide of that vein, and feems to open into it a httle above
the angle between that vein and the fubclavian. Into the
above-mentioned receptaculum the lymphatics of the ftomach
and duodenum enter : tliey have numerous analtomofes,
forming a beautiful net-work round the artery which they
accompany. From this receptaculum hkewife, befides the
trunk already mentioned, which goes to the right fide,
arife two other trunks, nearly equal in fize ; one of which
runs upon the left fide, and the other upon the right fide of
the left aorta, till they come within two or three niches of the

I z left

REPTILES.

left I'ubclavian vein ; where they join behind tlie aorta, and
form a number of branches, which are afterwards joined by
the lymphatics of tiie left lide of the neck : fo that here a
net-work or plexus is formed, as upon the right fide.
From this plexus a branch idues, which opens into the angle
between the jugular and the lower part or trunk of the
fubclavian vein. In thefe net-works, formed by the lym-
phatics near their termination in the veins, this fyftem in
the turtle differs remarkably from that in birds. Hewfon's
Account of the Lymphatic Syftem in Amphibious Animals,
Philof. Tranf. vol. 69. p. 198.

The Liver, which is divided in the mammalia into feveral
lobes diftinft from each other, and is more uniform ni birds,
is ftill lefs divided in reptiles. Often it has no divilion of
lobes, but is merely irregularly fiffured on its loole and
thin edge. Its proportionate fize, however, is more confi-
derable than in the two clades jult mentioned. Occupying
ufually the two hypochondria, it extends far backwards
under the inteftines, and is fupported in its pofition by
folds of the peritoneum, analogous to thofe which cxiil in
the mammalia. Its colour is no longer that reddifli-brown
which is feen in the mammalia and birds ; but it partakes
more of yellow.

In the chelonians the liver exhibits a peculiar arrangement,
being divided into two rounded irregular mafles, of which
the right occupies the fame hypochondrium, and the other
is conne<3:ed to the fmall curvature of the (lomach. They
are united by two narrow produftions of the fame fubftance,
in which the principal vefTels pafs. In the green lizard,
the geckos, the dragons, the iguanas, it forms a fingle mafs
of various figure, flat or convex below, concave above.
Its loofe edge has two filTures in the dragon, dividing it
into three lobes, of which the right is prolonged into a fort
of tail. There is only one fidure in the geckos, and the
right part is equally more extenfive than the left. In the
common iguana it is lengthened into a long appendix. In
the crocodile and cameleon the liver has two very diftinft
lobes ; and moreover, in the latter, a long appendix. It
has only one lobe in the ferpents, in whom it is long and
cylindrical. Like other organs, it afTumes in this order a
figure correfponding to the elongated form of their bodies.
There is one lobe only in the falamanders, but two in the
other batracians.

Hepatic Canals. — The common trunk of thefe canals is
ufually feparate from the cyftic duft, and not inferted with
the latter in the intellinal canal, in reptiles, as well as in
birds. This has been obferved in the chelonian and fau-
rian orders, in feveral ophidians, and fome batracians. Yet
this arrangement is not conftant. For, in the crocodile,
where the hepatic is fometimes feparate from the cyftic
duft, it fends at other times a branch to the gall-bladder,
which is inferted a little above its neck, and is itfelf united
to the cyftic canal, not far from the inteftine. The mouth
of the common canal was diftant from the pylorus, fays
Cuvier, 0.26 in a crocodile, whofe whole inteftiaal canal
was rather more than a metre (about 39, inches) in length.

In the teftudo graeca the hepatic canal fends a branch of
communication to the cyftic canal, not far from the gall-
bladder ; but thefe two canals open feparately into the in-
teftine, though near each other ; the former before the latter.
The Gall Bladder has its fundus ufually directed back-
wards. Its proportional volume is lefs confiderable than
in mammalia and birds ; and it is more intimately connefted
with the liver than in thefe claffes. In the teftudines it is
almoft entirely concealed in the right lobe of the vifcus ;
and is placed under the fame lobe in the crocodile. Where
the liver is not divided into lobes, the fituation of this refer-
VoL. XXIX.

voir is marked out by a fifl'ure. In the ophidians the gall-
bladder is abfolulcly feparated from the liver, and fituated
at the fide of the ftomach, near the pylorus, a ftiort diftance
beyond the pollerior extremity of that vifcus. Its form
is generally oval, but it approaches to the cylindrical figure
in the iguana.

The connexions of the cydic and hepatic canals hare
been already mentioned. The former remains generally
didinft from the latter, by the fide of which it is inlerted
into the inteftine. Sometimes it receives the branches of
the latter in fuccedion.

The Pancreas is a conglomerate gland, as in mammalia
and birds, and podcdes the fame ilrufture fv/itli fome un-
important modifications of colour, conllftence, lobular divi-
fions, &c.) as in man. Its pofition and figure vary in rep-
tiles. In feveral ciielonians it is triangular. That of the
Nilotic crocodile is divided into lobes : it is irregular in the
ophidians, and fituated on the right of the origin of the
intellinal canal. In the frog its figure is equally irregular,
and it is fituated in the arc formed by the (lomach towards
the front. It is placed in the firft curve of the inteftine in
the falamander.

There is either a fingle or double pancreatic canal. In
the Nilotic crocodile, for example, there are two, inferted io
the inteftine after the biliary canals, while there is only one
in the land falamander, the infertion of which precedes that
of the biliary tubes.

The Spleen. — This is a vifcus, of which the ufe is not
hitherto underttood. It cxiils in all the vertebral animals ;
but its importance feems to diminidi as we pafs from mam-
malia to birds, from the latter to reptiles, and from thefe
again to fifties ; at leaft, if we may judge from the fuccelfivc
diminution of its volume in thefe four clades.

Its figure varies confiderably in this clafs. It is diaped
like the kidney in the teftudines ; fmall and fphericalii the
frogs and toads ; elongated in the falamanders, as wellas in
the faurian and ophidian orders.

The abdominal Cavity, Peritoneum, and its Procejfes The

offices of this membrane, in covering and infulating the
various vifcera, confining them, by its continuations and
folds, more or lefs clofely to the fides of the cavity, and
facilitating, by its fmooth furface, their motions with rcfpeft
to each other, and to the containing cavity, will convince us
of the importance of the membrane, and lead us to expeft
that it ftiould exift very generally. We, confequently,
find it in all the vertebral animals. Generally white, deli-
cate, and tranfparent, it is fometimes black in reptiles.

In this clafs, as in birds, there is no diaphragm, and con-
fequently no diftindion of abdominal and thoracic cavities.
All the vifcera are contained in one large cavity, and fur-
rounded by one membrane. Geoffroy, however, deferibes
fome mufcular fibres coming from the fternum, and fixed
to a membrane covering the convexity of the hver, which
feem hke the rudiment of a diaphragm. Annales du Mu-
feum, V. ii. p. 50.

In the chelonians, the membrane produces certain fubdi-
vifions of the common cavity of the thorax and abdomen.
We remark, 1 ft, the cavity of the lungs, which are coni
tinued far backwards, above tiie heart, liver, and inteftines ;
2dly, that of the heart, or pericardium, which touches the
following behind ; 3dly, that of the abdominal vifcera, con-
taining the ftomaeh, liver, inteftines, ovaries, tefticles, and
urinary bladder. In front it covers the liver, forming a fort
of membranous diaphragm, feparating it from the heart ;
and it clofes the cavity of the pelvis behind. It alfo fur-
nifties the mefenteric folds. The texture of this membrane
appears ftronger in the teftudines than in other reptiles.

4Z The

REPTILES.

The mefentery exhibits, in the difTerenl orders of reptiles,
lome varieties, which we (hall fliorlly notice. The tirll
fold, which is attached to the fmall iiiteiline in the tclhidines,
does not come immediately from the vertebral column, and
docs not form the mefentery properly fo called, until after
it has fixed the arch of tlie colon by means of a mefocolon.
The duodenum is confined in the right hypochondrium, and
loins, by laminae of the common membrane, which cover it,
and are then continued to the abdominal parietes. The me-
fentery of ferpents is & narrow fold, not coming immediately
from the vertebral column : the blood-veffels form numerous
anallomofes between its lamina:, as in warm-blooded ani-
mals.

The faurians have a mefentery tolerably developed. The
produftion, which goes to the large inteiline, like that which
belongs to the fmall, comes from tlie vertebral column.
There is no tranfvcrfe mefocolon.

Reptiles have no omenta; but ilruclures apparently ana-
logous to thefe fatty membranes occur in fome of them. The
ferpents have membranous proceli'es, containing much fat,
and extending, like the great omentum of the mammalia,
under the intellinal canal. Many faurians have alfo two pro-
duftions of peritoneum, loaded with fat, advancing from
the front edge of the pelvis under the abdominal vifcera ;
there are fatty lobes attached to the telticles and ovaries of
frogs. The latter are not regarded by Blumenbach in the '
light of omenta. " The yellow appendices," fays he,
(duftus adipofi, appendices lutex,) " which are found in the
frog, on either fide of the fpine, and fometimes form one
raals, fometimes are divided into feveral fmaller portions,
were confidered by Malpighi as a kind of omentum. (De
omento et adipofis ductibus, oper. t. 2. p. 35, &c.) That
this refemblance is very remote, appears from feveral circum-
Itances ; and particularly from the conllant and remarkable
varialions of fize which occur in thefe parts at the pairing
feafon." Comparative Anatomy, tranflated by Lawrence,

P- "93-

Thefe bodies, being apparently connefted to the tefticles

and ovaries, are defcribed with the generative organs by
Swammerdam and Roelel. They confiil of a pedicle, at-
tached more particularly to the emulgent vein on each fide,
and of two, three, to feven or more pieces joined to it, va-
rying in fize according to the age and feafon. They are pro-
portionally large in the tadpole. They may be feen fmall
in female frogs, whicli have not yet laid their ova, although
Roefel afierts that they incrcafe in fize with the generative
organs. In this fmall Itate, Cuvier obferves, that a veflel,
filled with venous blood, and producing no branches, may
be feen in the axis of each fringed portion. Thefe veilels
all join to form a common trunk in the pedicle ; and this
trunk terminates in the emulgent vein.

The abfence of omentum in this clafs does not accord with
its fuppofed ufe to keep the inteftines warm. Is there any
proof that the inteftines are warmer with it, than they would
be without it ? And is there not as great a ncceflity for
preventing the efcape of heat in reptiles, or in birds, ( which
alfo have no omentum, ) as in the mammalia ? Cuvier ob-
ferves, that many of the hybernating mammalia have two la-
teral omental appendices, which, with the principal omentum,
are abundantly furniihed with fat in the winter, fo as to form
<' an adipous covering for the inteftines, which no doubt
contributes powerfully to retain their natural heat, to pre-
vent the accefs of cold, and to fupply the place of food."
All reptile* are torpid in the winter, yet they have no omenta.

Urinary Organs.

The AVi&w.— Thefe are diftingtiiflied from the fame

glands in mammalia, and refemble thofe of birds and firtiex.
in the impodibility of diftinguiftiing in tliem the two fuL-
ftsoces (fee Kidney), and in the abfence of iiifundibula and
pelvis. Their fituation, form, and relative fize, vary in the
different orders.

In the chelonians and faurians, they lie far back in tlie
abdominal cavity. They adhere clofely to the pelvis in 'the
lizards properly fo called, under the facruin, and penetrate
even under the tail ; they go as far back, but they advance
farther in front, in the falamanders. They lie altogether
farther forwards, and very near each other, in the other ba-
tracians. In thefe three orders both kidnies are fituated at
the fame height, and covered by the peritoneum on their in-
ferior furfdce only. In the ophidians, the right is placed
further forwards than the left ; and tliey are connefted, on
each fide of the vertebral column, merely by a prolongation
of peritoneum, which lurrounds and fufpcnds them, with-
out fixing them to the fpine. There is a manifeft relation
between the peculiar arrangement, and the great mobility of
the column in thefe animals.

Their form is fhort and thick in the chelonians, more
or lefs elongated and flattened oval in the faurians and batra-
cians, and extremely elongated in the ophidians. They
confift, in the latter, of numerous feparate lobes, placed in
a chain one before the other. They are alfo minutely divided
in the chelonians, at leail on their two furfaces ; for all the
lobes are united in the centre. They form, on their fur-
face, a kind of convolutions refembhng thofe of the brain, ■
and giving the glands a peculiar afpeft.

Among the faurians, the crocodiles have them much di-
vided, at leaft at a certain age. In a fmall crocodile, about
a foot in length, Cuvier faw no divifion, while there were
many in a larger individual of the fame fpecies. It would
be fingular if this fhould turn out to be a conftant difference,
as it is exaftly the converfe of that which exifts in man.
They are without lobes, or only flightly divided in other
genera of the fame order. They have no divifions.in the
batracians.

The origin of the ureters is analogous to that of birds ;
and their length varies according to the fituation of the
kidnies.

They end in the urethra in the chelonians, and the urine
palTes from that canal into the bladder.

They are ffiort, large, and thick-fided in the crocodile,
and pierce the luperior furface of the cloaca, at a confiderable
diftance from each other.

The principal ramifications of the urinary canals are eafily
feen in the ophidians, ending fuccefiively, as they come out
of each lobe, in a common trunk, which follows the internal
edge of the kidney, and forms the ureter. Arriving near
the cloaca, each is dilated into a fmall oval bag, and then
terminates feparately.

In general they terminate in the cloaca or bladder, ac-
cording as the latter refervoir exifts or not.

Urinary Bladder. — Reptiles vary much in refpeft to the
exiftence of this part. The chclonian and batracian orders
have it : and it is found in the following genera of faurians ;
'ji'z. the iguana, tOpinambis, cameleon, dragon, ftellio :
while it is wanting in the crocodile, lizard, agame, gecko,
other genera of the fame order ; and in the ophidians.

The bladder is very large, with thin fides and weak muf-
cular fibres in the chelonians ; and it has a more or lefs
marked divifion at its fundus into two portions. A very
fhort urethra opens on the inferior furface of the cloaca :
its cavity prefents two prominences on each fide, of which
the anterior is pierced by the orifice of the vas deferens, the
pofterior by that of the ureter.

The

KEPTILES.

Tlie bladder always receives the urine by its neck, or by
a begiiuiiiig of an uretlira, which opens immediately into
the cloaca.

There arc two large membranous bags in the frog and
toad, occupying the lituation of the urinary bladiier, gene-
rally confidercd as lucii, and fo defcribed by Blumenbach
and Cuvier. Townfon doubts whether they ought to be con-
iidcrcd as part of the urinary apparatus. (See his Traft*?
and Obfervations, p. 66. tab. 3.) They have no conncftion
with the ureters. Indeed it is very clear, that the latter
tubes open on the fuperior furface ; while thefe two recepta-
cles terminate on the inferior furface of that inteftiiie. They
contain a pure water. Their fi/.e, which exceeds all ordi-
nary proportion to the bulk of the kidney, renders it like-
wife probable that they are not receptacles of urine.

Renal CapJ'ules. — The parts to which this name has
been given, and which are found in the three firll orders of
reptiles, arc Itil! fmaller in proportion, than in mammalia and
birds, and are completely feparate from the kidnies. In the
cheloniansthey arc connected to the emulgent veins. In the
faurians and ophidians they lie in the fold of the peritoneum,
which unites the ovaries and ovidufts.

For a defcription of the fringed tatty appendices, which
are found in the batracian order near the teilides and ovaries,
and the vedels of which join the emulgent veins, fee the ac-
count of the omenta.

Organs of Circulation. — The whole oi nutrition is effedted
at one operation in zoophytes : chyle pafies into the parts
in proportion as it is made; in infefts alfo it bathes
them as foon as it is formed, and they appropriate it. In
the fuperior animals, there is an intermediate operation : a
particular fluid only, always moving in a certain fyilem of
veffels, immediately nourifhes the parts ; and this fluid is
renewed by the chyle. The motion of this peculiar fluid, of
this blood, IS called circulation j — a pi-ocefs confined to the
fuperior clafles, that is, to the vertebral animals, the mol-
lulca, the worms, and the crullacea.

There are two principal points for our confideratiofl in the
circulation ; its agents, and the routes of the blood.

That-part of the latter is particularly interefting, which
conducts the blood to the refpiratory organ. One of
the chief purpofes of the circulation is to conduft the blood
conllantly, in greater or fmaller quantity, into an organ,
where it may undergo the mediate or immediate aftion of
o>f)'gen ; and, as the qualities of the blood depend much on
the degree of force of this aftion, and in the modification
which the blood receives from it, while all parts of the body,
being nourithed by this blood, partake of its qualities, it
follows that the whole nature of an anjmal will be in fom.e
fort determined by the diilribution of its circulating organs,
and by the route which this diltribution marks out for the
blood.

Hence arifes the importance of the llrufture of the heart,
in reference to natural hiftory, and the correftnefs of the
characters drawn from it for the formation of clafles. Men
of genius had forefeen, rather than demonfl;rated this im.-
portance ; but it has been eftabliihed on rational principles
only m modern times.

The circulations through the body and the lung are
called, refpeftively, the great and the minor. In the for-
mer, all the blood returning from the body by the veins,
which joining together from all parts, ultimately end in
one trunk, goes again to thefe parts by the arteries, of which
a common trunk is gradually divided and fub-divided, until
the lad divifions, as well as their union with the roots of
the veins, efcape the eye.

If the common trunk of the veins communicated direftly

with the common arterial trunk, there would be a fingle ar-
culation ; the blood brouglit back to the centre, would be
fent again immediately to the parts, to return again direftly,
and fo on ; but this never takes place entirely. -

Before the blood; brought back to the common trunk of
the veins, can again enter that of the arteries, it muft be fent
in part, or altogether, to the pulmonary organ, in order to
undergo the aftion of the atmofphere.

If the circulating organs be fo arranged that every drop
of the blood goes through the lung, by the minor circulation,
before it can enter the arterial trunk, the common trunk of
the veins of the body fending all its blood into the pulmo-
nary arterial trunk, whole ultimate ramifications commu-
nicate with veins united into a common trunk, fending all
its blood into that of the arteries of the body, there is a
ilouble circulation.

If, on the contrary, the common trunk of the general
veins, inilead of bemg diftributed entirely to the lung,
lliould only fend to it a branch, while the reft of its blood
(hould go diredly into the conunon trunk of the general
arteries, the minor circulation would be only a fradtion of
the great, more or lefs confiderable, according to the fize
of the branch devoted to it. In each circuit of the blood,
refpiration would be exercifed on a part only of this fluid,
and the reft would go again into the body by the arteries,
without having palled through the lung. This blood, and
the parts nouriflied by it, would participate lefs, ceteris
paribus, in the qualities which refpiration could impart to it.
This is what takes place in reptiles ; their pulmonary cir-
culation is only a fraction of the great, more or lefs confi-
derable in the ditt'erent genera. The other clafles, -viz. the
mammalia, birds, fiflies, mollufca, and worms, have a double
circulation, and no part of their blood can return into the
great, until it has gone through the minor circulation.

Yet we are not to conclude that the ultimate effeij of
refpiration is the fame, becaufe circulation is the fame. The
mode of refpiration may be dift"erent, and, as this is one of
the factors, the produft will be afFefted by its alteration.
All the animals lalt enumerated have an entire pulmonary
circulation, while, in reptiles, it is only a fraction : let them
be, for example, as i to ^. Now filhes, mollufca, and
worms, breathing in water, and that oxygen only, which
is mixed and contained in this water, may be confidered as
having a half-refpiration, while reptiles, breathing air itfelf,
have an entire one. An entire refpiration, multiphed by a
half-circulation, and a half-circulation by an entire refpira-
tion, give the fame produft ; which is, in both cafes, a half-
oxygenation of the blood, ufing this term merely to exprefs
the changes taking place from breathing.

Mammalia have an entire circulation and refpiration ; and
confequently an entire oxygenation. The quantity of the
latter is even greater in birds m confequence of the peculiar
manner in which air is introduced into all parts of their body.
The fraft ion of -A is only adopted for the purpofe of il-
luftration ; the quantity probably varies in the different
genera of each clafs, and cannot be rigoroufly appreciated.
By thefe confideralions we may eilimate, and in a manner
calculate, the nature of each animal. As refpiration gives
to the blood its heat and energy, and through its medium
imparts excitability to the organs, its quantity will deter-
mine the degree of vigour in the animal funft ions. Hence
we deduce the great force of the moving powers, the acute-
nefs of the fenfes, the rapidity of digeftion, and the heat of
the paflions in birds. Hence the more moderate degree of
all thefe in the mammalia ; hence the inertnefs, the inactivity,
and apparent Itupidity, of the other clafles. Hence, too,
the various modifications of vital temperature natural to
4 Z 2 each

REPTILES.

each of thefc cladcs, which are in an exaft ratio to the
degree of their other qualities.

The circulation i« effefted by means of mufcular powers,
whicli are applied particularly to the arterial fyllem ; the
venous feemiiig to be merely paffive. A hollow mufclc,
called a wnlricle, poilefling great and continued irritabihty,
and contracting forcibly on the blood whenever it arrives,
is placed at the union of the venous and the correfponding
arterial trunk. Valves are placed at its two openings ; one
valve allows the blood to enter, and prevents it from going
back again, while the other permits its exit, and cuts off
the retirrn. The ventricle then cannot contraft without dif-
tcnding the arteries, pufhing forwards the blood, which they
contain already, and thus producing the /)u^. The ven-
tricle, having expelled the blood which irritated it, is re-
laxed a-id dilated, and then immediately filled with a frclh
quantity of blood from the veins. Before entering the ven-
tricle, the vein is dilated into a mufcular fac, called the
eurk/e, with much lefs confiderable mufcular fides. This
is irritated by the blood received from the vein, contrafts on
it, and fends it into the ventricle. It is hardly neceffary to
add, that the auricle and ventricle contraft alternately.

Animals with a fimple circulation have a fingle ven-
tricle ; but they poflefs fometimcs two auricles. When the
circulation is double, there may be a ventricle at the origin
of each artery, or at that of one only. Mammalia and birds
have two, and the fepias among the mollufca.

All other animals have a ventricle at the origin of one
only of the two arteries, but not of the fame in all. It is
placed, in fiihes, at the origin of the pulmonary artery ; in
the mollufca at the origin of the artery of the body, or the
aorU, which is the name of tkat artery.

The union of the auricle and ventricle conftitutes the
/leqri. We find, therefore, in fifhes and mollufca, a fimple
heart, pulmonary in the former, aorlic in the latter. Rep-
tiles, alfo, have a fimple heart, at once pulmonary and
aortic. Mammalia, birds, and fepiae, have a double heart,
or rather two, a pulmonary and an aortic, hearts.

In mammalia and birds the two hearts are united, and
form one mafs, which commonly bears the name of heart,
as if it were a fingle organ. This is not the cafe in the
fepiae. See Vf.RMEs, m Comparative Anatomy.

We may now underftaud what naturahits mean, when they
fay that mammalia and birds have a heai-t with two auricles
and two ventricles ; reptiles and fifhes a heart with a fingle
auricle and ventricle. The latter phrafe, befides comprifiiig,
in a common expreffion, two things really very different,
contains alfo an error of fad ; for many reptiles have two
auricles.

RefpeiSing the hearts of mammaha, birds, fiflies, and mol-
lufca, fee the articles Mammalia, Birds, Fishes, and
Vermes, in Comparative Anatomy. For the phyfiology of
the circulation, the powers and aftions of the heart, and
the other organs concerned in it, fee Circulation and
Heart.

The eflential ftruftare of the heart is the fame in all
animals ; there are only modifications of greater or lefs im-
portance. It is covered externally by a fraooth membrane,
the reflefted portion of the pericardium ; its cavities are
lined by another fmooth membrane, continuous with the
linings of the blood-velfels ; and there is more or lefs muf-
cular fubftance interpofed between them. The exiftence
of the pericardium is as general as that of the heart ; its
nature and difpofition are fo nearly alike in all animsls, that
it is not worth while to notice the modifications.

Of the Heart. — In the different orders of reptiles, the heart
is iound to vary in fome parts of its itrufture ; there is,

however, no eflential difieronco, when viewed in relat:( n to
its funcliotis. The three firll orders have a heart confilling
of two auricles and a fingle ventricle, which is fometimee
divided into many cavities, communicating with each other.
On the other hand, in the batracians there is but a Cngle
auricle and ventricle, with its cavity of a fimple form. We
lliall enumerate fucceflively the differences of llrudture in
the four orders of thisclafs of animals.

Firfl in the chelonians. In the animals conr.pofing this
order, the heart has a form altogether peculiar. The length
of the organ is much exceeded by its breadth ; in fome in-
flancts, it relemblcs the fegment of a fphere ; in others, it
is of a fquare but elongated form, and curved in its longi-
tudinal direftion. In its natural fituation, it is fo ind be-
neath the lungs, in front of the liver, and partly between
the two lobes of the latter. The pericardium, which is
capacious and ftrong, is in contaft with the membrane iu-
veiling thofe organs, and is as firmly adherent to it as the
pericardium is to the diaphragm in man.

The magnitude of the two auricles is much greater in
proportion, than in any animals of the clafles of mammalia
or birds ; the capacity of each is at leall equal to that ©f
the ventricle ; they are fituated in part above the latter,
projefting upon its lateral and anterior parts. They poflefs
fomewhat of a rounded form, are without any appendix,
and have their parietes thin, with fome flefhy fafciculi in
their flrufture. The right auricle, which exceeds in a
trifling degree the fize of the left, receives, by a fingle
opening at its upper part, the blood returning from the
body. Two valves are placed around the borders of the
opening, giving it tlie appearance of a fimple fifl'ure. The
pulmonary veins alone terminate in the oppofite auricle ;
their termination is provided in the fame manner with two
valves. A fimple membranous partition feparates the cavi-
ties of the two auricles and their openings into the ven-
tricle. It is on the ventricle that depends the form which
we have defcribed as belonging to the heart. Its cavity is
very fmall in comparifon to its fize, which is owing to the
great thicknefs of the parietes. Thefe are found to be
compofed exteriorly of a moderately thick layer of fibres,
which have a direftion parallel to the external furface of
the ventricle. Beneath thefc, there" are other numerous
mufcular fafciculi, varying in their direftion, but proceed-
ing principally from the fuperior to the inferior furface ;
the greater number of them are only contiguous, or feparated
from each other, allowing the blood to pafs through the inter-
vals formed between them as through a fponge. It refults
from this itrufture, that the cavity of the ventricle is dimi-
niflied to one-third of its volume ; it occupies the middle
and right fide of its bafe. In its greater part, it is lined
by a continuation of the membranous fold which covers
the auricular orifices, performing to them the ofSce of a
valve ; it is of a fquare form, attached at the middle of its
external furface to the partition between the auricles, and
by its fuperior and inferior fides to the correfponding pa-
rietes of the ventricle ; it is only loofe and unconnected in
its right and left borders. The firft is extended over the
opening of the auricle on the fame fide, and the latter
over that of the oppofite auricle ; fo that thefe openings
appear in the ventricle feparated by the breadth of the fold,
while in the auricles there is but the thin feptum inter-
vening between them. The blood returning from the lungs
into the left auricle is direfted into the ventricle by means of
the valve belonging to the former, in a courfe direftly con-
trary to that leading to the opening belonging to the arte-
ries of the body. It mull, therefore, necefiarily pafs through
the whole cavity of the ventricle, from the left to the right,

and

REPTILES.

»nd into the intervals of the mufcular fafciculi compofiiig
tlie parietcs. From tliis ftrufturc it refults, that tliert- mull
be an admixture in the ventricle between the blood return-
intr from the lungs, and that portion which has not been
fiibmitted to the influence of the furrouiiding element in its
paffage through thofe organs. The opening between the
right auricle and the cavity of the ventricle is ni a fituation
immediately directed towards the two cavities leading to the
pulmonary arteries and arteries of the body ; they are both
fituated completely to the right, in the cavity of the ven-
tricle. Tlie lirlt, which is not always of the fame magni-
tude, is placed inferiorly to the other, having a wide com-
munication with it. In fome indajices the opening is ex-
tended very far towards the pofterior part of the heart ; in
others it is fo fmall, as in the land tortoifes, tiiat it does
not exceed the diameter of the cavity leading to it. It is
only in the firll conformation, of which we iind examples
in many of the fea tortoifes, that the appellation of pul-
monary cavity can be applied to it. Tlie blood arriving
from the right auricle purfues a direAion more particularly
towards that part, by a channel leading from the one to the
other. There is but one opening leadmg from the pul-
monary cavity, which is that of the pulmonary artery ; it
is provided with two valves, and penetrates the bate of the
heart more inwardly than the openings to be next men-
tioned. Thefe are the terminations of the two aortx,
which are found near to each other on the right fide of the
fuperior cavity, the fame which receives the blood of the
two auricles. The termination of the left aorta is fituated
a little more inwardly than that of the right, and inferiorly
to it. They are each provided with two iemicircular valves.
This is the ftrufture found in the fea tortoife ; but in the
land fpecies the arteries of the body arife by a lingle open-
ing from the ventricle. The heart of the turtle is beft de-
lineated by Mery, in the Acad, des Sciences, 1703.

In the fecond order of reptiles, the faurians, we (hall
commence with a defcription of the heart of the crocodile,
which prefents an example of the mod complicated llruc-
ture that we have found in the animals of this order, or
even in the whole clafs of reptiles. The pericardium is
found, as in the chelonians, adhering to the peritoneum in-
vefting the convex furface of the liver. The apex of the
heart is connefted by a very llrong tendinous chord to the
loofe part of that bag, which is extremely thick, and has a
fibrous flrudlure externally. In its natural fituation the
organ is found occupying the fpace between the two lobes
of the liver and the lungs on each fide. The fize of the
auricles is fomewhat lefs than in the chelonians ; in other
refpet-ts they are fimilar. The parietes are flrengthened by
flefliy fafciculi proceeding in different direftions. The ven-
tricle prefents an oval form, and has its parietes of great
thicknefs. Its cavity is divided into three compartments,
sommunicating by numerous openings. One of thefe divi-
fions is fituated inferiorly and to the right. The auricle of
the fame fide projetts into its anterior part the blood re-
ceived from the veins of the body by a wide opening, which
is provided with two valves. The termination of the left
defcending aorta is found in the fame cavity, in its left and
anterior fide. Behind this latter opening is feen an orifice,
which leads into the fmalleft of the three divifions, at the mid-
dle of the bafe of the heart, and in which is found the com-
mon trunk of the pulmonary arteries. It refults from this
conformation, that there are two channels offered to the blood
which has palled from the right auricle into the cavity of
the fame fide ; the one by the left defcending aorta ; the
other into the cavity leading to the pulmonary artery. It
may even take a third route, and pafs through the numerous

holes vviiich penetrate the partition feparating the fuperior
and Lft cavities. The left auricle projefts into the latter
the blood received from the pulmonary veins. A mem-
branous valve is found attached to the border of the open-
ing on its right fide. The trunk common to the right de-
fcending aorta, carotids, and axillary arteries, is fituate to
the right of the valve. The blood mull either pals into
the arterial trunk, ar.d from thence be dillributed to tlie
head and extremities, or penetrate into the intervals between
the flefhy fafciculi of that cavity, and from thence into tlie
two others. It refults from this llrudture, that the blood
diltributed to the anterior parts by the carotids and axillary
arteries, to the pofterior parts by the iliacs, and to the tail
by the middle facral artery, is nearly all derived immediately
from the lungs, whiHl a jjortion of that which is diftributed
to the other vifcera by the left aorta comes from the right
c.ivity and from the auricle of the fame fide, and confe-
quently has not been modified by its paflage through thofe
organs. The pulmonary blood is not fo intimately ad-
mixed with that from the body, as in the chelonians. Such
is the ftruAure of the heart in the crocodile of the Nile,
and the caiman or American alligator. For a view of the
crocodile's lieart, fee Cuvier Le9ons, t. 5. pi. 45.

It is lefs complicated in the common iguana (iguana deH-
catifiima). In this animal, the fituation of the heart ig
very remote from the liver, beneath the origin of the lungs,
and in the molt projefting part of the cheft. It is of a
conical form, being very broad at its bafe, and acute at its
fummit. The auricles prefent nothing remarkable. In the
ventricle, there are but two cavities, the one fituate to the
right, which forms the proper cavity of the ventricle, the
other to the left and fuperiorly, appearing as a finus of the
former. The openings of the pulmonary auricle and right
defcending aorta are found in the latter, nearly in the fame
manner as in the crocodiles. The opening of the right au-
ricle is fituated towards the middle of the great cavity or
that of the ventricle, and is provided with a femilunar mem-
branous valve, in the fame way as that of the left auricle.
The orifices of the pulmonary artery and left defcending
aorta are placed lower down in the fame cavity ; the firft
on the left, the other on the right. There is no pulmo-
nary cavity. The interior of the ventricle is furnifhed with
fafciculi of flefhy fibres.

The flrufture of the heart in the third order of reptiles,
the ophidians, differs but in a trifling degree from that of
the faurians, poireffing the moil fimple conformation ef this
organ. There is no diitinft pulmonary cavity. The auri-
cles are of confiderable fize ; that which receives the blood
from the body is the largeft. Their parietes are thin and
tranfparent in the intervals between the flefhy fafciculi, by
which their ftrength is augmented, and which are irregu-
larly interlaced together. Their cavities are feparated by
a membranous partition. The figure of the ventricle is
generally that of an elongated cone, irregularly formed in
confequence of an appendix of the fanne figure, which pro-
jefts from the left fide beyond its bafe. The interior is
divided into two cavities, the one fuperior, the other infe.
rior, the former being extended into the appendix. An
imperfeCl feptum intervenes between them, having a loofe
unconnefted edge on its right fide, and is extended hori-
zontally from the bafe to the apex ; it is compofed of flefhy
fafciculi, allowing the blood to penetrate in their intervals.
A confiderable opening, by which the two cavities commu.
nicate, is found towards the right fide of the bafe of the
ventricle, at the part where the feptum terminates. The
parietes of the ventricle, of themislves moderately thick,
afford attachment to a multitude of flelhy fibres, giving

additiooal

REPTILES-

additional (Irengtli, but greatly diminifhing the cavity of
the ventricle. Thefe fafciculi are mollly I'eparate from each
other, allowing the blood to permeate between them as
through a fieve ; thus effecling the more perfect admixture
between the portion arriving from the lungs and that from
the body. The openmgs of the auricles are found clofe to
each other, at the middle of tlie bafe of the heart, above
the feptum. Each orifice is clofed by a femicircular valve
of a membranous ttrudture, the loofe edge of which corre-
fponds to the auricle of the fame fide. The termination of
the arteries is found in the right fide of the bafe of the
organ ; that belonging to the pulmonary artery is fituate
towards the left and in the lower part, correfponding to
the inferior cavity. On the left of the latter is found the
opening of the left aorta, correfponding to the fame cavity,
and placed oppofite to the opening which forms the com-
munication between the fuperior and inferior cavity. The
opening of the right aorta is found immediately behind the
laft, and correfponds more particularly to the fuperior
cavity, in which is received both the blood from the lungs
and that from the body ; the two portions united are pro-
jected partly into the right aorta and partly into the in-
ferior cavity, and from thence into the left aorta and
pulmonary artery.

In the fourth order of reptiles, the batracians, the heart
prefents a ftrufture the leaft complicated of the whole clafs.
It confiits of a fiiiglc auricle of a rounded figure, broader
than the bafe of the organ, with its parietes ftrengthened
by flelhy fafciculi. At the bafe of the auricle is the orifice
of communication with the ventricle, which is fingle, having
a fimple cavity, with fleftiy columns, not feparated from
each other. At its bafe is found the common trunk of the
arteries, arifing by a fingle orifice, fituate more to the right
and lovi'er down in the ventricles than the opening of the
auricles. The heart of the frog has been delineated by
Swammerdam, Bibl. Natur. tab. 49; and by Roefel, Hiftor.
Ranar.

Of the Blood-Vejfds. —The diftribution of the blood-veffels
in the four orders of reptiles is varied according to the ftruc-
ture of the heart, and many other circumftances in their
organization. In the batracians the arrangement differs in
the greatefl degree from that of mammalia and birds. All
the arteries arife by a fingle trunk ; confequently there is
but one opening in the heart. In the three other orders,
there are at leatl two openings, frequently three, which
give origin to as many diflintl trunks, one of which is
deflined exclufively to the lungs.

Of the Arteries in the Che/oiiians. — The arteries of tlie
body arife from the heart by a fingle or double trunk in
different fpecies ; thofe of the lungs by a fingle trunk.
They are firmly connedtcd together for a Ihort dif'cance from
their origin. The trunk of the pulmonary artery arifes on
the left, lower down than that of the body. It quickly
feparates into two branches, one of which proceeding to the
right lung, turns from the left to the right, then advances
forwards to arrive at the anterior part of the organ, where
the infertion of the bronchus takes place. The other pro-
ceeds in a contrary dircftion, paiTing acrofs the cefophagus,
it arrives at the fummit of the left lung.

The trunk of the arteries of the body takes its origin at
the right extremity of the bafe of the heart, and divides al-
moft immediately into two great branches, tlie right and
left pofterior aortae. When the trunk is double at its ori-
gin, they feparate, forming thefe two branches. The right
aorta furniflies, near its origin, another confiderable artery,
which may be denominated the anterior aorta. This foon
divides into two branches, each of which is again fubdivided

into two others, tlie internal of which, the fmalleft, is flic-
common carotid, and the external, the fubclavian or axillary
artery. The common carotid proceeds by the fide of the
neck, concealed by the mufcles going to the on hyoides,
fending branches to the cefophagus and adjacent mufcles.
It arrives at the head, to the parts of which it is ultimately
diltributed, without dividing prcvioufly into two principal
branches analogous to the carotids of mammalia. The fub-
clavian or axillary artery furiiilhes nearly the fame branche;
as the arteries bearing the fame name in mammalia, with
the exception that tliere is no branch correfponding to
the inferior thyroid. The continuation of the trunk, form^
the brachial artery. The two pofterior aorta; proceed on
each fide upwards and outwards ; then bending backwards,
they approximate again, and are connetled by a communi-
cating branch, which the left aorta gives to the right ; nearly
oppofite to the fifth dorfal vertebra.

The right aorta, previoufly to communicating with the
left, furniflies many arteries to the back or upper fhell,
correfponding to the intercoftals. The left aorta furiiifhes
confiderable arteries to the vifcera of the abdomen, which
confume great part of its blood. When the trunk arrives
beyond the cardia, it divides into three branches ; the firft,
which is the fmalleft, furniihes a branch to the cefophagus,
and then is diftributcd to tlie flon-.ach. It is analogous to
the coronary ftomachic of manimaha. The fecond, almoft
as confiderable as the trunk from which it proceeds, diitri-
butes arteries to the intcilines, fpleen, pancreas, and liver,
in the following manner. ' The hepatic artery is the firft
given off on the right fide ; it turns backwards and down-
wards to arrive at the liver, and divides into two branches,
near the bafe of the vifcus, from one of which proceeds a
fmall branch to the pancreas, and numerous others to the
duodenum. The fecond branch is one of fniall fize, and is
diftributed to the fecond turn which the colon makes to the
right. It is the colica dextra. The third branch paffes
from the right to the left, and diftributes its branches to
the tranfverfe colon. It is the colica media. After having
given off thefe branches, the trunk purfues a fhort courfe
between the layers of the peritoneum, in a direction down-
wards and backwards. It then dillributes the following
. branches. The pancreatic, which paffes from behind for-
wards upon the left border of the pancreas. The fplenic,
a very fmall artery, diftributed exclufively to the fpleen.
A very confiderable branch, belonging to all the right part
of the colon and cacum. It is a fecond colica dextra. A
fmall artery, which, after having gi\'en a branch to the
caecum, proceeds to anaftomofe with the next, the proper
mefenteric artery, which is larger than any of the preced-
ing, and ramifies in the mefenfery of the fmall mteftine, to
which it is ultimately diftributed. Laftly, tlie third branch,
refulting from the divifion of the pofterior left aorta, the
fecond in magnitude, proceeds obliquely to the right and
backwards, and anaftomofing, as has been mentioned, with
the right aorta, without furnifhing any branch. The com-
mon trunk, formed by their union, appears rather as a con-
tinuation of the right aorta ; it extends along the vertebral
column to thx? pelvis, giving off the following branches in
its courfe. Five or iix fmail branches on each fide, corre-
fponding to the intercoftal or lumbar arteries. The fper-
matics. One or two branches on each fide to the kidnies.
A fmall artery correfponding to the pofterior mefenteric,
which is diftributed to the cloaca.

The common pofterior aortic trunk terminates by four
branches, in the individuals belonging to the teftudo graeca,
which we have diffetted. The firft on the left was the ex-
ternal ihac of that fide, then came the internal iliac of the

fame

IIEPTILES.

fame fide, and oppofitc to it the primitive iliac of the right
fide. Between the two latter arofe the artery of the tail,
correfponding to the middle facral artery. The branches
of the internal iliacs are very aiialog;ous to tiie fame arteries
in mammalia. The trunk divides into two brandies ; one
fending branches to the bladder and cloaca ; the other dip-
ping into the pelvis, and correfponding to the ifchiatic and
poilerior iliac arteries. The external iliac proceeds for-
wards upon the border of the pelvis, furnidies an analogous
branch to the epigailric, from which arifcs the anterior
iliac. The firft deicends upon the internal and inferior
parietes of the upper fliell, and pali'eu in a direction from
behind, forwards. A fecond branch, which arifes from the
external iliac, oppolite to the epigailric, defcends along the
anterior border ot the pelvis, as far as thg fymphifis of the
pubis, and is loll in the mufcles of that part. After having
furniflied thefe two arteries, the external iliac paffes out of
the pelvis, takes the name of crural artery, giving off firit
the circumflex arteries, then the profunda, and in the refl
of its courfe is analogous to what it is found in mammalia.

The diltribution of the principal arterial trunks in the
faurians differs but little from that which has been defcribed
in the preceding orders.

In the crocodile there are three arterial trunks, each hav-
ing a didinft opeiting in the ventricle, provided with two
femi-lunar valves. The pulmonary artery, which arifes
from the cavity bearing the fame nan\c, is fituate to the left,
and fomcwhat fuperiorly ; the poilerior left aorta, which
arifes from the right and inferior cavity, and is fituate be-
tween the pulmonary trunk and the next to be mentioned ;
the poilerior right aorta, correfponding to the fupcrior
cavity. Thefe three trunks are connefted together for a
lliort dillance from their origin. From the latter proceed.
In the firft place, the trunk common to the fubclavian and
left carotid, which remains attached for fome extent to the
poilerior left aorta, then advances obliquely forwards,
palles beneath the bronchns, and divides beyond that canal.
Secondly, a fimilar trunk for the fame arteries on the right
fide. The poilerior aorta, after having given off thefe
branches, turns in a diredlion, firll from below upwards,
then from before backwards, and divides in a direction ob-
liquely inwards beneath the fpnial column, without furnifh-
ing any remarkable branch until it receives the communi-
cating branch from the left aorta. This latter turns around
the bronchus on its own fide, and paffes backwr.rds and in-
wards in the fame way as the preceding. After having
palled the cardia, it divides into many branches, which
proceed to the llomach, fpleen, pancreas, and duodenum.
Thefe receive the greateft part of the blood of the trunk.
The latter haa no communication with the right aorta, but
by an artery, the diameter of which is fcarcely equal to a
fourth part of the trunk from which it proceeds.

We have already alluded to the confequences refulting
from this arrangement of the arteries, in the defcription of
the heart. All the other arteries derived ordinarily from
the abdominal aorta, with the exception of the csliac
trunk, here take their origin from the right poilerior aorta.
It is remarkable that the anterior mefenteric takes its origin
at a very confiderable diftance from the casliac trunk, or
from the arteries ordinarily compofing it ; while, in the
chelonians, it moft frequently ariles very near, or is even a
.branch derived from it. The fplenic is alfo given off by
the caeliac. After having paflcd through the fubllance of
the fpleen, from its anterior to its poilerior part, and diftri-
buted to its fubftance many fmail brandies which arife at a
right angle from the trunk, it paffes out almofl as lai-ge as
at its entrance, and proceeds to be dillribjited to the rec-

tum, and the termination of the fmall intefline ; that branch
of the fplenic having the latter diltribution, forma a con-
fiderable communication with the anterior mefenteric.

The pulmonary artery, very foon after its origin, divides
into two branches, which proceed to the lungs, in the fame
manner as m the chelonians. Their diameter is nearly equal
to that of the trunks formed by tiie carotids and fubclavians
on each fide.

In the common iguana, which has the heart placed very-
far forwards in the chelt, the arteries of the body have, in
the fame manner, two diflinft trunks arifing from the two
cavities of the heart, although they are united at their
origni. The left pofterior aorta does not furnifli any branch
before it becomes united to the right. The latter gives
origin to the carotids and fubclavians, as in the crocodiles ;
but with this dift'erence, that the latter do not arife from the
fame part as the former, but much farther backwards, on
account of the heart being placed fo much anteriorly.

In the lizards properly fo called, the two aortae advance
forwards out of tiie cliell ; the right having firll divided
mto three branches, the left without forming any divifion.
The latter turns backwards upon the fides of the neck, to
proceed afterwards along the vertebral column ; and at the
point where it takes a diredlion from before backwards, it
receives the left branch of the right aorta, which forms a
curvature in front of it. From its convexity arifes the left
carotid. The two other branches of the right aorta turn
backwards, and unite in the fame manner on the right fide
of the neck, forming two arches in front of each other.
The carotid of the fame fide arifes in a fimilar manner from
tiie anterior arch, formed by the middle branch. The fub-
clavians arife from each aorta a little before their jundlion.
We have feen that in the crocodiles and the common iguana,
they are produced both by the right aorta. The trunk
formed by the union of the two arteries, which unite
fpeedily after their origin from the heart, produces the dif-
ferent pairs of intercoftal arteries in fucceffion. It gives off,
near its commencemejit, an artery to the cefophagus ; far-
ther on, a fmall artery which proceeds to the liver ; and ftill
farther, an artery which quickly divides into two branches;
the anterior of which diilributes its ramifications to the
ftomach, fpleen, pancreas, and duodenum. The pofterior
belonging to the inteftinal canal is properly the anterior me-
fenteric. From the trunk the following arteries next pro-
ceed : the lumbar, the fpermatics, the pofterior mefenteric,
which proceeds immediately to the redtum, the renal, which
are among the laft given off, fince the kidniesare fituate very
far back in the abdominal cavity. Laftly, it produces the
iliacs and middle facral artery. The latter k of fo confider-
able a fize, that it may be regarded as a continuation of the
aortic trunk, of which the iliacs appear only as branches.
This circumllance evidently depends on the great fize of the
tail, in comparifon with the extremities.

The diflrlbiUion of the prinripal arterial trunks in the third order
of reptiles, the Ophidians, becomes much fimplified from the
deficiency of extremities, and there being but a fingle lung.
The number of the trunks is the lame ; the relations be-
tween their openings in the heart have been already men-
tioned in the defcription of that organ. The pulmonary
artery afcends and turns backwards upon the bafe of the
heart, and fpeedily arrives at th« inferior furface of the
lung, where it palfes from before, backwards to the left
of the vein. The right aorta afcends on tlie fame fide,
bends backwards, paffes above the cefophagus, and obliquely
backwards and inwards, to join itfelf to the left aorta,
fome diftance beyond the point of the heart. It gives off,
near its origin, fome Iraall arteries, which proceed to an

orbicular

REPTILES.

orbicular gland, placed in front of the bafe of the heart,
likewiff to another gland of a more confulerable fize and
elongated form, fituate beneath the jug'jlar. Tlie trunk
then furnifhes the common carotid, the only one cxi(tin;f
in this order of reptiles. It paffes obliquely to the left,
and advances, by the fide of the left jugular, between the
trachea and the cefophagus, and lallly beneath the latter.
It fends a great number of ramifications to thefe organs,
and divides near the head into many branches diftributed
to the adjacent parts. Near to the vertebral column,
the right aorta produces a confiderable branch correfpond-
ing to the vertebrals and fupcrior intercollals which pro-
ceeds along the fpine, fending to it branches, and wholly
penetrating into it near the head. When the commu-
nication takes place between the right and left aorta, the
diameter of the former is become very fmall, fo that the
p-reatell part of the blood which it has received from the
heart is diftributed to the parts in front of that vifcus : it
is properly the anterior aorta. The left aorta afcends and
turns backwards to the left, pail'es beneath the oefophagus ;
then by the fide of and always beneath the lung, receiving
the right aorta beyond the heart ; and continuing to pafs in
a diredion backwards, it gives off branches correfponding
to the intercoftals, likewife arteries to the vifcera. Thole
branches proceeding to the ftomach, pulmonary bladder, and
liver, are detached fucceflively from the aorta, as it pro-
ceeds backwards ; thus there is no caeliac trunk. Nearly
oppofite to the pylorus, the aorta furnifties the anterior
mefentcric, which proceeds parallel to the inteltinal canal
one half of its extent, fending to it branches. Farther
backwards the inteftinal canal receives three other fmall
branches in fucceffion, from the fame artery : as it pafl'es
backwards, it alfo fends finiilar branches to the kidnies,
ovaries, &c. ; arrived at the lower part of the abdomen, it
penetrates beneath the vertebrae of the tail and is lolt in that
part.

In the lafl order of reptiles, the Batracians, the aorta,
which proceeds from the bafe of the ventricle, foon divides
into two branches, which feparate and purfue a very oblique
direftion from within, outwards and a little forwards. Each
branch gives off a pulmonary artery, a common carotid,
an axillary, a vertebral, and arteries correfponding to the
intercoftals ; then turning backwards, and approaching its
fellow, it fpeedily, becomes united to it. The trunk formed
by their junftion gives off^, firft, the cseliac trunk, then all
the other arteries which arife ordinarily from the abdominal
aorta, prefenting nothing worthy of remark.

Of the Veins. — In the Chelonians there are two pofterior
venx cavse, which pafs through the liver on each fide, and
receive in their courfe numerous fmall hepatic veins. Im-
mediately after their exit from the liver, they are joined by
two anterior venae cavas, one on each fide, or by the com-
mon trunk of the jugular and fubclavian. They all ter-
minate in the right auricle by an opening in the form of a
fiffure, provided with two valves ; they do not terminate
in the cavity of the auricle, but in a receptacle communi-
cating with it. The pulmonary veins united in a fingle
trunk terminate in an analogous receptacle, which opens
into the left auricle ; around the borders of the opening,
there is placed a flefhy valve in the form of a half moon.

In the Saurians and Ophidians, there is but one pofterior
vena cava, and two anterior, that belonging to the left
fide pafles acrofs,. and above the heart, in a diredion from
left to right, and terminates in the common receptacle by
the fide of the pofterior vena cava. This receptacle, fimi-
lar to that found in the chelonians, has in the fame manner
its entrance into the right auricle, in the form of a fiffure.

and provided with two valves. In this order, likewife, the
anterior vena; cava; are more properly confidered as the
jugulars. Tiiey have alfo a double azygos, one formed by
the intercoftal veins in front of the heart, the other pof-
terior to it. They both join the right auricle by the fide
ot the right jugular. It appears that they are rendered
neceffary by the fituation of the venx cavae, which is very
remote from the vertebral column, and mi/re inferiorly.

The pulmonary veins in the faurians are fimilar to thofe
of the chelonians.

In the ophidian order there is only one, which terminate*
in the fame manner in the left auricle. Its volume exceeds
that of the artery, which we have not obferved in the
other reptiles.

In the batracians the veins have a diftribution fimilar to
that of the arteries which refults from their terminating
in a fingle auricle, in the fame way as the latter arife from
a fingle ventricle. There are two anterior venae cavae
which receive the blood from the head, neck, anterior ex-
tremities, and from the veins analogous to the external
mammary, which are very confiderable, extending beneath
the licin to the groins, and likewife a pofterior vena cava,
which receives the veins from the other parts, prefenting
nothing worthy obfervation.

The blood-veflels of the tadpole are defcribed in the ac-
count of that creature in the divifion concerning the gene-
rative fundions ; and thofe of the proteus and firen, in
the feparate defcription of thofe animals at the end of this
article.

Phyjwlogy of the Circulating Organs. — The nature of the
blood in reptiles, the points in which it differs from the cor-
refponding fluid in other claflcs, its difference in the various
orders and genera, its relations to the food and to the fecre-
tions and excretions, are fo many interefting topics of
inquiry, on which we have abfolutely no information to
offer. Chemiftry does not yet appear to be fufficiently ad-
vanced for the fuccefsful inveftigation of thefe and fimilar
matters.

We may obferve, in the firft place, that the reptiles of
thefe climates at leaft, poffefs, in comparifon with warm-
blooded animals, a much fmaller quantity of blood in pro-
portion to their fize : hence their mufcles are whiter, and
fome of their vifcera, particularly the lungs, which are
loaded and gorged with fuch a profufion or blood in the
warm animals, prefent in this refpeft an appearance alto-
gether contrary in reptiles.

" I made an experiment," fays Blumenbach, " on the water
falamander, (lacerta lacuftris, L.) of which I difleded
twenty-four, adult, lively, recently taken in the early fpring,
and weighing together i^ ounce, in order to meafure the
quantity of blood they contained : I could preferve from
the whole of the bodies of all, only two fcruples and a half.
This fmall quantity of blood is to the whole body as 2^ to
36 ; while in an adult and healthy man the proportions are
calculated at I to 5. Haffelquift obferved the fame circum-
ftance pf the fmall quantit/ of blood in , proportion to the
body, in the crocodile of the Nile." Voyage dans le Le-
vant & en Paleftine.

It is alfo remarkable, that the arterial blood of our rep-
tiles differs in external appearance in the fmalleft degree, if
at all, from the venous, fo that one can be diftinguilhed
from the other only by the fituation and courfe of the vef-
fels ; while, on the contrary, the bright fcarlet arterial
blood of the mainmalia offers fo remarkable a contraft to the
dark livid or purple venous fluid ; unlefs when they have
been for fome time in a warm bath or other warm medium,
when it appears from the elegant experiments of Dr. Craw-
7 ford,

REPTILES.

tord, that the venous blood, becoming gradually lefs and
Icis dark coloured, approaches more nearly to the vivid red-
nefs nf the arterial itream. (Sec Philof. Tranfaft. v. 71.
p. 4!^7.) Haller obferved that there is no difTerence
between the arterial and venous blood in the frog. (Oper.
minor, v. i. p. 1S3.) And Spallanzani noticed the fame
faft in the falaniander or water newt : " avutafi egualita di
diametro, il colore del fangue venofo e fomigliantidimo al
colore del fangue arteriofo." De' fenomeni ilella circola-
iione, pag. 100. And again, " il fangue arteriofo in nulla
differifcc dal venofo, fia nel colore, lia nella dcnfita." P. 1 93.

In this circumftance reptiles relemble the foetus of warm-
blooded animals ; in vs'hicli, fo long as it remains immerfed
in its uterine bath, we know that the arterial and venous
bloods are of the fame colour.

Yet all animals of this clafs are not alike in this rcfpcft.
Accurate obfervers have aderted, that in the tortoife the
venous blood is black, and the arterial cfimion, as in the
warm-blooded claffes. (Caldefi, Ollervazioni Anatomiclie in-
torno alle Tartarughe, p. 60. Mery, Hill, de I'Acad.
des Sci. de Paris, 1669. v. 2. p. 210.) This difference
probably correfponds with the divcrlity of flructure obferv-
able in the refpiratory organs, which are calculated, in the
different orders of reptiles, to admit of a more or lefs inti-
mate expofure of the blood to tlio air in refpiration.

The colour of the blood varies in our amphibia according
to the ftate of their nutritive functions : it is paler when
they have failed, of a deeper red when they have been
well fed. If, under the latter circumftance, it be drawn
from a vein, and expnfed to the air, it exhibits a bright
florid rednefs as it forms the coagulum.

The component elements of the blood of amphibia, con-
fidered in a general way, feem nearly to refemble thofe of
the warm-blooded animals, except that in the former, when
examined alive, there are almoll always feen bubbles of air
mixed with their purple llream, performing, like the blood
itfelf, the circulation, and dividing that fluid in the vefTels
into intervals, as the mercury is interrupted in a badly made
thermometer. Redi and Perrault obferved this faft in tor-
toifes ; Jacobaeus in ferpents ; Daudin m the green lizard,
frog, and falainandcr (Hill. Nat. des Reptiles, Introd.
p. iSq..) ; and Blnmenbach in the amphibia of Germany.
Now, although in certain Hates the veins may be very
turgid, and elaflic air may be found in them after death,
nothing of this kind is ever known to take place in a healthy
and flrong individual. The air indeed is fuppofed in the
mammalia to conllltute one-thirtieth of the blood, but it is
fo diflblvcd, and fo intimately mixed in the vital llream,
that it can only be extricated and exhibited in its'elaftic
aerial form by artilicial means.

The phenomena of the circulation are common on the
whole to the reptiles with the warm-blooded animals, and
are very familiar in the former, fmce the wonderful circulat-
ing motion of the blood was not only firll aftually feen and
defcribed in frogs by the great' Malpighi, but is alfo flill
examined to the prefent time in thofe animals. The branchise
of the tadpole are very favourable objefts for invcfligations
of this kind.

As the circulation can be aftually feen in thefe animals,
we may inquire on this fubjeft, whether the globules of the
blood, entering the minute vefiels, can be really obferved to
change their figure, and become oval inftead of fpherieal.
" In warm-blooded animals," fays Blumenbach, " I have
never heard or read that any one has feen fuch a change ;
and I certainly have never feen, either in the incubated
chick, in which the circulation of ivarni blood may be moll
clearly and beautifully obferved, particularly on the fifth and

Vol. XXIX,

following days, or in the frog or lizird, any oval globulej;
yet Reichel alfcrts that he has feen globulei changed from
fpherieal to oval in the mefentery of the frog, and has
given an elegant plate in illuilration of the fact. See Ex-
pcrimcnta de Sanguine cjufque motu, fig. 3." Blumenb.
Specimen Phyfiol. p. 10. He doubts, liowever, whether
tl>is change can be confidered as a natural occurrence in the
healthy circulation, or ought to be referred to the diflurbancc
naturally following the futferings of the animal.

The motions of the heart, conlifUng in our amphibia of
a flngle auricle and ventricle, agree in the alternate con-
tractions and relaxations of thofe parts, with the analogous
fucceflion of fyftolic and diaftolic changes obfervable in
the double auricles and ventricles of the warm-blooded
clafies.

A quellion was formerly raifed, concerning this fyftole
or contraftion, whether the ventricles are really fhortened,
or experience merely a diminution of diameter ? The former,
fays Blumenbach, has now been proved by the mofl care-
ful obfervationsboth in cold and warm-blooded animals ; he
adds, that he has never feen it demonllratcd more clearly, and
beyond every fufpicion of inaccuracy or miilake, than in the
common fnake (coluber natrix), in fpecimensof which, two
yards long, from the woods of Germany, he has obferved,
and frequently demonftratcd, a Ihortening of the ventricle
equal to two lines. Blumenbach flatcs further, that the
ventricle is completely emptied in its fyitole, not the leafl
drop of blood flowing back into it from the aorta, in the
fnake, frog, and toad, and alfo in the incubated chicken.
But he does not venture to decide, whether the fame thing
occurs in man and the other mammalia, or whether the femi-
lunar valves may intercept fome drops of blood, which thus
are made to flow back into the ventricle.

Reprodud'wn As the nutrition and growth of parts, in

the healthy Hate, are among the mofl important fundlions of
the blood-veflels, fo the reparation of injury, and the reflo-
ration of what is mutilated, conflitute another very flriking
inftance of their powers, and a very imprefTive example of
thofe prerogatives, which belong exclufively to living orga-
nized beings. Although this power of reproduttion, taken
in its mofl extenfive acceptation, cannot be faid to be with-
held entirely from any animal, feveral genera of reptiles
poffels it in a more remarkable degree than any of the other
vertebral dalles. There is an intcrefling account in the
Memoirs de I'Acad. des Sciences de Paris, 1686, particu-
larly of the reftoration of the tail of lizards. Spallanzani,
Bonnet, and Blumenbach, have employed themfelves in
refearches oh this fubjeft. The former firfl called the atten-
tion of the public to it in his " Prodromo di uu' Opera da
imprimerfi fopra le Riproduzioni Animali." Bonnet pub-
lifhed his memoir on the reproduction of the limbs of the
water newt in the Journal de Phyfique, 1777. His en-
quiries were again pubHflied in his " CEuvres d'Hiftoire Natu-
relle," t. 5. and there are three memoirs by him on the fubjeft,
tranflated into Englifh, in Spallanzani's " Tracls on the Na-
tural Hillory of Animals and Vegetables," v. ii. The ex-
periments of Blumenbach are contained in his " Specimen
Phyfiologiae comparatat." The experiments have been made
chiefly with the water newt ; on the lacerta agilis of the
terreflrial kind, fee P. T. Hartmann, dubia de genera-
tione viviparorum ex ovo, p. 26 ; refpefting the lizards
of the Antilles, fee Oldendorp Gefchichte der Caraibifchen
MifTion, p. 97.

" It might be fuppofed," fays Bonnet, " that the ampu-

tation of the hmbs is mofl: painful, and that the animals

would fuller long and feverely from it ; however, one of my

obfervations apparently infers the reverfe. I cut the left

% A hand

REPTILES.

iiaiid and the right foot off a Urjre newt ; and a flream of
blood, as tliick as a hog's briille, continued fpouting
out nearly two minutes without intermiffion. Not only '
did the animal fcem not in the Icaft enfeebled by the lofs of
blood, but, in fcarcely a quarter of an liour, to my great
furprife, it fwallowed two earth-worms." Spallanzani's
Trafts, V. ii. p. 367.

The following narrative is extrafled as a fpecimen of
Bonnet's experiments. " On the 6th of June I cut off
the right arm and left leg of a large newt clofe to the body.
( It fecms from the accompanying figure that the fedtions
palled through the femur and humerus refpeftively.) A
flream of florid blood fpouted a minute and a half from
each wound ; however, the veflels foon clofed, and the newt
was apparently as well as thofe unmiitilatcd. But it will
«afily occur, that it did not fwim with equal facility. Wlicn
about a month had elapfed, I began to perceive a papilla,
of a violet grey colour, near the edge of the trunk or lec-
tion. This was the origin of a new arm and leg, which
gradually increafed, and were quite perceptible, althouc;h
ftill very fmall, on the I4tli of July. The two papillae
grew more in length than in thicknefs : they became minute
Humps, and on the ift of Auguft were two lines long.
A kind of cleft hardly perceptible announces the appearance
of two toes : no cleft appears on the originating arm. The
new parts were very dillinguilhable from the old by their
lighter colour. The two toes were eafily recognifed on the
feventh : they were real miniatures, and truly moil minute.
The ilump of the arm had increafed, but there was no in-
dication of fingers.

" It is pleahng to oblerve the little hand fully unfolding,
while only three fingers of unequal length are vilible : the
middle one is the longeit. The arm has made no fenfible
progrefs. The new foot had four toes alfo of unequal
length ; the firft and fecond of which are longeit ; the other
two only begin to appear ; the fourth is fcarcely percepti-
ble. Evolution advanced every.day. The regenerated mem-
bers began to deepen in colour, fo that the line, difcrimi-
nating the old parts from the new, was no longer fo con-
fpicueus ; but the black fpecks on the toes of unmutilated
newts were ftill imperceptible. On the 22d of Augull four
well-fhaped fingers were already on the hand ; but only four
toes out of the five v.hich the foot regenerates ; and they
all have to acquire more fize, confiltence, and colour. I
continued my obfervations on the daily evolutions of the
members ; and the following were their dimenfions in length
on the 30th of September.

Old Members. New Members.

Arm - 4 lines. Arm - 2-|lines.

Cubit - 3^ Cubit - 2A

Thigh. - 3 Thigh - 2^

Leg - 4 Leg - 2i

Longcft finger 31- Longeft finger i\

Longeft toe - 4I Longeit toe - i j-

Even in the beginning of Oftober, the fifth toe of the new
foot was not vifible." Lib. cit. 372, et feq.

There is a kind of femi-tranfparency in the reproduced
parts, which the original members have not. This continues
long, and changes (lowly as the reproduftions colour. The
tranfparency is evidently greater on the edges of the fingers
than elfewhere ; if examined with a magnifier they feem in-
clofed in a fine diaphanous envelope : but nothing of this is
evident in the old fingers. (P. 376.) " It is incredible how
long the new fingers require to attain the fize of the old. I
have had newts, whole fingers, in thirteen months and more,
were not as largs as thofe of unmutilated members."

(P. 393.) "When the tails of large newts were anipu^
tated near their origin, the whole died in a certain time.
If the part be cut off about its middle, reproduftion will
follow. A tail was cut on the 1 ith of July, and on the 14th
of Auguft, the reproduced part was ibout three lines and a
half long, and four and a half in diameter at the bafe. The
new portion was ten lines in length on the 20th of September,
and Aiaped exactly like the tail of a newt. I could obferve
no difference betvpeen the motions of this regenerated tail,
and thofe of tails unmutilated. On the 5th of October the
regenerated part had a peculiar tranfparency, wanting in the
reft of the tail." P. 381, et feq.

" The fingers and toes are not evolved in the fame pro-
portion as the arm and leg. Now, when I write this, on
the loth of Oftober, the new arm and leg of the newt,
mutilated on the 6th of June, have nearly attained the fize
of the original members, while the regenerated fingers and
toes have not acquired half their natural fize ; yet they
are perfeAly well formed, and execute all their funclions."
P. 390.

Blumenbach found that the true falamandcr (lacerta fa-
lamandra) poflefTes the fame reproduftive power as the
water newt (lacerta lacuftris) : that a third part of the tail,
or a toe, would be perfedfly but very flowly reproduced,
and remained even at the end of a year confiderably inferior
in fize to that of the original parts. Specimen, p. 32.

Bonnet made other experiments to determine whether
reproduced members poflefs the fame powers of reproduc-
tion as thofe amputated. He cut off an arm and a thigh
of a large newt on the 2d of June : as foon as the hand
and foot were vifible, he cut them off, and they were re-
newed : he repeated this four times, the lall operation
being on the 13th of Odober, and the parts were each time
reftoied. P. 394, et feq.

He diflocaied the arms of one and the thighs of another
newt, fo that the members immediately after were pendent,
as if dead, the animal having no power over them. On the
following evening each newt moved the disjointed limbs with
a liberty and facility which announced that nature had al-
ready repaired the diiorder. P. 431.

The moft furprifing faft in Bonnet's Memoir is the repro-
dudlion of the entire eye. " With a fcalpel," fays he, " I ex-
trafled the right eye of a large newt on the I3ih of Sep-
tember, 1779 > ^^^ ^ ^^^ '"5' obtain the globe without much
injury to the tunics. A deep bloody wound in the focket
of the eye was the confequence of this cruel operation.
And the reader will not be furprifed if I hardly expefted
any thing from it, and that the newt would probably re-
main blind for ever. How great was my aftonifiiment,
therefore, when, on the 3 1 it of May, 1 780, I faw a new
eye formed by nature. The iris and cornea were already
well fhaped, but the latter wanted its peculiar tranfpa-
rency, which is very confiderable in thefe animals. The
reftoration was complete on the ifl of September ; the
cornea being tranfparent, and the iris having acquired its
yellow gilded colour. On the 8th of November 1780, it
differed from the other eye only in being a little fmaller,
and in the iris, or golden circle, going only half round the
ball." P. 432, et feq.

" I repeated," fays Blumenbach, " the experiments of
the celebrated Bonnet, concerning the reproduftion of the
eye in the water newt. I cut out the whole glol)e, at
the infertion of the optic nerve, in three inftances, in
neither of which was the organ reproduced : but a white
and firm fungus, (hooting from the cut end of the nerve,
gradually filled the orbit, the animals ihemfelvcs becoming
affected with a kind of diopfical fwelling, and dying in a

ftVf

REPTILES.

f(-'w months. Inftrudled by thcfe failures, I proceeded to
operat.- in a different way on a fourth animal, in May
1784. I firft divided the cornea, to let out the lens and
other humours, and then cut away the remaining empty
and collapfed coats, leaving a fmall portion of the com-
mon coverings of tlie bulb, which, from a careful exa-
mination in water with a glafs of the parts removed, I
judge to have been fcarcely equal to one-fifth of the whole
globe. In the following months the wliole orbit feemed
clofed by the approximated eye-lids, which, iiowever, began
to feparate in the fixth month after the operation, and
thus difclofed a new little bulb fpringing up from the bot-
tom of the orbit. This new globe was Hill much fmaller
than the other in April 1785, when the animal died acci-
dentally, tliough in other refpefts it was mod perfedt, ex-
hibiting the golden iris with its regular pupillar aperture
behind the cornea, all which points are clearly diilinguilh-
able in the preparation which I preferve." Specimen,

" On comparing," fays the author lad quoted, " the
fafts juft detailed with the very limited and much lefs per-
feft reproduftion obfervuljle in warm-blooded animals, we
(hall become fenfible of the wide difference between them
and the amphibia. I am daily more and more convinced,
that no parts are reproduced in man and the other mam-
malia, except fuch as are compofed merely of cellular fub-
ftance.

which covered the opemi.g of the fkuli, and in this ftate
the animal lived till May. Spallan/.ani deprived four frogs
of the brain ; two lived till the fifth day. He alfo deprived
three newts of the brain ; they fudered violent convulfions ;
their eyes clofed, they hardly moved from one place to
another ; and expired about the middle of the third day.
He cut the heart out of three newts ; they took to flight,
leapt, fwam, and executed the fame funftions as before ;
however, all died in forty-eight hours. Four frogs, deprived
of the heart, kept their eyes open, and prtfervcd the ufe of
tiieir limbs. They furvived thirty-fix hours. Spallanzani's
Trafts, Introduftion, p. 45.

Captain Cook met with a turtle, in which there was a
wooden harpoon about fifteen inches long, and barbed,
between the (houlders. The opening by which it had en-
tered was quite healed.

Redi and Boyle faw fome figns of life in ferpents after
they had been twenty-four hours in vacuo. And they will
live more than four hours in fpirits of wine. See Daudin,
V. 6. p. 100; and v. i. p. 270.

In our account of the phyfiology of the digeftive organs,
we have already noticed the fingular power which reptile*
poflefs of remaining for fuch long periods without food.
They are equally remarkable for being able to bear, perma-
nently, confiderable degrees of heat and cold. Not only
are moft of the Clafs inhabitants of the warmed regions, but
fome of them, like fome fidies, are knovirn to live in warm

and enjoy no other kind of vital power except
common contrattility ; and I cannot find fufficient proof fprings, inhabiting them fpontzneoudy, and appearing to be
that the irritable mufcular fibre, the fenfible nervous me- healthy. (SeeCocchi in Spallanzani, Opufcoli di fifica ani-

duUa, or thofe parenchymata which are endowed with a
peculiar modification of vitality, have ever been truly re-
produced in a warm-blooded animal." Ibid. p. 32.

Tenacity of Life. — This fubjeft is fo far analogous to that
which we have jud confidered, that we pafs naturally from
the view of the faftsj in which the furprifing reproduftive
powers of the clafs is evidenced, to the no Tefs adonidiing
examples of their very hardy vitality ; of the energy and
permanence of tlieir vital forces, both in indivi-dual parts,
and in the body at large.

The amputated tails of water newts, and the divided
fragments of the blind-worm (anguis fragilis), exhibit very
lively motions for ten hours and more. The heart of a
frog or ferpent continues to palpitate on irritation many
hours after its feparation from the body ; and the limbs
of frogs are excitable by the Galvanic influence for a long
time. Some reptiles, as the ferpents and teftudines, can
open and fliut the mouth long after the head has been fe-
vered from the trunk. General Gage informed Blumen-
bach that he had feen the amputated head of a rattlefnake
bite long after its feparation : and another Britidi officer
Hated to him that when he put a dick between the jaws of
an American turtle, the fecond day after decapitation, it
was firmly held.

The fame energy of the vital force in the parts, and the
independence of one clafs of funttions on another, in the
amphibia, are further evinced by many well known fafts ;
the limbs of turtles have moved for eleven days, nay, on
the thirteenth day after decapitation (Giildendaedt, The-
oria virium corp. hum. primitivarum, p. 74.) ; and a rat-
tlefnake lived ibme days after the (Icin had been removed,
and moit of the vifcera taken away. Tyfon, in Philofo-
phical Tranfatlions, N° 144.

In the beginning of November, Redi opened the ilcull
of a land tortoife, and removed the whole brain. The
animal did not feein to fuffer, it moved about as before, but
groping its way ; for the eyes foon fliut after lofing the
brain, and never opened 3gain, a fleihy integument formed,

male e vegetabile, v. i. p. 46.) They live in the warm
fprings of Pifa, which rife to 37° of Reaumur, 115== of
Fahr.

" Befides a hod of fufpicious narratives," fays Blumen-
bach, " of newts, and other amphibia, which have lived for
a confiderable time in the human body, there are many un-
exceptionable and indubitable examples of this remarkable
phenomenon." See the narrative of Th. Reinefius, a moft
refpeclable authority, concerning a girl of Altcnburg, in
Bartholin, Aft. Havnienf. v. 2. p. no; Harder, Apiar. ob-
fervat. p. 89 ; I. R. Zwinger in Aft. Heivet. v. i. p. 22 ;
Hid. de I'Acad. des Sciences de Berlin, 1770, p. 40 ; a
mafs of citations in Jacobaeus de ranis et lacertis, p. 12;
P.uilini de Bufone, p. 38 ; I. Helwig Obferv. p. 249 and
272 ; Kundmann Promptuarium, p. io8 ; alfo Aft. Natur.
Curiof. ; CoUeftan. Vratiflavienf. ct Commerc. Llterar. No-
ric. &c. Thefe fafts are not fo remarkable on account of
the degree of heat to which the animal is expofed, as from
the other concomitant circumftances. We mud obierve,
however, that thefe animals inhabited the domach fo long
as they continued alive, while the individuals troubled by
thefe uniifual gueils were led, by their fuffering, to drink
copioufly of water, and thus in a manner fupplied the newts
with their natural element.

" Reptiles have the power of bearing intenfe col J as well as
great heat. I one morning found a tree-frog, which I had
kept for fome time, in conk'quence of a frod fuddenly fet
in the preceding ni^ht fo as to reduce the thermometer to
30° Fahr., completely inclofed in a cake of ice, like infefts
in amber ; of courfe it was inotionlefs, the eye-hds ftiut, &c.
As the ice melted, the animal recovered, fird moving its
hind legs, when they were difengaged ; the head and trunk
dill being mod firmly detained ; when the folution was com.
plete, the whole animal was rellored, feemed as well as be-
fore, and furvived a long time. Du Fay atteds the- fame
circumdance concerning water newts ; Mem. de I'Acad. dc9
Sciences de Paris, 1729, p. 144. The amphibia are ex-
pofed to be frozen in their winter fleep ; but we are the lefs
5 A 2 furprifed

IlEPTILES.

furprifed at the occurrence, becaufe all tlie funftions are
cither entirely fufpendeJ, or moil languidly performed."
Specimen, p. lO.

Organs of Rcfpiration. — After defcribing the heart, and
viewing the phenomena of the circulation, we proceed to
the lungs, which are not only moft important parts in the
economy of all animals that poii'efs blood, but conftitute,
in the peculiarity of their Urufture and funftions, the moil
ftriking marks of dillinftion between reptiles and warm-
blooded animals.

All reptiles breathe by means of lungs, which in their
bulk confiderably exceed thofe of the manunalia, while the
latter are as far fuperior in the abundance of their vaicular
ramiiications, and the wonderful minutenefs of their internal
fubdivifions. Thefe large, but loofe and rare veficular
lungs, are contained, not in a particular cavity, feparated
from the abdomen by a diaphragm, but, with the other
vifcera, in a general cavity of the body. Hence the mode
of refpiration is as different from that of the mammalia, as
the texture of the organ.

To the general pofition, that reptiles breathe by means of
lungs, there is an exception in the batracian order ; in fome
of which (the proteus and firen) there are branchial ap-
pendages or gills, as well as lungs ; while in the full ftate
(the tadpole) of others, there is a fimilar conjunftion of
thefe two modifications of refpiratory apparatus. See the
anatomy of the tadpole, in the account of the generative
organs, and that of the firen and proteus, at the end of this
article.

The jlir-tvles. — The trachea is not divided into bronchi in
the ophidian order, which have a fingle lung ; neither does
this divifion take place in the green lizard (lacerta agilis),
whofe trachea, having reached the united anterior extre-
mities of the two lungs, opens into each by a large orifice :
but it is found in almoll all the other animals of this clafs.
The divifion is effefted very early in the chelonians, which
have confequently a very (hort trachea, and long bronchi ;
more particularly bccaufe the latter, inftead of entering the
lungs direftly, firit make a turn in the cheft.. The trachea
is divided much later in the crocodile, where the tube is
bent from behind forwards, divided into bronchi, which
alfo run forwards, and then turn from before backwards,
remaining for fome time joined to each other. The bronchi
are extremely fhort in mod other reptiles : they begin, in
the batracians, immediately below the larynx.

Reaching the lungs, the bronchi generally terminate ab-
ruptly by one or more large orifices, which open into the
cavities of thefe vifcera. This is what occurs in the ophi-
dians ; but in the chelonians and the crocodile, each bron-
chus is continued into the interior of its lung, before it ter-
minates. They are continued, in the teftudo grseca, into
the moft remote part of the lung, without undergoing any
fenfible change of diameter ; and they communicate with
the large cells compofing thefe vifcera, by ten or twelve wide
orifices, of which the outHnes are circular, like the com-
mencement of canals. In the turtles, each bronchus pene-
trates in like manner to the fartheft p^rt of the lung, but
gradually diminifhing in diameter. Their fides are pierced
with numerous holes, opening into the pulmonary cells.

The relative fize of the trachea and bronchi does not ex-
ceed what we obferve in the mamraaha and birds, except in
the ophidians, where the diameter of the former is very con-
fiderable. Thefe air-tubes never exhibit any inequalities,
fuch as are feen in birds.

They are generally compofed of complete cartilaginous
rings, and confequently are little fufceptible of changes in
fize. We mud, however, except the crocodile, in which

animal the front end of the trachea prefents, on its upper
furface, a membranous interval, which is wider the nearer
we come to the larynx; (fee Humboldt Recueil d'Ob-
fervations, &c. torn. i. p. ii. of the crocodile of the
Orinoco ; and Geoffroy in Annales du Mufeum, tom. ii. of
the Nilotic fpecies) ; the cameleon, where the annuli are
incomplete in the lad portion of the trachea, and at its bi-
furcation ; and the ophidians, m whom the trachea poffeiles
cartilages only in one third of its circumference. Thefe car-
tilages are alfo viCble for a (hort fpace along the front end
of the lung, in a groove of its inferior furface, containing
alfo the pulmonary vein. The trachea, however, ceafes
fuddenly on touching the lung, and dilates immediately to
form its fac.

In thofe reptiles which have bronchi running throughout
the length of the lungs, the portion of the tube, contained
in thefe vifcera, has only imperfeft and irregular pieces of
cartilage, whicli neverthelefs furround its circumference.
They are more thinly fcattered in the turtles, in proportion
as we obferve them farther back in the lung.

This cartilaginous ftrudture of the air-tubes (the trachea
and bronchi) of reptiles, renders them very incapable of
changing their diameter. They feem entirely deftitute of
traiifverfe mufcular fibres ; nor do we perceive aiiy longi-
tudinal ones to diminifh their length. The membranous
trachea of the ophidians, pofleffing cartilages only in the in-
ferior third of its circumference, feems equally deftitute of
mufcular fibres. On this membrane we difcover a fine
white and opaque net- work, which is continued into the in-
terior of the lung, where its mefhes, as we (hall fee, border
the cells, and are formed of ftronger threads, apparently of
a tendinous ftrudlure, and perhaps capable of contraftion.

Veficular StruBure of the Lungs. — We have mentioned
that the lungs of reptiles are very large : they are immeiife
in the teftudines and cameleon, and are even confiderable in
the native amphibia of thefe climates, if you compare their
relative bulk to that which they poflefs in warm-blooded
animals. We have juft feen that the bronchi do not divide,
that they do not ufually enter the lungs, but terminate ab-
ruptly by one or more large orifices, as foon as they have
reached thefe vifcera. In the batracians and faurians, the
lungs form two facs, varying confiderably in their form and
relative fize, and having their internal furface divided by
membranous plates into polygonal cells, in which other
fmaUer plates form more minute divifions. They have been
juftly enough compared by Blumenbach to the reticulated
ftrufture, in the fecond ftomach of ruminating animals.
Thefe cells are more numerous, fmaller, and deeper in the
anterior part of the fac : they become more open towards
the pofterior part ; and when the latter terminates in one or
more appendages, we fee only a net-work, with loofe and
extremely fine melhes. Afterwards the parietes of the pul-
monary fac are quite fimple, and without any divifion.
Such is the ftrufture in the appendices which terminate pof-
teriorly the lungs of the cameleon, and the agame or lacerta
marmorata ; and of the great bladder in which the fingle
lung of the ophidian order ends.

The lungs of the falamander, the proteus, and firen, form
alfo fimple facs without any divifion.

" In frogs and toads," fays- Blumenbach, " the lungs
are made up of polyhedric and large cells : the fame ftruc-
ture is obferved in the lacerta agilis and falamander. They
form an oblong bladder in the aquatic laceita (water
newts). The lung of the coluber natris forms a fingle bag
of large fize, hollow throughout ; and the fame ftrufture
feems, from the reports of anatomifts, to exift in other fer-
pents. (See Coiter Obf. Anat. Chir. p. 126. Charaa

Nouvelles

REPTILES.

Nouvelles Obf. fur la Vipere, p. 39. Tyfon in Phil.
Trani. N° 144. p. 30. tab. I. fig. I. tab. 2. lig. 4. Scha
Tln.-faur. vol. ii. tab. 109. fig. 1 — 5.) TIic pulmonary
bag of tliis coluber exceeds a Paris foot in length. Rather
more than the anterior half has thick fides, witn an elegantly
reticulated internal furfacc, rcfembling in its general habit
that of the internal furface of the fecond ilomach of the ru-
minating mainmaha. The remaining pollerior portion is a
fimple thin membranous bladder." Specimen, p. 12.

The Itrufture is rather more complicated in the chelonian
order. Each of the openings of the bronchus, which we

pafs back again tln-ough the lungs to return to the body :
It may proceed by another route, as we have explained in
the account of the circulating organs ; becaufe it does not
require to be fo frequently fubmitted to the adtion of the
air, as in the two clalfes mentioned above. Hence liavc re-
fulted the two great differences already ponited out be-
tween the lung.s of the warm-blooded clailes and of reptiles ;
differences which are obvioufly related to each other, the
numerous vafcular ramifications requiring numerous cells
and vifcera.

Tlie pulmonary ferve alfo as bronchial velicls in reptiles ;
have ftated to be about ten or twelve in the teftudo grxca, at leatt we lind no arteries or veins of the latter defcription!
is the entrance of a particular fac, the fides of which are The arterial and venous bloods are mixed in the heart ; and

the farac that goes to the lungs is conveyed to all other

compofed of polygonal cells, in which there arc (lill fmaller
ones. Each of ihefe cells is bordered by whilifli and as it
were tendinous chords, which appear dcfigned to fnpport
their fides, and fix the facs to the orifices of the bronchus.
The facs or principal cells are much fmaller, and more nu-
merous, in the turtles, and correfpond to the numerous ori-
fices with which the bronchus is pierced. We fee alfo the
cords forming and fupporting the cells, and giving to the
lungs of thofe animals the appearance of a cavernous tidue.

The form and fize of the pulmonary cells may be fomc-
what different in the crocodile, but their eifential Itrufture
is the fame. In this refpeft the crocodiles depart from the
lizards, and a])proach the turtle and tortoife. Geoffroy in
Annales du Mufeum, vol. ii. p. 46

parts of the body for their fupply.

Yet the pulmonary are not the only arteries conveying
blood to the lungs in reptiles : the ferpents, at lealt, offer
an exception. The ramifications of the pulmonary artery
are confined to that part of the lung, which has a reticu-
lated internal furface. The poflerior part of the organ,
compofing the fimple membranous bag, receives blood only
from the arteries of the body. A part of the twigs that
fupply it comes from the branches of the pofterior aorta,
which are alfo diftributed on the ftomach. Other very mi-
nute ones are detached fucceflively from the vertebral co-
lumn. The veins correfponding to thefe arteries pour their
blood into the vena cava. In tlii; fiiignlar ilrudure, we

How different a notion do thefe details convey to us, of find a part of the lung executing the office of the cells of
the llruiture of the lungs in reptiles, from that which they birds ; and a portion of the blood, very fmall indeed, con-

poffefs in the warm-blooded claffes ! Although they may tained in the arteries of the body, is again fubmitted to the

be defcribcd in the latter as cellular, fpongy, and light, adtion of the air.

yet, when compared to the fame organs in the former clafs. That portion of the general ferous membrane which co-

they are valUy more compadl, made up throughout of an in- vers the lung has nothing peculiar in reptiles,
finite number of ramified air-tubes, and of countlefs moft Tiie form and bulk of the organs vary much more in this

minute bronchial cells connedlcd to them, united and inter- clafs, than in the mammalia and birds. Both are determined

woven v^'ith common cellular tiffue. Hence, if we compare in the mammaha by the cavity of the thorax ; in birds by

any mammiferous animal with a reptile of the fame fize, as the peritoneal cells, which limit them on one fide, and bv the

the vefpertilio murinus with the rana bombina, the lungs of ribs, which cover them on the other. In reptiles, on the

the latter are indeed the largell, but are beyond all com- contrary, nothing feems to limit their developement, nor to

parifon inferior to thofe of the former in the very incon- give them a peculiar figure. Commonly they form oval ba^s

fiderable number of their cells. which extend in the chelonians along the back to the pelvit.

As the lungs of warm-blooded animals fo wonderfully above all the vifcera ; they are lefs extenfive in the faurians
furpafs thofe of reptiles, in the minutenefs and number of and batracians. The ferpents have a fingle very long lun?,
their cells ; fo they ftill farther excel them in the aitonifhing prolonged over the cefophagus, ilomach, and liver, beyond
abundance of their blood-veffels. The fimple appearance the latter parts. In this fitnation it is expofed to preffure
of the organs, without any anatomical preparation, is fuffi- every time the animal fwallovvs a large prey. Does this
cient to fliew this faft ; and microfcopical examination, check the pulmonary circulation, and contribute to the tor-
after fuccefsful injedlion, fully confinns it. For, although por which ferpents experience at thefe times ?
the lungs of the amphibia exhibit their der.ie vaicular net- In the cameleon, and the agame marmorata, each pulmo-
works, beautifully painting the fides of the cells, thefe are nary fac is very extenfive. They are divided into large co-
not to be compared to the number and fubtilty of the rami- nical appendices, prolonged as far as the pelvis, placed
fications, eluding even the afBfted eye, which every where among the vifcera, and capable of holding fo much air, as
fill up the lungs of warm-blooded animals. to increafe the animals' bulk confiderably when they are dif-

Since, in the mammaha and birds, all the blood of the tended. The lungs of the firen lacertina aretwolonu- cylin-

body muft pafs through the lungs, before it can return
again to the organs, it was neceflary to have a large num-
ber of veffels for its conveyance, and a furface for their
expanfion, both extenfive on account of their number, and

drical facs, continued to the end of the abdominal cavity.
In the larvE of the falamander, there is a (mail oval cavity,
opening by a narrow canal in the fauces.

Branchia or GUIs. —The firft orders of reptiles (the chelo-

the neceffity of expofing the blood in minute portions to the nians, faurians, and ophidians) never poffefs this kind of refpi
air, and yet confined as much as poffible to one fpot, that ratory organ : they have only lungs. The batracians in

its bulk might not be inconvenient. Thus we explain that
inextricable tii'lue of blood and air-veffels, and fmall veficles
or cells, which compofe the lungs of mammalia and birds.
All thefe circumftances are different in reptiles. If we may
judge from the diameter of the pulmonary arteries, they re-
ceive at moft a third of the circulating mafs, and fome-

their firll ilate, and the proteus and firen during life, have"
both lungs and branchis, or rather branchial appendages
(appendices fimbriati). See the anatomy of the tadpole,
and that of the proteus and firen, at the end of this ar-
ticle.

Expanfi-ve Ponver of the Lungs. — " A fingular power,"

times much lefs. It is not necefl'ary that this blood ftould fays Bluraenbach, « charadterifes thefe vifcera in reptiles, and

IIEPTII.KS.

is a point, in which ihcy exceed thol> of the human fubject,
and of lliL- other mamiiiaUa ; namely, a particular kind ot
tone, or energy, by virtue of which, even when the chell is
opened, and they are expofed to the external air, they are
Hill diltended and fuppurt themfelves, while thole of tlie
mammalia, when the llernum is removed, and the thoracic
cavities expofed, uUuw the air to rufh out, and coUapfe.
(See Morgagni Adverfar. Anat. 5, 29, and tiie elegant ex-
periments on the tortoife by the Parifian academicians ;
Hift, des Animaux, part ii. p. 194.) It is even alferted,
that when the lung is comprell'ed in a tortoife opened ahve,
it has the power of dillending itfelf again. (Coiter Obi.
Anat. Chir. p. 127.) A tortoife, from whom the lower
ihell had been removed, the thorax conlequently being
opened, and the lungs expofed to the air, furvived for feven
days. (Hill, dco Animaux, jull quoted.) The caufe of
thefe phenomena can only be found in the peculiar vital pro-
perties of the lungs ; as it cannot be referred to contractihty,
irritability, or nervous influence. 1 have never been able
to deleft, in the lungs of amphibia, any more appearance
of truly mufcular texture, than in thofe of the mammalia,
to which a modern author has too liberally afligned irrita-
bility. (Varnier in Hill, de la Soc. de Medeciue, 1779.)
The defign of this peculiar vitality in the lungs of amphi-
bia will appear very obvious, when wcconfider that it exills
in animals who have a very impcrfeft bony thorax, or none
at all, or one m gre.it meafure incapable of motion. Such is
the cafe with frogs and toads, who are entirely dellitute of
ribs ; with nearly all the tortoifes and turtles (excepting,
perliaps, a few of the foft fpecics), in whom the whole co-
verings of the trunk are immoveable, fo that neither the
thorax, nor the abdominal mufcles, can execute thofe mo-
tions in refpiration, which they perform in warm-blooded
animals."

Mecbanifm of Rffpirattoh. — In this, as well as in other
points, the feveral orders of reptiles differ from each other.
The chelonians, whofe ribs are in the form of large odeous
plates, confolidated to each other, and motionlefs, are, in
effeft, like the batracians, fome of which have no ribs at all,
while in others thefe bones are too fliort, and too little luf-
ceptible of motion, to be capable of afiilting in the procefs
of refpiration. In all thefe animals, then, we can no longer
regard thefe bones as the principal agents ot the refpiratory
funftion. They alfo want the diaphragm, like all other rep-
tiles. Confequently the mechanifm of refpiration differs
in them, in its ellential points, from that delcribed in the
article Lungs, which belongs to the whole clafs of mam-
malia, where the refpiratory organs, inclofed in a peculiar
cavity, follow all the motions of that cavity.

In faft, it is now well afcertained, that tlie batracian re-p-
u\e% f-walloiu air into their lungs. They clofe the mouth, and
dilate the throat, when the external air, rufhing through the
nollrils, fills the empty fpace. The fterno-hyoidei, carry-
ing the OS hyoides downwards and backwards, are the great
agents in this dilatation of the throat : the coraco-hyoidei
aflill them. When the former mufcles are cut, refpiration
eeafes. The elevation of the os hyoides, pi-incip.illy by the
ftylo-hyoidei, contraAs the cavity of the throat, and drives
the air into the lungs. The efcape of this air from the
throat by the nofe is, no doubt, fays Cuvier, prevented by a
talve ; but no fuch ilrufture has been demonilrated. The
aftion of the abdominal mufcles, and perhaps a contraftile
power of the lungs themfelves, expel the air from thefe
vifcera in expiration. Tow-nfon, who has inveif igated this
fubjeft moft attentively ( fee his Obfervatione s Phyfiologicse de
Refpiratione Amphibiorum, 8vo. Vienna, 1 798, with figures ;
alfo tranflated into Englifti in his " Trads,") obferves, that

he docs not know wliether the mufcles extending fronv
tlie glottis to the pubea (liould be called oblique or uol
They furround the lungs in their whole extent, and have a
coldiderable comprefiTive force. Tiiey probably confill oi
different mufcles ; tiicir fibres extend more or lofs tranfverfely,
and are therefore well calculated to produce the effect he has
aliigned to them. He ilates that he has always feen the
frog's lungs coUapfe when the glottis was opened, whether
the -luimal was dead or alive.

If the mufcles and the membrane of the throat are re-
moved, leaving only the fterno-hyoidei, the motions of the
OS hyoides, whicli take place in refpiration, are continued,
although refpiration itfelf is deltroyed. The latter effect is
a confequence of the deftruftion of the throat ; no cavity
can now be formed to receive the air, which the animal fwal-
lows in breathing. The os hyoides, however, is alternately
deprelled and elev.-ited, and the glottis continues to open and
ihut, but the lungs are permanently coUapfed. If all the
mufcles employed in moving the os hyoides are cut, the
glottis, whofe mufcles are entire, is opened and clofed. In
the fame way, when warm-blooded animals have received a
large wound in the chell, they make vain efforts to breathe,
and to get rid of the painful fenfation of fuffocation.

It will appear, from the preceding defcription, that the
frog's mouth muff be fliut w hen he breathes ; and this is fo
llriclly neceffary, that the animal perifhes from fuffocation,
if his mouth be kept open. Herholdt and Rafn aflerted
this in a communication to the Academy of Sciences at Co-
penhagen, and the point has been verified by Cuvier and Du-
meril. See Bulletin de la Societe Philomatique, N^ 30,
an. 7. p. 43.

Tiie fame mechanifm is employed in the chelonians. De-
glutition is the only means they can employ for introducing
air into their lungs. Having the mouth clofed, they alter-
nately contradl and dilate the throat, like- the batracians,
and by the fame powers. The air is expelled from the lungs
by two pairs of mufcles, analogous to the abdominal
mufcles. Thefe fill the pollerior interval between the iter-
num and the back fliell, in which the pofterior extremities
are folded when at reft. We perceive, at this part, in the
chelonians, thofe motions of contraftion and dilatation,
which are obferved over the whole abdomen in the mam-
malia.

The firft, or outer pair, correfpond to the external oblique
mufcles : it is attached to the whole anterior edge of the
pelvis, to the back and front fhell, and is extended in the
whole pofterior interval of thefe parts. The internal mufcle
conS.fts of tranfverfe fibres, attached above to the pofterior
half of the back fhell, near the vertebrae, defcending on the
outfide of the vifcera, inclofing them, and terminating be-
low in a middle aponeurofis. The latter palles partly under
the bladder, and will ferve to evacuate that organ when the
mufcles contraft. They cotnprefs immediately only a
fmall portion of the lungs ; but they prcfs ftrongly on the
abdominal vifcera, and through the latter on the lungs, fo
as to expel the air. Perhaps, too, the lungs may contraft
by fome powers of their own.

The mechanifm of refpiration, in the faurians and ophi-
dians, is very analogous to that of birds, inafmuch as this
funftion is particularly executed by the motions of the ribs
and of the abdominal mufcles. In moft of the faurians, the
ribs are perfedlly fimilar to thofe of birds, confilling of two
portions, united by a moveable articulation, and forming an
angle, which is opened in infpiration, and clofed in expira-
tion. The mufcles which put them in motion are analogous
to thofe employed for the fame purpofe in birds.

The ribs of ferpents, forming fimple arcs, compofed

merelj

REPTILES.

vncrely of an ofTeous portion, are inclined backwards, and
brought near the vertebral column in expiration, and are
extended in infpiratioii. Elevators of the ribs, iiniilar to
thofe of man, but larger in proportion, jjroduce the latter
cffeft, in which they are nflided by intercollal mufcles. The
inufcles carrying the ribs backward::, and thus producing
expiration, lie within the chcft. They are fixed to the iides
of the vertebral column, and correfpond in number with the
ribs. They are narrow and flattened, forming a kind of
mufcular ribbons, palling from tiie vertebral column, over
one rib, to be fixed in the next. Other mufcular ribbons are
attached to the iiifide of the ribs, defcciid to be joined to-
gether, and then extend acrofs, ending in a thin aponeuroiis,
which unites the ribbons of each fide. Thefe compofe the
abdominal mufclcs, and comprefs the vifcera of the great
cavity.

Refpiratlon, which confifts in warm-blooded animals of
a conltant regular iaccefiion of alternate infpirations and
expirations, hardly admitting even a very (liort interruption,
is performed in reptiles at irregular and long intervals, ad-
mitting of very long fufpenlion, and capable, therefore,
in a much greater degree than in the former clafies, of
modification by the will of the animal. Hence Linnaius
afligned a " pulmo arbitrarius," or voluntary power over
the refpiratory fundfion, as a dillinguilhing attribute of
the clafs. The difference, however, between the reptiles
and warm-blooded animals is in the length of time for
which they can do without refpiration : after a longer or
Ihorter interval, its renewal is equally necedary to both.

All reptiles continue breathing conftantly as long as
they are awake ; and the turtles moll frequently of all. It
is well known that they cannot remain long under water ;
but are obligi d, at fliort intervals, to come to the furface
for a frefli fupply of air. Blumenbach obfsrved water
newts, when placed in a deep vellel of water, fwim up to
the top frequently for the piirpofe of drawing breath.

" On the whole, however," continues Blunienbach,
<' reptiles cannot only go much longer without breatliing
than warm-blooded animals, but they can alio continue
unhurt m vitiated air for a much more confiderable time. .
" Tortoifes have been known to live more than a montli
with their jaws tightly tied, and their noflrils clofed with
fealing-wax, (Mery, in Mem. de I'Acad. des Sciences,
avant 1699, v. 2.) On the fame point we may mention
the puzzling, but fufficiently authenticated initances, of
toads found alive in the middle of folid trunks of trees,
and even in maffes of marble and other ftones. ( Sec Lui-
dius in Lithophylac. Britann. p. 112. Le Cat in AUion
du Lac, JVIelanges d'Hiitoire Naturelle, v. 3. p. 95.
Gentleman's Magazine, v. 26. 1756, p. 74. Guettard in
Mem. fur differ, part, des Sciences et Arts, v. 4. p. 615.
Hift. de I'Acad. des Sciences de Berlin, 1782.) There are
numerous citations in Haller, de Corp. Hum. Fabrica et
Funtfion. v. 7. p. 151, and Kaeltner, in the Preface to
tlie German verfion of the Stockholm Tranfaftions, v. 3.

" Reptiles can alfobearto breathe fixed andpfilogifticated
air much longer than warm-blooded animals. In my ex-
periments at the celebrated cavern of Pyrmont, I conftantly
found that pigeons could hardly be reltored to life if their
immerfion in that bath of carbonic acid gas was protrafted
into the fecond minute. Frogs, however, recovered after
ilaying in it five, fix, feven, and even nine minutes. The
event of fimilar trials, made in the famous grotto del Cane,
near Naples, correfponds to thefe. (See NoUet, in the Mem.
de I'Acad. des Sciences de Paris, 1750, p. 72. Murray,
in the Swedilli Tranfaftions, 1775, v. 36. p. 249.) Delia
Torre found that a toad lived for half an hour in that grotto,

and that a newt wa:; (fill alive, after having been immcrfed
in this pernicious atmofphere an hour and a quarter.

" Carminati has already Ihewn how much iooner confined
air proves fatal to warm-bhioded animals, than to the am-
pliibia. (Deanimalium ex inephitibus et noxiis halitibm
iriteritu, p. 96.) When I have enclofed two fparrows under
one bell-glafs, and two frogs under another of the fame fize,
the former have periflied in convulfions from the vitiated
Hate of their air, while the atmofphere of the otiier giafs
had experienced fo little change, that a candle or burning
coals were not extingniflied by it." Specimen, p. i.

The experiments of Boyle ( Philof. Traiif. 1670, N" 62.),
and the Florentine academicians, which have been fince
moR frequently repeated, have fliewn that ferpents, frogs,
S:e. can remain very long (from two or three to ten or
twelve hours) under an exhaullcd receiver.

The nature of the changes produced in the air by tlie
refpiration of reptiles, has been examined by Spallanzani
( Rapports de I'air avec les ctres organifcs, publics par Sene-
bicr, 3 torn. 8vo. Geneve, 1807) ; Mr. EUis (Inquiry into
the Changes produced on Atmofpheric Air, &c. 1807, 3"d
Further Inquiry, &c. 181 I,) and others. The latter author
prefents us with a fummary of all that has been afcertaincd,
as well as with experiments of his own ; we, therefore, ex-
traft them in his own words from the works jull quoted.

" To obtain a knowledge of the fpecific changes which the
air fuffers by the refpiration of the amphibia, the following
experiments were inllituted. A toad, Supported on a fmall
hoop, was inclofed in one hundred and eight cubic inches of
atmofpheric air contained in a jar inverted over water, and
ftandiiig in a room varying frum 55^ to 60^ Fahrenheit.
He died on the fifth day. The water had rifen confiderably
in the jar, and the refidual air was ilill fartlier diminifhed
by agitation with lime-water, which it rendered turbid.
Fifty parts, after being wafhed in lime-water, were next
fhaken in the eudiometer with the liquid lulphuret of
potalfa, and loil only one part of its bulk. The experiment
was repeated by confining another toad, in the fame manner,
in another jar containing forty cubic inches of atmofpheric
air, inverted over mercury. Under the hoop which fup-
ported the animal, was placed a fmall cup, containing 1.5
cubic inch of the water of potafla, which floated on the
mercury. The whole was then fet afide in a room, of the
temperature of 64°. By the twelfth hour, the mercury
had rifen nearly half an inch into the jar, which was thickly
moillened with vapour, and the breathing of the animal
feemed rather languid : by thetwenty-firft hour, he breathed
very faintly ; and, by the twenty-fourth hour, he had
ccaled to breath. The jar was allowed to ftand fome hours,
at the end of which time the mercury flood about eight-
tenths of an inch high, and one-tenth of an inch of fluid
was dcpefited on its furface. The jar was now raifcd, and
diluted fulphuric acid being poured into the alkaline folu-
tlon, excited m it a very brilli effervefcence. It is inferred,
therefore, from thefe experiments, that the oxygenous por-
tion of the air almoft entirely dlfappears during the refpira-
tion of thefe animals, after which they ceafe to breathe ;
and that a large portion of carbonic acid is at the fame
period produced.

" Proceeding on the fuppofition, that the lofs in the bulk
of air, evinced by the afcent of the mercury, in the lad of
the foregoing experiments, arofe from the attraction of the
carbonic acid by the alkaline folution, we endeavoured
to afcertain the proportion which this lofs of bulk bore
to that of the whole air originally employed. With this
view a frog was procured, and placed in a jar of the capa-
city of forty cubic inches. Under the hoop which fup-

ported

REPTILES.

ported liiii), about half way up tlie jar, was placed a iinall
oip, containing one cubic inch of the water of potada ; and
tlie jar beinjr then filled with atmofpheric air, was inverted
into a dilh ot' mercury, and keptiteady by a weight preiling
upon it. In the room in which the animal was placed, the
barometer ftood at 29.2 inches, and the thermometer at 61°.
At the end of twenty-nine hours, the animal was refting
quietly on the hoop, with no appearance of diftrels, and
the mercury in the jar, when that in the difh was brought
to a level with it, had rifen fix-tenths of an inch. In
twenty-four hours more, the frog was dill alive : his refpi-
ration feemed now to labour, and he rofe often to the top
of the jar, as if defirous of efcaping, or of obtaining frefh
air : the mercury had now rifen to 1.15 of an inch. From
this time, the difficulty of breathing continued to increafe,
and, at the clofe of the fifty-ninth hour,- from the com-
mencement of the experiment, after having lain quiet for a
confiderable time, he gave a convuUive ftruggle, and moved
no more. The mercury in the difli was now brought to a
level with that in the jar, and its height was 1.2 of an inch.
The barometer, at this period, was 29.8, and the thermo-
meter 65°.

" In order to examine the refidual air, we plunged the dilh
under water, which rifing into the jar, difplaced the mercur)',
and the cup, with its folution, was then withdrawn under
water. Tlie refidual air fuffered no diminution by being
fhaken with lime-water, nor by contaft with phofphorus,
but it lolt rather more than xi « by agitation with the liquid
fulphuret of potafTa. The jar originally held forty cubic
inches, but the animal, with the hoop, cup, and folution,
occupied a (liare equal to four, fo that the adual bulk ot air
employed was 36 cubic inches. Having placed the jar on
its bottom, water, to the quantity of 27 cubic inches, was
poured in till it reached the point to which the mercury,
during the experiment, had rifen ; and this, therefore, indi-
cated the volume of refidual air : it then required nine cubic
inches more of water to fill the jar completely, which, confe-
quently, was the bulk of air that had difappeared. Hence,

therefc

have

27 X 29.8

= 22819 and 27.554
rafted volume of air

29.2

= 27-5547. but

4x27.554

at

4-15

483
.22819 = 27.32651, the cor-
the clofe of the experiment.

8.62349
36

fo that the diminution of bulk which the air fuffered

But farther, 36— 27.32651 = 8.67349,

and , — =z

in this experiment is rather greater than

4-54

the propor-

tion of oxygen gas which the atmofphere contains. In a
fecond experiment, another frog lived in the fame volume of
air about 60 hours, and the diminution which it fuffered,

after making the necelfary reduftions, amounted to — — —
° ' 4.868

of the whole. Where the carbonic acid, formed by the re-
fpiration of another frog, was fuffered to remain, the jar,
after the death of the animal, adhered firmly to the faucer
in which it was inverted, and, when cautioufiy elevated, the
furrounding mercury rufhed in ; and occupied only about
one-tenth of the fpace which it filled in the above-mentioned
cafes : the inferences deducible from thefe fafts, inftruA us,
that the diminution which atmofpheric air iuffers by the
refpiration of thefe animals, bears a near proportion to the
oxygen gas which it contains, when all the carbonic acid is
removed : and as a fmall lofs of bulk likewife takes place

when tliis .acid is allowed to remain, we tnuft afcribe a part
of the obferved diminution to tlie necell'ary lofs which al-
ways accompanies the converfion of oxygen gau into car-
bonic acid.

" It follows from the preceding feries of experiments, that
the oxygenous portion of the air is changed by the refpira-
tion of amphibious animals in the lame manner as by that of
the other claflcs, carbonic acid, in proportion thereto, beino-,
in all cafes, produced ; and that when the whole, or nearly
the whole, of that gas is fo changed, the animal no longer
furvives. But, if the animal die when all the oxygen gas it,
changed, and all llie air that has difappeared when the car.
bonic acid is removed, be oxygen gas, then the bulk of air
that remains, and is unchanged, mult confift wholly of ni-
trogen gas ; and as this nitrogen gas, joined with the oxy-
gen gas that has difappeared, makes up the v/ho!e bulk of
air originally employed, it follows a!fo, that, while the
oxygen gas of the air has diminiflied and fullered change,
the nitrogenous portion has continued undiminifhed and
unaltered.

" During all thefe changes operated on tlie air contained
in water, by the refpiratory functions of aquatic animals, the
water itfelf feems to fuffer little or no alteration. Mr. Car-
lifle took I'eparate glafles, each contaifiiiig one pound of
diftilled water, which was previoufly boiled to expel all its
air, and then inverting them over mercury, he put into them
one gold fifh, one trog, two leeches, and one frefh-water
mufcle. The animals were confined feveral days in thefe
fituations, and expofed to the fun during January, in tem-
perature 43^^ and 48" Fahrenheit ; but 110 air-bubbles were
produced in the vellels, nor was there any fenfible dimi-
nution of the water. The frog died on the third day, the
fifli on the fifth, the leeches on the eighth, and the mufcle
on the thirteenth day. This experiment was made to afcer-
tain the changes produced in water by the refpiration of
aquatic animals ; but the water had not undergone any
chemical alteration. See Croonian Lecture in the Philol.
Tranf. 1805." Inquiry, p. 83 — 88.

Mr. Ellis adduces fome additional evidence in his Further
Inquiry. " The experiments already detailed in the former
work clearly prove, that frogs and toads which belong to this
clafs, entirely convert, by refpiration, the oxygen gas of the
air into nearly an equal bulk of carbonic acid, without pro-
ducing any change in its nitrogenous portion. Dr. Carra-
dori alfo difcovered, that thefe animals lived much longer
when they were immerfed in water tflat had a free commu-
nication with the atmofphere, than when the air was ex-
cluded. (Phil. Mag. vol. 16. p. 245). According to
Spallanzani, frogs die fooner in boiled, than in common
water. In their refpiration, they confume oxygen, and
form carbonic acid. Thofe which have been recently fed,
confume more of this gas than thofe which have fuffered a
long abftinence. Under great cold they become lethargic,
but their heart flill continues to beat, and they ftill, in a
fmallcr degree, continue to change the air ; but the con-
fumption of oxygen increafes with the increafe of tempe-
rature. Thefe animals alfo change the air by their (Idn,
as well as by their lungs ; and att upon it after death, and
under putrefaction. (Rapports, &c. torn. i. p. 468.) The
ova of frogs were likewife found to require air to carry on
their evolution. Small tadpoles, while yet attached to the
egg, were confined in vefTels half filled with water, while
the other half contained air, or oxygen or nitrogen gas.
Thofe in the two former veflels were perfeftly developed,
and became large enough to fwim about ; but thofe confined
with nitrogen perifhed. Rapports, &c. tom. i. p. 466.
" SpaUanzani extended his experiments to many other ani-

6 mals

REPTILES.

mals of lliis clafs, and obtained fimilar refults. DifTerent
ff ecies of ferpeiits he found to die in iiydrogcn gas, or when
confined under water, but to live in common air, and con-
vert its oxygenous portion into carbonic acid. They be-
came lethargic from cold, and the heart then heat very
{lowly, or not at all, the refpiration was then alfo fiifpcndcd,
and little or no effetl was produced in the air. The ikin
of thefe animals afted upon the air, as well as tlie lungs
(Rapports, &c. torn. i. p. 249.); and when the blood was
reddened by expofure to the air, its oxygen alfo difap-
peared, and carbonic acid was produced. ( Rapports, &c.
torn i. p. 239. 263.) Similar refults were obtained in ex-
periments on the refpiration of vipers, tortoifes, lizards,
and falamanders. Rapports, &c. tom. i. p. 275. 287.

?95- 353-

" The preceding fafts fufficiently (hew, that various ani-
mals in all the foregoing clafTes, and in every (lage and
foijn of their exiftence, require the prefence of oxygen gas
to maintain the funftions of life ; that this gas, by the exer
cife of thefe funftions, is converted into carbonic acid ; and
that the degree in which this converfion proceeds, depends
much on ttie healthy condition of the animal, and the
vigour of its circulating fyftem. Since, alfo, in every
inilance where the experiments have been made with the
requifite accuracy, the bulk, of carbonic acid produced,
nearly or exaftly equalled that of the oxygen which dif-
appeared, we may conclude, from analogy, tliat fuch is
univerfally the extent to which this change in the air takes
place in animal refpiration ; and fince, farther, the nitrogen
gas of the air appears to futfer no neceHary change in the
exercife of this funftion, we may alfo conclude, that as far
as regards the air, the fubftitution of an equal bulk of car-
bonic acid for the oxygen gas that is loll, comprifes the
only eflential change which the atmofphere experiences
during the performance of this animal procefs." P. 269 —
272.

l^ital Temperature. — " Since the refpiratory organ?," fays
Blumenbach, " may, with great probability, from the nu-
merous inveftigations and difcoveries of the moderns, be re-
garded as the principal fource of animal temperature, we
follow a natural arrangement in palling from the confider-
ation of their ftrufture and funftions, to a (liort view of the
differences between the natural heat of reptiles and warm-
blooded animals.

" Animals, whofe lungs are mod compaft, receiving the
greateft fupply of blood, and furniihed with all the appa-
ratus necelfary for fending the whole circulating mafs through
the minor circulation, are obliged to keep up the refpiratory
procefs uninterruptedly from the time of birth, expelling,
inilead of the pure aerial fluid which they infpire, a noxious
air, which corrupts the furrounding atmofphere if confined,
pofTefs a high natural temperature, about the 98th degree of
Fahrenheit's fcale in man, rather higher in foine mammalia,
and particularly in birds. In reptiles, on the contrary,
poflefling lungs of a rare and loofe texture, with compara-
tively llender fupply of blood, refpiration is irregular, inter-
rupted, and in fome meafure arbitrary ; they very ilowly
vitiate confined air ; and exhibit a temperature exceeding,
by a few degrees only, that of the furrounding atmofphere.
One or two degrees, I lay, according to the refults of ac-
curate obfervation on tortoifes (Walbaum Chelonograph.
p. 26.) : for my own experiments on amphibia have not ex-
hibited refults fufficiently conftant to allow me to draw any
certain inference from them." (Specimen, &c. p. 18.)
Braun, indeed, has aflerted, in the Nov. Comment. Acad.
Petrop. t. 13. p. 427, that frogs poflefs only the tempe-
jrature of the furrounding medium ; but the fafts which

Vol. XXIX.

we fhall advance prcfently, completely difprove this af-
fertion.

The power which modern invelUgations have proved
w.irm-blooded animals, and more particularly the human
fubjett, to poflefs in fo high a degree, of being able to en-
dure expofure to heat much above tlie natural temperature of
tiie body, without having their own heat increaled ; and, on
the contrary, of bearing, with equal facility, the moft in-
tenic cold, is not witlilield from the amphibia, as is proved
by the fads whicii we have related, in order to (hew the
tenacity of hfe in this clafs. It is not, indeed, clear in thefe
cafes, as in the experiments, of wliich man and different
mammalia have been the fubjefts, that the reptiles, when
expolcd to a degree of hear greater or lefs than their own,
have maintained tiieir ov 11 temperature at an uniform
ilandard ; on the contrary, indeed, it feems that in a great
cold their heat is abllracted, and they become frozen ; and
it will alfo be feen, from fads to be brought forward pre-
fently, that their heat is varioufly changed under dilferent
eircumllances. Now we know that the temperature of the
mammalia is not railed beyond its natural level by expofure
in an atmofpheric medium of 280° Fahr. (fee TiUet in
Mem. del'Acad. des Sciences, 1764) ; and that its ftandard
is equally undillurbed, when the atmofphere is below the
freezing point of mercury. (See Heat, Animal, and
Man.) We may therefore fafely aflert that man and the
mammalia very far exceed reptiles in the power of refilling
either great heat or cold; that is, ot maintaining a Itandard
temperature under the aftion of a furruunding atmofphere,
coiiliderably exceeding or falling fhort of their own tempe-
rature. The following fummary of fads, concerning the
temperature of reptiles, is taken from Mr. Ellis's In-
quiry.

" Amphibious animals exhibit a great variety in the
(Irudure of the refpiratory organs, and, confequently, in
the degrees of animal heat. Frogs and land tortoifes
poflefs a temperature about five degrees higher than that of
the medium they inhabit, according to Dr. Martine. The
fame may be faid of fea tortoifes, toads, vipers, and all the
ferpent kind, all of whom have lungs of the fame fabric
and the fame cold conftitution of body. (Eifay on Ther-
inoracters, p. 142.) Mr. Hunter obferved that the frog
and toad were about four or five degrees warmer than the
atmofphere when it was at 35*^ or 36° ; and that, fome hours
after death, they gradually fell down to the temperature of
the furrounding air. (Treatifeon the Blood, p. 298.) The
difference of temperature appears to increafe in a warmer
atmofphere ; for Mr. Carlifle kept tliree frogs for many
days in an equable atmofphere of 54°, and their ftomachs
preferved a temperature of 62°. (Philof. Tranfad. 1805,
pt. I.) In an atmofphere of 58', Mr. Hunter found the
thermometer, introduced into the llomach of a healthy viper,
to (land at 68^ ; but, after the animal was put into a pan,
and the pan into a cold mixture of 10'', where it remained
about ten minutes, the heat was reduced to 37°, and, in
twenty minutes more, to 31°, nor did it fink lower; its tail
now began to freeze, and the animal was very weak. A
frog alfo, whofe temperature was 44°, when put into a cold
mixture, foon fell down to 31^; and beyond this point it
was not pofTible to leflen the heat without dtltroying the
animal. (Obf. on the Animal Economy, p. 104. ) A toad
being placed in cold water, jull deep enough not to cover
his mouth, the whole was put into a cold mixture between
10'^ and 15'-'. The water froze around the toad, and, as it
were, doled him in, but he did not die, and therefore was
not frozen. Why the animals, mentioned in thefe experi-
ments, died before they were frozen, while thofe which are

s B expofed

REPTILES.

expoffd to the atmolphere, in very cold climates, do not die,
is a point which Mr. Hunter docs not pretend to determine ;
not knowing tlie difference, he fays, between the effefts of
a natural and artificial cold. Ibid, p. 89, 90.

" The experiments of Mr. Hunter farther prove that the
temperature of moll of the foregoing animals not only
falls rapidly in a colder medium, but that it rifes more
quickly in a warmer one than that of thoie which poffefs a
higher ftandard temperature. In the llomach of a frog,
the thermometer rofe from 45-' to 49° ; the animal was then
placed in an atmofphere made warm by heated water, where
it remained for 20 minutes, and upon introducing the ther-
mometer again into the ftomach, the mercury rofe to 64'^.
(Ibid. p. 90.) A healthy viper was put into an atmofphere
of io8^ and,-in fcven minutes, the heat of the animal, both
in the ftomach and anus, was found to be gz°.^, beyond
which It could not be raifed in the above heat. An eel,
very weak, whofe heat was 44°, which was nearly that of
the atmofphere, was put into water heated to 65°, for fifteen
minutes ; and, upon examination, it was of the fame degree
of heat with the water. The heat of a tench was, in ten
minutes, raifed from 41° to 55°, both in the ftomach and
redlum, by being put into water at 65°.

" He found alfo, that a living and dead tench, and a living
and dead eel, put together into warm water, received heat
equally fall ; and when they were expofed to cold, both
the living and the dead admitted the cold likewife with equal
quicknefs. (Ibid. 104, 105.) Hence, therefore, the
animal heat, in all the claffes of animals hitherto mentioned,
whether they inhabit the air or the water, feems to follow
nearly that of the medium in which they are placed ; and
their ftandard temperature cannot, in confequence, be
reftriftedto any fixed point, but muft be confidered always
in relation to that of their furrounding medium.

" Notwithftanding, however, the low degree of heat which
thefe feveral claffes of animals poffefs, hardly, in fome in-
ftances, exceeding that of the medium in which they live,
yet this fmall excefs is a proof that they poffefs, within
themfelves, a power of producing heat. The lofs of heat
which infefts fuffer under cold, the fall of temperature
which many of the vermes clafs undergo from the fame
caufe, the melting of fnow by the heat of fifties, and the
decline of animal heat which the amphibia, when expofed
to great cold, experience, all demonftrate that the fur-
rounding medium, whether it be air or water, is conftantly
drawino- off their heat, which renders neceffary as conftant
a re-produAion of it." P. 218 — 221.

The great fize and beautiful ftrufture of the lungs of
reptiles lead us to conclude that they are very important
organs in the economy of thefe animals, although their ufes
and relations are not yet all fatisfaftorily afcertained. It
feems tolerably certain, that befides their office as refpiratory
organs, they render the body lighter for fwimming in many
inftances : in this point of view they may be compared to
the fwimming bladder of fifti. It is by the inflation of its
large lungs, that the cameleon can diftend its body fo re-
markably.

" The lungs, too," fays Blumenbach, " are fubfervient in
many reptiles to the produftion of found ; — I fay in many,
becaufe fome fpecies, even of our reptiles, are, fo far as I
know, completely dumb : viz. the falamander, lacerta agilis
(green lizard), and anguis fragilis (blind-worm) ; and others
utter found very rarely, and only when in great danger, as
the water newts ; refembling, in that refpeft, the mole and
hare, which do not cry out until great violence is offered
them.

" It has-been reported that fome mammalia lofe their voice

I

in particular fituations, as dogs in certain parte of America :
the fame thing has been reported of reptiles, for example
frog;, which G. F. Miiller found to be dumb in many
regions of Afiatic Ruifia. iSammlung Ruffifcher Gefchich-
ten, vii. p. 123." Blumenbach, Specimen, &c. p. 15.

Organs of Voice. — The larynx, varying in different genera,
as in the other claffes, has thefe cliaraftcrs in common ; w'z.
that it has no epiglottis, and is compofed of pieces ana-
logous to thofe of the upper larynx of birds. This is the
only vocal organ ; tlicrc is ix-ver an inferior larynx, as in
birds. The voice cannot be modified by lips or velum
palati, fince they do not exift. The degree of aperture
of the mouth, and the motions of the tongue, are alone
capable of modifying the action of the larynx.

The cartilaginous flieleton of the crocodile's larj'nx con-
tains five pieces : a nearly fquare plate, compofing all the
under furface of the cavity. Two circular pieces or han-
dles, fixed near together at one end, in the middle of the
front edge ef the plate, and at the other, in the middle of
the fide. Their body is a little evelated above the fquare
plate, and leaves on eacli fide, between it and that plate, a
membranous hollow. The anterior extremity of each piece
forms a lateral and vertical prominence, conftituting a kind
of pillar under the glottis. To the pofterior external angle
of this plate, a branch is fixed on each fide ; thefe join
together above, and form, with the back edge of the plate,
a complete ring, which is the beginning of the trachea.

The glottis IS merely membranous, extending from the
junftion of the two laft-mentioned branches to the middle
of the OS hyoides, where the membranes compofing it
are attached. There are neither ventricles nor chordx
vocales. Two mufcles aft on this apparatus. One comes
from below the great plate, furrounds the larynx, afcend-
ing obliquely backwards, and joins the correfponding
mufcle of the other fide behind the glottis, which it has
the power of clofing. The other comes from below the
back edge of the fame plate ; decuffates the former, afcend-
ing obliquely forwards, and is fixed to the edge of the
glottis, which it opens. The firft half of the glottis cor-
refponds then to the broad and flat cavity of the larynx ;
the fecond, beginning from the two pillars in front, is
merely a long and narrow flit. It is only in ftriking againft
the two pillars, that the air can produce a whiftling noife,
if indeed any fuch be produced at all.

The glottis of the crocodile of the Orinoco, fays Hum-
boldt, is furrounded by a thick fiefhy ring with circular
fibres, which the animal can contract to fuch a degree, that
the flit or opening of the trachea cannot be diftinguifhed.
-The glottis refts on a round and flat cartilage, analogous
to the thyroid of mammalia. The upper part of the
trachea prefents a fingular ftrufture, which we mention
here, becaufe it feems fubfervient to the produftion of
found. The firft nine cartilages are not complete rings,
but are joined together above by a tranfparcnt, very fine
and tenfe membrane. (See Humboldt Recueil d'Obfer-
vations de Zoologie et d'Anatomie comparee, t. i. pag. 11.
pi. 4.) Geoffroy obferved ten annuli thus united in the
Nilotic crocodile ; Duverney fixteen, in a crocodile diflefttd
at the Academy of Sciences, and the Jefuit Miffionaries in
Siam a larger number. To this membrane, ftretched like
the parchment of a drum, and thrown into vibrations by
the air, the deep and terrific bowlings or bellowings of
thefe dangerous reptiles are afcribed ; the glottis being at
the fame time clofed by its mufcular ring. Annales du
Mufeum, t. 2. p. 46.

In the iguana, the pillars are fcarcely more prominent
within than the reft of the parietes ; the glottis is very

ftiort.

REPTILES.

Ihort, and the inferior plate goes forwards and becomes
broader, being turned up to form the rudiment of an epi-
glottis.

The fame fimplicity of ilrudlure prevails in the tupi-
nambis, the common lizard, the tortoifes, and ferpents ; an
inferior plate, and two lateral pieces narrowing a little the

1779, tab. i3;andTy(on that of the rattlefnake, in th?
Philof. Trani. vol. 13. The chorda; vocales, too, are lari'Cr
in the male than in the female frog.

Voice nj Rcpula — The tortoifes and turtles are faid to
have the jjower of producing a more or lefs ilroiig hifling,
when affeded by any lively feeling ; but we do not know of

edges of the glottis. Thefe animals c^n only be capable of any very clear and fatisiadtory teftimony on the fubjctt
producing hilling founds. Pliny's obfervation about the fnoring of turtles when float-

The mud tortoife has, at the bottom of its organ, a ing aflecp o;.i the water, has not been confirmed. The lar-r.
rounded deprefiion, which is not fo well marked in the iguanas utter (harp whillWng or hilhng founds as they run
turtle ; but it has not any vocal chords. In a great land about the tops of trees. Several ferpents hits, and the larTL-
tortoife of Madagafcar, there is a triangular membranous fpecies very loudly. The noife made by the tail of the
crilta, attached to the lovi-er part of the larynx, and afcend- rattlefnake is not a vocal found, but produced" by a pe-
ing in the glottis, which it divides into two. This is ana- culiar organ, which we (hall defcribe.

logous to a Itrufture very common in the upper larynx of Dandin aflerts, that falamanders produce two kinds of
birds. The edges of the glottis are flat, fharp on the out- feeble found out of the water j the lirft is a low found, pro-
fide, and touch completely. duced in the throat, which they fwell for that purpofc'; the"

In the fcink, the edge of the glottis is turned a little fecond confids in a (light itrikiiig of the two lips together,
inwards to form a tenfe membrane, diredled backwards. v/ithout any motion ot the throat.

In the camcleon there are pillars, nearly as in the croco- According to the traveller Bartram, crocodiles produce
dile, but they are each furnifhed with a tenfe membrane moil prodigious noifes. The found is terrific, particularly
direfted backwards, and very fit for vibration. In front of in the fprijig, when tliefe dangerous animals copulate. The
them, on each fide, a flefliy protuberance is obfervcd, con- noife refembles diltant thunder, (haking the country and
trafting the glottis, which is very (hort, and terminating making it re-echo far and wide. When they are thus bel-
in front by a tranfverfe (lit. But the molt remarkable cii-- lowing by hundreds and thoufands at a time, we mio-ht fup-
cumftance about the larynx of the cameleon, is a fmall pofe, fays Bartram, that fome violent fhock agitates the
membranous fac opening below, between the inferior plate globe, and (kakes it to its very foundations. He alfo dates
of the larynx, and the firlt ring of the trachea. that when they llrike their jaws together they make a fur-

Neither the iguanas nor the dragons pofl'efs a fimilar fac, prifing noife, like that of a heavy plank forcibly beaten
although we obferve in them goitres on the outfide : againll the ground.

thefe prominences have no relation to the vocal organs. Humboldt fays that the young crocodiles make a noife

The frogs, which are fo noify, have a larynx fuitable to like cats ; and that they utter very piercing cries, juit after
this charaAer in the fize and prominence of its vocal chords, efcaping from the agg, if attacked by a doer. He never
The inferior plate of the larynx is a flender tranfverfe heard any vocal found produced by the old cTocodiles • al-
branch, bearing on each fide a large ring, which is the though he lived among them five years, and the fire often
origin of the bronchus ; for, in thefe animals there is no attracted them within" a few paces of the tents at night,
tracheal tube. On the front of the tranfverfe branch, two The Indians afferted that the crocodile makes a noife like
oval pieces are articulated, convex externally, and concave that of a cow ; that its voice is very terrific, but feldom
internally, fo as to refemble kettle-drums. On the lower heard, and fomctimes jull before an earthquake, the ap-
edge of each a membrane is itretched internally, which op- prbach of which they are faid to difcern. Recueil d'Obf.
pofes at right angles the courfe of the air. The edge of de Zool. et d'Anat. Comp. p. 11.

this membrane forms the chorda vocalis, which is confe- Organs of the Generaii-ve Funaions. — There is a very clofe
quently more ifolated than the cartilages, and freer than in analogy in the {Irufture of thefe parts between reptiles and
any other animal. Above it is the opening of the ventricle birds : in both clafics there is a cloaca, that is, a cavity com-
of the glottis, occupying all the concavity of the -kettledrum mon to the generative organs, the feces, and the urine • in
cartilage. The upper edge of this cartilage forms the both the male has tellicles inclofed in the abdomen, while
margin of the glottis properly fo called. Vicq' d'Azyr the female organs confift of ovaries and ovidufts. The
conceived that the ventricles communicate by their bottom young being leaves the mother in the form of a fmall eg-g-
with the bronchi, and tluis afcribed three openings to the which is generally developed out of the body. The eene-
larynx of frogs : but this is a miftake. rative procefs, however, in many inftances, exhibits in this

Befides this apparatus, which is extremely fonorous, male clafs very driking peculiarities,
frogs have two bags, each of which opens by a fmall hole, Male Organs.— The tejlkks : the fituation and drufture of

not in the larynx, but in the bottom of tiic mouth, at its thefe glands in the three fird orders are very analogous to
fides. They pafs under the arch of the lower jaw, to make thofe which they have in birds. They are condantly found'
a prominence under the (Icin on each fide under the ear. in the abdominal cavity, united to the inferior furface of the
Thefe bags are didended when the frogs are croaking, kidnies (in the chelonians), in front of the latter vifcera on
They are covered by a mufcular tiSTue capable of compreffing each fide of the vertebral column ( in the fauriaiis and ophi-
them. The female frogs, and toads of both fexes, and the dians), or immediately under their anterior portion (in the
tree-frogs, are deditut- of the bags ; but the latter have a fim- batracians). Their form varies in the different genera-
pie fac under the throat. In this larynx there is a mufcle on they are fcparated, in the falamanders, into two fpherical
each fide to feparate the oval cartilages ; and a tranfverfe one bodies, placed one before the other.

in front, paffino: between them, and calculateil to approximate The kidney, teflis, and epididymis, lie clofe too-ether iii
them. For reprefentations of thefe laryngeal lacs in the the tedudines, according to Blumenbach ; but each of the
frog, fee the German colledion of Camper's fmaller writ- three organs maybe didinguilhed by its peculiar colour and
ings, vol. I. pt. I. pag. 144. tab. 3. fig. I — 4. Vicq drufture on the fird view. There is much obfcurity in
d'Azyr has reprefented the rima glottidis of the tortoife, the different defcriptions of the male organs in the turtle
frog, and ferpents, in the Memoires de r Acad, des Sciences, and tortoife. Schneider has collected the various obfer-

5 B 2 vations

REPTILES.

vations on this fubjeft in his natural hiftory of the genus
teftudo.

Their fubftance exhibits, in the tortoifes, large fafcicuh,
of which the divifions pafs in various diredlioni, united by
celUdar tiffue : thefe fafcicuh are fine, eyhndritai, and ealily
feparable in the lizards. In the crucudilc, according- to
Geoffroy, the telles are like thofe of lifli, narrow and elon-
gated, and lyinp; above and in front of the kidiiies (proba-
bly more corredlly in front of and below thefe glands). In
the batracians we can diftiiiguifli merely an agglome;-atioii of
fmall white grains interfperled with blood-veifels. No cor-
pus Highmori can be difcerned.

Yellow appendages, confifting of a fatty fubllance fur-
rounded by a membrane, and floating in the abdomen, are
connefted to the front end of the telles in the frogs and
toads.

The epididymis of the chelonians is a packet made up by
the convolutions of a large canal (the vas deferens), which is
tortuous in its whole courfc, and ends in the cloaca at the
part correfponding to the bafii of the penis and its canal.
It forms, in the lizards, a detached body, large and pyra-
midal, larger than the tefticle, adhering to it only by a finall
thread, and evidently made up entirely of the convolutions
of the vas deferens. The latter palles along the cuter edge
of the kidney to the cloaca, in which it opens.

In the crocodile the femen is conveyed into two vei'iculs
of confiderable fize, contiguous to each other, placed at the
back of the common cloaca, and partly included in a carti-
laginous fac. They open into tiie cloaca by fix or feven
holes on each fide, arranged in a circular form round the
meatus urinarius. Geoffroy. If thefe are veCculae feminalcs,
it is the only example we know among reptiles of fuch
organs.

The teftis is long and flender, and the relative bulk of the
epididymis is lefs in the ophidians ; it foon changes into a vas
deferens, alfo very tortuous, opening in this, as in the pre-
ceding orders, into the cloaca. In the latter only the
canals are inferted in a papilla, which has been incorreftly
defcribed as a penis. A more minute account of thefe or-
gans in the viper, may be feen in Charas, Defcription Anato-
raique de la Vipere.

Vejuuld: Saninaks. — There is no refervoir analogous to the
veficulae feminales properly fo called, nor to the accefibry
veficulae of fome mammalia in any of the other claffes of
vertebral animals. They have been fpoken of in the viper
and the batracians, as well as in fome birds ; but it feems
that a fimple dilatation of the vas deferens has been miftaken
for them. Poffibly future refearches may fhew that the ar-
rangement mentioned above in thf crocodile conftitutes an
exception to this remark. This is the ftatement of Cuvier.
Blumenbach fpeaks of large veficulx feminales in the frog,
which arc wanting in the toad. $ 324. (See Roefel Hiftor.
Ran. Noftr. tab. 5, 6, and 21.) Charas, in his defcription
of the viper, fpeaks of two refervoirs connected with the
vafa deferentia, and always full of a fluid, like that of the
tefticles, under the nam.e of veficulae feminales.

The fecretion of the tefticles, as obferved by Spallanzani
in the frog and toad, was a tranfparent fluid like water.
From the parts, which he calls veficula; feminales, of the
frog, he could procure at the time of copulation from two
to three grains of this fluid. In the water newt it was, in
colour and confiflence, like thick milk. He could not dif-
cover in it any remarkable fenfible property — nothing pun-
gent— nothing acid or alkaline. (Difiertations, v. 2.) He
alfo found the feminal fluid, both of the frog and newt, to
abound with the living verraiculi. Trads, v. i. p. 300
and 301.

Organs of Copulaiion.—There are two fpecies of tniicii
between the male and female. In tiie greater number there
is a male organ introduced into the body of the female, and
conveying the fecundating liquor : but in the batracians,
wliich have no male organ, there is merely a conjunftion
of ttieir bodies, it is a prehenfion by the male rather than a
true copulation.

In tiic males of thofe batracians which copulate thus>
there is a peculiar organifation of the llcin of the liand.
Firm tubercles, compofed of liard, blackifh or brown pa-
pillae, cover not only the thumb, but alfo the palm of the
hand. Thele being preifed into the flcin of the female, give
the male a very firm hold. They difappear after the feafon
of copulation, and are not feen again until that feafon recurs.
The copulation of the frog kind is effefted in the following
way : the male afcends the back of the female, paffes his
front limbs under her axillse, and carries them round the chefl,
until the fingers crofs in front. He continues grafping her
firmly in this way until the laying is finifhed. The pollerior
part of his body pailes beyond that of the female, fo that
he can fecundate the eggs as they are expelled, and he is faid
to affill in tliat operation. They remain joined for feveral
days, and the grafp of the male is fo firm, that great force
is necellary to fep.uate him. Contufion and laceration of
the breall, and even the death of the female, fometimes
follow the violent draining of the male. (See Spallanzani's
Difiertations, vol. i. p. 17.) The males are more bril-
liant at the feafon of copulation, which takes place only
once a-year, in the early fpring ; they inflate their vocal
bladder more frequently, and indulge in their eroaking
noife. In the falamanders a crefl, with divided edge, ap-
pears on the back and tail, and is afterwards, in great mea-
fure, loft.

The duration of copulation in the frogs is inverfely pro-
portional to the warmth of the atmofphere. When this is
confiderable, the female will be free in five or fix days ; but,
in a cold feafon, the embraces of the male continue for eight
or nine days. The feafon of re-produftion is the be-
ginning of fpring : in the very firft days, the frogs begin to
ftir themfelves in our marfhes and ponds : they copulate,
lay and fecundate their eggs very foon. At the fame feafon,
the tortoifes, lizards, and ferpcnts, accomplifh the fame
procefs. Sometimes frogs are found united even before the
frolls have ended. Daudiu found two frogs in copulation
in the middle of February, the thermometer of Reaumur
at 3° above zero ; it defcended in the night to 4° below o ;
and the pond was frozen for two days ; at the end of which
time the female began to lay. Hift. Nat. des Reptiles, vol. i.
p. 207, 208.

One of the toads, on which Spallanzani made his experi-
ments, copulates in the beginning of March or end of Fe-
bruary, before all the fnow is melted ; the procefs lafts ten,
twelve, fourteen, or even twenty days, if the feafon be cold.
Spallanzani, ch. 3.

The abdomen fwells greatly in both fexes during copula-
tion ; in the female, from the enlargement cf the ova ; in
the male, from the depofition under the fkin of a very limpid
water, which difappears after the laying.

The tree-frogs, at leaft that of Europe (hyla viridis) do
not copulate like the frog and toad. The male fixes himfelf
on the female, by merely applying his anterior paws under
her axillx, and employing the tubercles of the fingers. He
remains in this fituation for twelve or fifteen hours, or even,
according to Roefel, three days.

The falamanders do not copulate at all ; the male places
his head on that of the female, and difcharges the iemmzl
fluid, which is received by the female organs. See Spallan-

aani,

REPTILES.

Eani, DifT. vol. 2 ; and Latreille, Hilloire Natiirelle dcs
Salamnndres dc France.

Penis — The chclonians have one ; moft of tlie i'aurians,
and the ophidians, have two ; and the batraciaiis none. There
is a papilla in the cloaca, in place of the penis, but jionc in
the toad.

The relative fizeof the organ is more confiderable in the
chelonians than in the mammalia and birds. It is long,
nearly cylindrical, and expanded at the end, which termi-
nates in an obtufe hook-like point, fomewhat refembling
the end of the elephant's trunk. A deep groove runs
along the whole upper furface of the member, and is even
deeper near the glans. It terminates on the broad expanded
end of the latter, by an orifice divided into two by a pa-
pilla. The approximation of its edges converts this groove
into a canal : it fupplies the place of the urethra. This
penis is compofed of two corpora cavernol'a, confounded
together in a part of its extent. They begin by two vaf-
cular fwellings analogous to the bulb of the uretlira : their
tidue is continued into two canals, of which the fibrous pa-
rietes, at firft thin, foon become very thick, while their cavi-
ties diminilh, and are united near the glans into one. The
whole large fweUing compofing the glans is merely a deve-
lopement of the vafcular tiffue of the latter, covered by a
loofe and plaited (kin, and fupported by a prolongation of
the fibrous fide of the corpus cavernofum.

The fkin of the groove is covered by a cavernous tex-
ture, analogous to that of the oilrich ; and there is, on
each fide of this groove, a canal, the orifice of which is in
the cavity of the peritoneum, on each fide of the bladder,
while the canal itfelf is prolonged in the fubftancc of the
penis, as far as the glans, where it ends in a cul-de-fac, with-
out its fides appearing perforated in any part.

This penis has two retraftor mufcles, arifiug in the pelvis,
and reaching as far as the glans. They fold back the
penis in the cloaca, fo that, like the penis of the oilrich, it
Ihuts the orifice of the reftum,- and that of the bladder.
Ereftion, and the aftion of the fphinfter, bring it out of
the cavity.

The penifes of the lizards and ferpents are fliort, cylin-
drical, commonly befet with white, hard, and pointed pa-
p)illae, which have been tolerably well compared to the
prickles of the hedge-hog. Thefe organs, in their collapfed
Itate, are drawn within the (l<in of the tail : when ereft
they are protruded, and appear at each angle of the ex-
ternal flit of the cloaca. They have two retraftor mufcles,
arifing under the firll caudal vertebrae. Tyfon has figured
the penis of the rattlcfnake and viper in the Philof. Tranf.
V. 13, tab. I ; and the latter is minutely defcribed by
Charas.

The penis of the crocodile is fingle, and lodged in a fold
of the anterior part of the cloaca. It is compofed of a
firm cartilaginous fubttance, terminated by a glans of fofter
texture. It is excavated in its whole length by a deep groove.
It has a very large retratlor mufcle, which is fo confiderable
as even to caufe a fwelling of the tail.

In the faurian reptiles, as in the frog and falamanders, the
male fixes himfelf on the female, and obliges her to turn
towards him the polterior part of her body, and a real copu-
lation enfues.

The aft is differently accomplilhed in the ferpents : the
male and female twine round each other, are clofely con-
nefted by feveral turns, and remain thus adherent for one or
two hours. Is the fmall horny fpur, fituated on each fide
of the anus in the bose, and retraftile under the (kin, em-
ployed at all by the ferpent as an organ of prehenfion, like
the cutaneous tubercles of the hand of the ranse I The

faurians and ferpents conceal themfelves carefully (ot this
purpofe.

Although the chelonian reptiles feem fo little calculated
for copulation, this procefs takes place in them, the male
fixing himfelf to the female by attaching the nails of his
front limbs to the foft (Icin of^ her neck. Naturalifts are
ilill uncertain, whether turtles are joined pladroii to plaf-
tron, as Lacepcde has affcrted in his Natural Hiftory of
Oviparous Quadrupeds, or whether the male mounts on the
back of the female, as Bomare has reprefented it in his Dic-
tionnaire d'Hiftoirc Naturclle. From the word cavalage,
employed by the French mariners to denote this union, we
may infer that they copulate like the frogs : the exprefTlon
denotes clearly that the male is mounted on the female as the
fi.alIion is on the marc fcavale). Catefby, in his Natural Hif-
tory of Carolina, alTcrts that they remain united for many
days.

Female Organs of Generation. — Reptiles have two ovaries,
ufually much more confiderable than the Cnglc ovary of birds.
For moll of the year thefe bodies are fmall : but they ac-
quire, at the propagating fcafon, an extraordinary develop-
ment, and thus dillend the abdomen very remarkably. This
is particularly obfervable in the frog kind.

In autumn and winter, fays Spallanzani, the imma-
ture eggs lie all in the ovarium, which is divided into two
lobes : thefe lobes confift of leffer lobes, each of which is
inverted with a peculiar membrane. The eggs are of two
fizes ; fome very fmall, fo as to be fcarcely viiible with the
naked eye ; others feven or eight times larger ; both kinds
are globular. The fmaller are of a livid grey colour : of
the larger one hemifphere is white, the other black. The
flightell touch is fufficient to burll them, after which they
are refolved into a cineritious vifcid liquor. (Difl'erta-
tions, V. I. J 4.) The black fpots of the furface, fup-
pofcd by Valifneri and others to be the rudiments of the
tadpole, are attached to the internal membrane, and have
no conneftion with the eggs. In the fpring the eggs of
the largeft kind are ftill larger, and they are mature when
copulation takes place. In the firft periods of copulation,
they are found in the fac of the ovarium ; during the fuc-
ceeding times, partly in the ovarium and partly in the ovi-
dufts, where they become enveloped by their covering of
vifcid tranfparent mucilage.

The ovaria of the falamander contain a multitude of
httle eggs of a yellowifh-white colour, fmaller than hulked
millet, and not floating loofe in the cavity of the ovaria,
but adhering to their fides. Thefe increafe in fize at the
approach of fpring.

The ovaria are connefted to two long produftions of
peritoneum, which are fixed en each fide of the fpine down
to the pelvis. The ova are ranged along the loofe edge of
this fold, either in a fingle row, as in the chelonians, or
agglomerated in a much larger number, as in the batracians.
Their blood-veffels extend between the lamina? of thefe
membranous produftions. In the batracians there are
yellow fatty appendages to the ovaries, like thofe of the
tellicles.

In the ferpents, like all their other vifcera, they partake
of the elongated figure of the body. The ova, confiding
of yellow veficles, referable rows of beads.

Oviduds. — There are two in all reptiles, like their ovaries.
They are membranous canals, fixed on each fide of the ver-
tebral column by a produftion of peritoneum. They com-
mence by an expanded orifice (fimbriated opening of the Fal-
lopian lube in mammalia), at which the ova enter. The tube is
firit conical, dimini{hing a little in fize ; then it is cylindrical
in the rell of its courfe, which has a much greater propor-

4 tional

REPTILES.

tional length lliaii in birds. In confequcnceofthis length of the
canal it is plaited on the produftion of the peritoneum in the
chelonian, faurian, and ophidian orders, or extremely fmuous
and folded on itfelf in tiie batracians. When tiie curva-
tures are deitroycd, and the duft is llretched in a ftraight
line, it is four times the length of the animal in the fala-
mander. Its parieles confill at firfl of a thin membrane,
they become afterwards thicker, and aflume the appearance
of a glandular llrufture. The ovidudls end in the frogs by
a dilatation, whicli opens into the cloaca.

The thick, flefliy part of the oviduft in the tortoifcs has
been frequently called the uterus : the two ovidufts open
feparatcly. Caldefi offervaz. intorno alle Tartarughe, tab. 6,
fig. 9, lo.

An uterus is alfo fpoken of by fome in the frogs, al-
though the generation of thefe animals has nothing in it
like utero-cellation, and the ova are fimply tranfmitted
through the tubes, without being retained i.i them to
undergo any part of their developcment. " The frogs of
this country," fays Blumenbach, " have a large uterus
divided by an internal partition into two cavities, from
which two long convoluted ovidufts arifc, and terminate
by open orifices at the fides of the heart. As the ovaria lie
under the liver, it is difficult to underftand how the ova
get into the above-mentioned openings. The uterus opens
into the cloaca." (Comparative Anatomy, tranflated by
LawTence, p. 446. ) " The toads have not the large uterus,
but their ovidudls terminate by a common tube in the
cloaca." (Ibid.) For dehneations of thefe parts in the
frog and toad, fee Roefel, tab. 6, 7, 8, and 21. The rana
pipa (Surinam toad) has the fame ftrufture. See Camper
in the 9th vol. of Commentat. Soc. Reg. Scient. Gotting.
p. 129. Alfo in his Kleinere Schriften, v. i. pt. i. tab. 3.
fig. I.

Female Organs of Copuhiion. —The male penis in copu-
lation palles into the female cloaca. Does it go into the
ovidufts ?

The chelonian reptiles have a clitoris very analogous to
the penis of the male, from which it differs only in its
fmaller fize. It is long, grooved lengthwife, and termi-
nated by a rounded glans. Retraftor mufclcs, analogous to
thofe of the penis, draw back the chtoris into the cloaca,
when it has been extended.

No clitoris has been difcovered in the other reptiles.

Dorfal Cells of the Rana Pipa (Surinam toad, bufo dor-

fi<rer). It is fingular enough to meet with in a toad a

ilruiSture analogous to that of the abdominal pouch of the
marfupial mammalia. The (liin of the bulk is excavated in
the female pipa by a large number of cells, (of which,
Cuvier fays, eighty have been counted, ) in which the ova
are placed, and changed into tadpoles, and the latter grow
and are raetamorphofed. As far as ^n examination of in-
dividual, preierved for a long time in fpirits of wine, will
enable us to judge, tlie parietes of thefe cells do not feem
to have any thing in their organization diftindi from the
reft of the Ikin.

Naturaliils fuppofed at firft, that the ova grew on tlie
back of the female, and that the male fecundated them in
that fituation : but obfervation of the living animal, and
anatomical inveftigations, liave (hewn the incorreclnefs of
this notion ; have proved, that the generative organs re-
femble thofe of other female toads ; that the pipa lays her
ova like the other toads ; and that the male fattened on her,
as in the ordinary mode belonging to this order, covers her
with the eggs after they have been fecundated. The eggs
are then enveloped in a fluid, which caufes the flcin of the
back to fwell round them : thus tiiey are contained in

rounded cavities. The tadpoles are produced there, viw
their membranous tails, and are developed in this fituatio:i.
which they do not quit until they have reached their perfect
ilate. The female then caufes the cells to difappear froni
her back, by rubbing it againll hard fubllances. Befide-
the works of Camper already referred to, concerning tht-
anatomy of this extraordinary creature, fee Blumenbach's
Abbildungen, W 36, for excellent figures of the animal,
and of its young in three ftates : i ft, as a long-tailed tad-
pole, with Imall procefles of hind legs, and no trace of fore
limbs ; 2dly, as a four-fi.iotcd creature, with the tail reduced
to an infignificant fize ; and 3dly, with the tail entirely re-
moved. The fkeleton is figured by Schneider, in his
Hift. Ampliib. Fafcic. I.

Phjfiology of the Generative Organs. — In the whole clalt
it is quite obvious, that the germ or rudiment of the new
being is produced by the female in the ovarium, a point
which does not admit of direct proof in the mammalia.
This " pre-exiftence of the germ" to the aft of copulation,
and its formation in a peculiar organ of the female, de-
monftrated fo clearly in reptiles, illuilrate one of the moft
curious points in the theory of the natural reproduttion
of organized beings, or generatiorij^ and overturn many of
the fpeculations on that fubjeft. Thefe germs acquire
confiderable fize in the ovaries, and are therefore diitindlly
vifible before the approach of the male. They pafs from
the pares juft mentioned into the ovidutls, and thence out
of the body through the cloaca, having received in their
paflage through the dudls fome external coverings. An
apphcation of the fecundating liquor fecreted by the male
is neceliary to the evolution ot thele germs ; they may be
ejected from the body without the embraces of the male,
as in the frog, toad, or newt, if they arc forcibly feparated
from the male after copulation has begun, but then they
are not evolved-

Swammerdam and Rocfcl were of opinion, that the eggs
were loofe in the abdominal cavity, and taken up thence by
the oviduct. Spallanzani found them in the abdomen only
thrice in moi-e than two thoufand diffeftions ; and hence fup-
pofes that the circumllance muft have been a deviation from
the accuilomed courle in thefe inrtances.

Although the motions and vital functions of reptiles
feem very languid in comparifon to thofe of the warm-
blooded clafles, they exhibit confiderable ardour and mani-
feftations of lively feeling in their amours. " As foon,"
fays Spallanzani, " as the eggs begin to be difcharged, the
agitation of the female is extreme ; ftie darts backwards
and forwards, rifes towards the furface of the (vater, and
then finks, keeping the hind legs conltantly itretched out,
and croaking in a low voice. The male, keeping his hind
legs clofe to his body, throws himfelf into ftrange con-
tortions, and accompanies the croaking of the female with
a kind of interrupted noife, v.nich I cannot exprefs by
words." Diflertatious, v. 2. § II.

In the work juft quoted, which contains the moft original
and interefting collection of facts concerning the whole
affair of ger.eration, Spallanzani gives the following ac-
count of the amours of the water newt, which are the
more curious, inafmuch as there is not only no real copula-
tion by the introduction of a male member into the female
organs, but not even any conjunction of the bodies, as in
frogs and toads. " The niciL purfues the female, which at
firft makes a (how of flying, but then ftops of her own
accord. He then approaches her in fuch a manner, that
the lower part of his head comes in contact with the upper
part of the head of the female ; and this is done while the
animals are in fuch a pofture, that their bodies form an

anjrle,

REPTILES.

angle, of which the point is made by the union of the two
heads ; or they may only join muzzle to muzzle. The
bodies arc always very near together, fo that the angle
formed by the two heads or muzzles is always very acute.
Then the male erefts that dcntatcd prominence, which is
placed on his back, and agitates it in a curious manner:
he alfo moves his tail bri(l<ly, bending it about, and ftriking
very gently the fides of tlie female. During this time lie
emits from the aperture of the anus, now unulually tumid
and dilated, a copious jet of femen, which mixes with the
water, and thus diluted arrives at the anus of the female,
alfo more enlarged than ufual. In this important operation,
then, the anus of the male is never in contatt with that
of the female, which maintains a greater or fmallcr diltancc,
and never {hews any part charafterillit of her fex. After
the male has difcharged this jet of femen, he reils for a
while, on fome occafions quitting the female; he then re-
turns to his employment, and repeats the contortions of his
tail, and the eniiflion of femen." § 8o.

In the land newts there is a momentary copulation : " in
the cleareft days, and in the places moll cxpofed to the
iun, the male runs after the female, and when he has over-
taken her, he twines himfelf about her, and unites his geni-
tals to her's, but this union may be termed momentary,
after which they part." § 8l.

The vehemence of the propenfity in amphibia is fo re-
markable, that they aftually will copulate with other fpe-
cies, as frogs with toads, &c. No example of hybrid ofF-
fpring, from fuch a conjunftion, has been recorded. It
has alfo been known, that frogs, in want of a female, have
copulated with other males, or with dead females.

That the animals are entirely abforbed by the powerful
emotions accompanying this aft is evinced by a feries of
difgufting experiments of Spallanzani, purfued and multi-
plied with an unrelenting and unneceflary cruelty, and re-
lated quite coolly, without evidence of remorfe or the
flightelt apology. He pricked, cut, and hacked the male
frog and toads, without making them loofe their hold ; am-
putation ot the limbs, and of the head, was equally ineffec-
tual.

Males, after fuffering amputatidn of the fore or hind
limbs, renewed their fituation, and completed the genera-
tive aft. *• Nay, even the decapitation of a frog did not
Hop the embraces or fecundation. It is well known, that
thefe animals are fo tenacious of life, that th.at operation
does not take it away immediately. That of which I am
fpeaking was thrown into convulfions ; but neitlier the
fore-feet nor legs quitted the breaft of the female, which
brought forth her fetufes in an hour and three quarters, and
I was an eye-witnefs to the male's befprinkling them with
femen ; that they were fecundated there can be no doubt,
fince they came to life at the ufual time. As foon as he
had performed this operation, he deferttd his fituation, and
died in four hours afterwards." Diflertations, v. 2. § 90
and 100.

All reptiles may be faid to be oviparous ; an egg, contain-
ing the germ, and as much nourifliment as is necelfary to fup-
port it until it is fufficiently developed to leave this abode, is
formed in the body of the mother, and enters the oviduft in all.
But there is a fubdivifion, according to tlie fubfequent pro-
grefs of the egg thus produced. In the greatelt number of
reptiles, the ova or eggs are laid by the female in that ftate,
and the young reptiles are developed afterwards : but m
fome, as the venomous ferpents, and the true lalamander,
the ovum may be faid to be hatched in the oviduft, although
the animals Hill come into the world fo far enveloped by the
membranes, that the charafter of an oviparous generation is

preferved. The reptiles of the latter kmd are called ovo-
viviparous.

In botli thefe cafes, a real egg, like that of birds, is pro-
duced, and has no conneftioii with the body of the mother ;
it is a very different thing from the ovum of the marnmiferous
animals, in whicli there is no fupply of nourifliment for the
foetus ; and the latter is coiincfted by the umbilical chord
with the vcffels of the mother, and derives from this fource
the materials of its growth. Here, as no true egg is pro-
duced in any part of the procefs, and as the young are al-
ways brought into the world alive, they may be juflly termed
viviparous. See Lacepcde, Hill. NaturcUe des Serpens,
t. i. p. 31.

In ufing the common term ovum, we do not mean to re-
prefent that the thing produced is the fame in all ; nor that
It is like the egg of birds in all. There are varieties in the
different orders, and, in the batracians at leaft, there is not
a very clofe analogy to the ova of birds.

The eggs of reptiles are covered with a membranous, ra-
ther than calcareous Ihell ; but there is fome earthy matter
in it. In the green turtle this (hell is flexible, but contains
earthy particles. It is compofed of a foft membrane, con-
taining albumen, which heat does not harden, and a yolk
which it does. The eggs of lizards have a more or lefs hard
fhell : it is flexible in the grey lizard, hard in the fcink ma-
bouya, and the crocodile. It has been ailerted, that the
eggs of the iguana are not hardened by boiling. The cover-
ing of the egg is foft and calcareous in ferpents. The ba-
tracians lay gelatinous and femitranfparent eggs, without
any covering.

A part, correfponding more or lefs clofely to the yolk of
a bird's egg, is produced in the ovary, efcapcs from it:(
membranous covering, and enters the oviduft, where it re-
ceives its external inveflment, as the yolk of^ the bird's egg
receives its fhell and albumen. In the turtle, the procefs
feems very ilmilar to what we fee in birds. There are nu-
merous large yolks obferved in the ovarium, cOHtained in ca-
lyces ; and thefe, when boiled, are very fim.ilar to the yolks
of birds. In the crocodile and ferpents, it is nearly the
fame. But in frogs, toads, and newts, the egg in the ovary
does not feem to be a yolk, but the rudiment of the tad-
pole ; and it comes forth, furrounded by a quantity of tranf-
parent glutinous matter. In the toad and newt, thefe rudi-
ments are formed into long cords by the glutinous medium,
which cords are double in the toad. In the frog they come
out fepai-ately in fo many fphcres of the gelatinous matter,
about the fize of large peas.

In all the reptiles which have a penis, fecundation is effefted
within the body ; but in the batracians, which have no male
organ of copulation, it occurs extersally. When frogs are
joined, it may be feen, that an obtufe, tumid point, occu-
pying the place of the penis, is elongated, and brought to-
wards the eggs neareit the vent. By taking them-out of
water while this laying is going on, an aftual difcharge of
feminal fluid upon the eggs may be feen from this point. In
the fame way the male of the water newt difchargeshis fluid
into the water near the anus of the female, and thus fecun-
dation takes place. Spallanzani has inflituted an immenfe
number of experiments on this fubjeft ; they prove, that
if breeches be put on the frog, fo as to receive the feminal
fluid, no fecundation occurs ; while, on the contrary, the
feminal fluid from the epididymis, or the juice of the tefti-
cles, will produce artificial fecundation of eggs laid by the
female after the male has been removed, and othervvife un-
produftive, or of eggs taken out of the lower part of the
oviduft immediately after death. Dilution of the feminal
fluid, although it diminifhed the effeft of its aoplication,

did

REPTILES.

difl not altogether prevent it. When three grains of feed
were added to twenty-two pounds of water, iome tadpoles
were evolved in it, but much fewer than in a ftrongcr
mixture.

As fecundation is effefted in thefe animals by the femuial
fluid difcharged in water, it probably is .ilways produced by
an extremely fmall proportion. Spallanzani has made fome
calculations, in order to find out the cxprifTion in numbers
of the quantity of femeii that was efficacious in fame of his
experiments. He mixed three grains of fL-minal fluid with
eighteen ounces of water, and found that a globule, -s'.jth
of a line in diameter, taken out of this mixture, was often
fufficient to fecundate a tadpole. The ratio of the tad-
pole to the particles of feed difi"uicd in this drop of
water, is found to be as 106,4.77,777,7 to one. The weight

of the feed is ^- of a grain, and its bulk

199,4.68,750,0

1 of a cubic line. Diflertations, v. i. j 655.

300,212,042,0

He found, however, that .ilthough fo minute a quar.lily
of feminal fluid is fufficient to produce the cffecl, there muit
be contaft of the grofs and vilible part of the fluid ; that
no vapour or effluvium, no aura fpermalka will fuffice. Difl.
ch. 5. § 161 — 170.

The feed of one fpecies will not fecundate another ; that
of the water newt has no cffedt on the embryos of frogs and
toads ; nor reciprocally : neither is there any aftion of the
feeds of frogs on toads, wot njict vsrfd. § 171 — 172.

The number of eggs is fubjeft to much variety : it is in-
confiderable in the ferpents ; from ten to twenty in the
vipers and lizards ; one or two hundred in the crocodile, ac-
cording to Bartram, Travels in America ; two or three
hundred in the turtle ; but the moft numerous in the frog
kind. In the toad, where the eggs are laid in a double
row, forming a cord of a glutinous nature, thefe rows
meafured 43 Paris feet, and contained 1207 eggs. Spallan-
zani Difl^. V. ii. § 45.

In the teft-udines, ferpents, and lizards, which have a
true yolk, this is to be regarded as a fupply of nourifhment
for the young ammal, whofe evolution probably goes on in
a manner analogous to what is obferved in birds ; although
the procefs has not been a£lually watched, nor the order and
fucceflion of the changes obferved, as in that clafs. Blu-
menbach has delineated the egg of the crocodile, with the
young one coming forth'; the (hell is flexible, as in the other
amphibia, and confiils of a thick, leathery, and tough, ex-
ternal fliratum, marked throughout with extremely fine un-
dulated lines, and lined by a more delicate fniooth membrane.
The recent eggs, and the young crocodiles which they con-
tain after evolution has commenced, are eaten by various
African tribes. The relation in fize between the egg ( about
equal to that of the goofe), and the full grown animal (the
Nilotic fpecies), which reaches to thirty feet in length, or
even more, is at firil view remarkable ; and Herodotus has
called the crocodile the largefl: animal from the fmallelt egg.
(Blumenbach's Abbildungen, N°27.) Seba has alfo figured
a young crocodile, with the membrane of the yolk adhering
to the abdomen, as in birds. Thefaurus, t. 1. pi. IC4,
fig. 7.

In the animals juft enumerated, the eggs, whether depo-
fited in the fand of the fea-fliore, or of the banks of rivers,
in the holes of trees, the chinks of walls and rocks, &c.
undergo no procefs of incubation like thofe of birds, but
are developed in the ordinary temperature of the atmofphere,
and the young animals come forth from their confinement,
differing only in fize and proportions from their parents.

In the venomous ferpents, and the falamanders, the cafe
is different. Tlie egg containing, as in the preceding in-
ftanccs, the young animal, and a lufBcient fupply of nutri-
n.:ait for its growth, until it is of fize to quit its original
abode, is hatched in the oviduft of the mother, and the
young come forth from the cloaca alive, but furrounded by
their membranous coverings. The young vipers and otiier
venomous ferpents, when they are born, are freed by the
mother from this kind of after-birth.

A very curious circumftance has been obferved in fome of
thefe, recaUing to our minds the abdominal pouches of the
marfupial mammalia, and the mode in which they ferve as a
flieltcr for the young, while yet too fmall to ftiift for them-
felvcs. Palifot Beauvois thus relates the faft we allude to,
" Having perceived a rattlefnake at fome dillance, I ap-
proached as gently as poflible, when, on lifting my hand t<»
ftrike him, he founded his rattle, opened his mouth, and
received into it five fmall ferpents, about the fize of a quill.
I retreated and concealed myfelf, when the animal, tliinking
the danger at an end, opened his mouth, and let out his
progeny. When I appeared again, they immediately took
to their fame retreat." He had heard this faft from Ame-
rican planters, and it has been fince confirmed by other tra-
vellers. Daudin, Hifl:. Nat. des Reptiles, v. 5. p. 68.

The young of the falamander, like thofe of the viper, are
born alive. The female brings forth very delicate oval vefi-
cles, which may be compared to hydatids, each of which
contains a perfeft young falamander, an inch in length,
moving its tail, and lacerating its coverings at the time of
birth, and emerging in the form of a tour-footed tadpole.

" In this fame ftrange animal," fays Blumenbach, " I
have obferved a curious fa£l, already noticed by Wurff^bain
in his Salamandrologia, p. 83. "viz. that a female, kept by
herfelf, and abfolutely without intercourfe with any other of
her kind, has produced young ones. I have kept in a glafs
at home, for five months, a female falamander, whofe tail I
had cut off, and in the mean time have had no other in the
houfe, nor even leen one. Yet this folitary female, which,
to my furprife, fuftained fo long a fall without growing
thin, has begun within a few days to bring forth young, of
which thirty-four are now before me, not only living, but
very lively. This obfervation will lead us to two conclufions ;
I ft, that falamanders really copulate, and that the male doee
not fecundate the ova as they are difcharged, like what vre
have defcribed in the cafe of the water newts : 2dly, that
falamanders have the fame nature in this refpeft as hens ;
which, when they have been once impregnated by the cock,
will lay fruitful eggs, not for a whole year, as Fabricius ab
Aquapendente aflerted, but, according to the moft accurate
rcfearches of Reaumur ( art de faire eclorre les oifeaux domef-
tiques, t. 2, § S^"]), for five weeks after feparation from
the male.

Thefe young falamanders have a two-edged tail, broadly
pinnated on each edge, excellently adapted for fwimming,
and funiiflied on each fide of the neck with fimbri-
ated branchial appendages like thofe of the tadpole, which
however foon diiappear, the two-edged tail being at the
fame time converted into a cylindrical pointed one." Spe-
cimen, &c. 34.

All the reptiles of the frog and toad kind, and the aquatic
falamanders, have this remarkable peculiarity, to which
nothing at all analogous has been obferved in the economy
of the warm-blooded clafles or the fifhes : viz. that they
undergo a metamorphofis ; and have, in their two ftates,
not only an altogether different external form, but alfo
important differences in many of the great internal organs.
In their firil Hate, they arc little aquatic animals with tails

afld

REPTILES.

and large heads ; from tlieir tvvidiug movements of the
former, and the great fi/.e of the latter, tliey have been
called III Latin gyrini, in French tctards : the Englifli name
is tadpoles, and tlie German kaul([ua[>iK'n.

Dev.'lopcinent of th^ Fro^. — As the Ipawn of frogo is de-
pofited in ponds, ditches, or other llagnant water, the con-
tamed ova are evolved in the ordinary temperature of the
atmofphere. In one fpecies of toad, Spallanzani fays, that
it proceeds at 6° above freezing of Reanmur. He found
that a temperature of iii^ Fahrenheit, did not interfere
with the iubfequent evolution ; tliat the number of tad-
poles produced was much diminilhed ;\fter expofure to 122";
and that very few were erolved after the eggs had been
immerfed in water of 132°. A heat of in" was fatal
to tadpoles and frogs; although the latter bear 111-' in
the warm fprings of Piia. (Trafts, vol. i. p. 32.) Each
egg lies in the centre of a tranfparcnt fpherical mafs of
mucilage ; many of which, aggregated together, form what
is called frog's fpavvn. Round the eggs are two concentri-
CJ^l membranes, of which the innermoll, when pierced with a
needle, difcharges a fluid as limpid as water. The egg is
round, and has a fmootli furface, of which one hcmifphere is
black, and the other white. When the hot feafon is far
advanced, the obferver foon perceives the lineaments of the
tadpole. The egg grows for fome hours without lofmg its
round fliape : it is next elongated ; the white hemifphere
becomes darker, and the black changes into a longitudinal
furrow, terminated by two perpendicular procefles. And,
as it increafes in bulk as well as length, the internal circular
membrane is dilated, and contain'; more fluid. By tracing
thus the progrefs of the evolution, we come to perceive
that thefe bodies are not eggs, as naturalifts fuppofe, but real
tadpoles. The furrow and the procefles become longer ; the
fuppofed egg affumes a pointed figure, the whitilh hemifphere
dilates, and the black is incurvated. The pointed part appears
to be the tail of the tadpole, and the other the body. Further,
the oppohte end takes on the appearance of the head, in
the fore part of which the form of the eyes is vifible,
though they are yet clofed. The two procefles alfo, by
which the animal faftens itfelf to bodies, when it is tired
of fwimming, become evident, as likewife the vellige of
the aperture of the mouth, and the rudiments- of the gills.
As the organs are further unfolded, the tadpole, which
has not moved hitherto, begins to ftir, and loofen its fetters ;
at this time it appeai:s clearly, that the internal circular
membrane is the amnios, in the liquor of which the tadpole
floats ; the umbiHcal chord at laft is feen, and becomes ftill
more vifible the firit day after the animal has quitted his
confinement.' The cord is not, as in other animals, at-
tached to the belly, but to the region of the head. (Spal-
, lanzani's Difl'ertations, v. 2. ^ 14 — 16.) We take the
liberty to note what is here faid about the umbilical cord
as a fubjeft for further refearch.

The branchix are vifible towards the end of the fixth day ;
in the courfe of the feventh and eighth all the tadpoles quit
„, the vifcid fubftance, which had been floating on the water,
Ik and which had hitherto ferved them for food. By the
H, fourteenth and fifteenth days they are fo much grown, that
B. two fmall but prominent eyes, an open mouth, noltrils, &c.
H can be diftinguifhed. About the nineteenth and twentieth
H days the branchial appendages are withdrawn within the
flcin, and no longer vifible. The heart can be feen to move,
and the caudal vertebrae are recognifable. On the twenty-
fourth day the front limbs, which had already exifl;ed under
the integuments, appear in the place of the branchise, or
rather near where they had been. In ten or twelve days
more the hind limbs come out. In this ftate they fwim
Vol. XXIX.

about in the water, and grow. The tail gradually dil-
ap[iear5, and in about two months after they have been
hatched, they are metamorphofed into frogs. Thefe at
firll are fmall, and tlicn become gradually larger. Except
in the cafe of the raiia paradoxa, and the bufo fufcus, in
which the tadpoles become fo large, that the animal, when
it lias changed, is of the adult fize.

Anatomy of the 'iadpole. — The points in which the animal
diflLTS from the organic arrangements of its perfeft flate,
are the large tail, which bears a very confidcrable proportion
to the body, and is afterwards entirely loft ; comparative
imallnefs of the mouth, to the under lip of which a fmall
organ I1 attached for fixing the tadpole to other objeAs ;
a kind of horny plate tor jaws ; two tuberofities under the
neck, which the animal can diltcnd at pleafure ; the rudi-
ments of the lungs ; the intellines convoluted in a fpiral
mafs, which iwcUs the abdomen, and far exceeds, in its
ratio to the length of the body, the inteilinal canal of the
perfedl animal ; the branchial appendages, and the veflels
connefted with them ; the fore hmbs, fituated at nrft under
the flcin. For the feries of changes, and the anatomy of
the young animal, ice the plates of Roefel, Hift. Ranar.
Noftrat.

Further part'u ulars of the anatomy of tadpoles, and par-
ticularly of the circulating and refpiratory organs. In his
" Recherches fur les Reptiles douteux," Ouvier has entered
at fome length into a confideration of the anatomy of the
tadpole. The following account, which is tranflated from
his memoir, as pubhlhed in the " Recueil d'Obfervations de
Zoologic et d'Anatomie comparee, faites dans le Voyage
de Humboldt et Bonpand," v. i. p. 195, is to be under-
fl:ood as applying to the full grown tadpole.

The tadpoles of frogs, tree-frogs, and toads, differ
from thofe of falamanders, principally in having their
branchii concealed : we have already obferved, that in their
earlier fl;ages the branchiae of the former are alfo external:
the only vi'ay by which the water can efcape from them
is through two holes, formed in diff^erent fituations, accord-
ing to the fpecies : there are even feveral which have only
one hole, on the left fide. Such are the tadpoles of the jackie
(rana paradoxa), and of the brown toad (buco fufcus) ;
but the tadpole of the common frog has two, both placed
below.

We find, on opening the fl:in of a tadpole longitudinally,
that the internal organs are divided into two parts, or con-
tained in two membranous facs.

The firft extends from the horny and falfe jaws, which
form the mouth of the tadpole, to behind the branchia:>
enveloping the latter entirely. The other contains the
abdominal vifcera ; it is the peritoneum, on which veftiges
of the abdominal mufcles are already vifible.

The firft; fac is very thin and tranfparent, and penetrated,
like the flcin, by holes for the exit of the water from the
branchiae.

The latter form on each fide four tranlverfe rove's of
fmall tufts or fringes, fupported by the fame number of
fmall cartilaginous arches, which are marked on the fide
next to the mouth by fmall rounded tubercles. Thefe
cartilaginous arcs are articulated on one fide behind the
cranium, on the other to a fpecies of os hyoides, and have
the fame motions as in fifties. In their intervals the water
can pafs freely from the mouth to the branchii, to be
difcharged fubfequently through the fmall external apertures.
The organization of the branchise in the tadpoles of
frogs is, therefore, the fame as in certain fifties, for example
the callionymi and others, where the water can only pafs
out by narrow apertures ; there is, however, this difference,
SC that

REPTILES.

tliat they are not covered, either by a branchial opercuhim,
or by radiated bones.

The branchix, or gills, properly fo called, that is, the
immediate organ in which the pulmonary vedels are didri-
buted, are i'mall tufts formed lilce feathers, that is to fay,
fringed on the two fides. Each cartilaginous arc fupports
about thirty fuch ; and in the middle of each tuft are its
two principal vedels derived from the two great blood-veffels
of the arc.

It may be obfcrved here, tiiat the fifiies called fyngnathi
have alfo their branchiae in the form of tufts.

The heart, placed in front of this apparatus, and re-
ceiving the blood from the body by the vena cava, which
comes, as in mod cafes, in great part through the liver, has
only one auricle and ventricle, as in fifhes, and in adult frogs
and falamanders, without any of thofe divifions which are
obfervcd in the cheloiiian and fanrian orders. The ventricle

fives origin to a fiiiglc artery, which is completely diltri-
uted on the eight branchice, fo that no drop of blood can
go to the reft of the body, without having paftcd through
tlic refpiratory organs. All the blood which has circu-
lated through the gills, is collefted in the branchial veins,
which go towards the back, and are united into a fingle
trunk, which becomes the defcending artery : but, before
uniting, they furnifh arteries to the head, fore feet, lung,
and liver ; fo that in the tadpole, the lung receives blood
which has been already expofed to the aftion of water ;
and this fraall portion of the animal's blood undergoes
reipiration twice, while, with refpeft to the great mafs of
the fluid, there is only one refpiration, and that of an
aquatic nature, or fimilar to the refpiration of fifhes.

Great changes take place when the tadpole becomes a
frog ; but they are produced by very fimple means. As the
arms and head increafe in fize, their arteries are enlarged ;
the branchiae, on the contrary, are obliterated, and their
arteries are gradually reduced : but, as it is always necef-
fary that blood fhould go to the head and other parts,
one of the four principal branchial arteries on each fide is
enlarged, and ferves to convey it. Then the artery, which
goes out of the heart, and was formerly divided into eight
branches, is now fimply bifurcated, and its tvi^o branches
fupply the ai'terial trunks of the head, arms, lungs, &c. ;
and laftly, are united to form the defcending aorta. Now
this is precifely the circulation of the frog, in order to
produce which it has been merely necefiary to obUterate fix
of the branchial arteries of the tadpole, and to enlarge the
two others. Henceforward the lungs are the exclufive feat
of refpiration, receiving, however, at each pulfation, only a
frriall portion of the whole mafs : the frog, therefore, is
now an aerial animal in refpeA to its breathing.

While thefe changes are going on in the refpiratory
organs, feveral others are taking place in different parts of
the body. The narrow horny bill, preceded by fmall
tlefhy lips, falls off, and its mufcles difappear ; the jaws
grow hard, and form a much more ample mouth.

The eyes, difengaged from that (kin, which only allowed
them to appear through a tranfparent diflc, are now feen
with their complicated apparatus of three eye-lids.

The fore-feet, which had been concealed between the
bag enclofing the branchis and the peritoneum, appear ex-
ternally ; the hind-legs grow every day larger ; and the
long tail, formed by fo many mufcular flrata, and fupplied
by fuch numerous veffels and nerves, begins to difappear.
The inteltines, formerly of nearly uniform fize throughout,
exceffively long and arranged in a fpiral mais, become
fhort, and are dilated at proper parts to form a ftomach
and colon.

Among thefe changes, which convert the tadpole into a
frog, we cannot enumerate the appearance of the generative
organs. The tadpole already pofled'es tefticlts, ovaries,
and their fatty appendages ; and if tiiefe parts are not fo
large as in the frog at the feafon of reproduilion, they
approach nearly to their fize at other times of the year.

What we have jult faid concerning the tadpol§ of tlft
frog is equally applicable to that of the toad ; but the dif-
ferent fpecies exhibit confiderable varieties in the epocha
and the fize at which the change occurs, as well as in the
rapidity of the change. The jackie (rana paradoxa) lofes
its tail very late, and long after its branchiae ; while the
latter do not entirely difappear until it has reached the full
fizo of its perfedt llate : the pipa, on the contrary, lofes
both very early, and while it is dill very fmall. The fpecies
which loie their branchis late, are larger in the tadpole
than in the perfcft flate, becaufe thefe fupernumcrary organs
fwell out the front of the body, while the tail prolongs it
behind. They feem, therefore, to become fma'ler under
their inetamorphofis, and grow no more when they huve
become frogs. On the other hand, thofe which lofe their
tail and branchiae early, have ftill a long time to grow, and
may be feen of all fizes in the perfeft ftate. This has given
rife to the miftaken notion that the jackie is changed into a
fifh ; the tadpoles being larger than the adult frogs, it was
not thought poffible that the latter could be the fecond
ftate.

We might rcftore to the larvae of the falamanders the
name of cordyli, which they bore among the Greeks, ac-
cording to the remark of Schneider. They ought not at
leaft to have that of tadpole (tctard), becaufe they have
not a large head, their branchiae not being concealed under
confiderable coverings, but floating loofely on the exterior
of the body. Tiiey are tufts arranged hke the teeth of
combs, fimply flefhy or membranous, and attached by
pedicles, which allow them to float loofely in the water.
The cartilaginous arcs of the fides merely ferve to limit the
fmall apertures through which the water pafFes out of the
mouth ; for, although the form and arrangement of the
tufts feem to expofe them fufficiently to the aftion of water,
there are ftill openings from the mouth, enabling the ani-
mal to eftablifh a current of the fluid. In other refpefts,
the circulation is carried on as in the branchix of the tad-
poles of frogs, and it undergoes the fame changes when the
branchiae are obliterated.

The larvae of falamanders, obferved by Cuvier, had the
fame vifcera as the adult animals, and pofleffed no horny
bill, although their branchiae were ftill very complete. He
therefore concludes, that in this refpedl, as well as in their
feet, and in the organization and permanence of their tail,
there is a much more clofe refemblance between thefe larvx
and the adult falamanders, than between tadpoles and
frogs.

Thefe remarks on the .anatomy of the tadpole, and of the
larvae of falamanders, are illuftrated by four figures in the
I3tb plate of the work quoted above. Figs, i, 2, and 3
reprefent the anatomy of the tadpole of the bufo fufcus ;
and fig. 4. that of the larva of the falamandra aquatica.

The co-exiftence in the fame animal of branchiae and
lungs, that is, of organs calculated for breathing air, and
of thofe which are fitted to extraft air from the water, is
not peculiar to the larv^ of frogs and falamanders ; it is
obferved alfo in the llren lacertina and the proteus anguinus,
two animals whofe conftruftion is in many refpefts fo fingu-
lar, that the opinions of naturahfts concerning them have
been long extremely unfettled. Many have fuppofed them
to be the larvae of feme large reptiles, for which opinion,

• (Jther

REPTILES.

other circnmftances in their orpranization and habits, befides
the polleflion of branchix and lungs, have been adduced as
arguments. Others have contended that they arc perfe6t
animals ; and the more exadl refearehes ot modem natu-
ralifls and anatomills fecm to have linally proved thai this is
the cafe. The anatomical details, by which this conelufion
is iupported, will be found towards the end of the article.

As the firen and protcus, truly, perfeft animals, have
been fometimcs conlidered as larvx or imperfedl ftatcs of
unknown reptiles, fo the contrary error has been committed,
of defcribing the larvx of known fpecies as perfeft animals
allied to the fireu and proteus. Laurenti, one of the firft
naturahlls who endeavoured to reduce the clafs of reptiles to
regular order, ellabliflied a genus (protcus) for Uich batra-
cian reptiles as, according to him, poflcH'ed both branchi-^r
and lungs. To this genus he has afligncd the tadpole of
the rana paradoxa, under the name of proteus raninus ;
and another, which he himfelf infpected, and which has
finee- been afcertained to be the larva of an aquatic falaman-
der, under that of proteus tritonius. (See his Specimen
medicum exhibens fynopfin rcptilium.) The firen operculata
of M. de Beauvois (Tranfaftions of the Philofophical So-
ciety of Philadelphia, vol. iv. ) is confidered by Cuvier as a
fimilar initance, and perhaps as the very axolotl or Mexican
animal, which will be deicribed prefently. He regards, in
the fame light, an animal defcribed by the very learned
writer on amphibia, Mr. Schneider, as found in the lake
Champlain : fee Hift. Amphib. Nat. et Litter. Fafcic. i.
p. 50. He fays it may be objefted that we cannot eafily
conceive that fo complicated an apparatus as that of the
branchije, their cartilaginous arches, and the mufcles moving
thein, fhould difappear and leave no trace behind ; but, as
the larva; of our falamanders experience fuch a change, the
Angularity of the phenomenon cannot be pleaded as an
objeftion to it. Recherches, &c. p. 117.

Anatomy of the Axolotl, or large Mexican Salamandrlne
Tadpole. — Another animal of this kind is one found very
commonly in the lake furrounding the city of Mexico, and
noticed by the early writers in their accounts of thofe coun-
tries, and of the interelling objefts they produce, although
not methodically defcribed or fcientifically inveftigated until
very lately. Hernandez fpeaks of it in two places ; in
one, under the name of the eatable tadpole (gyrinus edulis),
or atolocatl (Hift. Anim. Miner. Nov. Hifp. lib. unic.
Traft. 5. cap. 4. p. 77 : this book is placed at the end of
the abridgement by Recchi) ; in the other, under that of
lufus aquarum, pifcis ludicrus, or axolotl (ibid. cap. 2.
p. 76, and in the large abridgement by Recchi of the whole
work of Hernandez, lib. 60. cap. 4. p. 316.) This ac-
count, accompanied by a figure of fome other animal, was
copied into other works with various errors.

Dr. Shaw defcribed an individual fent immediately from
Mexico to the Britifli Mufeum, and gave two ggod figures
of it ; in the Naturaliil's Mifcellany, N° 343, under the
name of gyrinus mexicanus ; and in the General Zoology,
vol. 3. pt. 2. pag. 612. pi. 140, under that of firen pifci-
formis, confidering it as allied to the genus firen.

Mr. de Humboldt met with it in Mexico, and recognifed
it as the axolotl of the Mexicans and firll Spaniards, under
which name it is ftill known. He brought fpecimens of it
to Europe, and entruited their anatomical invettigation to
the experienced hand and profound judgment of Cuvier,
whofe defcnption we extraft from the Recherches fur les
Reptiles douteux, already quoted, pag. 109. et feq. pi. 12.

Anatomy of the Axolotl. — In its fize and general configu-
ration it very clolely refembles the falamander terreftris
(lacerta falamandra) of Europe. No one would hefitate

in calling it a falamander, were it not for the branchiie,
wiiich latter refcmble very narrowly thofe of the larvn; of
falamanders, and float loofcly at the fides of the neck.

The openings communicating with the mouth are four
in number, and much larger than in the firen. A fold of
the /kin of the head forms a fpecies of operculum for the
four. There are four arches, as in filhes, and we fliould
hence cxpeft five openings, but the fourth is immediately
united to the trunk. The two intermediate arches have,
towards the mouth, two rows of pointed denticuli ; but the
firft and fourth poflefs, each, only a finglc row. None of
thefc denticuli exift towards the operculuin, fo that the firft
of the four openings is not denticulated in any diredlion.
Each of the four arches has, towards the outfide, a fliarp
membranous crifta, which might deceive fuperficial obferva-
tion by caufing a refemblancc to the gills of a fifti ; but
there is no vafcular nct«work for refpiration, and the arterial
trunks follow, without any divifion, the three firit arches
to arrive at the branchial tufts, which are the only true
gills. There are three of thefe tufts on each fide, attached
to the three firft arches, where the (kin joins them together ;
the operculum and the fourth arch have none. Thefe tufts
are much more ramified than thofe of the firen, but their
ramifications refemble a lock of hair, and are not arranged
with fo much regularity.

0/?(o/ojy.— The head is the fame as in the falamanders,
except that the cranium is rather broader. The teeth are
placed in the fame way on the edges of the jaws ; there are
moreover two plates immediately behind the edge of the
upper jaw ; byt the two longitudinal feries, which are ob-
ferved along the palate of the European falamanders, could
not be perceived. The head is articulated in the atlas by
two condyles, as in the firen and falainanders.

The apparatus for fupporting the branchias is very fimi-
lar to that.of the firen ; and, at the time of the metamor-
phofis, a part of it probably remains to form the os hyoides
of the falamander. The middle piece is cylindrical, fhort,
and terminated behind by a forked extremity. The front
end fupports two cartilages, the ends of which, fufpended
to the angles of the jaw, correfpond to the hyoideal branches
of fifti : they are immediately under the membranous oper-
culum. From the pofterior end of this middle piece pro-
ceed two other branches on each fide ; a broad one fupport-
ing the firft cartilaginous arch, and a more llender one
trifurcated to fupport the three other arches. The four
branchial arches are fufpended, by their outer extremities,
to the firft vertebra.

There are feventeen vertebrx from the head to the pelvis ;
and twenty-three from the latter to the end of the tail.
The fpinous procefles of both are longer than thofe of the
falamander ; and they exift on both afpefts of the caudal
vertebras, which makes the vertical meafurement of this
part exceed that of the European aquatic falamanders.

There are thirteen fmall ribs on each fide, fimilar to thofe
of the falamander.

The ofteology of the limbs refembles in all refpefts that
of the falamander, excepting the more pointed form of the
laft phalanges, which has occafioned them to be taken for
nails.

Organs of Senfs. — The eye is fmaller in proportion than
in European falamanders ; but not fmaller than that of
the fpecies brought from the Alleghany mountains by
Michaux.

Organs of Circulation. — The vena cava receives the ter-
mination of the veins of the head ; of the branchiae, and their
arches ; of the lungs ; of the fore-feet ; laftly, of the inferior
vena cava, which has traverfed the liver, and received, as
5 C 2 ufual,

REPTILES.

uiual, the blood of the vena portarum. It enters a large
and finglc auricle ; there h alfo a fnigle ventricle, giving
origin to a large mufcular artery, fimilar in all points to that
of filhes, of the firen, and of tadpoles. It products for the
branchix three arteries on each fide, which proceed, as we
have already mentioned, along the three firlt arches. The
branchial veins are quickly united behind into a fingle trunk,
under the back of the head, and this veffel, following the
direftion of the fpine, becomes the great artery of tlie body.
Thi3 is exaaiy the circulation of the batracian larvne ; and
the axolotl, being larger than any of the European ipccies,
affords a convenient opportunity of examining this kind of
arrangement in the circulating organ.

Organs of Re/j[>iration.—The branchix of the axolotl, ex-
hibiting on a larger fcalc the fame motions as thofe of the
falamandrine larvx, the mechanifm can be better underftood ;
and the following defcription of the mufcles will, therefore,
be received with intereft.

Each of the cartilages analogous to the hyoideal branches
has a very ftrong miifclc, defcending from the bafis of
the fkull along their convex fides to their inferior extremi-
ties. Thefe mufcles open the branchial arches, by feparat-
ing their inferior extremities from the palate.

The arches are approximated by a mufcle fixed behind
to the inferior extremity of the lall, advancing under that
of the three others, and giving a (lip to each. Its anta-
gonift is a fraall mufcle, fixed, on one fide, te the inferior
extremity of the hyoideal branches : and proceeding back-
wards as far as under the firil branchial arch, to which it is
attached, oppofite to the flip of the preceding.

The OS hyoides is carried forwards by two genio-hyoidei,
and backwards by two pubio-hyoidei : which latter fupply
the place, as in the falamanders, both of the fterno-hyoidei
and refti abdominis. It is elevated by a mufcle fimilar to
the mylo-hyoideus of the fame animals.

Laftly, the three tufts are themfelves elevated and de-
preffed by as many pairs of mufcles, which are attached
above and below to the convexities of the branchial arches,
and have their other fixed points in the bafes of the tufts.

The lungs are two large bags, on the internal furface of
which the blood-vefl'els form a loofe but very confpicuous
net -work. There are no cells. They open into a common,
membranous, opaque, and tolerably wide canal, fupplying the
place of trachea, but unfurnifhed with cartilaginous rings,
and contrafted to form a fmall larynx with two membranous
lips. The glottis is imall, formed by two membranous pro-
jeftions, behind each of which is a fmall hoUow or ventricle,
which may be fuppofed to produce a more powerful voice
than that of the firen.

Organs of Digejlion. — The tongue pofTefles but little power
of motion ; it is free in front, but fixed behind to the anterior
extremity of the os hyoides.

The oefophagus is ihort, folded longitudinally, and con-
tinuous with the ilomach, which is large and membranous,
but confiderably narrowed, and more mufcular towards the
pylorus. It was filled, in the two individuals from which
this defcription was drawn up, with frefti-water cray-fifli, like
the European, which had been fwaljowed without mailica-
tion, fo that entire limbs were found even in the reftum.

The inteilinal canal is tolerably large, particularly behind,
and of moderate length. It makes two principal folds, and
has neither cxcum nor any internal valve. The liver is
reftangular, without any deep notches ; no gall-bladder was
obferved. There is a fmall fpleen in the centre of the me-
fentery, which is fimplc, as ufual.

All thefe inteftines are hke thofe of the falamander.
Generative Organs.^—The ovaries, fmall, flaccid, and hardly

containing vifible ova, refemble, in their fituation and fatty
appendices, thofe of the falamander. The ovidufts were fo
delicate, that they could fcarcely be feen.

From all the circumilances jull detailed, and from the clofe .
refemblance of all its organs to thofe of falamanders, and
their larvx, we may conclude, that the Mexican axolotl, or
firen pifciformis of Shaw, is the larva of fome large fala-
mander.

Gronvth. — The age of puberty fetms to be the limit of
growth in many of this clafs, as in birds, and we may almoft
fay, in all mammalia. But others, particularly the croco-
diles, turtles, and ferpents, grow conllantly ; of which con-
tinual increafe the whales feem to afford an example among
mammalia ; at lead, no limits can at prefent be afligned to
their ftature. We know little about the length of life of
the amphibia. Many, particularly the tortoifes, ferpents, and
crocodiles, are prodigioufly long-lived ; coming forth origin-
ally from an egg, which is very fmall in comparifon to their
future llature, growing very flowly, and reaching an immenfe
fi/e. Niebuhr faw at Surat atortoife 12J years old.

Organs of the Ammal FunBions.

Organs of Motion. Defcription of the Bones. — We know
of nothing peculiar in the organifation of the bony fub-
ftance of reptiles. In the larger fpccies, the bones poilefs
as much firmnefs as in the mammalia ; but in the fmaller, as
the frogs for example, they are more cartilaginous. Cuvier
Hates, in general, that the bones of reptiles contain more
gelatine than thofe of the mammalia. Caldefi afftrts, that
there are no medullary cavities in the tortoife ; according to
Cuvier, there are confiderable ones in the crocodiles. Legons
d'Anat. Comp. torn. i. p. no. They have never been feen
tinged with madder.

The Head. — A very diminutive cranium, and enormous
jaw^make up the head in this clafs.

As the brain of reptiles and fifhes occupies only a fmall
part of the cavity of this cranium, no important confequences
can be deduced from its fhape and fize. In the tortoife,
this cavity is large, narrow from right to left, elevated
anteriorly and depreffed pofteriorly. Its lateral parieteS are
almoft vertical, and its bafe is parallel to the palate. The
external form of the head, and its apparent magnitude, are
occafioned by the acceffory bones, between which and the
cranium there is a large fpace occupied by mufcles and
glands. The greateft part of the fltuU is occupied by the
large lateral hollows, holding the eye, and the powerful
mufcles, that move the lower jaw.

The fmall fize of the cavity of the cranium, with refpeft
to the external bulk of the head, is ftill more extraordinary
in the crocodile. In an individual four metres long {between
thirteen and fourteen feet), that cavity will hardly admit
the thumb, and the area of the feftion of the cranium is not
one-twentieth part of that of the whole head. ( See a feftion
of the fkull of a crocodile in the Annales du Mufeum, tom. x.
pi. 4. fig. 5.) The length of the cranium is not one-fifth
of the length of the head in the gavials (longiroftres, Cu-
vier) ; and it is lefs than one-fourth in the alhgators or
caimans (alligatores, Cuv.), and in the true crocodile (cro-
codili, Cuv.) The figure of the fedtion is oblong, rather
larger anteriorly, and defcending pofteriorly. There is a
confiderable depreffion for the pituitary gland. Its breadth
is equal to its height ; and the lateral parts of the head, as
in the tortoife, cover only the temporal foffx.

The relative fize of the cranium and jaws undergoes a very
remarkable change, in proportion to the gradual develope-
ment of the crocodile. The head, when it comes out of the
fhell, is thick and rounded, and the forehead prominent ; fee

Scba,

REPTILES.

Seba, Thefaurus, torn. i. pi. 104, figs. 3 and 6 ; and
Blumenbach's Abbildungen, N" 27. The eyes arc now
equidiftant from the end of the fnout, and the poRcrior ex-
tremity of the head ; of which the cranium forms nearly one-
third. When we look at the adult animal, we'are alloniHicd
to find the frontal prominence gone, leaving the head quite
flat, and the jaws fo elongated, that the eyes are three times
farther from the end of the fnout than from the back of the
head ; and the proportion of the face to the cranium is 20
inftead of 3 to l. Geoffroy St. Hilaire in the Ann. du Mui".
vol. X. p. 77.

The cameleon exhibits alfo a great difproportion between
the cranium and the reft of the head. Its brain, according
to the defcription of the Parifian dilTedtors, does not fcem
larger than a pea ; and the remainder of the head, which is
of confiderable fize, confifts of the large maxillarv bones, the
orbits, and immenfe temporal foffae, which, not bt-ing iepa-
rated by any partition, give the cranium a very lingular ap-
pearance. Defcription Anat. d'un Cameleon, &c. ; or
Blafii Anat. Anim. vol. i. p. 14.

The cranium of frogs and falamanders is almoft prifmatic.
The French naturalifts have furnifhed excellent dt fcrip-
tions and engravings of the heads of various crocodiles. It
will be as well for us to enumerate here the fourecs of in-
formation concerning the olleology of this animal altogether,
and to give a few references to good figures of the flieletons
of other reptiles.

There are tolerably good reprefentations of the crocodile's
ikeleton (the Eait Indian) in Grew's Mufeum Societatis
Regiae, and in Faujas St. Fond, Hiftoire de la Montague de
St. Pierre de Maellricht, pi. 44. The head of the croco-
dile of the Nile (croc, vulgaris, Cuvier), is figured by Geol.
froy in the Annalesdu Mufeum, vol. ii. pi. 37, fig. 2. In
pi. 4. vol. 10. of the fame work are four figures of the (Icull
to illultrate a paper of Geoffroy St. Hilaire, entitled "De-
termination des Pieces qui compolent le Crane des Croco-
diles ;" and pi. I, of the fame volume, contains nineteen
figures of the heads of various crocodiles in different views,
to illuflrate Cuvier's paper " Sur les differentcs Efpeces
de Crocodiles, vivans & fur lears Carafteres diftinAifs."
In the 1 2th volume of the Annals, Cuvier has given his
" Obfervations fur I'Ofteelogie des Crocodiles vivans,"
with two plates, in which moft of the bones are carefully
figured. For the Ikeleton of the tupinambis, fee Cuvier,
Lemons, v. J. pi. 3 ; of frogs, Roefel, Hifloria Ranarum
Noltratium ; of the falamander, Latreille, Hi(t. des Sala-
mandres de France ; of the tortoife, falamander, frog, came-
letJh, lizard, and a ferpent, Daudin, Hift. Nat. dts Rep-
tiles, vol. I ; of the proteus, firen, and Mexican axolotl,
Humboldt, Recueil d'Obferv. de Zool. &c. t. i ; of the tor-
toife, Blafii Anatomia Animalium ; Cuvier, fur les oli'emens
fofliles ; and GeofiVoy St. Hilaire, fur les tortues molles, in
the Annales du Mufeum, vol. 14. The fkeleton of the tor-
toife is alfo figured in Chefelden's Ofleology ; in Colter's
Leftiones Fallopii de Partibus fimilaribus, fol. Norib. 1575 ;
and in J. D. Meyer's Zeitvertreib mit Betrachtung curiofer
Vorftellungen allerhand Thiere. t. i. tab 29, 31; t. 2.
tab. 62 ; and the feparate parts in Caldefi ofTervazioni anato-
miche mtorno alle Tartarughe. Firenze, 1687. The flieleton
of the common green lizard may be feen in Coitcr, pi. 4 ;
in Meyer, t. i. pi. 56 ; that of the falamander and water
newt, and of feveral fnakes in Meyer : that of the came-
leon is prefixed to Chefelden's 6th ch. Schneider has
figured that of the rana pipa in his Hiltor. Amphib.
fafcic. I.

For the form of the head in the different fpecies, a point
belonging rather to natural hiftory than comparative ana-

tomy, we muil refer to the figures already quoted. Tlie
furface is more or lets rugous in different fpecimens ; and in
many very confiderably fo ; thefe differences are fpecific,
only where individuals of the fame age are compared, for the
rugofities increafe in fize and i)romineiice in each fpecies with
the increa.fe of years. The bony fubllance is often perfo-
rated by many fmall holes, as if it were carious or worm-
eaten. T!ic futures are conllant ; they are not effaced in
the olded heads obferved by Cuvier.

The Cranium — The cranium of the crocodile, viewed
from behind, has the form of a very irregular truncated
pyramid ; of which the point or narrowelt portion is down-
wards, and the bale excavated to lodge the brain, is up-
wards. This pyramid has three furhces, one pofterior,
which forms the occiput, and two lateral. The occipital
furface is almoft triangular ; one of the angles (the apex
of the pyramid) is inferior, tiie other two are fuperior, and
greatly prolonged backwards and to the fide, in order to
formnhe enormous articular procefies, which receive the
lower jaw. Their pofition is 'almoft horizontal. The
foramen magnum is fituated in the middle of this furface,
and under it the fingle condyle for articulating the head with
the vertebral column.

The futures depart from the foramen magnum, which
divide the occiput into particular bones. Tlie fuperior part
of the cranyjm is formed by a fingle parietal bone. Ante-
rior to it there is an os frontis, alfo fingle, which forms the
roof of the orbits.

The olla teniporum are fituated on each fide of the parie-
tal bone, and are partly fupported by that articular procefs
for the lower jaw, already mentioned.

A fmall arch on each fide, different from the zygoma,
leaves between it and the parietal bone a large round hole,
which perforates the temporal fofl'a. The arch is partly
forrned by a procefs of the os temporum, and partly by a
particular bone articulated to the junftion of the parietal
and frontal. The particular bone occupies the place of the
poft-orbitar procefs of the os frontis in the mammalia; for
it defcends behind the orbit to join the cheek-bone ; and with
it finifhes the frame of the orbits.

The unufual configuration of the whole head in the cro-
codile neceffarily involves very extraordinary modifications
of the individual bones, which it is in many cafes exceedingly
difficult to refer to their correfponding ones in the crania of
the mammalia. For a more minute account of this matter,
which could not be eafily underftood without plates, we refer
to the memoirs and engravings, already quoted, of Geoffroy
and Cuvier.

A cranium fimilar to this of the crocodile, is found in the
other lizards, notwithftanding the great differences in the
form, proportion, and the direftion of the parts. In the
cameleon, therefore, the foramina, by which the temporal
foffa communicate with the cranium, are fo large, and the
bony edges which form them fo thin, that the latter repre.
fent three flendcr branches rifing to fupport the kind of hel-
met vvhicli diftinguifhes this animal. The articular proceffes
are not direfted backwards, but downwards.

The laft pecuharity is alfo obferved in the other lizards,
but they have not the crefts of the cameleon, and the upper
part of their cranium is broad, like the crocodile.

In frogs and falamanders the cranium is nearly of a cylin-
drical form, flat fuperiorly, and enlarged pofteriorly ; the
frontal bones have the fhape of an elongated rectangle, and
occupy the interval of the orbits. The Surinam toad has
the cranium much flatter than the other genera.

The eminences intended to afliit in the articulatioa of the
jaw are turned direftly towards the fides.

The

REPTILES.

The Ih-uftiire of the cranium of tortoifes btars more
rcfemblance to that of crocodiles than of frogs. The
frontal bones form only the roof of the orbits, and the cra-
nium does not pafs between thefe cavities. They are very
(hort/ and the parietalia are three times longer. The latter
are not confined to covering the cranium. They extend on
each fide, and form an arch over the temporal fofi'a. In the
fea tortoifes this arch is completed by two peculiar bones,
which extend from the os parietale to the zygoma, and the
anterior of which bounds the orbit behind.

The articular procelles are direfted downward, as in the
camcleon. Above thefe and the meatus auditorius, we find
confiderable maftoid procefles, which are pointed fuperiorly
in land tortoifes, but are rounded and marked by a longitu-
dinal furrow in the fea tortoifes.

Serpents have two frontal bones almoft fquare, and a
fingle parietal bone. Their cranium advances forward be-
tween the orbits, as in frogs. The occipital bone.has a
procefs direded backward, and connefted with a particular
moveable bone, analogous to the fquare bones of birds, to
which the lovi^er jaw, and the arches which form the upper,
are articulated.

The general form of the cavity of the cranium of reptiles
is oblong, and almoft of an equal breadth, being merely a
little contrafted between the ears. The tortoife has a kind
of fella turcica, the four clinoid procefles cJf which are
dire&ed forward. The fphenoidal foffa is fomewhat depreded
in the ferpents, but it has no clinoid procefles. It is a femi-
lunar depreflion, the plane of which is fituated from before
backwards.

The bafilar foffa is lower than the other foH;e in the croco-
dile, and in fome tortoifes.

Foramina of the Cranium. — The interior part of the cra-
nium is frequently not clofed by offification in reptiles and
fifties, and the olfaAory nerves pafs through a large vacant
fpace, which is not fubdivided into particular holes. This at
leaft is the cafe with the cameleon, the iguana, tortoifes,
the pike, the anarrhichas, &c. In others, the olfaftory hole is
contrafted, but is ftill fimple, as in the crocodile. It is double
in frogs and falamanders. The rays and the fliarks have alfo
two holes, which are confiderably removed from each
other.

The optic holes are likewife fometimes united into one, as
in the crocodile : thofe of the tortoife are much removed
from each other, and are diftinguifhed from the great hole
in the front of the cranium, by only a fmall bony partition.
The ftrufture of the cranium in the pike is fimilar. In the
frogs, the rays, the anarrhichas, and it Ihould feem in the
greater number of fifties, the optic holes are at a great diftance
from each other, and perforate the fides of the cranium.
Thefe animals have no fpheno-orbitar fiffure, and the fmall
nerves tranfmitted to the eyes pafs each through a particular
foramen.

There is, in general, only one hole on each fide for the three
branches of the fifth pair of nerves, which, therefore, fup-
plies the place of the foramen rotundum, foramen ovale, and
in part of the fpheno-orbitar fifture. This hole, however, is
divided into three in the carp.

The meatus auditorius internus exifts in reptiles.
The Face. — In the crocodile the face refembles one-half
of a cone irregularly flattened on its convex furface. It is
chiefly formed by two oll'a maxiUaria, and two ofla nafi,
which are fituated almoft parallel to each other, and two
ofla intermaxillaria, which form the end of the muzzle, and
furround tbe aperture of the nofe like a ring.

The bones analogous to the lacrymalia are four in num-
ber, two on each fide. The os mals, which is very large,

after forming the inferior, and affording a fmall procefs
to the pofterior edge of the orbit, extendi direftly back-
wards to join the great maftoid protuberance : thus the
temporal fofla has no communication outwardly; ex-
cept by a hole which is fmallcr than the orbit, and the
greater part of which is covered by thefe bones, as by an
arch.

The nafal foflse are continued in a long and narrow tube
under the foramen magnum. They perforate the ofla pa-
lati, and a particular bone which is analogous to the
pterygoid proceffes of the os fphenoides. This bone is fi-
tuated almoft precifely under the cranium, and is enlarged
on each fide until it forms a kind of fquare and almoft
horizontal wing. An offeous branch unites it laterally to
the OS maxillare and os malae, in fuch a manner that a large
hole is left on each fide of the arch of the palate.

In the cameleon the face is concave fuperiorly, and
bordered by a ferrated ridge tlwoughout the whole of its
circumference. We obferve two holes which communicate
with the orbits, and two other oval foramina, which cor-
refpond to the incifive holes in the palatine furface. The
bones which compofe the face are nearly the fame as thofe
of the crocodile. The other lizards exhibit ftill lefs dif-
ference.

The frog and the falamander have the nafal and inter-
maxillary bones very fliort, and broader than long, which
renders their face round anteriorly. The os maxillare is
very narrow, aiid is fcarcely contrafted in forming the
zygomatic arch. The orbits are large, but have no in-
ferior furface, and therefore communicate with the palatine
foffa. The offa palati form the anterior edge of the or-
bitar fofla inferiorly. They refemble portions of a circle.
They are furnifhed with pointed teeth on their circumfer-
ence. The canal of the nares is very fhort in the jfala-
mander. There is only a fimple hole in the frog.

The face of the Surinam toad is very flat, but the bones
are the fame as in the frog. The orbitar foffae are oval,
and no aperture fimilar to the canal of the nares can be
diftinguifhed.

The face of ferpents is rounded nearly in the fame man-
ner as that of lizards. Between the os frontis and os
parietale, there is a particular bone which terminates the
frame of the orbit pofteriorly. Thefe animals have no os
malas. We can, however, eafily diftinguifh two offa nafi,
two offa maxiUaria fuperiora, two offa intermaxillaria, and
fome analogous to the palatini" arches of birds, which are
furnifhed with teeth, and which are articulated to the bone
which fupplies the place of the os quadratum, with refpeft
to the lower jaw. Two particular bones unite thefe arches
to the maxiUaria fuperiora.

In thofe that have teeth, or poifonous hooks, as the
viper, the rattlefnake, &c. there are befides two fmall
peculiar bones, articulated and moveable, which fupport
thofe teeth. They are fituated upon the intermaxillary
bones and the anterior extremity of the offeous branch,
which joins the fuperior maxillary bone to the arch of the
palate.

The face of the tortoife is circular before, and rounded
on every fide. It is compofed of nearly the fame bones
as that of the crocodile. The intermaxillary bones are,
at a very early period, confolidated with thofe of the upper
jaw. The bones analogous to the os mala: are three in num-
ber, one articulates with the os temporum and with the
two others ; it is fituated pofteriorly, and forms the zygo-
matic arch. The other two portions are received on its
anterior extremity ; one extends upwards, and unites with
the orbitar angle of the os frontis ; the other is direfted
7 downward,

REPTILES.

downward, and articulates with the poftcrior and external
procefs of tlic os maxillare luperius.

The ofla palati are broad, and form the pollerlor arch
of the nafal fod'a.

The bones of the face of tortoifes commonly cover eacji
other at their edges, which are refin; J into thin lamince.
It is therefore very difficult to dittincruifh the futures.

In the fea tortoifes the temporal foffx, which are very
deep, are covered by an ofleous lamina, which forms a
very folid arch above them.

The defcription of the jaws, and the temporal foffa", is
given at the beginning, of the account of the digeltive
organs.

Cav'tlies of the Face. — I. Nafal Ca-vlty. It is a broad
fpace in the tortoifes, occupying the whole thicknefs of the
fnout in front of the eyes, and very (hort from before
backwards. Its front opening is large, and nearly (quare,
with its plane but little inclined ; furrounded by fix bonec.
There are two round openings behind, corrcfponding
nearly to the middle of the palate.

In the crocodile it is a long and narrow canal, extending
from the end of the fnout under the occiput : its bony
opening, formed entirely in the two intermaxillary bones,
is turned upwards.

Other lizards have the nafal apertures fituated nearly as
in birds : that is, the front or outer on tlie fide of the fnout,
^nd the hack or inner in the middle of the palate. They
are flill fliorter in the frogs.

2. The orbit is never feparated from the temporal
fofla in reptiles by a partition, but merely by a bony
branch ; and even this is complete only in the lizards and
tortoifes, not in the frogs, falamanders, or ferpents. The
plane of its margin is lateral in the tortoifes, ferpents,
and cameleon ; it is more or lefs direfted upvv-ards in the
crocodile, falamanders, and frogs. The figure varies from
circular to triangular. Tiie inferior furface or floor is never
complete : either it is altogether deficient, or it is perfo-
rated by a very large aperture. The fame remarks are ap-
plicable to the inter-orbitar feptum.

The zygomatic follae are fpoken of in the defcription
of the jaws and their movements, under the divifion of
Organs of the Vital FunSlom.

Foram'ma of the Face. — Wliere there is no diitinftion be-
tween the orbit and temporal foffa, the fpheno-maxillary
fiflure is of courfe wanting. There are no internal orbitary
holes, as the relation between the orbits and nofe is alto-
gether different from what is obferved in the mammalia.

The crocodile, frog, and falamander, poflefs a large
foramen incifivuni. The tortoife has two fmall ones : the
ftrufture of the lizards is not known.

There is no fuborbital opening, reptiles having no lips
to receive the artery and nerve, which it tranfmits in the
mammalia.

The fpheno-palatine canal appears as a finiple hole in the
OS palati.

Motions of the Hear!. — The articulation of the head of
reptiles is confiderably behind, but the motions vary in dif-
ferent fpecies.

In the crocodile there is only one condyle, fituated at
the under fide of the foramen magnum : the atlas is formed
of two portions ; the pofterior is fhaped like the fegment
of a ring ; the anterior, which is thicker, receives the
condyle, and is articulated to the fccond vertebra : there
are two lateral procelfes, long, fl.it, and turned backward,
which fupply the place of tranfverie procefles.

The odontoid procefs of the fecond vertebra is fliort and
thick ; it is articulated within a cavity in the body of the

atlas. This fecond vertebra has tranfverfe proccfTes fimilar
to thofe of the fird.

All other li/.ardshave nearly the fame conformation ; but
the condyle feems divided in two by a longitudinal fuperfi-
cial furrow.

The tortoifes have llkewifc only one condyle. In the
land fort It is prolonged, and divided into two, as it is in
the lizards. In the marine fpecies it prefents three arti-
cular faces, like a trefoil leaf. As this condyle penetrates
deep into the correfpondent cavity of the atlas, the lat'-ral
motion of the head is much confined. The other motions
of the head of tiie tortoife are thofe of projection and re-
traftion ; they depend upon the flexion and extenfion of the
cervical vertebrae.

The frog, the toad, and the falamander, have the head
articulated by two condyles upon the firll vertebra, which
is almofl: Immoveable.

Serpents have three furfaces, in the manner of a trefoil,
clofe together, upon one condyle, beneath the occipital
foramen. The head is not more moveable on the atlas, tiian
the reft of the vertebrae are upon each other.

Bones of the Spine. — The number of vertebrae, and every
other attribute of the fpine, are more varied in this clafs of
animals than in any other.

In the tortoifes, feven vertebrx are afligned to the neck :
the firll is only a fingle tubercle, the annular portion of
which is very diilinft. The furface, by which it is arti-
culated with the head, is formed of three planes ; one an-
terior, and two lateral. The point in which they unite is
the moil prominent, and to this is attached a ftrong liga-
ment. The furface which unites it to the next vertebra is
a glenoid cavity ; the fecond and the following vertebrae
have a prominent longitudinal ridge upon the fore-part of
their body. The articular procefTes defcend below the
body : there are no fpinal procefles, except one to the fe-
cond vertebra, which points forward, and one to the third
in the form of a fimple tubercle. The two laft vertebrx, at
a certain age, become anchylofed. There are eight dorfal
vertebrae ; but they are all anchylofed, together with the
ribs and the back-fliell, in one immoveable piece. They
have, therefore, neither procefles nor articular furface^ :
they are all narrower in the middle than at the ends. The
lumbar and facral vertebrae are llkewife confolldated witk
the back-fliell, but thofe of the tail are free and moveable.
The condyle, which forms the body of thefe vertebras at its
articulation with the others, inclines backward, and not to-
wards the head, as thofe of the neck do. There are like-
wife upon the fore -part of the body, at its bafe, two fmall
tubercles ; but all the procefles of thefe vertebrae refemble
thofe of the mammalia.

In the family of lizards, the crocodile has feven cervical
vertebrx, dillindl indeed, but fo clofely articulated as not
to be moveable. The procefles are fo numerous, long, and
clofe, that the animal cannot bend its neck, and the cervical
column may, therefore, be regarded as a fingle piece. This
correfponds with the reports of travellers, that the crocodile
is unable to turn his head round. The anterior furface of
the body is concave, and the pofterior convex, throughout
the vertebral column of the crocodile. The atlas is com-
pofed of fix pieces, which appear to continue feparate
through life : the vertebra dentata has five only. The
other cervical vertebrx have on each fide two /hort tranf-
verfe procefles, which ferve to fupport the fmall ribs or
appendices, which limit the flexion of the neck. Each has
two pedicles, attached to the two procefles juft mentioned :
the appendix projects into a ftiarp procefs before and be-
hind, which touch thefe of the contiguous vertebras. The

five

REPTILES.

five firll dorfal vertebrae have a lateral tubercle for the liead
of the rib, and another on the tranfverfe proccis for its tu-
bercle : thus tlie rib is articulated only to one vertebra.
But tlie firft of thefe articular furfaces is wanting in the re-
maining ribs, while each of their tranfverfe procefles has
two articular faces. Tlie fame number (feven) is found in
moil lizards, though the cameleon has only two. The fa-
cral vertebra; are very few in every fpecies, and none of them
have a large os lacrum.

As frogs have no ribs, no diftinftion can be formed with
refpeft to the three firft orders of vertebrae in them. They
have in general eight between the neck and the pelvis, all
furnilhed with pretty long tranfverfe proceHes. The laft
are the longeit, and touch the ofi'a ilii. In the toads, the
tranfverfe procefles are very large, and fhaped like hatchet
blades. The os facrum confifts of a fingle bone only : it is
long, pointed, comprell'ed, and has no coccyx. In the
pipa, which has the tranfverfe procefles of the fecond and
third vertebras much longer than the others and almoft like
ribs, this bone is ofiified with the laft vertebrse.

The falamanders have fourteen vertebrs between the head
and the facrum ; they have all nearly the fame fliape, ex-
cept the firft, which receives the head, and the laft, which
is articulated to the facrum. The two extremes of the
fpine alone want the veftiges of the ribs, which confift of
fmall oblong moveable bones, aftually articulated to the
tranfverfe procefles, which here take a pofterior direftion.
The articular procefles are large, and wedged together.
The pofterior rell upon the anterior, fo as to impede the
motion of the fpine backward. The facrum confifts only
of a fingle vertebra, but there are twenty-feven in the tail.

In ferpents, the vertebrae alone conftitute almoft the
•whole (keleton. It appears in general, fays Blumenbach,
that the number of vertebrae, in red-blooded animals, is in
an inverfe proportion with the fize and ftrength of their ex-
ternal organs of motion. Serpents, therefore, which en-
tirely want thefe organs, have the moft numerous vertebrae ;
fometimes more than three hundred. (Comp. Anat. p. 1 18.)
In confirmation of this remark, we may obferve how nu-
merous the vertebrae are in the elongated fifties, as the eel,
and in the whales, as the porpoife, (above one hundred in
the former, and between fixty and feventy in the latter).
Birds, whofe wings give them fuch vaft power of locomo.
tion, have very few vertebrx, if we confider the anchylofed
ones as forming a fingle piece ; and the frog, with its im-
menfe hind extremities, has a very ftiort fpine, confifting of
Itill fewer pieces than that of birds. The vertebra: of this
order are nearly of the fame form, from the head to the tail :
the body, as well as the fpinous, articular, and tranfverfe
proceries, are eafily diftinguiftied. In certain kinds, for
inilance the boae, the fpinous procefles, which are continued
throughout the whole length of the back, are feparated
from each other, and allow reciprocally a motion fufSciently
confpicuous. Wherever this difpofition of the fpinous pro.
ceffes prevails, the body of the vertebrae, on the fide next
the belly, prefents only an obfcure projefting line. In
other kinds of ferpents, as for example the rattlefnake, the
fpinous procefles are long, and fo large as to touch each
other. They have, for their bafis, the articular procefles,
which lie on each other like tiles. In confequence of this
ftrufture, the motion of the fpine towards the back is very
circumfcribed, but its motion towards the belly and fides
much augmented. The bodies of the vertebra play very
eafily in thefe direftions upon one another, and are armed
with a fliarp fpine tending towards the tail, which only ob-
ftrufts their motion when it might produce a luxation.
Thfs firft vertebra differ from thofe of the reft of the body,

only in having the rudiments of the ribs much fmaller :
there is no neck in thefe animals. The vertebrae of the tail
diff'cr no farther than in having no ribs, and that their fpines,
both ventral and dorfal, are double, or form two ranges of
tubercles. The articulation of the bodies of the vertebrae
with each other is very remarkable : the anterior part of
the body of the vertebra prefents a frnooth hemifpherical
tubercle, and the pofterior part a correfponding cavity ; fo
that each vertebra becomes connefted to thofe next it by a
fort of knee-joint. This mode of articulation fully explains
the motion of reptiles, which is performed winding from
fide to fide, and not up and down, as it is reprefented
by painters.

Table of the Number of the Vertebrae in Reptiles.
I. Oviparous Quadrupeds.

Vertebrae

Verlebrae

Verlehra

Vertebrje Vrri cl»ra'l

Sjiecies.

of tlie

of tlie

of the

of the

of tlie

Neck.

Back.

Loins.

Sacrum.

Tail.

Turtle - - -

7

II

O

3

20

Crocodile - -

7

12

5

2

34

Tupinambis

7

i8

4

2

104

Iguana ...

5

1 1

9

2

72

Cameleon . -

2

'7

3

I

69

Salamander - --

I

12

I

I

26

Frog - - -

10 in all.

Pipa or Surinam

toad, 8 in all.

II. Serpents.

Species.

Vertebrae to
which Ribs
are joined.

Vertebnc of the
Tail.

Viper (berus) ....

139

55

Speftacle fnake (naia)

192

63

Garter fnake (natrix) - -

204

112

Amphiftjaena ....

54

7

Boa (conllridlor) ...

252

52

Common fnake . - . -

244

More than 60.

Rattlefnake ....

175

26

Slow worm (anguis fragilis)

32

17

Of ike Ribs and Steynum. — The thorax of reptiles is very
various in its ftrufture. Frogs have a fternum, but no ribs;
ferpents have ribs, but no fternum ; tortoifes have the ribs
oflified to the back.ftiell, and the fternum included in the
breaft-plate ; the crocodile and lizard have perfecl ribs, but
their fternum is almoft entirely cartilaginous. In the cro-
codile, the firft portion of the fternum is oflified and elon-
gated. It receives the two clavicles. The remaining part
is entirely cartilaginous. It is united with the os pubis,
and fends off" eight cylindrical cartilages fo the parietes of
the abdomen. This llrudlure, conftituting a fpecies of ab-
dominal fternum, apparently for fupporting the vifcera, is
quite peculiar to the crocodile. The ribs are twelve in
number, the two firft and two laft of which are not attached
to the fternum. The intermediate ribs have upon their pof-
terior edges cartilages partly oflified, which fupply the place
of the angles of the ribs in birds. All the pofterior ribs,
beginning at the fifth, are only articulated to the tranfverfe
procefles of the vertebrae, which are of great length. The
five firft articulate with the vertebrae at two points, one on

its

REPTILES.

Its body, and the other on the tranfvcrfe proccfTts. The
iguana and the tiipinambis have only the upper part of the
fternum offified : it is broad, and receives fix ribs and tlie
clavicles ; the other ribs are free. The cameleon poH'efles
liitewifc the upper portion of the fternum ; but almoft all
the ribs have cartilages, which extend to the middle line,
and are there united to the oppofite ones. Frogs, though
they have no ribs, have ncverthelefs a very confpicuous
fternum. It forms on the anterior part a cartilaginous ap-
pendix, furnifhed by a di(k fituated below the larynx. It
next receives the clavicles, and then expanding, it terminates
at lall in another diik fituated under the abdomen, and
which afi^ords an origin for mulcles. There is a peculiar
bony cyft of unknown ufe on tlie internal furface of the
fternum, in the rana pipa.

The falamander has ribs, fo fliort that they feem to be the
tranfverfe proceffes of the vertcbrce ; they have only one
point of articulation, upon which they have but little
motion. Thefc rudiments of ribs are twelve in number on
each fide. This reptile has, properly fpeaking, no fternum,
but its place is partly fnpplied by the bones of the (luiulder,
as we ftiall prefently fee.

The flceleton of the clielonian reptiles exhibits to us
what appears on the firft view as a completely anomalous
organization. In the bony houfe which thefe animals
carry about with them, there is fuch a deviation from
tlie ordinary figure, connexion, and pofition of the parts,
compollng the Hieleton of otiier vertebral animals, tiiat
a hafty view would lead us to infer that the general mo-
del to which Nature in all her modifications of form and
pofition ever adheres, has been completely loft fight of,
and another fubftituted in its pLce. This inference would
be altogether incorreA : a more accurate examination
enables us to difcover in the external bony (liells of
thefe fmgular creatures, all the ofleous pieces which
belong to the cheft of a mammiferous animal or bird ;
fo that no eflential part is wanting in their thorax, and the
fmgularity depends merely on the more or lefs complete
ofEfication of the whole peftoral cafe, and the peculiar
forms refulting from this circumftance. Thus, inftead of
the anomaly, which a hafty glance leads us to anticipate,
we aftually difcover, on the contrary, a new proof of the
conftancy, with which an original model is retained
throughout whole claftes of animals, even under the widcft
differences of external form, as if Nature, having fixed on
one general principle of organization, would not be at the
trouble of inventing others, but rather cliofe, by the ftrangeft
modifications, to accommodate the organs to new fitua-
tions and forms. It is a new illuftration of that principle,
in conformity to which the fin of a whale contains all the
bones of an upper limb of a quadruped, the wing of the
bat the regular digital phalanges, the fin of a penguin or
feal the ufual bones of the extremities ot a bird or mam-
miferous animal, &c.

The bones of the cheft in the tortoifes form a more or
lefs convex (hield-like covering, which conllitutes the upper
furface of the animal ; we call it the upper ftiell (carapace,
bouclier, &c.) ; and a nearly flat portion adapted to its
concavity below, conftituting the inferior furface of the
animal: this is the under fticll (plaftron).

The back ftiell is formed by the expanfion of eight ribs
or olfeous ftaves, which arife from the joints of the vertebrae,
and terminate in a border that furrounds the whole fliell :
thefe bones are united together by real futures, fituated
tranfverfely. Above, and all along the middle part of the
ftiell, we obferve a row of little ofteons plates, almoft (quare,
intimately connefted together, and to the plates formed by

Vol.. XXIX.

the ribs, by fynarthrofis, and equal in number to the ver-
tebra:. Thefc plates reprefcnt the rings and fpineus pro-
ceffes of the vertebra;. The offeous margin is made up of
a great number of pieces, (eleven on each fide, and a fingle
one in the middle, before and behind, therefore 24 in tlie
whole,) loldered together, which bv their union form an
edge or border with three furfaccs, viz. the fuperior, which
belongs to the back ft>ell ; the inferior, which is joined to
the breaft-plate by a very thick leather-like Hi'in ; and the
internal, which prefents a groove for the reception of the
extremities of the ribs. Thefe pieces, which Geoffrey
compares to the fteriial or cartilaginous portion of our ribs,
are wanting in the loft tortoifes, (trionyx, Gcofl.) ; or at leall
remain coiiftantly cartilaginous or mcmbraHOus, io that the
middle only of the upper fliell is fuftained by an ofleous diflc.

The turtles, and the foft tortoifes, are the only genera
in which the ribs, confounded in the upper fliell or carapace,
are neverthelefs diilinft, both by a prominence very appa-
rent on the iiifide of the fhell, and by a free unattached
portion of their ends projefting beyond the edge of the
fhcll. But the offeous difk, compofed of articulated pieces,
and already mentioned, extends round the ribs in the tur-
tles, receiving their ends, but is wanting in the foft tortoifes.
Its folidity is increafed in the former by the great plates
which cover it, while it remains flexible in the latter, and
is covered only by a fpecies of epidermis.

The oflification of the intervals of the ribs, forming the
carapace, is perfetled gradually, and is not finifhed until
long after that of the ribs themfelves : it generally ad-
vances from the middle towards the edges. Thus, in a
young turtle the ribs will be found feparate from each other,
towards their external extremities, for half their length ;
while in an adult individual of the fame fpecies, the anterior
ribs are united throughout, while the intermediate ones are
feparated only through about one-fixth of their length.

The carapace is always oval and pointed behind in the
turtles ; elliptical and gibbous in the land tortoifes ; eUip-
tical and flatter in the frcfli-water tortoifes. Its furface
is rough in the foft tortoifes ; elevated into various pro-
minences in the chelydes and the ferpentine, and more or
lefs fmooth in the others.

The margin of the upper fliell affumes a different appear-
ance at its anterior part ; it is there a fquare piece of bone,
convex above, and concave below, which fuftains a fpine
for the attachment of mufcles. Its anterior edge has more
the form of a crefcent (lunula) ; there are alfo fome little
peculiar pieces above the tail.

The breaft-plate of the tortoife is its fternum ; and when
deprived of the thick fliin that covers it, exhibits, in fome
fpecies, only one folid plate, formed of feveral pieces,
united by fynarthrofis : in others, this plate is perforated
quite through, and formed of feveral bones, fome of which
arc fituated in the middle line between the anterior and pof-
terior part, while others are placed laterally, and faftened
together by the help of the former, which fupport them.
For further information concerning the ofleous fabric of the
cheft in thefe reptiles, two memoirs in the 14th vol. of the
Annalcs du Mufeum may be confulted ; " Sur les Tortues
molles, par Gcoffroy St. Hilaire ;" " Sur les offemens Fof-
files de Tortues, par Cuvier."

In the draco volans the ribs form the flceleton of the
wings, or thofe expanfions of the integuments between the
front and back limbs, which are fo called. The five pof-
terior ribs are elongated and bent backwards for that pur-
pofe. Here progreflive motion is performed by thefe
ribs ; but they are fuperadded for this purpofe, and make
no part of the organs of refpiration. The animal cannot
SD is

REPTILES.

in truth be faid to fly: its lateral membranes aft like a
parachute, and e\iuble it to take long leaps.

The ribs are iilually articulated to the vertebrx by
means of a convex lurfaee, which moves upon a (lightly
concave one formed in two of the vertebrie ; lo that the
hollow receiving each rib is fituatcd between two vertebra;
of the back. But in the fnakc tribe the head of the rib
has two flightly concave furfaces, which move upon a con-
vex protuberance b.longing to each vertebra ; fo that the
rib rells on a fingle vertebra. The confequence of this
peculiarity is, that the ribs do not interfere with the motions
of the individual vertebra, and thus that the latter are
left free to execute thole movements on each other, which
take place fo extenfively in the progreflion of ferpents.
The articulations of the vertebra; to each other, and to the
ribs, are reprefented of the natural fize from the Ikeleton of
a large boa, in the Philof. Tranf. i8l2, pt. i. pi. 6.

We have already feen the ribs, inllead of contributing
to the bufinefs of refpiratici, employed for purpofes
of locomotion in the draco volaiis. They are Hill more
extenfively employed for the fame purpofe in the ferpent
tribe, in which they amount lomctimes to 250 pairs, as ob-
ferved by fir Everard Hume. Thefe bones, in all fnakes,
are continued to the anus, while the lungs feldom occupy
more than one-half the cavity covered by the ribs. The
hind ribs can only be employed for the purpofe of pro-
greffive motion, and thus corrclpond to the elongated ribs
of the lateral membranes in the draco volans.

The ribs of a fnake may be feen to move forwards fuc-
ceflively when the animal is in motion, like the feet of a
caterpillar, and the ends of thefe bones can be diitinftly
felt on the palm of the hand, as the animal pafles over it.

At the termination of each rib is a fmall cartilage in
(hape correfponding to the rib, only tapering to the point.
Thofe of the oppofite ribs have no connexion, and when
the ribs are drawn outwards by the mufcles, are feparated
to fome diftance, and reft through their whole length on
the inner furface of the abdominal fcuta, to which they
are connefled by a fet of iliort mufcles : they have alfo a
conneftion with thofe of the neighbouring ribs by a fet of
fhort ftraight mufcles.

When the fnake is going to put itfelf in motion, the ribs
of the oppofite fides are drawn apart trom each other, and
the fmall cartilages at the ends of thcin are bent upon the
upper furfaces of the abdominal fcuta, upon which the
ends of the ribs i-eft ; and as the ribs move in pairs, the
fcutum under each pair is carried along with it. This
fcutum, by its pofterior edge, lays hold of the ground,
and becomes a fixed point, from whence to fet out anew.
This motion is beautifully feen, when a fnake is climbing
over an angle, to get upon a flat iurface.

The coluber and boa, having larger abdominal fcuta,
which may be confidered as hoofs or (hoes, are the beft
fitted for this kind of progrellive motion ; there is, however, a
futiilar t\rufture of ribs and mufcles in the anguis and am-
phifbiiena. In the anguis the ribs are proportionally weaker,
and as thefe have nothing to correlpond to the fcuta, this
mode of progrellive motion is probably lels neceliary to
them. See " Obfervations intended to (hew that the pro-
grcffive Motion of Snakes is partly performed by means of
the Ribs," by fir Everard Hume, Philof. Tranlaft. 1812,
pt. 1. pag. 183, with figui-es. We are alfo indebted to
fir Everard Hume, in conjunftion with Dr. Rufiel, for
defcribing more particularly a facl; noticed by Bhimeiibach,
^Comp. Anat. p. 117.), viz. an adaptation of certain
ribs in the cobra de capello (coluber iiaia, L.) to the ac-
«omph(hmeiit of a particular mechanifm in that animal.

This ferpent is called the hooded fnake, from a power of
expanding the Han of the neck, which is effefted by thf
motions of tlie ribs. In other ferpents, the ribs, from the
firft vertebra to thofe of the middle of the trunk, gra-
dually increafe in length ; thence they gradi:ally (horten
or decline, to near the end of the tail, where they difap-
pear, or are transformed into fliort eminences. In the
naia, the cervical ribs gradually lengthen to the tenth or
eleventh, after which they fucccfiivcly (horten to the
twentieth. Again increafing in length, they are, at the
middle of the trunk, nearly as long as the middle cervical
ribs, and then declining as in other ferpents, difappear on
the tail.

The firft twenty ribs, inllead of bending equally with
the others towards the belly, go out in a lateral dircftion,
having only a (light curvature, and when deprelTed lie at
the fide of the fpine upon one another. The firil is fliorteit •
they lengthen to the tenth, and are again (hortened to the
twentieth; fo that, when they are extended, they ivprefent
an oval figure, ef which the fpine is the middle line or long
axis. In the extended ftate of the ribs, the (kin of the
back is brought over them, forming the hood ; and in their
deprefi'cd ftate it recedes. From the rounded form of the
hood, the (I'cin has the appearance of being inflated ; but
the moft careful examination did not difcover any commu-
nication between the trachea or the lungs and the cellular
membrane under the ficin. See " Remarks on the voluntary
Exponfion of the Skin of the Neck in the Cobra de Ca-
pello," &c. by Pat. Rud'el, M.D. and Everard Hume, efq.
Philof. Tranf. 1804, pt. 2. pag. 346.

The exiftence of ribs has been denied in the firen lacer-
tina, and proteus anguinus : they have in truth merely
very infignificant rudiments of ribs, that might be eafily
ovcrlooked. Thefe have nothing to do with the refpiration
of the animals, indeed they are too fmall to anfwer any
purpofe. See the defcription of thefe animals at the end of
the prefent article.

Such rudiments of ribs are faid to exift in the genus
caecilia, among ferpents.

Bones of the Shoulder. — In oviparous quadrupeds the gle-
noid cavity of the flioulder is partly compofed of the fcapula,
and partly 6/" Mf c/aOTi;/?. The fcapula, which is elongated,
has no fpine ; it contrafts and becomes thicker towards
the neck. The clavicle is fimple, ftiort, and flat, and united
to the fternum in the crocodile and lizards. It is broad,
and almoft fq.iare, in the iguana and cameleon ; in the tupi-
nambis it is oval, and very large and long between the front
and back, and has two un-olTified parts. The frog and toad
have two clavicles to each fhoulder, attached to the two ex-
tremities of the ilcrnum. The fcapula is bent, and com-
pofed of two articulated pieces, with the fuperior ene in-
clined towards the fpine. The fame conformation obtains
in the Surinam toad.' The anterior clavicles appear to cor-
refpond to the os furciforme of birds. The clavicle, the
iternum, and the firft piece of the fcapula, are anchylofed
together. The falamanders have the (houlder formed in a
moft fingular manner, the fcapula, clavicle, and iternum,
confift only of a fingle bone, which receives the head of
the humerus. The (houlder is almoft all cartilaginous, but
the part anfweriiig to the fcapula is more diftinCt than the
relt. It inclines towards tlie fpine, where it receives the
mulcles by which it is moved. The clavicular part is direfted
towards the head; that which fupplies the place of the
ileraium turns towards the breaft, but without uniting with
the bone of the oppofite fide ; the part on the right fide
Aides over that on the left. This conformation allows a
greater dilatation of the breaft in refpiration. The lortoife

has

ilEPTlLP:S.

has alfo thefe three boiios, wliicli unite to form tlic glenoid
cavity, and corrcipoiid witii tin; icapiih, fork, and clavicle.
But as their refpcftivc difpofition is very remarkable, il ap-
pears neceflary to give a particular defcriptiuu of them.
One of the bones extends from the bafe of the rudiment of
the firll rib, to which it is iixed by a ligament, as high as
the humeral cavity, where it is intimately counettcd with
the other two. The fecond bone may be confidered as the
continuation of the tiril, which it joins at the humeral
cavity, of whicii it forms part. Its other extremity is at.
tached to the breaft-plate, and ilrong ligaments likewife
uuite the extremity to that of the poilerior bone. Thefe
two bones, thus united, are flightly bent outwards, fo as
to leave between them and tliofe of the oppcfite fide, an
oval fpace, through which the oefophagus, the trachea, and
feveral mufcles, pafs. The firll feems to corj'efpoud to the
clavicle, and the iecond to the os furciforme. Finally, the
third bone of the flioulder is fituated below tlie abdominal
and thoracic vifcera, nearer the breall-plate. It is long,
and extends from the humeral cavity, of which it forms the
lower part, as far as the abdomen. It feems to fupply the
place of the fcapula by the number of mufcles infcrted into
it, but its fituation is jull the reverfe of that bone. A very
ftrong hgament unites this bone to the fecond.

Bone of the Ann. — The humerus of the tortoife has a
very remarkable (liape. As in birds it is articulated at
once to the fcapula, clavicle, and os furciftn-me, by a large
oval head, the grcatelt diameter of which lies m the direftion
of the flatneli of the bone. A coniiderable eminence rifes
above this large head, which, by its curvature and its ufes,
lias fome relation to the olecranon, a procels which, in this
animal, the bone of the iore-arm wants. Below the head
there is another eminence, lefs projecting, but more rough,
which likewife ferves as a point of iniertion to fome
mufcles, and fupplies tlie place of the little tuberofity. The
reft of the body of the bone is flattened and narrow towards
the middle. In the crocodile, the humerus is roimd, but a
little bent like an S in its wliole length. At the extremity
that joins the fcapula, it refembles the tibia ; its head, inllead
of being round, is fiat ; and its tuberolity, which is fmgle,
is anteriorly in the form of a ridge, and lomewhat inclined
inwards. In the other lizards, and in frogs, the humerus
exhibits nothing peculiar. Serpents having no limbs, have
confequently no humerus.

Bones of the Fore-arm. — The humerus of the crocodile
terminates in two round tubercles. The hollow head of the
radius turns upon the external one. Between them the
round head of the ulna is fituated, but it has neither ole-
cranon nor figmoid cavity. In the upper part it is the
largeft of the two bones, but the fmallelt below. There is
nearly the fame conformation in the cameleon, but the bones
are more elongated, and the inferior head of the radius is
lefs than that of the ulna. In the frog the fmgle bone of
the fore-arm is articulated by a concave head, with a large
round tuberolity on the bafe of the humerus, between its
two condyles. On each lide, where the lower part of this
bone becomes larger, we obferve r. furrow, which is the
only veftige of a diftindlion into two bones. Troja has
pointed out a lingularity in the ilruAure of the bone of the
fore-arm and of the leg in frogs and toads. Thefe bones
confift of a fingle piece, which is folid in the middle, but
divided at either extremity into two conical portions, having
manifeft medullary cavities. See Memoria fopra la ilruttura
fingolare della tibia e del cubito nelle Rane e nci Rofpi, in
his Sperienze intorno alia Rigenerazione delle OITa. Nap.
I779> P-2SO, t. 7, 8.
The two bones of the fore-arm of falamandcrs arc fituated

one above the other. The ulna, which is the low .-ft, and
fomewhat longell of the two, has no olecranon ; but there
is a fort of rotula in the tendon of the extenfor mufclej.
The ulnar extremity of the humerus is much enlarged. The
articulate lurface which terminates it isconven, and permit!
the radius and ulna to turn together in every diroftion.
The two bones of the fore-arm in the turtle are always in a
forced ilitc of pronation. The radius, which is much
longer than the ulna, and fixed to it by a cartilaginous fub-
flance, is the lowed, and extends even under the carpus.
Thefe two bones much refemble each other in the humeral
extremity, being formed by a fingle concave furface re-
ceived upon a correfpondent pulley of the humerus. Their
articulation is fuch that it allows them to move together
laterally, and a little upward and downward in the aftion of
fwimming.

Boms of the Hand. — The frog, the toad, the falamander,
have three ranges in the carpus. The firll confills of two
bones, one radial and one ulnar ; the fecond confills of
three bones, the largell of which bears the rudiment of a
thumb with two joints ; the third range has likewife three
bones. The fecond fingers proceed from the firll of thefe
bones ; the fourth finger is articulated with the fecond
bone ; the middle finger articulates with both bones ; the
little finger joins the third bone. The firft range touches
the third infcrioriy, becaufe the fecond is cuneiform. There
is no bone without the range. In the mud tortoife, the firll
range is a fingle bone, whicli feparates the radius from the
ulna : the fecond range confills of two bones, and a fmall one
out of the row, fituated on the ulnar edge ; the third range
confills of five bones, one for each bone of the metacarpus.
The fea tortoife has three bones in the firll range, the
ulnar bone being the longell. The two anterior bones do not
advance much farther. The third range confills only of
three bones for thofe of the metacarpus, and one fmall bone
out of the row, fituated upon the radial fide.

In the crocodile, the firll range confifts of two long
parallel bones. It has befides two little external bones
without the range on the radial fide. The number of the
phalanges varies in thefe animals. The crocodile has the
hand rounded. It has two phalanges to the thumb, three to
the fecond finger, four to the middle and fourth fingers, and
only three to the little fingers.

The cameleon has three fingers on one fide, and two on
the other, which form, with the three oppofite to them, a
kind of forceps. The number of the phalanges is the fame
as in the crocodile, with the exception of the little finger,
which has four. In the falamander the little finger is obli-
terated, and the thumb has only two phalanges.

The frog has only one phalanx to the thumb. The two
following fingers have only two phalanges. The other two
fingers have three.

The hand of the fea tortoife is long, and compreffed in
the form of a fin ; there are two phalanges to the thumb,
three to the three fucceeding tots, and two only to the laft.
A fimilar conformation is obfervable in the mud tortoife ;
with this exception, that its hand is rounded.

Bones of the Pel-u'is. — In the turtle, that part of the os
innominatum which correfponds to the pubis, is the moil
confiderable. It proceeds from the cotyloid cavity by a
thick portion, which comes forwards and widens into a thin
flat lamina, divided into two parts ; one is turned towards
the middle line, by which the two correfponding bones are
united ; the other is free, and is dirccled to the external
fide. The portion which correfponds with the ilium is
Ihort, narrow, and thick ; it rells on the ihell, and is joined
to the facruin ; finally, the portion which is analogous to
? D 2 the

REPTILES.

the ifchium is turned backward and downward, and forms
the real oUcoiis circle of tlic pelvis. This conformation is
fo fingular, that the parts of the pelvis of the turtle, when
the whole is viewed out of its natural pofition, may very
eafdy be millaken for one another ; for the pubis rcfemblcs
the ilium, the ifchium the pubis, and the ilium tlie ifchium.
There is, befides, another very remarkable peculiarity in
the pelvis of tortoifes ; the ilium, and confequently the
whole mafs of the pelvis with which that bone is united, is
moveable on the vertebral column.

In the crocodile, and in the tupinambis, the difpofition of
the pelvis has a great refemblance to tliat of the tortoife.
In the crocodile the pubis receives the ventral ribs. In the
cameleon and the iguana it is narrow, and the bones of the
ifchium form, by this union, a projedting crcit. In the
frog, and in the Surinam and common toads, the oll'a ilii
are much elongated ; the pubis and the ifchium are (hort,
and united in a fingle folid piece, the fyniphifis of which
forms a creft, more or lefs round. In the falamandcr, the
conformation is precifely the fame. The oila ilii are narrow,
and almoll cylindrical ; and the olTa pubis completely united
with the ifchium, form only a large bony plate without
any hole.

Thigh- Bone The femur of oviparous quadrupeds re-

fembles that of other animals ; it has, however, a double
curvature, more or lefs evident. In front it prefents a
convexity towards the tibial extremity, and a conca-
vity near the pelvis. In the tortoife the trochanters are
well defined, but they are not to be found in the lizards
and frogs. The figure of the femur is in general round,
except in the Surinam toad, in which it is very flat.

Bones of the Leg. — Oviparous quadrupeds have the tibia
and fibula diitindl and feparated from each other through-
out their whole length. Thefe two bones are nearly of
the fame magnitude in the tortoifes and lizards. The
frog has but one bone, but a furrow feems to indicate the
union of the tibia and fibula. In thefe animals the tibia
and fibula are, for the moil part, direftly articulated to the
thigh-bone.

Bones of the Ankle. — The allragalus is articulated to the
tibia, and the os calcis to the fibula in all reptiles. The
tarfns of the crocodile has five bones, vi-z,. an aitragalus,
an OS calcis, two cuneiformia, anfwering to the two middle
metatarfal bones, and one out of the range, which anfwers
to the external metatarfal bone. There are four metatarfal
bones. The bone fituated without the range ferves to
fupport the httle toe in the mud tortoife. In the fea tor-
toife it is very flat. The os calcis and aftragalus are very
fmall. In frogs, the allragalus and os calcis are v^ry long,
and might at firll fight be taken for the tibia and fibula, if
they did not form the third joint of the pofterior extremity.
There are on the fore part, four little cuneiform, five meta-
tarfal bones, and one in the form of a hook, which is very
minute. Thefe are fimilar in the Surinam and common
toad.

Bones of the Toes. — The number of the toes varies much
in reptiles ; as may be feen from the following table.

Number of the phalanges of the toes of reptiles, exclu-
five of the metatarfal bones, beginning at the poUex, or in-
ternal toe.

Crocodile - - - 2, 3, 4, 4.

Lizard - - - 2, 3, 4, 5, 4.

Cimeleon - - - 3j 3> 4. 4> 3-

Salamander - - 2, 3, 3, 3.

Sea tortoile - -2,3, 3, 4, 2.

Mud tortoife - - 2, 3, 3, 3, 2.

Frog . . . I, 2, 2, 3, 4, 3.

The iaurians prefent us with arrangements in their ex-
tremities, not met with in any of the mammaha. We
have Ipecies podefTing only fore-limbs, or only hind-limbs ;
others with tour limbs, and one toe only on eacli ; and
other unufual combinations in the iiumi)cr of toes on the
fore and hind-limbs. Thefe circumllances are noticed in
tiiofe lizards which approach to the form of ferpents, and
whofe Imall imperfcdt limbs feem more like rudiments than
complete members, ferving as intermediate links between
the faurian and ophidian orders. See Laccpede in the
Ann. du Mufeum, ii. p. 351, with figures of a lezard mo-
nodactyle, and tetradaclyle ; and Daudin in his Hill. Nat.
des Reptiles, vol. iv. in the hillory of the genera Seps
andChalcide. We know nothing, however, about the ofte-
ology of thefe — we might almoll fay — ridiculous limbs,
they are fo obvioufly inadequate to the purpofe of loco-
motion.

Of the Mufcles.

Mufiles of the Spine. — There are few Ipiual mufcles in froffS.
The mufcle which is analogous to the ifchio-coccygeus is
large and thin, and occupies all the fpaee comprifcd be-
tween the long bone of the coccyx and the ilia. Its fibres
are oblique, and it ferves to draw the coccyx into the di-
reftiou of the fpine. That which is analogous to the
lumbo-coilalis, ariies above the lall by a fort of point at-
tached to the coccyx. It extends quite to the head, into
which it is infcrted, and detaches fibres in its progrefs to
each of the tranfverfe procefles, which form a kind of in-
terfeftion upon its furface. The obliquus fuperior arifes
from the head at the margin of the foramen magnum, and
is infertcd into the tranfverfe procefles ot the firll dorfal
vertebra. There is only one fmall reftus anterior, it
arifes from the bafe of the cranium, below the foramen
magnum, and is inferted into the firtl of the tranfverfe pro-
ceffes. The intcr-tranfverfales are like the human. The
fpinal mufcles of the falamander much refemble thofe of
the frog ; thofe of the tail are very fimilar to the muicles
of fifhes. The fpine of the tortoife has no motion except
in the parts belonging to the neck and tail. Thofe of the
back and loins, which are oflified together, have no mufcles.
The mufcles of the neck are very different from thofe of
man. The motions they produce are thofe of elongation,
by which the head is protruded from the (hell ; and thofe
of retraclion, by which it is withdrawn, the neck being
bent in the form of a Z. The firll of the mufcles proper
to the neck is attached to the under part of the anterior
lateral border of the back-fliell, and into the tranfverfe
procefs of the firil vertebra ; it raifes the neck and draws
it back. Another proceeds from the anterior and middle
part of the fhell : it is inferted by four flefhy lips, which
are feparate throughout a confiderable portion of their
extent, into the articular proceffes of the third, fourth,
fifth, and fixth vertebrae of the neck. It draws the neck
back when the head is much extended, and pulhes it out
when it is retradled. A mufcle alfo arifes from the arti-
cular procefles of the third, fourth, and fifth vertebrx of
the neck, by three flefhy portions that afterwards unite,
and terminate in two tendons ; one of which is inferted
into the tranverfe procefs of the firil, and the other into
the fpinous procefs of the fecond vertebra. This mufcle
bends the neck upon itlelf, making it defcribe a curve,
which is convex downwards ; this motion brings the head
under the fliell. A mufcle analogous to the longus colli
arifes from the under part of the body of the fecond dorfal
vertebra, beneath the fhell ; it afcends along the neck, and
furnilhes aponeurotic flips to al the trnnfverfe procefles,

6 as

IlEPTILES.

as far as the i'econd vertebra, where it is infertcd. This
alfo 13 one of the retraftors ot the head. There are very
diltinft iiiter-artieiilarcs, vvhieh by their adlioii elevate eaeh
of the vertebrx, and coiifequently extend the neck. The
tranfverfo-fpinuhs is lituated on the polterior part of tlie
neck : it arifes from all the fuperior tranlverfe procelles,
and is inferted into all the fpinous procedes as far as the
fixth. Finally, a fliort mutcle proceeds from the upper
part of the full dorfal vertebra below the fliell, and is in-
ferted into the articular procefTes of the fixtli and leventh
cervical vertebra. This niulcle is peculiar to the tortoife,
and begins the extenfion of the neck wlien the head in con-
cealed within tlie fhell.

Mufcles of the Ribs, Abdomen, ISjc. — In the frog, which
wants ribs, and the tortoile, where they are immoveable, the
mufcles which ulually have their infertions in them, are in
thole animals extended to other parts. Thus in the tor-
toife, whofe breall -plate occupies the place of the abdo-
minal mufcles, they are inlerted into the pelvis, wliich they
move. With relpefl to thofe animals, one very remark-
able obfervation may, in general, be made. It appears
that the very lingular fliape of the mulcles and bones depend
upon each other. Indeed, as the mulcles are not placed
upon the bones, they have not, if we may be allowed the
expreffion, fafhioned them ; and the want of motion in the
bones, which has given an unnatural figure to the trunk,
has alfo given to the mufcles other forms and other ufes.
The abdominal mufcles of the frog prefent nothing peculiar,
except that the ikin does not adhere to their furfaces,
and that inllead of being inferted into the ribs, they are
fattened to the Iternum by a Itrong aponeurofis. The
fame obfervations may be made with refpeft to the fala-
manders.

We have defcribed, in tlie ofleology, the adaptation of
the ribs of ferpents to the purpole of progreflive motion ;
and now proceed to point out the mufcles by which
they are moved forwards or backwards, and connefted to
the abdominal fcuta. The ribs are brought forwards by
five fets of mufcles placed on the outfide of the cheil, and
pafling obliquely from above, downwards, outwards, and
backwards. I. One from the tranfverfe procefs of each
vertebra to the rib behind it. 2. The next fet arifes
from the ribs, at a fliort diltance from the fpine, palles over
two ribs, fending a flip to each, and ends in the third.
The third arifes from the pofterior edge of each rib, pafl'es
over two ribs, and is inferted into the third rib behind it.
The fourth fet palfes over one rib and is inferted in the
fecond. The fifth goes from rib to rib.

The mufcles carrying the ribs backwards are found on
the infide of the cheR, and llant from the fpine forwards
and outwards. A ftrong fet arifes from the anterior fur-
face of the vertebra, goes over four ribs, to be inferted
into the fifth about its middle. The ferrated portions of a
ftrong flat mufcle, forming the mufcular covering of the
abdomen, arife from this part (the middle of the internal
furface) of each rib. The right and left mufcles unite in
a beautiful middle tendon. Thus it is obvious, that the
inferior half of each rib (below the origin of the fer-
rated portion jull defcribed) is external to the abdominal
mufcle, and confequently free for the purpole of progref-
five motion.

The ends of the ribs are connefted to the abdominal
fcuta by a fet of lliort mufcles : they are alio connefted
together by (hort and Itraight mufcles. Another fet goes
from the heads of the ribs obliquely backwards to be fixed
in the fl<in at the edge of each fcutum. See fir E.
Hume's paper quoted in the olteology ; and particularly

plates 4 and 5 from Mr. Clift's drawings, in which the
parts are reprefented.

There is a comijlicatcd mufcular apparatus for extending
and retrafting tlie ribs, and carrying the fl<in forwards and
backwards in tlie cobra de capello. The ribs are raifcd or
carried forwards by four fets of mufcles, all arifing from and
inferted in thefe bones, and diredled obliquely from above,
downwards and outwards.

The fliin of the back is brought forwards On the neck
by a large fet of very long mnfcles, arifing fucceflively
from each of the firtt twenty ribs, by a tendon, which
fooii becomes flelliy. The longell is about two inches.
They go backwards to he inferted into the (kin, which
they can bring forwards to a great extent when the ribs
have been firll extended.

The mufcles which carry the ribs back again lie on the
infide of the cheft under the fj)iiie. One fet goes from
the vertebrae of the neck to the lower edges of the ribs :
but they pafs obliquely upwards and outwards over three
ribs, to be inferted into the fourth, thus acquiring a length
of fibre, by which the range of motion produced is much
increafed. The fecond fet goes from the ends of the ribs
forwards to the Ikin, whicli they will draw back. The
third fet from the root of one fcutum to the fcutum immedi-
ately above it, fo as to bring it down upon the other.
Sir E. Hume's and Dr. Ruliel's paper, and particularly
the engravings from Mr. Clift's drawings. Phil. Tranf.
1804, pt. 2.

Mufcles of the Head. — The mufcles of the head of the
tortoife cannot be defcribed under names fimilar to thofe of
mammiferous animals and birds, becaufe the ihell aftbrds in-
fertion to the greater number of them. We will, therefore,
only diilinguifh them by the points of attachment. Thus, on
viewing the back part of the neck, we remark, lit, at the
anterior part of the back-ftiell, near the angle of the lunula,
a broad mufcle, which extends to the lateral and pofterior
parts of the head, into which it is inferted. It pulls the
head backward. 2. Beneath, and from the middle of the
anterior lunula of the back-(liell, there arifes another mufcle,
which is thin and round, and wliich, in fcparating from that
of the oppofite fide, forms an angle like the letter V : it is
inferted on the outfide of the preceding mufcle, and has the
fame ufe. 3. A mufcle analogous to the fplenius capitis
rifes from the fpinous procefi'es of the fourth and fifth cer-
vical vertebrae, by diftintt flips, and is inferted into the occi-
pital arch. Its ufe is to raife the head. 4. A mufcle
analogous to the reftus major anticus rifes from the infe-
rior tubercles of the four vertebrae next to the atlas, and is
inferted, fleiby and thick, into the deprellion of the cunei-
form procefs below the condyle. 5. The trachelo-maftoi-
deus rifes from the interior tubercles of the fecond and third
cervical vertebra;, by two thin aponeurotic tendons; it is in-
ferted, by a very thick and entirely flefliy portion, into the
protnberance that anfwers to the mattoid procefs. Its ufe
is to bend the head laterally. 6. Laftly, at the fuperior
part of the cervical fpine there is a fliort mufcle, which pro-
ceeds from the inferior part of the foramen, fonned by the
temporal folTa, and is inferted into the fpinous proceffes of
the firft, fecond, and third vertebra of the neck. On
viewing the neck in front, we obferve the mufcle analogous
to the iterno-cleido-maftoideus attached to the ftrong aponeu-
rofes that furround the humerus at its articulation with the
i'capula. The lower part of it, for one-third of its length,
can only be feen, the remainder being concealed by a mufcle
compofed of tranfverfe fibres, which fupplies the place of
the mylo-hyoideus, and platiima-myoides. It is infertcd
into a procefs correfponding to the malloid. Its ufe is to

draw

REPTILES.

draw the head inwardly, and to produce a fmall elevation of
the fhoulilers. The longus capitis arifcs from the third ver-
tebra of the back, and is infertcd by a flender tendon into
tlie cuneiform procefs of the occiput. The frogs have very
few of the mufcles of the head : mod of thofe which are in-
ferted in it are employed in moving the fuperior extremities,
or are proper to the vertebral column. The mufcle analo-
gous to the obliquus fuperior arifcs from the firil tranfverfe
proceflTes of the fpine, and is inferted into the fuperior part
of the occiput : its direAion is oblique from without inwards.
That which is analogous to the redtus capitis anticus minor,
arifcs from the tranfverfe procefs of the firll vertebra, and is
infertcd into the bafis of the cranium below the foramen mag-
num. Thefe are the only two mufcles proper to the head
in frogs : they are fimilar in the land falamander.

Mufcles of the Shoulders. — In the frog (which has no
ribs) the fsrratus major has an extraordinary (hape, which
appears to be occafioned in part by the want of the cervical
vertebrse : it forms three diftinft mufcles. The firft arifes
from the occiput, near to the foramen magnum. It divides
into two bellies, which are inferted into the fuperior fpinal
angle of the fcapula ; one on the internal, and the other on
the external fide. The fecond proceeds from the fecond
tranfverfe procefs, and paffes under the dorfal portion of the
fcapula, towards its fpinal edge. Tlic thii'd proceeds from
the third tranfverfe procefs, and pad'es underneatii the pre-
ceding, keeping ftill nearer to the edge. There is befides
another mufcle proper to the fcapula, fituatcd upon its in-
ternal furface, between the two conflituent parts, which
make it appear broken. It appears to draw thefe two parts
clofer together, and by its contraftion renders the angle they
form with each other more acute. There is no mufcle
analogous to the peftoralis minor. The place of the levator,
or angularis fcapulae, is fupplied by a very confiderable
mufcle which rifes from the bafe of the occiput ; it becomes
perceptibly fmaller as it approaches the (lioulders, and is
inferted into the pofterior edge of the cartilaginous part of
the fcapula. The omo-hyoideus is long and thin ; it comes
from the great inferior horn of the os hyoides, and is in-
ferted under the neck of the fcapula. The trapezius is
wanting. The mufcle analogous to the rhomboides is very
thin. It arifes from the dorfal proced'es, and is inferted into
the fpinal edge of the fcapula. There is no fubclavius
mufcle. The fterno-maftoideus has only one belly, which
extends obhquely from the polterior part of the head, be-
hind the ears, to the neck of the ofleous part of the fcapula.
Its aftion is evidently that of pulling the fhoulder towards
the head, and raifing it up. We (hall defcribe the mufcles
of the tortoife feparately, as they differ confiderably from
thofe of other red-blooded animals. They are only three
in number. One of them, though very unlike the trapezius,
is fimilar in its ufe ; it rifes from the lower furface of the
back-fhell among the ribs, from the fecond to the fifth. It
js very thin, and paffes to the external margin of the third
bone of tlie fhoulder, which feems to correfpond with the
fcapula. A mufcle analogous to the levator fcapulse, is
inferted into the curve formed by the joint of the two firfl
bones of the fhoulder. It arifes by feven flcfhy heads from
the tranfverfe proceffes of the feven vertebras of the neck.
Another little long mufcle arifes from the inner furface of
the back-fhell near the fternal extremity of the firft rib, and
is inferted into the dorfal extremity of the firll bone of
the fhoulder. It is perhaps analogous to the cofto-
clavius.

Mufcles of the Arm. — The peftoralis major of the frog is
corapofed of two portions, placed one above the other.
They produce two tendons which are inferted on each fide

of the humeral groove. The latilfimus dorfi arifes from ti.e
inferior part of the back, where it is thin. It becomes
thicker, and is attached to the broad part of the fcapula,
which it entirely covers. It is inferted, by a flrong tendon,
into the internal furface of the humerus, above one-third of
its length from its fuperior end. In the frog there is neither
the fupra nor the infra-fpinatus. The fubfcapularis or coraco-
brachalis, (for the mufcle of which we now fpeak fupplies
the place of both,) arifes from the internal furface of the
fcapula, at its junction with the clavicle, and is inferted into
the interior part of the humerus about one-third from the
head. The deltoid is formed of three portions. The firit,
which is the longcfl, and very fleuder, proceeds from the
anterior part of the flernum. The fecond arifes from the
union of the clavicle with the fcapula, at the internal fur-
face, runs over the bone above the joint, then fends a thin
tendon to the firil in its paflage, and is partly inferted in the
linea afpera, and partly in tiie inferior portion of the hu-
merus. The third is diflinft ; it rifes partly from both the
fcapula and clavicle, and is infertcd into the fcapular extre-
mity of the humerus. The teres major and teres minor, are
wanting. Befides thefe mufcles, in which we difcover an
analogy to thofe of mammiferous animals, there is one which
arifes from the fecond tranfverfe branch of the iternum, and
is inferted into the inner edge of the groove of the humerus
by a broad tendon. It may be regarded as an afliitant ta
the peftoralis major. This conformation appears to prevail
in the falamander. «

If the tortoife has fewer mufcles proper to the fhoulder
than common, it has an extraordinary number inferted
into the humerus. That which correfponds to the pec-
toralis major is compofed of five portions. Two are
fuperficial ; one arifes from the edge of the anterior part
of the breaft-plate, and proceeds to its infertion in the
lefier tubercle of the humerus. The other is much more
extcnfive : it rifes from a great part of the internal furface
of the breaft-plate, and is alfo inferted by a flat tendon ifi the
leffer tubercle of the humerus : but it is prolonged by a
fan-like aponeurofis, which extends over the inferior furface
of the arm, and even of the fore-arm. One of the three
deeper portions of the peftoralis major arifes from the greater
part of the fecond bone of the fhoulder, and is inferted into
the humerus, below its fcapular articulation ; another arifes
from the expanfion of the interofleous ligament, which
unites the fecond bone of the fhoulder to the third, and pro-
ceeds to join its tendon intimately with that of the preced-
ing portion. LalUy, the third, which is the moll deep-
feated of all, arifes from the fuperior furface of the third
bone of the fhoulder, or that which is next the back-fhell.
Its tendon is conjoined with thofe of the preceding. The
mufcle analogous to the deltoides is alfo compofed of two
portions ; one arifes from a ridge on the anterior part of the
breaft-plate ; the other, which is its acceffory, is placed more
deeply, and united to its correfponding mufcle. They are
inferted by one common tendon into the leffer tubercle of
the humerus, which they draw towards the neck in the aftion
of fwimming. There is another mufcle much deeper
feated, which feems likewife an affiftant to the deltoides.
It rifes from the dorfal extremity, and all the internal edge
of that bone of the fhoulder which correfponds with the
clavicle, and proceeds to be inferted into the humerus below
the leffer tuberofity. On the internal furface of the humerus,
we find a mufcle rifing from the loofe extremity of the
fternal face of the third bone of the fhoulder : it is inferted
in the humerus, about one-third from its lower end, by a
thin tendon. It bears fome relation to the fterno-radialis of
the frog, and performs the fama office.

The

REPTILES.

The levator bracliii is a very lliiek miilcle, which arifes
from the third bone of the ihoulder, the exterior edjje of
which it furrounds, and is inferted into the procefs of tlie
humerus refembling the olecranon, which it pulls upward
and outward. A mufcle analogous to the teres major arifes
from the neck of the tliird bone of the flioulder, externally,
and is inferted into tlie humerus between the two tiiberoiilies.
It pulls the lunnerus backward. Anotliev mufcle, which
(eems a fubltitute for the latifTimusdorfi, rifes from thv interior
part of the back-(hell, to wliicli it is attached obliquely, to
the interval between the two firll ribs. It is inferted nito the
body of the humerus behind I'lie gniater tubercle, by a flat
tendon. It pulls the humerus towards the upper (licU, when
the animal Hands upon all its four feet. A mulcle, the ufe
ot which fecms the fame as that of the levator bracliii, rifes
from the whole internal furface of that bone of the (houlder
which anfvvers to the clavicle, and is inferted into the whole
length of the olecraniform procefs, or great tuberofity of the
luimerus. It is very flefhy, and appears to be formed of
two portions. Finally, the mufcle analogous to the fcapulo-
i-adialis, or biceps flexor cubiti, arifes from the anterior
border of the humeral cavity, and is inferted into the external
and fuperior furfaces of the humerus by a fmall tendon, which
reaches as far as the bafe of the radius. It extends the
member, and brings it toward the head.

Mujcles of the Fore-arm.— The frog has, properly fpeak-
ing, no biceps ; its place is fupplied by another, and much
llronger mufcle, fituated on the breail, under the peCloralis
major, wiih which it has the fame infertions. At the arti-
culation of the humerus it fends out a ilrong tendon, which
pafles along the groove of the humerus, and through a ten-
dinous ring, formed by the two parts of the peftoralis ma-
jor, under the deltoides. It is inferted into the humeral ex-
tremity of the radius, and may be named llerno-radialis.
There is no bracliialis internus. The triceps is compofed of
three parts, nearly as in man, but they are proportionally
larger. There is but one fupinator, which arifes from the
external condyle, and is inferted into the carpus. Tliere
is alfo but one pronator, which rifes from the internal
condyle, and is inferted into the carpus. In the turtle,
thefe mufcles are almoit entirely aponenroLic, and pro-
duce but very little motion, the place of the member be-
ing fupplied by a fin, as in the cetacea. In general, the
mufcles of the humerus produce the motions of the foi-e-
arm.

Mufcles of the Hand and Fingers In the fea tortoifes,

which have the carpus comprefied and fitted for fwimming,
the mufcles are only fimple bands of aponeurotic fibres,
which ft;rengthen the feveral articulations. The mufcles oi
the hand of the frog and falamander are very fimilar to thofe
of man. Thofe of the thumb are wanting, except the ex-
tenfor, which comes from the external condyle, and is in-
ferted into the lait phalanges. The other mufcles vary very
little.

Mufcles of the Pelvis. — In the tortoifc, the mufcle analo-
gous to the quadratus lumborum expands under the back-
iliell, between the laft anterior ribs ; it arifes from the ilium,
towards the articulation of that bone with the os facrum,
which in this animal is moveable. This mobility of the pel-
vis is aliifted by a mufcle analogous to the rcftus abdominis,
which, .IS we have obferved, initead of extending under
the belly, is attached under the pollerior extremity of
the brealt-plate by two fl >(hy portions, the one anterior,
the other pollerior, which are both inferted in the ante-
rior margin of the external branch of the pubis. There
3S no pfoas parvus in frogs. The quadratus liunborum
extends from the long tranfverfe procefs of the third

3

vertebra, to the origin of the long bone of the pelvis,
which is analogous to the ilium. It is inferted in tiiis bone,
which it raifes towards the head ; their ilium being moveable,
like that of the tortoife.

Mufcles of the Thigh. — In the frog there is only one glu-
txus, which is in the place of the medius. It arifes from
the elongation which fujjplies the place of the os ilium, and
is inferted below the head of the femur. The pyriformi*
conies llraight from the point of the coccyx, and is inferted
about one-third from the top of the os femoris. The ge-
mini and the obturator internus are wanting. The quadratus
femoris is long. It arifes from the pollerior fymphifis of the
ifchium, and is inferted into the inner fide of tlie thigh-bone,
about one-third from the head. They have neither the
pfoas magnus nor parvus. The iliacus is proportionally
elongated. The pedlineus defcends to the middle of the
thigh-bone. The three adduftors have the fame origins and
infertions as in man. The obturator externus is to be found,
though there is no foramen ovale. It arifes from the fym-
phifis pubis, and its fibres are attached to the capfular
ligament. In the tortoife, the mufcles of th" thigh produce
motions proper to fwimming ; that is to fay, the abdudtioii,
the adduction, deprellion, and elevation of the thigh. The
mufcle analogous to the addudlor longus arifes from the fym-
pliifis pubis, and is inferted into the internal part of the
thigh-bone, about one-third from its tibia! extremity.
Another mufcle, which cannot be eafily compared to any in
man, arifes from the interior of the facrum, and is inferted
into the little trochanters. It is another addudlor femoris.
A mufcle, compofed of different radiated fafciculi, arifes
from the broad inferior furface of tlie os pubis, and forms a
thick tendon inferted into the little trochanter. It occupies
the place, and anfwers the purpoles, of the pfoa^. :-.-.d :I;?cus.
That which is analogous to the addiidlor bre.i.s ariic.-. iioin
the fymphifis of the bones of the ifchium, and the intcr-
oll'eous ligament of the pubis. It is inferted into the os
femoris, below the little trochanter. The mufcle anfwering
to the glutKus maximus arifes from the fpine, oppofite to
the lall rib, and is inferted into the thigh-bone, below the
great trochanter. The mufcles analogous to the glutKus
medius and minimus can hardly be diflinguillied from each
other. They rife from the internal furface of the os pubis,
and are inferted into the great trochanter. That which re-
fembles the obturator internus arifes from the internal fur-
face of the ilium, and the fuperior edge of the cotyloid ca-
vity, and is inferted into the great trochanter.

Mufcles of the Leg. — The frog has the thighs round, like
thofe of a man, and the mufcles of the leg are very confpi-
cuous. The triceps femoris is formed only of two very
diflindl portions. The vallus externus and crurali? are nia-
nifeflly but one. There is no rettiis anterior. Tlie biceps
flexor cruris has only one belly. It arifes from the pollerior
and internal part of the ilium, and is inferted into the exte-
rior and anterior furface of the tibia, for there is no fibula.
The femi-membranofus is like the human ; but the femi-ten-
dinofus is compofed of two bellies, one ot which rifes from
the fymphifis pubis, and the other from that of the ifchium.
The fartorius is fituated exaftly in the front of the thigh,
without any obhquity. There is nothing remarkable in the
gracilis. There is no dillintt poplitsus. Some differences
occur in the mufcles of the leg of the tortoife. Thefe have
a relation to the faculty of fwimming, for which its extre-
mities are fitted. The mufcle which takes the place of the
femi-membranofus arifes from the interofieous ligament of
the pelvis, and proceeds to form a flrong aponeurolis at
the inferior part of the leg. That which correfponds to
the femitendinofus arifes alfo from the iuteroileous liga-
ment :

REPTILES.

tnont ; it pallos under the ham, auJ in infortcd into the tibia,
which it bends. That which is analogous to the fai-torius
arifcs from tlie 03 pubis, near the interofleous hgament, and
paffes over the knee, to be iniertcd into the tibia, wiiicfi it
extends. A mufclc com])ofed of two flefliy portions, both
of which aril'e from the lateral parts of the facrum, is in-
ferted below the head of the tibia, and bends the leg. In
its aftion, it much refcmbles the biceps, from whicli, how-
ever, it differs with refpecl to its attachments. Another
nnifcle, refembling the fafcia lata, and very thin in its flcfliy
part, arifes from the fidea of the coccyx. It paffes under
the il<in of the fin, to its infertion, almoff oppofite to the
heel. It bends the leg upon the thigh, and extends the foot
upon the leg. The mufcle analogous to the biceps arifes
from the facrum and ilium. It goes to the external furface
of the leg, where it is inferted into the fibula. The cxten-
for of the leg prefents notliing particular. The mufcle ana-
logous to the red'tus anterior arifes from the internal furface
of the pubis, and joins the common tendons of the cx-
tenfors.

Mufclesof the Ankle. — In tlie frog, the gaftrocnemius has
only one belly ; it has, however, a i'mall tendon, by which
it is inferted into the outward fide of the head of the tibia.
Its tendon runs under the heel, and there Aiding over a lefa-
moid bone, expands itfelf under the foot, to form the plan-
tar fafcia. There is neither folcus nor plantaris. The ti-
bialis anticus rifes' by a ftrong tendon from the lower part
of the OS femoris. About the middle of the tibia it divides
into two bellies, one internal, the other external. The ten-
don of the firlt is inferted into the tibial bafe of the long
bone of the tarfus, and that of the fecond into the fame bone,
a little more outwardly. An aflillant to this mufcle arifes
from the middle and anterior part of the tibia, and pro-
ceeds to the internal fide of the bafe of the long bone of the
tarfus. The tibialis poilicus relembles the human, but it is
only inferted into one bone of the tarfus, wr.. that which is
long, and fituatedat the inner fide. There is but one mufcle,
to which the term pcroneus can apply. It arifes by a flen-
der tendon, from the external condyle of the thigh, and is
inferted into the bafe of the tibia, on the outfidc, by two
tendinous portions, one of which extends to the bone of the
tarfus. It extends the leg with refpeft to the thigh, or,
more properly, the thigh with refpeft to the leg. Befides
thefe mufcles, which extend from the leg to the foot, there
is another which arifes from the metatarfal extremity of the
tibia, at its internal edge, paffes between the two bellies of
the tibialis anticus, and proceeds very obliquely to its infer-
tion, at the digital extremity of the long bone of the tar-
fus, on its inner fide. In the fea tortoife, the mufcles of the
feet are fupplied by aponeurotic fibres, fomewhat fleffiy,
which ferve only to llrengthen the articulations, and keep
the fins properly extended.

Mufcles of the Toes. — There is no extenfor longus digi-
torum in the frog ; neither is there any flexor propnus
poUicis. The extenfor brevis digitorum is very dillinft, it
arifes from the whole length of the long external bone of the
tarfus, and extends obliquely to all the four toes, the lall
excepted. It is inferted into the lail phalanges. There
are fuperior and inferior interoll'eous mufcles, which are
very apparent, to the number of ten. Their direftion is
very oblique. The flexor communis digitorum is fituated
under the long bone of the tarfus, on the inner fide, and is
covered by the aponeurofis of the gaftrocnemius. When
it reaches the little bones of the tarfus it divides into five
tendons, which receive, at their inner fide, affiftant flefhy
fibres, apparently proceeding from a mufcle fituated below
the long bone of the tarfus, on the inner fide. It may per-

haps reprefent the flexor longus. In the fea tortoife all
thefe mufcles have their places fupplied by bundles of
aponeurotic fibres.

On the Support of the Body, and its Motions in Progrejfwn.
— Standing is an attitude common to all animals, but thtf
circumilances attending it diflcr very confidcrably. In moll
of the oviparous quadrupeds, the knees and elbows are
direftcd outwards as they ftand, and even during their
various progreffivc motions. The pofterior members, arti-
culated more in proportion at the fides of the body, are fo
bent, that the belly defcends to the ground, and moves
along it.

Turtles reft on their plaltron, and on their four flattened,
elongated, and fin-hke members. They may be compared
to feals in their mode of executing movements. They
employ their members, either in (wimming, or in walking
on the fea-fliore, or in digging holes in the fand to receive
their eggs.

In tortoifes, fl;anding is nearly the fame as molt in othcj"
oviparous quadrupeds ; and the direftion of their body is
horizontal. Batracians, and frogs in particular, generally
have their body, when at reft, in an oblique elevation ; the
arms fuftaining the front part, while the back remains on
the ground. The formation of the pofterior limbs does not
render them adapted to raife the body in a vertical diredtion,
but merely to pufli it forwards.

Serpents, in a ftate of repofe, coil up their body in
feveral circles, either rifing one above the other, or ar-
ranged one within the other ; and the head is elevated above
this coil. Thofe which inhabit trees are twifted round
the branches. The chalcides and biped lizards may be
compared to ferpents when at reft, for they are coiled up,
and their limbs ferve merely to prevent the body from
rolling.

Walking exhibits different modifications, according to
the number and form of the limbs, and the relative fize of
the fore and hind-feet. Where they are of equal length,
the animals move with great velocity : hence the names of
certain fpecies, as lacerta agihs and velox. When, however,
the limbs are too fmall and weak for the body, the move-
ments are flower, as in the crocodile, the chalcides, and the
toad.

The feet of tlie cameleon, and its prehenfile tail, make it
a better climber than moll reptiles.

The limbs being all of nearly equal length in the fcinks,
they cannot leap well : while the iguanas and tupinam-
bes exhibit confiderable agility. The frogs are the great
jumpers, from the great length and ftrength of the hind
limbs. But they can hardly walk ; moving the front legs
only with facility, and being obliged almoft to drag the hint!
ones after them.

Serpents can leap or project their bodies by the fudden
extenfion of feveral articulations : they form feveral curves
with their body, and then fuddenly llraighten them, either
in whole or in part, according to the leap which they may
wifli to make.

Creeping, properly fo called, belongs only to ferpents,
and confifts of a projeftion of the body backwards or for-
wards, produced by the alternate motion of one or feveral
of the lower parts agamft the ground. The following
modifications are exhibited in different inftances. i. Creep,
ing by vertical undulations. 2. By horizontal undulations.
3. By two or three undulations of the pofterior third part of
the body, while the two anterior thirds are elevated verti-
cally. 4. A Aiding kind of crawling, by fmall undula-
tions formed by the alternate approximation and repara-
tion of rows of fcales placed tranfverfely under the body.

5. The

REPTILES.

5. The fame kind of motion, produced by the alternate
formation and difappcarnnce of folds in the fl<iii of the fides.

6. Without any undulation, merely by the alternate ap-
proximation and feparation of rings of the body.

Tlie rcpulfivc- motions, by whicli reptiles move their
bodies forwards in water, are nearly the fame as they em-
ploy in jumping ; but they mull be much quicker. To
rife in the water, they muil ilrike back the water below
and behind them, and diminifli tiie breadtli of their body,
as much as polliblc, by carrying tiieir fwimming organs
hackwards after each ilroke. Tluis we fee the frog, after
Itriking, extend its long hind legs, fo as to offer no refdt-
ance to the paffage of the body tlirougli the liquid. The
aCl of fwimming offers the following modifications. I. Ex-
ternal fwimming (on tlie furface of the water, breathing
air) by vertical undulations, without fwimming organs.
The ferpents. 2. The fame by lateral undulations, afliflcd
by the feet. Iguauas, lizards, &c. 3. Swimming under
the furface, breathing externally ; by four palmated feet,
and without tail. Hyla palmata ( Rana maxima, Linn.)
4. The fame with four legs and no tail. Frogs properly fo
called. 5. The fame with four feet, an elongated body, and
depreffed tail. Crocodiles, falamanders. 6. The fame by
means of four fin-like icaly members, and no tail. 7. Swim-
ining under water, breathing by means of branchise.

The dragons are the only reptiles capable of flying.
Their flight is nearly the fame with that of the polatouche,
or flying fquirrel. Daudin, Hift. Nat. des Rept. t. i.

The Brain. — The brain of reptiles docs not fill more than
one-half of their very fmall cranium ; hence its relative
fize to that of the body is very inconiiderable. Its pro
portion to the body is faid to be, in the tortoife ^ir^-sj '" the
turtle ^V.'.^-j '" the coluber natrix y-,i-j-, in the frog -ri-r-
Blumcnbach juilly obfervcs, that anatomifls have hitherto
bellowed but little labour on the brains of the amphibia.
The dura mater forms no procefles in this order ; the inter-
val between it and the pia mater is filled with fluid ; the
brain is fmall and fimple, and confills of five roundilh emi-
nences. Of thefe, the fingle one, placed at the front of
tlie uicdulla fpinahs, is clearly the cerebellum, as in all
animals which have a nervous fytlem. Whether the four
others are to be regarded as the two hemifpheres, and the
thalami nervorum opticorum, is more doubtful. According
to Blumenbach, the cerebellum does not exhibit the arbor
vits.

All the parts of the brain of reptiles are Imooth, and
without circumvolutions. Tile optic thalami are fituated
behind the hemifpheres, but are not covered by them.
They contain each, as in birds, a cavity 'A'hich communicates
with the third ventricle. At tlie extremities of this s^en-
tricle, we obferve the anterior and poflerior commiffure,
but there is no loft commiflure, nor tubercula quadrige-
mina.

In the tortoife the hemifpheres form an oval. Tiieir
anterior part is feparated from the poflerior by a fulciis,
and reprefents a kind of bulb, which ferves as a root to
the olfaftory nerves. The fize of this bulb is about equal
to one-third of the hemifphere. The interior of the hemi-
fphere is, as ufual, excavated by a ventricle, and contains a
fubllance analogous to the corpus flriatum, and which
pretty much refembles in its form that of birds.

The optic thalami are not larger than the bulbs of the
olfadlory nerves. Their form is nearly round. They ex-
tend downward and forward, under the hemifpheres, to
produce the optic nerve. The valve of the cerebrum is
fituated between them and the cerebellum. No tubercle is

Vol. XXIX.

either placed above it or before it, aiid. it givei origin, a*
ufual, to the fourth pair of nerves.

Before the optic thalami, and under tUe poflerior part of
the hemifpheres, thei'- is a tubercle which corrcfpoiids to
that we have remarked in birds.

The cerebellum is nearly li'-mifpherical. The fourth
ventricle penetrates a confiderable way into its fubflance.

In the frog the hemifpheres are longer and narrower.
The optic thalami are larger in proportion to the iiemi-
fpheres. Their ventricle is very diflindt. It is the con-
trary in falamanders, which have the optic thalami very
fmall, and the hemifpheres almoll cylindrical.

The cerebellum of thefe two kinds of reptiles is flat,
triangular, and lies pofleriorly on the medulla oblongata.

In the ferpents the two iumifpheres form togetiier a mafs
which is broader than long. The optic tiialami are almofl
round, and one-half Icfs tlian the heinifpheies, behind which
they are fituated. The olfaftory nerve has no appaccnt
bulb. Tile cerebellum is exceedingly fmall, flat, and in
the form of a portion of a circle.

In all thefe animals the inferior furface of the brain is
nearly fmooth. The optic thalami make no proje£lion
downward, and the pons Varolii does not exiil.

Cuvier afligns, as the diltinguifliing charadler of the
brain in reptiles, the pofition of the optic thalami behind
the hemifpheres. And he flates the following as the points
in which reptiles, fifhes, and birds, differ from the mam-
malia. The want of corpus callofum, fornix, and their
dependencies. Some tubercles, more or fewer, between
the corpora ilriata and the optic thalami. The thalami
containing ventricles, and being dillinft from the hemi-
fpheres. The abfence of any tubercle between the thalami
and the cerebellum, as well as the abfence of the pons
Varolii. Reptiles and fifhes are diftinguifiied from the
mammalia and birds by the want of the arbor vitre.

The brain of the tortoife has been delineated by Caldefi,
oflervazioni intorno alle Tartarughe, tab. 2. fig. 5 : that
of the frog by Ludwig, de cinerea cerebri fubftantia ; by
Vicq d'.\zyr in the Mem. d'Acad. dcs Sciences, 1783 ;
and by Ebel, in his Obfervat. Neurol, ex Anat. Compar. j
and that of the viper, by Vicq d' Azyr.

Origim of the A'lrves. — The olfactory nerves arife, as in
birds, from the anterior extremity of the hemifpheres. The
optic nerves feem to derive their origin from a common emi-
nence, fituated under the middle of the hemifphere. Tlie
other neTves exhibit no particularities as to their origin.

Dyirihution of the Nerves The oifaSory nerve proceeds

to the noltrils in this clafs nearly in the fame manner as in
birds ; but it is longer. The canal w liich receives it is
partly oil'eous and partly cartilaginous. The two canals
have only one common apertui'e within the cranium. The
olLictory nerves of reptiles are generally much more folid
than thofe of the preceding claffes.

The two optic nerves are joined together, as in the mam-
malia. There is nothing worthy of remark about the third,
fourth, and fixth pairs.

Reptiles have the three branches of \he fifth pair. In the
fea tortoifes the ophthalmic pafles, fome way, in the dura
mater before it enters the orbit. It tranfmits filaments to
the mufcles of the globe of the eye, and particularly to the
two l.ichrymal glands. The fuperior maxillary branch is
the largeft of the three. It is united to the inferior branch
at its origin, but when it reaches the interior of the orbit,
it feparates from it to take another diredlion. It paffes
along the floor of the orbit, defcribing a very marked cur-
vature, the convexity of which is external. A very great
number of filaments proceed from the concave or internal
5 E fide,

REPTILES.

fide, which are lafl in the lachrymal gland. The trunk is
afterwards divided into two branches: — one internal, which
correfponds to the fpheno-palatine and fub-orbitar nerve.
It fumifhes filaments to the palate and to the nofe ; and
when arrived at the anterior part of the orbit, it proceeds
outwardly and fprcads upon the face. The other branch of
the principal trunk is external ; it partes alfo upon the floor
of the orbit, to which it gives many filaments, and at length
ifluing from the inferior part of the orbit, it expands upon
the face, anailomofing with the other facial nerves.

The inferior maxillary branch proceeds almofl vertically
downward to the polterior pa t of the orbit, before the
petrous and articular procefs of the os temporum. In its
courfe towards the lower jaw, it pad'es between the tem-
poral and pterygoid mufcles, to which it fends feveral fila-
ments. Having arrived at the lower jaw, before the arti-
cular furface, it enters the oblong aperture, and divides in
the fubltance of the bone. It forms feveral branches on
the inner part of the jaw, which are loll in the mufcles of
the tongue, and on the outfide fome others which ramify
under the (liin.

The facial nerve exills in birds and reptiles, but its fize is
finall, becitiife thefe animals have no lips, and bccaufe their
mouth, as well as a great part of their face, is covered with
a horny or fcaly fubilance, in confequence of which tliele
parts have but little motion or fenfibility. We find, how-
ever, fome of the branches : they are not indeed ealily fol-
lowed in dilleAion, but their trunk always exifts.

The auditory is united to the facial nerve as in the mam-
malia, and paifes into a meatus auditorius, whence its
branches go into the eaj". They will be defcribed in the
account of the ear.

We have nothing remarkable to ftatre refpedf ing the par
vagtim or eighth pair of nerves in reptiles. We obferve
evidently that it is diltributed to the lungs, the heart, the
ocfophagus, and itomach, and that it forms plexufes on
thefe organs, in the fame manner as the great fympathetic
nerve produces them round all the arteries of the trunk.
On leaving the cranium, the par vagum forms decuilations
■with the lingual and gloflo-pharyngeal nerves ; they after-
wards feparate from each otlier : the gloflb-pharyngeus is
pollerior, the par vagum in the middle, and the lingual an-
terior. The par vag'um does not always come out of the
cranium by a lingle hole ; it is formed of two or three fila-
ments, which afterwards rejoin, upon receiving a communi-
cating filament from the gloffo-pharyngeus, and one farther
down from the lingual ; the nerve then augments iomewhat
in diameter, and defcends into the breall.

We have nothing to remark concerning the gloflo-pha-
ryngeal and hypogloffal nerves.

Tortoifes have eight pair of cervical nerves, which are
diftributed nearly in the fame manner as in mammalia. The
three la(t pairs join in forming the brachial plexus. The
green lizard has four pair of cervical nerves, but only the
two lalt enter into the compofition of the plexus. In fala-
mandera :ind frogs the cervical nerves cannot be properly
diftinguilhrd from the dorfal, as the animals have no ribs.
A pair comes out between the firll and fecond vertebra;,
which is fent to the mufcles of the inferior part of the neck,
and under the fkin that covers them. Thefe nerves alfo
afford fome filaments to the flioulder. From this dillribu-
tion they may be regarded as real cervical nerves. In frogs
only two pairs enter into the compofition of the plexus. In
the falamander there are dillinftly four.

We refer to the tables v.'iich indicate the nHinber of
the vertebra in reptiles, in wder to (hew the number of
nerves which iflue from their foramina, The difhibutiou

of thefe nerves is the fame as in other animals, and to point
it out would be only repeating what we have already de.
fcnbed in man.

Nerves of the front Limbs. — In the tortoife the three lad
pairs of cervical nerves, and the firft of the dorlal, proceed
to the thoracic member, where they form a plexus in the
following manner : the fifth cervical pafTes behind the other
four pairs, erodes them in their courfe, and unites with them
in its palFage. It then turns round the fcapula, which in
this animal is articulated with the firft dorfal vertebra. We
fhall return to the dcfcription of this nerve. The fixth
cervical pair proceeds diredlly along the fcapula on its in-
ternal furface : it is eroded pofteriorly by the fifth, and to-
wards the lower third of the fcapula receives the feventh
cervical pair. The feventh is flender, eroded by the fifth
and the firft dorfal pair, and united with the fixth, in the
manner we have pointed out. The firft dorfal pair partly
joins the feventh cervical, almoft at the point where it comes
out of the vertebral canal ; it is then fent to the mufcles of
the Ihoulder.

We (hall now purfue each of the cords we have mentioned
to their termination.

The large nerve produced by the fifth cervical pair, hav-
ing arrived behind and near the true articulation of the fca-
pula with the fpiiie, divides into three branches ; one, which
is but a filament, appears to be diftributed to the articular
capfule ; a fecond, which is very flat, and from the fides of
which a vail number of leder branches extend to the mufcles
of the d<in, appears to take the place of the mufculo-cu-
taneus ; the third branch, which accompanies the mufcles
of the fcapula under the fkin, defcends to the humerus,
without producing any remarkable branches. At this place,
however, it fends off feveral ramifications to the extenfor
mufcles of the fore-arm. The trunk continues its direction
forward, expands and lofes itfelf under the fkin, and may
be followed as far as the hand : it may, perhaps, be re-
garded as fupplying the place of the ulnar nerve.

The fixth pair of cervical rerves having, as we have
fhewn, afliited in forming the brachial plexus, paffes along
the internal furface of the fcapula ; about the lower third
of that bone it receives the feventh pair ; the nerve then be-
comes thicker, but foon after divides into two branches ;
one, which is flender, pades into the groove, between the
furca and the clavicle, and then fpreads over the articular
caplule of the humerus, after furnifning numerous filaments
to the mufcles which furround it ; the nerve may be regarded
as analogous to the articular in man. The trunk of the
nerve, which evidently fupplies the place of the median,
upon reaching the articulation of the humerus with the
fcapula, tranfmits filaments to the adjoining mufcles. On
arriving at the palmar furface of the fore-arm, it divides
into three portions, two of which are on the ulnar fide, and
fink deeply into the mufcles ; the third, which is much
larger, follows the radial fide of the fore-arm, and at the
bafe of the thumb proceeds to the palm of the hand, and
detaches filaments to each of the fingers.

The feventh cervical pair unites, as we have ftated, to
the fixth, at the pollerior part of the fcapula, to form the
median and articular nerves. We have, therefore, no oc-
cafion to return to its defcription. The firft dorfal pair is
loft in the mufcles of the flioulder, and is not continued
throughout the arm.

The brachial plexus of the lizard differs a little from that
of the tortoife ; it is formed by two dorfal, and the two
laft cervical pairs : the firll of the cervical furnilhes only
one of its branches to the plexus ; the other going to the
neck.

In

REPTILES.

In the frog, the nerves, which are to be tliftribiiti-d to
the arm, proceed from a very thick cord, which comes
from l)etwecn the fecoiid and tliird vertebrae : tliis makes
the lar^ell nerve in the whole body ; it is foon after joined
by a filament from the fucceeding pair, with which it in-

regarded as the fciatic nerve. A great number of filament!
are afterwards detached from it to tlic mufcles : about the
middle and pofterior part it divides into two branches,
which pafs under the ham, and reprcfent the two popli-
teal nerves, the external and internal : thefe are afterwards

timately unites ; this cord proceeds towards the axilla; it dillributed to the foot of the pofterior lee, nearly in the
fends ott a branch, which pafles above the Ihoulder, and is fame manner as to the human l(jot.

loll in the mufcles of that part. The trunk continues its
courfe to the arm, and very foon forms two principal
brandies, and befides thefe, it alio fends iome filaments to
the extenfors of the fore-arm, and the articular capfule of
the head of the humerus.

Of thefe two nervous cords, one is direfted forward
upon the humerus, and reprefents the median nerve ; it de-
taches fome filaments to the mufcles of the (kin. Arrived
at the fold of the fore-arm, the nerve plunges amongft the
mufcles, along with the tendon of the llerno-radialis, whicli
fupplies the place of the biceps ; it afterwards divides into
two branches, placed one above the other : tlic moll (lender
is fituated between the flexor mufcles of the fingers ; the
larger upon the furrow, which indicates the union of the
two bones of the fore-arm ; they pafs under the ligaments of
the carpus ; having reached the palm, the fuperiicial brancli
is loil in the (kin, which covers that part, and the deep-
leated is diltributed to each of the fingers, nearly as in
man. It alfo furniflies fome filaments to the mufcles of
the hand.

The other cord reprefents the radial nerve ; it turns
round the humerus, and funiifhes, in the firil place, fome
branches to the exteiifor cubiti ; continuing to defcend
round the humerus, it arrives before the articulation v.ith
the bone of the fore -arm : it is aftorwards divided ; one of

Great Sympalhctic Nervi. — There is no defcription of the
diftribiition of this nerve in reptiles, except in the mud
torloiff ; in wLich animal it was dillefted by Cuvier. It
is only dillindt in the interior of tiie back-fhell ; it ha« a
difpofition analogous to that of the cervical ganglion. The
pneumo-gailric nerve, however, adheres fo clofely to it,
that they cannot be feparated : we did not perceive any
filament on the neck, which could be regarded as the
trunk of the nerve.

On the peritoneum, and on the bodies of the vertebra,
there appear very di(lir.6t nervous ganglia, which are mani-
feftly produced by tlie great (ympathetic.

The ganglia are exactly fimilar to thofe of birds. There
are two fuperior and two inferior filaments, which pafs
under the tranfverfe procefs of the vertebra, that is united
to the back (hell : from the internal edge of each ganglion,
a (policlinic nerve proceeds, which forms a plexus round
each of the arteries produced by the aorta; one is alfo
fent to aliid in forming the pnlmuriary plexu^;.

This nerve may be very eafily traced to the in
parts of the firfl vertebra of the tail.

Pbyfiology of the Nervous Syjiem. --The obvious differences
of ftrufture between the warm-blooded animals and rep-
tiles, in this fyflem ; the exceedingly fmall brain and large
nerves of the latter, contralled with the (lender nerves and

internal

the branches is loll under the (kin, the other pad'es under large encephalon of the former, lead us to expeft no lefs
the back of the hand, and terminates on the convexity of (Iriking differences in their economy, than thofe which we
the fingers. From this defcription it will appear, that the actually difcover. Are we to explain by this difference
nerves of the arm in frogs very much refemble thofe of the httle influence that the brain exercifes over the other
the wing in birds. funftions, and the great individual and independent vitality,
In the falamaiider, the nerves of the arm are diftributed if we may ufe the expreflion, of the parts, which appear
as in the frog, but the brachial plexus is formed by two in fo many inflances in the amphibia ? The feverell in-
cervical, and two dorfal pairs, if we may regard as dorfal juries, which in man or the warm-blooded animals would
vertebra:, thofe which fuftain rudiments of the ribs. excite a fympathetic dilturbance of every fundtion, hicrhly
There are no brachial nerves in ferpents. dangerous, and in molt cafes fatal, are borne with little ap-
Ner-ves of the hind Limbs. — In hzards, there is only a parent fuffering, and rellored with facility. ( See the faiSts
fmall nervous filament, which proceeds from the femoral adduced in the phyiiology of the circulating fyftem to
nerve, and fupplies the phace of the obturator. The fe- prove the tenacity of life in this clafs.) Can we explain

moral nerve is itfelf formed of the two laft lumbar pairs,
and pafles above the bones of the pelvis to be diltributed
in the mufcles of the anterior part of the thigh. The
fciatic nerve is produced by the three pairs of nerves, which
follow, and which alfo receive a filament from the laft lum-
bar pair ; the only cord they form proceeds along the in-
lide of the thigh, fubdividing in the mufcles, and extend-
ing to the toes.

The diflribution of the nerves in the abdominal member
is nearly the fame in the falamander ; there are no differences,

in the fame way the reprodudlive powers of this clafs f
Blumenbach feems to confider the explanation fufficient.
" The extraordinary (trength," fays he, " of the repro-
duAive power in feveral amphibia, and the aftonifhing
facility with which the procefs is carried on, muft be ex-
plained, if I miftake not, from the great magnitude of
their nerves, and the diminutive proportion of their brain.
The former parts are in confequence lets dependent on the
latter ; hence the whole machine has lefs powers of motion
and difplays lefs fympathy : the mode of exiftence is more

except in the manner in which the plexus is formed. The fimple, and approaches more nearly to that of the vegetable

femoral is produced by a fingle lumbar pair, which tranf- world, than in the warm-blooded claffes : but, on the con-

mits a branch to the fciatic plexus, formed by the two trary, the pa 'ts poffefs a greater individual independent

fucceeding pairs. vitality. Since, in confequence of this latter endowment,

In the frog, three pairs of nerves enter into the compo- ftimuli, which operate on one part, or one fyftem, do not

fition of the femoral plexus, before which they run the immediately affeft the whole frame by fympathy, as in

whole length of the offa ilii, which are very long : when warm-blooded animals, we are enabled to explain the pecu-

arrived at the thigh, the plexus fends off a nerve, which liar tenacity of fife, which is dilplayed under various cir-

correfponds to the anterior femoral ; it is diftributed in cumllances in this clafs ; vi-:.. frogs continue tojump about

radiated filaments to the fore part of the thigh. The relt after their heart has been torn out ; and tortoifes have lived

of the plexus proceeds into the pelvis, and forms a large cord, for months after the removal of the whole brain from the

which pafles to the pofterior part of the thigh, and may be cranium. The long continued power ot motion in partj

5 E 2 virhich

REPTILES.

which have been cut off from the body, as iii the tail
of the water newt, and in fragments of the blindworni,
may be explained upon the fame principles." Handbuch
der Naturgefchichtc, ed. 6. } 98. p. 221.

The clofe conneilion between the brain, heart, and lungs
in warm-blooded animals, in conlequence of which the cef-
fation of aftion in one very fpeedily (tops the others, and
confequently brings on general death, has been fully ex-
plained in various articles of this Diftionary ; viz. Death,
Heart, Lunos, Nervous S^^flem.

Obfervations ai.'d experiments have not yet been fuffi-
ciently multiplred, to enable us to underltand all the minutia;
connefted with this fubjeft. But obvious phenomena,
which we have already alluded to, (hew us a vaft difference
in this refpedl between mammalia and reptiles. The inter-
ruption of relpiration, which is fatal in two or three minutes
in the human fubjeft, does not Hop the aftion of the heart
and brain until after fome hours in reptiles. The removal
of the heart, or of all the blood from the circulating fyllem,
does not prevent the aftion of the brain, and thus prove
fatal, until after fome hours. And, laftly, the removal of
the wliole brain, or decapitation, which, by interrupting the
aftion of the mufcles employed in breathing, is almott. fud-
denly fatal in warm-blooded animals, does not very greatly
afFeft reptiles. At lead, they only fcem to die from inani-
tion after the operation. Hence breathing cannot be under
the immediate influence of the brain in thefe animals, for its
interruption is fatal in a few hours. Le Gallois alferts that
death follows much more quickly, when decapitation is
effefted below the occipital foramen, than above it, becaufe
in the latter cafe the part of the brain is left, which he has
alferted to be neceflary to refpiration ; w'z. the origin of
the eighth pair. (See his Experiences fur le Principe de
la Vie, p. 42.) He does not, however, afford us the mate-
rials of drawing any accurate comparifon, and he allows,
that when decapitation is performed in the iirlt vertebra of
the neck, the animal furvives the operation much longer
than it can furvive the interruption of refpiration. He
fays, that falamanders live three or four months, and feem
to die only from inanition, when decapitation has been per-
formed above the foramen magnum.

To the fmall influence of the brain upon the nerves, Blu-
menbach is inclined to refer, in fome degree, the low
temperature of reptiles. Although he confiders it now as
certain, that the lungs are the fource, and the oxygenous
part of the atmofphere the material, whence the heat of
living animals is derived, he afcribes to the aftion of the
nervous fyftem a confiderable influence in exciting and fup-
porting the evolution of animal heat. Specimen, p. 22.

The brain feems to exercife as complete and prompt a
dominion over the voluntary mufcles in thefe, as in warm-
blooded animals. Their motions are equally lively, and
the force of contraftion does not feem at all inferior.

We know of very few fafts that throw light on the intel-
leftual faculties of reptiles. Yet there is fufficient evidence
of their pofleffing memory and a capability of inftruftion.
The frog and tree-frog can be taught to feed from the
hand ; and acquire a flight attachment to their mafter.
(Daudin, v. 8. p. 88.) The rattlefnake, the hooded-fnake
(col. naia), the boae, and the coluber natrix in Europe (at
lealf commonly in Germany), are taught to dance, and ex-
hibit various motions at command. ( Kaempfer, Amcenitates
Exoticje, p. 565.) In the hillorical accounts of the religion
of ancient Egypt, we learn that the prieils of Memphis
bred up crocodiles in their temples, and fucceeded fo far
in depriving them of their ferocity, as to employ them in
wligious ceremonies. Befides the accounts of Herodotus,

5

Strabo, S:c. on this fubjeft, we have the authority of a
refpeftable eye-witnefs concerning very furprifing fuccefs in
tamirig a crocodile ; fee J. Greaves's Mifcillaneous Works,
p. 525 : and for the like fuccels in the common toad, fee
Blumenbach, Specimen, &c. p. 27. We know not on
what grounds the fcrpent gained his charafter for wildom,
inteUigence, forefvght ; why he was felefted as an emblem
for the goddefs of prudence, or chofen by the Epidaurians as
the reprefentative of Efculapius.

Of the artificial inlUnfts, which are fo frequent in the
mammalia and birds, not even a trace is to be met with iu
the whole clafs of reptiles.

There is no regular Jleep, or intermifllon of aftivity, in the
organs of fenfation and voluntary motion, recurring at Hated
intervals, in reptiles : unlefs, perhaps, in the turtles, of
whom it has been reported by fome.

Whiter Jleep, on the contrary, feems to prevail through the
whole clafs. Herodotus obferved this of the Nilotic cro-
codile, which, he fays, palles four months of the winter
without eating. Catefljy has remarked it of tlie crocodile
of Carolina ; and Lacoudreiiier reports, that thofeof Loui-
fiana betake themfelves to the muddy marlhes when the
cold comes on, and remain fo torpid, that they may be cut
without (hewing iigns of fenCbility. But the warm days
of winter re-animate them. Journal de Phyfique 1782,
t. 20. p. 333.

No animals, except infefts, are fo fenfible to heat
as reptiles. The warmth of the fun feems to give them
new life : as it increafcs, their vivacity and agility are aug-
mented. Cold, on the contrary-, benumbs them, and would
be aftually dellruftive, if they did not withdraw from its
pernicious influence. They retire into the crevices of walls
or rocks, the hollows of old trees, holes in the earth, or the
bottoms of ponds, &c. to await the return of the genial
feafon. The phenomena of this winter fleep are the fame
in reptiles, as in warm-blooded animals. The fufpenfion
of the aftions of the nervous fyftem is followed by an uni-
verfal torpor of the other funftions. As the brain and the
organs of voluntary motion become inaftive, the circulation
languifhes, refpiration is barely continued, and vital tem-
terature is reduced to the lowefl: degree.

Spallanzanl found that when the temperature was reduced
to i^° below zero, the heart of a ferpent beat only twice in
a minute, and refpiration was fufpended. ( Rapports de
I'air avec les etres organifes, t. i. p. 230.) In a tempe-
rature of 7°, the heart foon recovered its aftion, and beat
ten or twelve times in a minute : in Itiil higher temperatures,
the pulfations were 28 or 30 /i^r minute. (Ibid.) In the
lethargic ftate, thefe animals changed the air very little.
Frogs became equally lethargic in reduced temperatures;
the heart beating very flowly, and the air being flightly
changed. Ibid. p. 470.

Cold appears to be the immediate caufe of this winter
torpor ; hence both reptiles and warm-blooded animals may
be preferved in fituations artificially warmed throughout the
period of their winter fleep, without becoming torpid ; but
if the torpidity has commenced, they cannot be artificially
awakened without danger. It is well known that the
falamander, the water-newt, the tree-frog, and the alpine
marmot, may be kept awake through the winter in a room
warmed by a ftove. Gleditfch witneffed the fatal effefts
of violent excitement in the winter ileep in the frog (Mem.
de I'Acad. de Berhn, 1762, p. 17.): it has been obferved
alfo in the marmot, the dormoufe, and the fwallow.

It may be remarked further, of warm-blooded animals,
as well as reptiles, that fome fpecies affemble together, and
are gregarious in their torpidity, while others are fohtary.

The

REPTILES.

The bat, fwallow, frug, and falamander, exemplify the
former.

Organs of the Senfes.

Organ of V'ifion. — Reptiles, like all vertebral animals, have
two inoveable eyes occupying the cavities of the head called
orbits, and poilefling in their llnidlnre the fame elTential
parts as in man. Their ftrufture has not been much iii-
veftigated : there is fomc information in a memoir of Petit,
in the Acad, dcs Sciences, 1737; and an account of the
tortoifes in CalJefi.

They occupy the fides of the head, except in the cro-
codile, where they are placed above, between the cranium
and jaw.

In the proteus they are covered by the integuments, and
thus concealed until the latter are removed : this animal is,
therefore, like the zemni or mus typhlus among mammalia,
and conlequently blind. All other reptiles have the fcnfe
of fight, and fome poflels even large and prominent eyes.

The tortoife has, at the anterior part of the fclerotica,
fimilar ofleous lamina to thofe of birds. They are inclofed
in that membrane, without being continued into its fub-
flance, and may be eafily feparated from it. There are
fimilar laminae in the camcleon and fevcral other lizards,
but they do not form the anterior difk, they merely fur-
round the lateral part. Daudin has found this ftrufture in
the common iguana and the great tupinambis of America.

" In the tortoife," fays Cuvier, " the ciliary procefles
projeft fo very little, that we could fcarcely recognize them,
were it not for the elegant impreffion they leave on the
vitreous body ; but in the crocodile thefe procefles are very
beautiful, and very confpicuous : they are each terminated
by a nearly right angle. I have obfervcd thefe proceiles
in the form of elongated threads in a large foreign tree-
frog ; there are alfo fuch, though not dilfini!:!;, in the toad.
I have not ebferved them in the common lizards, nor in
the ferpents.

" The iris of reptiles refemblcs that of fifhes in its golden
colours ; fometimes it is red or brownifh. The vellels are
more vifible than in fUb ; they form a beautiful net-work
on the iris of the crocodile.

" The ligure of the pupil varies ; in the crocodile it is ver-
tically oblong, as in the cat : in frogs rhomboidal. The
tortoife, cameleon, and common lizards, have it round ; the
gecko rhomboidal.

•' The optic nerve in all reptiles pafTes through the mem-
branes of tlie eye direitly, and by a round hole, as in quad-
rupeds ; it forms internally a fmall tubercle, from the
edges of which the retina proceeds.

" The cryftalline is more fpherical in the turtle afid frog,
than in the mammalia : the ratio of its axis to its diameter
J9 in the former 7 to 9, in the latter 7 to 8 : thefe propor-
tions are nearly thofe which it has in tifhcs."

Mufcles of the Ghlc. — There are iix in the tortoife, dif-
pofed like thofe of fifties : and befides, four fmall ones,
which clofely embrace the optic nerve, and fpread over the
convex portion of the fclerotic, after being interrupted by
the mufcle of the third eye-lid. The fame ftrufture is found
in the crocodile.

In frogs and toads there is a great funnel-like mufcle,
which embraces the optic nerve, and is divided into three
portions ; its inferior fibres advance more towards the edge
cif tlie eye than the fuperior. There is only a fingle ftraight
mufcle on the inferior part, and coiifequently only a fingle
depreflbr. There is one very (hort oblique mufcle attached
to the anterior part of the orbit, and inferted direftly into
the adjoining part of the globe. The mufcle of the third

eye-lid is fo clofc to the inferior jpart of the fiifpenfory
mufcle, that it becomes ftrctclied when the latter fwells ;
which accounts for the elevation of the third eye-lid when
tlie eye is lowered.

Blumenbach remarks, that no inftance of the leucsethiopic
formation, or deficiency of the colouring matter of the
choroid coat and iris, has ever been fcen in reptiles ; al-
though it is fo common in the two warm-blooded claffcs,
and in the human fiibjeft. Specimen, p. 27.

Many reptiles fhun the light, lying hid by day, and
coming out to feek their food at night. Others appear very
fond of light, whether tiiat of the fun, as the green lizard
and green frog ; cu" of artificial flame, like that of a candle,
as the tree-frog.

It feems peculiar to the cameleon to have the power of
moving the two eyes at the fame time in different dii eftions ;
fo that he is not neceffarily obliged, like other animals, to
bring tiie two optic axes into the fame dircftion.

Eye-lids — Reptiles vary fingularly with rcfpeft to the
number and difpofition of tlieir eye-lids : ferpents have none ;
crocodiles and tortoifes have three, and the third is verti-
cal, as in birds : tliere are alfo three in frogs, but the
third is horizontal like the other two. The third eye-lid is
the part called membrana niflitans.

Tlie crocodiles arc remarkable for having bone in the
upper eye -lid : in general there is only a fingle bit near the
anterior angle ; but in the crocodilus palpebrofus the whole
eye-lid is occupied by a plate divided into three pieces. See
Cuvier in Annales du Muleum, v. 10.

The horizontal eye-lids of crocodiles and tortoifes clofc
cxaftly ; they have each an enlargement at their edge, but
no cilia ; the third eye-lid is femi-tranfparent ; it moves
from behind forwards, and may cover the whole eye ; it has
only one mufcle, which is analogous to the pyramidalis of
birds : it is fixed in the fame manner to the poftcrior part
of the globe inferiorly. After having turned round the
optic nerve, it rcpaffes under the eye to fend its tendon to
that eye -lid ; but there are neither the mufculus quadratus,
nor its flieath, as in birds.

In the other lizards there are alfo very remarkable va-
rieties. The common lizards have, for eye-lids, a kind of
circular veil extended before the orbit, and perforated by
a horizontal fiiiuie, which is capable of being clofed by a
fphinClcr mufcle, and opened by a levator and dcpreflor j
its inferior part has a fmooth round cartilaginous difl<, as
in birds ; there is, befides, a fmall internal eye-lid, but it
has no proper mufcle ; it is entirely wanting in the came-
leon, in which animal alfo the flit of the eye-lids is fo fmall,
that the pupil can fcarcely be obferved through it. The
gecko has no moveable eye-lid ; its eye is protefted by a
(light margin of the flcin, as in ferpents. A fimilar difpo-
iition feems to prevail in the fcink.

Blumenbach lias examined more particularly the ftrufture
of the part which covers the front of the eye in ferpents.
" Thefe animals," he obferves, " are commonly faid to throw
off the external layer of the cornea Tvith the reil of their
epidermis when they change their fkin. On examining this
matter more miiuitcly in the coluber natrix, I find that that
part of the epidermis, which is perfeftly tranfparent and
Itretchcd before the eye, is not actually connefted to the
cornea, but feparated from it by a imall quantity of water.
It is immove^.ble, fo that the globe moves behind it, as
behind a window." Specimen, Sec. p. 26.

In frogs and toads the fuperior eye-lid is only a projec-
tion of the ftin, and almolt immoveable ; the inferior is
more moveable, and has a fwoln edge ; but the third, which
moves from below upward, is moft employed by thefe ani-
mals:

REPTILES.

mals : it is very tranfparcnt ; it has on ■ mufclc fituated
tranlvcritly, bcliiiicl the globe, which forms a tliiu tendon
on each fiJc of the eye, to be inferted into the free edge of
the third eyi'-hd.

The fabiiiaiidcrs liave only two eye-lids, which are hori-
zontal, flelhy, and little moveable ; it appears that they
may entirely cover the eye.

Reptiles vary as much with refpeft to their lachrymal
glands as to their eye-lids.

The fea tortoifes have a very confiderable gland at the
pofterior angle ; it is reddilli, granulated, divided into lobes,
and extends under the arch which covers the temple.

In the freth-water tortoifes we find two fmall blackifli
glands, which alfo exill in toads and frogs ; but their ex-
cretory dufts have not yet been accurately obferved.

SL-rpents, like firties, have no gland in the eye ; they
have, however, a peculiar ftrutture near the eye, the office
of which ii not very obvious ; the following account of it
is given by fir Everard Hume.

" An oval cavity is plactd at the inner angle of the eye
in fome ferpents, tlie opening into which is within the inner
angle of the eye-lid, and direfted towards the cornea. In
this opening there are two rows of projections, which appear
to form an orifice capable of dilatation and contraction.
Thefe cavities are lined with cuticle, which is flicd with the
reft of tliat integument. From the lituation of thefe oval
cavities, they muft be confidered as refervoirs for a fluid,
whicli is occalionally to be fpread over the cornea ; and
they may be filled by tiic falling of the dew, or the moifture
fhakcn off from the grafs, through which the fnake paffes."
Phil. Tranf. 1804, p. 75. with a figure.

Organ of Hearing, — iiach an organ h pofTefTed by all rep-
tiles. Its conitruftion varies confiderably in the different
orders and genera : thefe varieties affecting the external or
accelTory parts, as the tympanum, ofTicula, &c. more than
the eiTential portion of the organ, its membranous labyrinth,
on which the auditory nerve is expanded. No reptile has
any external ear ; and the crocodile affords the only example
of a kind of external meatus. Frogs, teftudines, and moft
of the lizard kind, have a tympanum and Euftachian tube ;
but thefe parts are wanting in the falamander, and moft of
the ferpents. The ear of the turtle, tortoife, frog, lizards,
and (erpents, are defcribcd and delineated by Brunelli in
the Comment. Inftit. Bonon. v. 7. Comparetti has exhi-
bited figures of the fame fubjeft s in his Obfervationes Ana-
tomicx de aurc interna comparata, Patav. 1789, 4to.
Scarpa has given moft beautiful engravings of the ear in the
turtle, crocodile, green lizard, falamander, viper, and blind-
worm, in his Difquifitiones de Auditu et Olfaftu.

Tie Labyrinth. — The membranous labyrinth of the ear,
in reptiles, is, in general, compofed, as in fifhes, of three
canals and a fac ; but there are fome fpecies which have an
additional part.

In the falamanders, whofe ear, like that of fifhes, con-
fifts of the labyrinth only, the three canals are fituated above
the fac ; they are deprefTed fuperiorly, and form together a
triangle wtiicn is almoft equilateral ; each has its ampulla,
and the fac contains a body of the confiftence of ftarch, as
in the rays and {harks.

Frogs and toads differ very little from falamanders, with
refpeiS; to the membranous labyrinth ; they have the fame
parts in the fame pofition, and their fac alfo contains one
amylaceous fubftance : their three canals form nearly a
complete circle, by their junftion with the fac.

Crocodiles and lizards have alfo three canals, but they
ire larger, and each approaches nearer to a perfeft circular
form : the fac is fituated proportionally more within the

head ; its membranous parietes are furniflied with feveral
blood-velii-ls, which are ])articularly confpicuous in the cro-
codile. 1 he folid parts it contains are three in number,
and tliey are fmaller, and even lofter, than thofe of the
choiidropterygious lilhes. Laftly, their labyrinth is ren-
dered remarkable by having an additional part to thofe we
liave already dclcribed : this is the firll veitige of the
coclilea ; it is the produdtion of the fac, in the form of a
cone (lightly arched ; it is diredted, under tlie cranium, to-
wards the middle line, and is divided into compartments, or
ratliL-r canals, by a double cartilaginous fcptiim ; one apart-
ment communicates with the fac ; the other, which is a
continuation of the firil, reflefted on itfelf, terminates at a
very fmall hole, which is clofed by a membrane that fepa-
rates it from the cavity of the tympanum.

This organ is precifely fimilar to that which is found in
all birds. Comparetti was the firft who defcribed it in lizards.
It ib very large in the crocodile, and may be eafily prepared
from young fubjefts.

It is more difficult to find this in the cameleon and the
maibl'.d lizard. A veftige of it may be obferved in the
ferpents. The produftion which may be compared to this
trumpet, or rudiment of the cochlea in the tortoife, is very
iimilar to the part we named the fac, ftriftly fo called, in
filbes ; and this refemblance confifts not only in its form,
but in the fmall amylaceous fubftances it contains : this
feems to leave no doubt of the analogy between the fac and
the cochlea in man, or of that between the part we call the
films, and the veftibule. We muft, therefore, Judge of the
pcrfettion of the labyrinths of thefe different ears, by the
degree in which the cochlea is developed.

Tortoifes and ferpents have the femi-circular canals, like
other reptiles. In the tortoife they are proportionally
very fhort.

The ojfeous labyrinth of reptiles refembles that of the
chondropterygii ; that is to fay, it envelopes the whole of
the membranous labyrinth, but in a manner more or lefs
clofely.

In the tortoife, the feptum, which feparates the veftibule
from the cranium, is not ofTified ; it remains partly mem-
branous. The membranous femi-circular canals are much
fmaller than the bony cavities containing them.

In the crocodile and other lizards, the offeous labyrinth
clofely embraces the membranous, or completely covers it
by a thin and hard lamina.

Cavity of the Tympanum and its Appendages. — Among rep-
tiles, the falamander has the labyrinth completely inclofed
within the cranium, and deprived of all external communi-
cation, as in the fifhes that have fixed branchiae. But the
other genera of the fame order have all a feneftra, called oval,
fupporting an offeous plate, analogous to the bone called
ftapes in man. The lizard genus has another aperture,
clofed only by a membrane, and called feneftra rotunda.

The barrel, or cavity of the tympanum, cannot be faid
to exift in ferpents : the ftalk of the plate, filling the feneftra
ovalis, is furrounded by the flefh, and its extremity touches
the Ikin, near the articulation of the lower jaw.

In toads and frogs, the whole of its pofterior part is
membranous ; it communicates immediately with the back
of the mouth, by a large hole, which may be feen on open-
ing the mouth of the animal. It is very fmall, and almoft
entirely membranous in the pipa, in which the labyrinth is
coiinefted with the feneftra ovalis by only a very long
canal.

It is alfo membranous pofteriorly and inferiorly in the
common lizards, and in the cameleon : it communicates with
the bottom of the palate by a fhort wide canal.

The

REPT1LE>S.

Tlie barrel of the crocodile may he dividril into two
parts : one external, wliicii is very wide, and cloftd on the
outfide by the membrane of the tympanum, and the ll<in,
but entirely furrounded by the bones ; and one internal,
which IS feparated from the former by a contradlion, and
which communicates with the two feneilrx, and with feme
cavities analogous to the madoid cell? of man, but much
larger. One of theie cavities is placed between the femi-
circular canals, and the other is direiSlod backward and out-
ward. The barrel is fituated towards the fuperlor part of
the cranium.

The cavity of the tympanum in the tortoife is placed
more laterally : it is not fo wide externally ; and the con-
traction, wliick feparates the external part from the internal,
is lefs confpicuous, becaufe the projeftion, whicii it forms,
is rounded, and not acute, as in the crocodile. The in-
ternal portion is prolonged backward, in the form of a
large round cell : in the bottom of the cavity, oppofite to
the membrane of the tympanum, there is a narrow canal, in
which the officulum is funk, and which communicates with
the fencftra ovalis. The Euilachian tube is a canal of a
moderate length, which proceeds downward, and a little
backward, and terminates in the palate, behind and within
the articulation of the jaw.

The Mcmbrana Tympanl and Its ojfeous Frame. — Animals
wliich want the barrel of the tympanum, as filhes, fala-
manders, &c. have no membrana tympani. That mem-
brane is alfo wanting in feveral reptiles that have a barrel, 33
the cameleon : the ikin pafles over the external aperture of
their ear, without undei-going any change, either in its
thicknefs or its ftrufture ; and the exiftc-nce of the organ of
hearing can only be afcertaincd by diflettion. On removing
the lliin, and fome portions of the mukles, we find, in lome
fpecies, and particularly in the flow-worm (anguis fragihs),
a kind of membranous cxpanfion.

In the tortoife, the large external aperture of the barrel
is doled by a very thick cartilaginous plate, which is itfelf
covered by a fcaly Ikin, perfedlly fimilar to that of the reil
of the head.

In frogs and toads, the membrana tympani is on a level
with the head, and the ikin that covers it becoming finer, it
is rendered perceptible by an oval Ipot, which is Imoother
than the rell of the head, and ufually of a particular
colour.

In common lizards, the membrana tympani is alfo level
with the head, but very thin, fmooth, and tranfpareut ; for
at that part the ll<ui becomes as imooth and fine as the
cornea of the eye.

In the crocodile, it is of the fame nature, but more funk
into the head, and covered by two fleihy lips, which fupply
the place of the external ear.

In lizards, though the point of the cone formed by the
membrana tympani projefts lefs than in birds, it is alfo di-
refted outward, as in them. The membrane is nearly plane
in frogs and tortoifes.

The membrana tympani is on a level with the adjacent
parts of the head, and confequently is nearly vertical in all
animals in \vhich its fituation is fuperficial ; but in thofe
whicii have it funk, its inchnation, whether confidered with
relation to the head itfelf, or to the external meatus, varies
coiifiderably.

It inclines obliquely upward, and to one fide, in the cro-
codile.

The olTeous frame, to which the membrane is attached,
is not marked by any prominent edge : it is interrupted
poilcriorly. Its great axis is vertical in the tortoife and
the coinmon lizards, and its anterior arch is more convex.

In the crocodile, it is a regular oval, the great axis of which
is direfti'd obliquely backward.

OJficula Auditus The frog and the toad have two ofTicuIa

in the ear : cne fupplies the place of the malleus and the
incus ; it is attached to the rtiinibrana tympani by a flender
branch, which forms an acute angle v itli the part that pafles
into the barrel : that part lias the ftiape of a club ; its in-
ternal extremity is thethickeft, and articulates by a double
furface to the feeond oflicuhim, which correfponds to the
ftapes. The latter has a femi-elliptic form, and is applied
to the feneftra ovalis by its plane furface : both thefe bodies,
which are ofh ous in other animals, arc cartilaginous in the
frog and toad.

Lizards and tortoifes rcfemble birds, in having a fingle
officulum with a thin hard ftalk, and an oval or triangular
plate (columella). It is attached to the membrane of the
tympanum in lizards, and particularly in the crocodile, by
a cartilaginous branch ; but in the tortoile, its outward ex-
tremity is dirrdlly implanted in the cartilaginous mafs, which
correfponds to the membrana tympani itielf.

In the crocodile, the plate is an elongated ellipfis, the
great axis of which is fituated longitudinally.

In the tortoife, the bone is enlarged in the form of a
trumpet, and is applied to the feneflra by a regularly oval
and concave furface.

Serpents have an officulum, but no membrana tympani.
Its external extremity touches the bone that fupports the
lower jaw : it is furrounded by the flefh, and is applied to
the feneftra by a concave plate, the edges of which are ir-
regular.

In the cameleon, the plate alfo reprefents the wfde end of
a trumpet ; its ilalk becomes cartilaginous, and is loft in
the flefh.

The feneftra veftibularis of falamanders is clofcd only by
a fmall cartilaginous operculum, which has no ftalk, and is
concealed by the flcfti.

Miifclss fif the OJfuuht. — Little is known about thefe in
reptiles. It appears that ferpents, cameleon";, and fala-
manders, are entirely deftitute of them, and that they are
very indiftiiift in the teftudines. Comparetti has made fome
refearches on this fiibjeft, but without any clear or fatis-
faftory refults.

External Meatus, &c. — All parts of the ear, external to
the membrana tympani, are wanting in reptiles. In the
crocodile only is there any appearance of an external meatus,
the ft<in forming a kind of lip or operculum above the mem-
brana tympani : the latter is entirely concealed, except when
this coveriiio- is removed. This mull be the part mentioned
by Herodotus as the external ear of the crocodile, to which
the Egyptians attaclied rings.

Dljlribvtion of the Nerves. — In reptiles and fifties, but
efpecially in the latter, we can obferve, ftill better than in
warm-blooded animals, the conftancy with which the
branches of the auditory nerve proceed to the ampullse of
the femi-circular canals. In reptiles it divides before it
pafl'es into the ofl'eous labyrinth, which it enters by feveral
holes.

Organ of Touch and Integuments — It does not feem clear
that reptiles poflefs the fenle of touch, that is, the power of
recognifing, by any par-.s of their ikin, the figure, hardnefi
or foftnefs, rousrhnels or fmoothnefs, of bodies. To the
imprefiions of heat and cold, there is no doubt of their being
fenfible.

In no clafs do we obferve fo much variety in the nature of

the integuments ; the fkin is different in almoft every fpecies.

In many the ftrufture is fo fingular, that if we judged by

this alone, we ftiould form them into leparate claffes. What

y a contraft

REPTILES.

a contrail docs the lliell or bony cafe of the tortoife form to
the fmooth (Idn of the tree-frog ; liow different are the an-
nulated (kin of the amplii(bxna, the fcaly covcnnjrof other
fcrpents, and the integuments of the toad, rough and tubiT-

Epidermis. — When we examme what parts ot the body
are covered with fl<in in the tortoife and turtle, we can re-
cognize it at firft light only on the head, neck, limbs, and
tail ; the other parts exhibit to us merely an offeous box or
exterior flceleton, incloling the body. But, if we examine
more attentively, we (hall find this (keleton covered by an
extremely thin epidermis, which may be detached in tranf-
parent laminx, fimilar, in figure, to the horny plates, and
varying in its coiifdtence in the different (pecies. It re-
fembles a fmooth and tranfparent parchm.cnt in the tedndo
centrata of Bofc (Daudm, t. ii. p. 153.) The epidermis
covering other parts of thefe animals is a fmooth tliin layer,
not effentially different from that of the frog and lala-
mander, and detached in (lireds feveral times in the year.

The epidermis of the falamander and frog is a foft thin
membrane, covered with a mucous fecretion ; which anfwers
a particular ufc in fome kinds, as the rana calamita, enabled
by its afhilance to adhere to tlie fmoothed bodies. This fe-
cretion, a fimple and innocent mucus, is very different from
another, which is found in many reptiles, podeffnig ex-
tremely powerful fenfible properties ; the latter is delcribed
under the head of peculiar fecrctions, in the latter part of
this article.

The thin tranfparent cuticle of the frog, falamander, and
newt, is very frequently changed, being detached in large
portions. Blumenbach dates that this change takes phce
in the fummer mouths at lead once a week. Specimen,
p. 26.

The epidermis of hzards covers all their fcales, and is de-
tached in fmall dried portions, er in larger pieces. It forms
alfo a thin continuous dratum in ferpents, enveloping the
whole furface, and fpread over every fcale and plate.
It is detached annually, at a certain feafon, in a fingle
piece, like a (lieath. The call (kin ((lough, exuvise) is
turned infide out, fo that its exterior furface is the part
previoully in contaft with the true (kin. The animal efcapes
at the mouth, which is the only opening by which it can
get out of the fheath. The part correfponding to the jaws
IS fird detached, and turned back, fo as to expofe to us
the fnout, covered by a new (kin. As the head pafies out
of its dieath, the latter goes backwards in the fame propor-
tion towards the tail, and is thus at lad completely inverted.
The tranfparent piece correfponding to the eye (lee an ac-
count of the eye) has its concavity outwards.

Retc Mucofum. — In all reptiles there is, under tlie epi-
dermis, a mucous tiflue, of which the colours vary very
-much. In the teiludines, for indance, the llvin which
covers the feet and neck is not only differently coloured by
the rete mucofum, but the fymmetrical fpots, which we re-
mark on the fcales, are produced by the fame (ubdance.
This we difcover by difiedion. The thicknefs of the (l<in
greatly diminifhes as it approaches the bread-plate and the
back-ihell. It paffes below the fcales which cover thofe
parts, and which are, themfelves, covered by the epidern'.is
and rete mucofum ; the variegated colours of which form
the fpots which we obferve through the tranfparent parts.
A rete mucofum is equally found in the lizards, ferjjents,
falamanders, frogs, &c. It is varioudy coloured in each
fpecies ; and it prefents often the mod beautiful and charm-
ing tints. We find in this clals almoil all the known
(hades, even blue, bright red, orange, pearly, gold and
filver.

Reptiles are remarkable for the changes of colour whu...
they exhibit, according to the fe-ifon or climate in which
they live, or to temporary affedlions of various kinds. In
this way the camekon has been mod celebrated, and hai.
aftbrded a very trite fubjeft to poet» and moralifls. Tlv
changes are, in reahty, very remarkvble, and are particu-
larly noticeable when the animal pafles from the (hade into
the fun, or vice -verfi, when he is touched, or any thing
placed round liim. Sec.

This property, however, is, by no means confined to the
cameleon. Brown long ago obierved it in feveral fpecies of
lii^ards (Natural Hidory of Jamaica, p. 462.); and it
occurs alfo in reptiles of thele climates. The green iguana,
the agame, and . the green lizard, are fomctimes green,
fometimes brownilh in their colour. The former is parti-
cularly obfervcd in the copulating feafon ; and is loft in the
cold and rainy parts of the year. The common tree-frog
of Europe exhibits various tints from the brighted emerald
green to grey, blueilh, violet, or brown. Other frogs and
falamanders change their colours alfo, particularly about-
the copulating feafon.

The Piipilhe. — Reptiles referable birds with refpeft to the
papillx ; we find none except under their feet ; they are
very thick, and projecting in feveral fpecies of lizards, and
particularly in the cameleon. We cannot diftinguifh them
m the fea tortoife, which have the feet in the form of fins.
They do not exid in ferpents, or at lead have not the form
of papillae.

Cutis. — Reptiles which have the body unfurniihed with
fcales, or only partly covered by them, have a very com-
paft and denfe (Icin. We have an example in the tortoifes,
falamar.ders, frogs, and toads. In the two laft genera, in
particular, the cutis is rendered remarkable by not adhering
to the body in all its points, as in the other animals, in which
it is intimately united with the cellular fubdance. In thofe
genera, however, it adheres only at the edges of the mouth,
in the middle line of the body, the arm-pits and the groins.
In all the other parts the body is free within the cutis, which
inclofes it like a fac.

In lizards and fcrpents we find, as in fifhes, a ftrong cutis
under the fcales, even adhering very clofely to the mufcles.
Cutaneous Mufcles. — There is no cutaneous mufcle on the
trunk of frogs, becaufe the flcin does not adhere to that
part of their body. Under the throat, however, we find
iome fibres, which are attached to the margin of the jaw,
and inferted into the cellular fubdance that unites the (kin
to the origin of the bread.

In tortoifes the cutaneous colli is very vifible, and feems
to be formed of two parts ; it is extended from within the
concavity of the lower jaw to the bottom of the neck, at the
anterior part of the bread-plate. A middle cellular line
unites it with the mufcle of the other fide ; it takes its origin
from the tranfverfe proceffes of the cervical vertebrje. Benig
fpread over all the mufcles of the neck, it ferves as a girdle
to them ; in its lower part it is perforated by the demo-
madoideus, which, as we have already obferved, arifes from
the lateral parts of the bread-plate.

Secretions of the Skin. — Among reptiles, thofe that have
fcales, as fnakes and Hzards, have the (kin almod dry ; but
thofe with naked flcins, as falamanders and frogs, have
the furface of the body always copioufly lubricated with
vifcous matter.

Toads and falamanders have even the power of augment-
ing the fecretion of this liquor, and of making it exude, hke
a dew, through the pores of the (Icin.

The cutaneous glands are more vifible in cold-blooded
animals, than in the mammalia.

The

REPTILES.

The falaniaiiders liavc fevcral glands ranged along the fenfes in this clafs, fays Daudin, if we may judge by the

back, which form elevations or lumps on the iicin. Ilrudture of the nollrils. Reptiles do not fceni to employ

The toads have them fcattcrcd irregularly on the whole their fmcU in difcovering or fclefting their food, or for any

furface of the body ; we obferve, in particular, two which of the purpofes to which the faculty is fubfcrvient in other

are very large, behind their ears ; thele glands produce an animals.

acrid humour, which is a poifon to very fmall animals. We find, however, in the whole clafs, nafal cavities open-

In lizards, we obferve a very regular row of fniall pores, ing on the fnout in front, and on the palate behind, lined
which alfo yield a vifcous humour. with a vafcular pituitary membrane, on which olfaftory and

Abforption of ivater by the (Icin of the frog. — Townfon nafal nerves are diftributed.
found that the frog, and tree-frog, when placed on a moillened There are alfo different proj6fting laminx within the nofe •
paper, could abforb the moillure fo rapidly, as nearly to but they confilt or folds of the internal membrane, and are
double their weight in two hours, under certain circnm- not fuilained by offeous parts. The tortoife has three laminse,
ftances. He Hates that they do not drink, but take in all which divide the nafal cavity into feveral foifx. The middle
their fluid in this way. (See his Irafts and ubfervation:. in one correfponds to the external aperture of the noftrils ■
natural hittory.) Daudin has verified the obfervation. He between it and the next there is an oblique canal, which
kept two frog» without any fluid lor feven days, and then leads to the poiterior nares. Wc lind only feme tubercles
placed them in a bottle on moillened flieets of paper. In in frogs, and other fmall fpecies. It does not appear that
two hours they had nearly doubled their weight. Hitt. any refearches have been made refpefting the parts in the
Nat. des Rejitiles, torn. i. p. 1 15. crocodiles.

Fingers — The number of the fingers, and their flexibility, The olfaftory nerve differs in reptiles little from that of
vary nsore in reptiles than in all the otlier clafles. birds, as to its origin and courfe ; it differs lefs in its diltri-

Common li/.ards have, in general, five fingers, of different bution, fince it alfo divides, according to Scarpa, upon the
lengths, well calculated to embrace objedts in every direftion. feptum, and the membranous fold correfponding to the
Some, as the crocodiles, have them palmated, at lealt in the fiiperior turbinated bone, without proceeding farther,
poiterior feet. Others, as the gecko, have them invefted The c.\-<fr«a/ jia/Tx of reptiles, more or lefs approximated,

inferiorly with imbricated fcales. and fufceptible of contraction and dilatation, are ufually fur-

The caineleon has them united by the (liin, as far as the nilhed with only fome flefliv ilrata, which dilate or contraft
nails, in two parts, which form the forceps. The (Icin of their their entrance. This is obfervable in the greater number of
inferior furface is furnilfied with fcnfible papill-je. The long lizards, which differ from each other only as to the pofition
lizards, called feps and chalcides, have only three very fmall of their external nares. They are clofclt to each other in
toes. The falamanders and frogs have them naked and def- the crocodiles. The tupinambis, the Hellions, and the ca-
titute of nails. In tree-frogs, the extremity of the toes is meleons, have them more removed, and fituated more later-
enlarged into a fpongy difk, capable of adhering with force ally. In the falamanders they are exceedingly fmall. In frogs
to bodies. In tortoifes, the toes are palmated. Laftly, we obferve a fmall tube, the motion of which is very ap-
the ferpents are completely deprived of feet and toes. parent, becaufe it is extremely ufeful in refpiration, as we

The long feparate toes of the batracian order, and of have already fhewn. The tortoifes have alfo two very fmaU
feveral lizards, feem well enough calculated to ferve as or- approximated noftrils. In the matamata, and one or two
gans of touch ; they might be applied to objects, and would otiier fpecies, they are fituated at the end of a fliort carti-
furround them in various ways. They feem, however, to be laginous probofcis. The external nofe is alfo rather elon-
employed merely as inilruments of motion. gated in fome ferpents ; for example, in the vipera ammodytes,

" It has been faid of ferpents (obferves Blumenbach), and the coluber nafica. In the reft of this order there are
with more ingenuity than truth, that their whole body is a fmall lateral nares, capable of flight extenfion. In the rattle-
hand ; by which they gain juft notions of the tangible pro- fnake, and fome others, there is a fmall blind hole, near the
perties of bodies. There is much more foundation for nofe, on each fide ; we have defcribed it under the head of
itating that the fenfe of touch, which is here meant, does pecuhar organs. See Scarpa de Auditu et Olfaft u, for a
not exill; in any of the amphibia." Syllem of Comparative defcription and figures of the nofe in the turtle and viper.
Anatomy, p. 319. The Organ of Tajle — All reptiles pollefs a tongue, but

Among tiie reptiles the fcales vary greatly, according to whether they have the fenfe of talle is not fo clear. As ther
the genera. In tortc'fes they are plates ot a horny fub- all fvvallow their prey whole, there feems to be little room for
ftance, which are very hard and denfe in the greater number, the exercife of talte. We have already fpoken of the tongue.
But in the teltudo coriacea, and feveral others, they are foft in the account of the falivary glands ; and have entered fur-
and flexible : fometimes ihefe fcales are imbricated, as in the ther into a confideration of its mechanifm and moving powers
hawk's-bill turtle ; and then they are fmooth, or channelled in our defcription of the organs of maftication and deglu- ,
longitudinally ; at other times they form compartments of tition.

different figures: in the latter cafe they are more or lefs Subjlance of the Tongue. — Reptiles vary greatly with re-
convex, and furrounded with furrows, or concentric chan- fpetf to the tongue, as well as in many other circuraflances.
nels, in the midft of which are points, which are either The tongue of toads and frogs is entirely flefhy, attached to
fcabrous, elevated, or blunt, as in the fpecies named geo- the lower jaw, and, in a ftate of repofe, inflefted in the
metrica, gr^eca, &c. mouth.

In the crocodile the fcales are bony, arranged in Iranf- In falamanders, it is attached as far as the point, which is

verfe bands, and fituated, in refpecl to each other, like the not moveable, and the whole tongue is only free on its
ftones of a pavement. In the other lizards and ferpents lateral parts. Crocodiles have it attached to the lower jaw,
thoy confifl of horny fubftance, and prefent almoft every both by the edges and the point ; and authors long fuppofed
poiiible variety of form and arrangement. that this animal had no tongue. It is entirely flefhy in both

Organ of Smelling. — This is lefs completely developed in the thefe genera,
amphibia than in the two warm-blooded claffes of vertebral The ftellions and the iguanas have a flefhy tongue, which

animals. The fenfe of fmeUing is the moll imperfetl of the pofl'effes nearly the fame mobility as that of the mammalia.
Vol. XXIX. 5 F ' The ,

REPTILES.

The fcinks and geckos diffc-r only in having the tongue
notched at the extremity ; and in that refpett it refembles
the 'tongue of the flow-worms, to which, in general, the
fcinks are very much allied.

In common lizards, the tupinambis, or monitor, &c. the
tongue is fmgularly extenfile ; it terminates in two long
flexible points, though fcmi-cartilaginous ; it completely
refembles that of ferpcnts, if we except the flow-worms and
the amphifbsena, which cannot elongate their tongue, but
which have it flat, and only forked at the extremity.

The cameleon has a cylindrical tongue, which may be
confiderably elongated by a mechanifra analogous to that
which takes place in wood-peckers.

StruBure of its Surface. — The tongue of the tor.oii^e is
furnifhed fuperiorly with long, foft, clofe, conic papilla,
which give it the appearance of velvet.

In the crocodile they are very fliort, and reprefent rather
flight rugas than papillae. They form, on the contrary, a
ver)' dillinclly villous furface in the iguanas and the ftel-
iions. The tongue of the cameleon is furniflied with deep,
clofe, and very regular tranfverfe rugx ; in the lizards, with
extenfile and forked tongues ; and in the ferpents, that
organ is Angularly fmooth, and as it were horny towards
its points.

The falamanders have, like the iguanas, a fine villous
furface to the tongue ; but in tlie frogs and toads the fur-
face is perfeftly fmooth to the eye, and always mucous.

No reptile has two kinds of papillae, nor glands with a
calyx.

Peculiar Organs and Secretions. — Mzny amphibia produce
fingular and Ipecific odours, particularly wlien irritated.
In the water newts the fmell has been compared to that of
chopped parfley ; in toads to garlic ; in the crocodile there
is a very ihong fmell of muflc ; and feveral tortoifes have
this mufli-like fmell. A Angularly fetid odour is pro-
duced by the rattlefnake, when angry. May we fuppofe
that this is a defence againlt hottile attacks, in the falaman-
ders and water newts, as it fcems to be in the viverrse, and
fonie frogs ?

It may probably fcrve in Ipring, as Blumenbach fuggeits,
as a means of s'enereal excitement. For if, after handling
female toads for fome time, the hand is plunged into water,
where there are male toads, they flock inltantly to the fpot,
and clofely embrace the fingers. Specimen, p. 29.

The notion th?.t this odour is employed by the rattlefnake
to fuffbcate, fafcinate, or in any way whatfoever to aft on
the animals which form its prey, is entirely ungrounded, as
we have already explained.

There are generally manifeft organs for the fecretion of
the fubftances in which thefe properties refide. Small gra-
nulated tubercles are feen under the thighs of the lizards, the
chalcides, and the marbled iguana of Surinam, and near the
anus of the amphiibxna, producing, particularly in the
coupling fcafon, a fluid, and fmelling like dry hay.

Mtj/i Gland nf the Crocodile. — It hes under the flcin of the
lower jaw, on each fide, about its middle. It is a fmall
gland, of a homogeneous whitifli tifl^ue, and covered by a
tendinous ftieath. It fecrctes an unftuous blackifli-grey
fluid, fmelling moil ilrongly of muflc, and collefted in a fmall
bag, which opess externally by a large orifice.

Anal Glands have alfo been obfcrved in the crocodile and
alligator, as well as in feveral ferpents. They may be feen
of confiderable fize in female colubres, under the tail behind
the cloaca, in the part occupied by the penes of the males.
They contain a thin yellow fubllance. Tyfon has defcribed
them ill the rattlefnake. Other fnakcs have been defcribed
as producing powerfully fetid odours from the mouth.

Poifonous and Acrid Secrelions.~-Thete is a ftriking difiij -
ence in this refpeft between warm-blooded animals and
reptiles : none of the former produce any thing poifonous,
untefs we fliould make an exception concernhig the liver of
the urfus arftos, which is defcribed by Ger. de Veer, one of
the unfortunate fufferers, to have been nearly fatal when em-
plo)-ed as food by Heemfl<erk and his companions, com-
pelled to winter in Nova Zembla. Blumenbach's Specimen,

P-30-

Befides the terrible poifon with which fo many ferpents

are armed, already defcribed in our account of the teeth,
there are feveral more or lefs aftively hurtful fecrctioiis in
this clafs.

The glands or ciypts under the flcin, forming the cuta-
neous eminences in the falamander and toad, produce an
irritating fluid, which they feem to have the power of ex-
creting at pleafure. Blumenbach defcribcs the acrimony of
this fluid in the rana bombina, from his own experience of
its effefts. Having cut his hand while handling fome of
thefe animals, and applied it to his mouth to fuck the wound,
he found a cauftic heat fuddenly pervade the tongue and
fauces, like what is produced by chewing the bark of the
laurel ; and it continued for feveral hours. P. 24.

It feems to be an analogous fluid in the falamander, by
means of which this mofl innocent little animal, fo unjuilly
deemed venomous, can extinguifli a few coak when placed
in them. But the contortions of the body fufficiently atteil
the pain produced by this cruel experiment, which is loon
fatal, if prolonged. The fabulous notion of the ancients,
that this httle reptile can live in fire, is well known ; and
Benvenuto Cellini has ventured to aflert the truth of it, on
the faith of his own experiments. See his Life.

The notion of the falamander being able to live in fire is
the more extraordinary, when we contrail it with the faft,
that it has been found in cakes of ice, and after remaining
frozen for fome days, recovered. So that it can aftually
furvive congelation.

Dr. Barton of Philadelphia has named an aquatic fala-
mander, which he found near that city, falamandra ve-
nenofa, from the nature of the fluid which exudes from the
tubercles of its back. Daudin, torn. viii. p. 229.

The gecko of Egypt produces a poifonous fluid of con-
fiderable aftivity. " It exudes (fays Haflelquift) from the
lobules of the toes ; the gecko feeks for places and' objefts
impregnated with marine fait, and pafling feveral times over
them, leaves its venom behind. I faw in 1 750, two women
and a girl, who nearly died in Cairo from eating cheefe which
had been thus poifoned. I had another opportunity of
noticing the acrimony of this fluid, in the produftion of red,
inflamed, and itching pufl;ules on the hand of a man, who
endeavoured to catch the animal." The French naturalilts,
attached to the Egyptian expedition, confirm the report of
Haflelquift^. Daudin, tom. iv. p. no, 1 11.

Rattle of tie Genus Crotalus, — This fingular organ confifts
of many pieces, from one to thirty, or more, perfeftly
fimilar, not only in form, but often alfo in fize, compofed
of a brittle, femi-tranfparent, horny fubllance, fimilar to
that of fcales. The piece immediately connefted to the
body forms a fmall ftieath, moulded on the lail vertebrae of
the tail, which it inclefes, and from which it is feparated
only by a thin membrane. Its furface prefents three circu-
lar rifings, correfponding to three elevations of the verte-
bra : the firft, or neareft to the animal's tail, is the largelt,
and the two others decreafe fucceflively. All the pieces
are encafed one in the other, the pofterior two-thirds of each
being enveloped by the following. Of tlie three rifings or
rings on each piece, the anterior only is vifible, the two pof-
terior

REPTILES.

Icrior btiiifT concealctl by tlie followinj^' piece. The lafl, or
fxlrcme portion, has all its tiirce rings vihbk' ; .Tiid the or-
gan coiifills, externally, of this piece, and the fu-d rings of
all the others. The two lall rings of each piece, included
in the two firft of the fucceeding, retain it in its place ;
but, as the diameter of the former is lefs than that of the
latter, each piece is quite loofe, and plays freely about that
which it envelops. None, except the iirll, is united to the
flcin of the animal, or connefted by any mufcle, nerve, or
veflel ; it is, therefore, merely an exterior covering, moved,
as any foreign body would be, when the end of the tail is
agitated.

The different pieces of the organ arc formed fuccefTivcly
on the (Ivin of the tail, reccivmg from it the materials necef-
fary for its developcment, and adhering to it until its
growth IS complete. A fecond jiiece, entirely fimilar to the
firft, is formed under it, and detacl;es it from the end of the
tail. It is pufhed backwards, leaving between its edge and
the flcin of the tail an interval occupied by the full ring of
the new piece, of which the fecond and third rings are co-
vered by the iirlt piece. The latter is retained by this con-
nexion, but plays freely round the firil piece. A third
piece is formed under the fecond, as that was under the firll ;
pulhing the fecond backwards, but retaining it by its two
pofterior rings being included in the cavity of the fecond
piece.

If the vertebr.-e of the tail continue of uniform diameter,
all the pieces will be of the fame fize, and the rattle, confe-
qnently, is of one breadth throughout. On the contrary,
it the vertebrse grow while the rattle is being formed, the
pieces increafe in fize, and thus the rattle tapers to its
end.

It is evident, from the preceding defcription, that one
piece only can he formed at each partial moulting of the
end of the tail ; but as we do not know whether thefe
raoultings coincide with the general fcparation of the epi-
dermis from the body, nor the periods ot their recurrence,
the number of pieces not only affords no proof of fpecific
differences, but alfo indicates nothing about the age of the
animal. Lacepede, Hift. Nat. des Serpens, i2mo. t. 2.
p. 217.

Horns, life, of other Serp:nts and Reptiles. — I'he Egyptian
ceralles is fo named, from its two movcLble, pyramidal, four-
fided, curved horns, about two lines in length, placed above
the eyes. They confitt of fncceflive ftrata, of which the
exterior f::parates like an epidermis, exhibiting always four
grooved fides. The exterior ilratum feparates thus with
the animal's flcin, like the epidermis of the fcales, which
this refembles entirely in its texture. Lacepede, ubi fupra,
t. I. p. 256.

[r. the batracian order, the horned frog has a conical
horny elevation above each eye ; and the rana margaritifera
a peculiar hard crifta on each fide of the head.

The cecilia ibiara has two fmall tentacula or cirri, fcarcely
vifible near the noftrils ; and the ferpcnt, which Lac&p^de
lias named erpeton tentacule (Annales du Mufeum, t. 2.
p. 280.) has two fleihy appendages, covered with fcales, ex-
tending from the end of the fnout horizontally forwards.
Is there any probability that thefe parts in the cecilia and
erpeton are organs of touch ?

Facial Pouches of Serpents. — A fmall bag has been ob-
ferved in the rattleinake, m fixteen colubres, and three bose,
between the eye and the nolb-il ; it has a rounded form,
refting in a hollow of the bone, in fhape not unlike the or-
bit. A fmall orifice behind the noftril leads to it. Thefe
bags, which are lined with cuticle, have their covering call
with the reft of the animal's Ikin. The cavities in queftion

were noticed in the rattlefnake by Tyfoii, Pliil, Trauf.
V. 13. p. 26 ; and they have been fincc defcribed and deli-
neated by Dr. Riiflel and fir Everaid Hume. (Phil. Tranf.
1804, p. 70. j The latter anatomift difcovered nothing like
a fecretory apparatus about them, nor any thing that could
lead to ccnijedturcs concerning their oflice. They appear
moft analogous, in fituation and flrudure, to the fmall bagb
of the deer and antelope, called by the French larmiers.

We conclude our review of the flruifture and phyfiology
of reptiles with the fummary of the principal differences
between their economy and that of the warm-blooded
clafFes, which terminates the excellent " Specimen" of Blu-
menbach.

" Et calidis quldeni aninialibus a prima inde formationis
origine ad ultiniuni ufquc vitx haliluwi phlogiilicus ut hodie
audit proceffus. Mamnialium fcetui placentas adininiculo,
quae foetale phlogifton materno elcniento igiieo commutat.
Pullo incubato porofic teft;t et albuininis ope, quae itidem
igneo pabulo aditum, phlogifto vero fiiperfiuo exitum conce-
dunt. In lucem vero editis turn mammalibus tum avibus,
perpetuo et alterno refpirationis rhythmo.

" Interims porro huic phlogiflico proceffui cum reliquis
fundionum clafiibus nexus, maxime cum iis fyftematis ner-
vofi, ut hiberni mammalium veterni, pha;nomcnis quae fupra
tetigimus, verifimillimus redditur.

" Ipfius porro nervofi fyftematis fumma cum reliquis
fundfionibus confpiratio, praefertim ope rcaftionis fenforii
ab ea encephali portione pendente, qua; prxter originis ner-
vorum fuper eft.

" Ex his omnibus fummus quidem funftionum vigor, mo-
bilitas fumma, hinc corpus vivum infinitis modis innumero-
rum, et multifariorum ftimulorum iinpetui et impreffionibus
fufcipiendis aptum : hinc pras ceteris omnibus fumma homi-
nis prsrogativa, in quo, uti, pridem obfervante Hippocrate,
confluxio una, confpiratio una, confentientia omnia, ita et
omnium maximus et innumerus cum univerfa rcliqua cum
ambiente creatione nexus.

" Longe alia e contrario amphibiorum natura.
" Phlogifticus proceiTus noftratibus perexiguus lentif-
fimus.

" Debilis etiam in omnibus amphibiis fanguinis in ence-
phali funftiones influxus.

" Exigua porro parvi fenforii in craflas nervas reaiftio.
"Minor hinc in univerfum confenfus ; minus unius fuiic-
tionis in alteram imperium.

" Minor hinc totius macliinas animate mobilitas.
" Verum eo major ab altera parte fimplicioris iftius vit;e
tenacitas, quod parte una affefta, fyftemate uno aiHicto, non
tarn facile reliqua in confenfum trahantur.

" In univerfum ergo vita magis vegetativa, reprodudtioni —
ut per utrumque organicum naturas regnuin conftat — longe
magis opportuna, quam quae altioris ordinis facultatibus,
confenfibus, et complicatas confpirationis fubtilitate viget."

Anatomical Defcription of the Proteus Aiiguinus, and Siren

Lacertina See Cuvier, Recherches fur qiielques Reptiles

douteux, infertcd in Humboldt's Recueil d'Obfervations
de Zoologie et d'Anatomie comparee faitcs dans fon
Voyage, t. i.

By the word amphibious, applied to animals, naturalills
have meant to defignate the power of living, and particularly
of breathing, equally well in water and in air. In this fenfe
it cannot be applied, vrith propriety, to any of the animals
who have received the appellation from the ancients, and
moft modern naturalifts. Without fpeaking of the otterS
and hippopotami, which are true aerial quadrupeds, vifitig.
the water merely ia fearch of food, the feals and cetaceou"
5 1' 2 auiraalsy

REPTILES.

animals, compelled by their orjrans of motion to pafs the
whole, or nearly the whole of their life in water, can abfo-
lutely breathe air only.

All the reptiles to whom Linnxus fubfequently transferred
this name of amphibious animals, are finiilarly circumftanced
in their adult Hate ; they can only breathe air, whether they
live conllantly in this element, as the lizard kind, or betake
themfelves, for a longer or fliorter period, to the water, as the
frogs and falanianders. On the otlier hand, the cartilaginous
fifhes, wliicli this fame naturalilt had joined to the reptiles,
like all other filhes, can only breathe by the intervention of
water ; they liaveonly gills ; and it is by having reprcfented
as lungs the forked fwimming bladder of fome of them, that
Dr. Garden caufed the miltake of Linnxus.

The larvx or tadpoles of the batracian reptiles only, that
is to fay, of tlie falamandcrs and frogs, the tree-frogs and
toads, have both branchix and lungs ; breathe, at leaft. for a
certain time, both the air in its elalUc itate, and that which
is contained in water ; confequently participate equally the
nature of aerial and aquatic animals ; and may, therefore,
without impropriety, bear the name of amphibious in its
moll ftrid acceptation. But with thefc it is only a tranfi-
tory, and with fome perhaps only a momentary Hate. As
their lungs are developed, their branchix arc obliterated, and
they entirely lofe the latter, often even before reaching their
full fize, and particularly before they are capable of repro-
duiftion. Such, at leall, is the refult of oblervations on all
the tadpoles of thefe climates, on all which it is poffible to
follow in their various developements.

But naturalifts have ohfervcd three other animals, uniting,
like our tadpoles, the two kinds of refpiratory organs, not
appearing to lofe any of them at any epocha of their lives,
and of fuch form and fize, that it is faid in the countries
which they inhabit, no perfeit reptile is known, of which
they could be the larvs. Are thefe creatures perfeft ani-
mals— true permanent amphibia? Should they be con-
fidered an intermediate clafs between reptiles and fifhes ?
We proceed to examine this queflion, obferving, in the firit
place, that the Hrufture of the circulating organs in the
common tadpoles, which has been defcribed in a former part
of this article, mull be kept in view as a point of com-
parifon.

Anatomy of the Siren Laeerlina — This animal is common
in the rivers and marfhes of South Carolina, and is remark-
able for poffefTing only the fore feet. Dr. Garden fent an
individual to Linnxus, accompanied with a defcription, in
which he mentioned the fimultaneous exiftence of branchix
and lungs, and declared that there is no falamander in Caro-
lina large enough to have been produced from the firen.
Hence Liniixus determined to ellablifh for it a particular
order of reptiles, the amphibia meantcs. Nearly at the fame
time it was defcribed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions by
Ellis, whofe defcription was accompanied with an anatomy
of the animal by Mr. J. HuHter. Yet feveral naturahfls
Gontelled the refult of thefe examinations. Pallas, Her-
mann, Schneider, I and others, confidcred that it might be a
larva. Camper, on the faith of an imperfect fpecimen, in
which no lung could be found, concluded it was a fifli,
(Kleine Schriften, torn. iii. pi. i. p. 20.) ; and Gmeliu,
on his authority, clafTed it among the eels.

Cuvier has had an opportunity of diffefting and de-
fcribmg it. His account, which fettles the difputes fatif-
faftorily, is contained in the Recherches already quoted,
and has furnifhed the materials of the following defcription.
The fafts are reprefcnted in the nth and 13th plates of the
firll volume of Humboldt's Recueil d'Obfervations de Zoo-
logie et d'Anatomie comparee. The length was half a metre,

I

but it readies fometimes between 30 and 40 inches. The
body is much Hke that of an eel. The anus is at 1 5 centimetre.-^
from the pollcrior extremity. The iiead is not feparated
from the body by a neck : it is rounded, and terminated by
an obtufe fnout. The mouth is fm?ll, and the lips, which
are not confiderable, are not fupported by any bones, as
they fometimes are in fifhes. The noftrils are two fmall
holes near the edge of the upper lip. The eyes are placed
above the angle of the moutli : they are round, fmall, with-
out eye-lids, and only vifible becaufe the fkin, in palling
over them, becomes' tranfparent. You may lltin the head,
like that of an eel, without injuring the eye-ball.

The openings of the gills are three vertical flits placed in
fucceflion behind the head : through them the water from
the mouth is difcharged. But there are no gills within, as
in the lamprey for example ; although Gi'rden, Ellis, and
Camper fuppofed it. The only branchix arc three tufts
or fingers, attached to the fuperior angle of the flits, to
which Ellis and Garden gave tlie name of opercula, but of
which Linnxus recognized the true nature. There arc
furely only three on each fide, of which the firfl is the
fmallefl, and the third the largcfl. The different flatements
concerning their number, which embarrafied M. Schneider,
arife from the name having been given to different parts.
For example, Linnxus, who rightly deemed tlie tufts to be
branchix, reckons three, without opercula (branchia ad
latera colli utrinque tria, exferta) ; but Card n, who con-
ceived that the branchix were connefted to the arches, fays
there are four, with three opercula, or one operculum of
three lobes.

Each of the tufts confifls of a large flefiiy and conical
pedicle, of which the inferior edge is divided into two rows
of appendices, which are themfelves again twice divided in
the fame manner. The animal muft have the power of
moving thefe branchix in every diredlion : the net-work of
branchial veffels is expanded on their ramifications.

The fore feet, fhort and flender, are placed a little be-
hind the branchial apertures. There are four fingers, of
which the lall phalanges are pointed, but not furnifhed with
nails. There is not the fmallefl appearance of fcales on the
fl<iii.

OJleology. — Although the individual examined by Cuvier ■
had not reached its full fize, ofTification was confiderably
advanced. The cranium, lower jaw, and fpine, were per-
fectly olTified. On the large bones of the arms there were
epiphyfes, and the fcapula was almoil entirely cartilaginous.
The latter bone remains conllantly in this ftate in the fala-
manders. The branchial arches were entirely cartilaginous,
and probably continue fo, as no point of offification could
be obferved, although the os hyoides and its branches were
already almoft completely hardened.

From the head to the end of the tail there are ninety ver-
tcbrx : the anus is oppofite to the forty-fifth, yet it is far
from being oppofite to the middle of the body, becaufe the
vertebrx of the tail, particularly towards its end, are much
fmaller than the others. The land falamander has thirty-
eight, and the aquatic about forty. The pelvis is fufpended
oppofite to the fifteenth or fixteenth, in the former ; to the
fourteenth or fifteenth, in the latter. There is not the
fmallefl veflige of pelvis or hind leg in the iiren : there is
not even any germ of thefe parts, although they exift in
the tadpole at all ages. It is, therefore, very certainly
never deilined to have hind legs. There is a kind oi im-
perfeft pelvis, even in the ophifaurus (anguis ventralis,
glafs-fnake), a true ferpent, though analogous to the
lizards in fome points, but never poffefCng hind legs.

Eight vertebrx only of the firen, from the fecond to the

ninth,

REPTILES.

ninth, fupport fmall ribs, or rather very fliort falfc ribs.
In the land falamander there are twelve or thirteen, and in
the aquatic eleven. Thefe fmall ribs, lolt among tlie
inufcles, are only obferved in the genur, of ferpenls called
cascilia, where they exift in great number.

The individual vertebrce are very dillerently fhapod from
thofe of falamanders, frogs, and cxcilia. Tlie body is ter-
minated before and behind by a hollow cone fdled with car-
tilage, which unites it to tiie adjoining bones, as in filhcs.
There is a fmall longitudinal prominence below ; and above,
a crifta holding the place of the fpinous procefs, and bifur-
cated behind. The four angles of the fuperior furface are
occupied by the articular apophyfes, of which the anterior
have their articular faces turned upwards, and the pofterior
downwards. The tranfvcrfe proccHes are formed of two
triangular plates : one, inferior and horizontal, comes off
from the whole fide of the body of the vertebrae ; the other
flants backwards, and reaches from the anterior articular
procefs to the pofterior edge of the preceding. At the ex-
treme point of their union we find the furface to which the
rudiment of rib is articulated, in thole vcrtebrx which have
ribs.

None of the alVcd genera refemble the firen in the form
of the vertebrie ; and their fingular (liape would alone be
fufhcient to authorife us in conftituting a feparate genus for
this animal. The head leads equally to the lame conclufion,
being entirely different from that of the falamander, and
other reptiles. The noftrils, finiply excavated at the fides
of the fiiout, do not penetrate into the mouth : neither the
orbit nor the temporal fofia is clofed below. Hence the
upper jaw-bone does not form a complete bony circle ; its
anterior part only is formed by the intermaxillary bones,
and has no teeth. Thus the firen has only palatine teeth
attached to the two plates, and not implanted in the palate.
The prominence, having the furface for the articulation of
the lower jaw, is much fhorter than in the falamander. The
lower is articulated with it by a convex furface, fliaped like
the fegment of a fphere : its coronoid procefs is very Ihort ;
each of its branches is compofed of three pieces at leaft.
The teeth are attached to their internal furface, and not im-
planted in their edges. The head is articulated to the neck
by means of two condyles.

The bony apparatus of the branchix refembles that of
fiflics, with a few llight differences. A longitudinal bony
piece bears, at each of its extremities, a pair of tranfverfe
portions. Each of thefe anterior portions is joined to a
cartilage, which afcends behind the head, fufpended by a
ttrong ligament to the fides of the occiput ; it is analogous
to the piece which fupports the radii of the branchioilegal
membrane in fifties. But here there are no radii ; and there
is even a folution of continuity between this piece and the
firfl arch of the branchiae. This lirfl: arch, the largeft of
all, is joined to the pofterior tranfverfe piece mentioned
above. The three others are joined to a third bony piece,
fimilar to the preceding, but fufpended behind it, and not
articulated to the longitudinal piece. Thefe four arches are
fimply cartilaginous. Their fuperior extremity is fufpended
to the fecond rib by a ligament, but not articulated to it.
Their edges exhibit a feries of fmall fine denticuh, which
border the three branchial apertures ; the anterior edge of
the fird arch, and the pofterior of the laft, not concurring
in the formation of any opening, have none of thele denti-
culi. The flvin is immediately attached to thefe arches, and
they fupport nothing, as we have already ii ited, analogous
to the branchis of fifties. The tufts, which have no bone
in their interior, are the only branchix.

The cfteology of the legs is the fame as iu the lala-

mander : it comprifes a /lender fcapula, terminated above
by a cartilaginous dictation; a large cartilaginous plate,
which may be regarded as a double clavicle, analogous to
that of the frog, the ufe of which is to proteft the front
of the cheft ; a humerus ; two bones of the fore-arm ; a
carpus, of which the bones were too fmall and foft to be
reckoned ; a metacarpus and phalanges.

Organs of Seti/e. — The ear is the only one which Cuvicr
could obferve accurately ; it feemcd to refemble that of the
lalamander. In the outer fide of the bone inclofing the
labyrinth, is an oval aperture, fimply clofed by a cartila-
ginous plate, covered by foft parts.

Organs of Circiiktlon anil Rtfpiralion There is a fiiigle

auricle of confidcrable fize, with its circumference denticu-
lated, receiving all the blood of the body, and the lung ;
two large valves are placed at the mouth of the vena cava.
This auricle communicates with the ventricle by a fingle ori-
fice ; and the blood departs from the latter by the aorta
only. The heart is therefore exactly the fame as that of
the frog, tlie falamander, and of fifties.

The trunk of the aorta, or rather of the veftel, which
in fifties is called the branchial artery, is furniftied with
fleftiy and thick fides, and its bafis has three ftrong valves.
It divides into three branches on each fide for the three
branchial tufts, and no branch goes from it to any other
part. Thefe arterial branches become attached to the three
cartilaginous arches in their way to the branchia; ; but they
form no plexus on them, which proves that branchiae are not
attached to thefe arches as in fifties, and as Garden, Ellis,
and Camper imagined in the firen.

Arriving at the branchial tufts, the arteries ramify over
all their fubdivifions, and the veins bring back the blood in
a contrary dire<5lion. The fame circumftances may be feen
in the branchi^ of young aquatic falamanders, in which
perhaps the circulation of the blood can be more eafily
obferved with the microfcope, than in any other animal
organ.

Having quitted the tufts, the branchial veins afl'ume the
texture of arteries, and join togetlier, towards the fpine, to
form the defcending aorta ; but they produce, before their
union, the branches which in other animals arife from the
afcendmg aorta, that is, thole of the head, arms, and lungs :
the latter come from the third of thefe branchial veins con-
verted into arteries.

The lungs are two long cylindrical bags, extending to
the poft^erior end of the abdomen, and then bent forwards.
The veins and arteries form a loofc network on their mem-
brane. Air enters them through a larynx placed on the os
hyoides, and opening between two fmall rounded margins
placed vertically. A very flight cartilaginous prominence
is obfervable on each fide in its interior, and the glottis is
between thefe : but tliere is no chorda vocalis with a ftiarp
edge. Yet it does not follow that the obfervers, who have
afcribed a voice to the firen, are inexaft ; for the approxi-
mation of the two prominences jult mentioned would be fuf-
ficient for its produftion.

The trachea is a fimple membranous, white, and thick
canal, without any perceivable cartilaginous rings.

Organs of Digeftion. — We have already mentioned the
jaws and teeth. The tongue is not fleftiy, nor very move-
able : it is fupported, as in fifties, by the anterior extremity
of the OS hyoides. It does not refemble that of the fala-
mander, and much Icfs that of the frog, both of which are
more free behind than in front, and have a very glandular
lurface.

The oefophagus is folded longitudinally. The coats of
the ftomac^ ii-e moderately thick ; it firft. fwells a little,

then

REPTILES.

then liccomcn mufciilar anJ contrafted, and is naiTowcr
than the duodenum. The latter is the widcft part of tlie
intcftinc, which becomes fmaller towards the amis. Al-
thoiigii longer than the abdominal canal, and conlequently
forming feveral flight turns, it exhibits no great folds.
There is no cxcuni, nor any remarkable change of llruiture
to point out the diltinftions of different kinds of intelline.
The pylorus has no valve ; tlie mucous membrane of the
ftomach is fmooth ; that of the intellme has papillx like
fmall fcales.

The .canal is fupported by two parallel mefentcries, of
whicli the right adheres to tlie whole length of the liver.
There is no omentum.

The liver is black, elongated, and occupies more tlian
three-fourths of the length of the abdomen. The gall-
bladder is lodged in a deep groove towards its middle, and
furniflies a fmgle canal, opening into the intefline a little
beyond the pylorus. No dutt could be perceived coming
directly from the liver, but fueh a one might have been con-
founded with the numerous mefenteric vefl'els.

A fleiider and very long fpleen is attached to the mefen-
tery of the left fide, and occupies more than three-fourths
of the length of the abdomen.

Organs of Generation. — The individual examined by Cu-
vier was a female. The ovaries were contlderably developed,
about one-fourth of the length of the abdomen, oblong,
compofed of lobes, filled with very vifible ova, although fo
flaccid that they probably did not approach to the fize which
they would have reached in the feafon of reprodufton. A
fliort and ftraight oviduft was clofely conne6ted to the kid-
ney : this part was very different from the long tortuous
tubes of the frog and falamander, and approached to the
ftrufture of fiihes.

Organs of Secretion. — The kidnies were fmall, well fup-
plied with blood-velfels, and iituated at the fides of the
reftum. The bladder elongated, and not divided as in
frogs.

The conclufions drawn by Cuvier from the preceding
account are; i. That the firen, into whatever ftate it may
pafs, is a diltindl animal, different in all the details of its
organifation from the falamanders and their larvae which we
are acquainted with.

2. That it is very certainly not deftined to poffefs hind
feet, and confequently is a biped reptile.

3. There is no reafon to fnppofe that it ever lofes its
branchix, fince it is found to poiiefs them at the largelt fize
to which we know of its reaching, and the unanimous
teftimony of thofe, who have feen the animal in its native
country, proves that no individual has ever been feen with-
out them.

4. That it is effentially different from fiilies in its ofteo-
logical ilru£lure, and even in the organifation of the
branchis.

5. That it therefore conftitutes a particular genus of ba-
tracian reptiles, preferving always the double rcfpiratory
organs ; and may be confidered as a permanent larva of that
family. .

Anatomy of the Proteus j4nguinus.—T\\\i animal was firil
noticed in the Synopfis Reptilium of Laurenti, in 1768.
Scopoli gave a more minute account of it in 1772, in his
Annus quintus Hiltor. Nat. p. 75. Naturahfts were divided
in opinion, whether it fhonld be regarded as a perfeft ani-
mal, or only as the larva of fome reptile. An excellent de-
fcription of it, both as to its external charafters and flruc-
ture, was publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions for
1801, pt. 2, by Dr. Schreibers of Vienna, in a paper en-
titled " An hiltorical and anatomical Defcription'of a doubt-

ful amphibious Animal of Germany, called by Laurenti
Proteus Auguinus." Cuvier has fince dcfcribed it in his
Recherches fur quelques Reptiles douteux.

The individual examined by Cuvier was 0.25 of a metre
in length, and of the fize of the little finger: Mr. Schrei-
bers faw one of 0.33, or 13 Englifli inches. The body is
flightly compreffed, and grooved at the fiiles, like the firen.
The tail is more flattened, and furniflied at its edges and
end with a fin, which does not reach either above or below-
farther than the anus. The feet are flender ; the knee and
elbow being about their middle, and directed as in the fala-
manders ; the fore-feet are terminated by three equal toes
without nails, the hind-feet by two only ; a combination,
which is hitherto unique in the animal kingdom.

The head has fome refemblance to that of an eel ; the
opening of the mouth is of moderate fize, and furnifhed
with thin lips. The noffrils are a longitudinal flit on each
fide, parallel to the fide of the upper lip. No eye is per-
ceptible externally ; but when the animal is flcinned, it is
feen under the integuments as a black point, about the thir-
tieth of a line in breadth.

In the depreflion produced by the mufcles at the fides of
the cranium are feen the openings of the branchia:. They
are three, covered in fome degree by a prominence of the
fkin, fupported by a mufcular ilratum. The branchii are
three fmall appendages, of a red-blood colour in the living
animal.

The flciii is whitifli, foft, fmooth, and prefents fome fmall
prominences, when examined with a magnifying glafs.

Ofleolngy. — When the mufcles, that fwell the cranium
externally, are removed, it appears flat, and quite on a
level with the face ; the latter terminates in a point in front.
The middle of the cranium has its fides parallel ; the pof-
terior part fwells out in the fituation of the prominences to
which the lower jaw is articulated, which are direfted for-
wards. Behind, the occiput has two lateral criftx for the
mufcles. The head is articulated with the atlas by two con-
dyles : the under fiirface of the cranium is very fiat.

There is no diftinft zygomatic arch, orbit, or temporal
foffa.

All round the upper jaw is a row of fmall pointed and
vertical teeth ; and in front only a fmall additional row be-
fore the others. The inferior jaw has a fingle row of teeth.
Its two branches are nearly redfilinear, and make an angle
of about 45'. It has no afcending branch, aiid the coro-
noid procefs is inconfiderable. All thcfe parts are well
olTified and firm ; and, although the futures are Hill vifible,
we cannot fail to fee that the bones belong to an animal
very near the adult (late.

The bony apparatus of the gills is much more firm than
in the firen or axolotl, and fomewhat differently compofed.
The hyoideal branches are flender, and fufpended to the
fides of the cranium behind the articulation of the lower
jaw. The OS hyoides is fhort and thick, and fupports be-
hind two pieces equally fhort and thick, which diverge a
little. The firit arch of each fide, which is the largeft, is
articulated to the extremity of one of thefe pieces, and has
the two other arches attached to its poflerior edge.

There are fifty-fix vertebrre : the pelvis is attached to the
thirty-firft ; and the twenty-five following belong to the tail.
Six only of thefe vertebne, beginning with the fecond, fup-
port rudiments of ribs, ftill fmaller than thofe of the fala-
mander and the firen.

All the vertebras, excepting the laft of the tail, are per-
feftly oflified : their form is peculiar to this fpecies.

Organs of Digcjiion. — The tongue is fhort, with little
power of motion in front, and fupported by the anterior

8 extremity

REPTILES.

extremity of tlic os liyoides. The inteftinal canal extends its pulmonary organs, and the very inconfiderable extent of

nearly in a Itraii/lit line through the abdomen. The oefo-
phagus is folded longitudinally ; and the ftomach is only a
rather larger portion of the canal, not marked by any con-
ftriftion. There is neither caecum nor large inteltine. An
oblong liver, pointed at the two ends, of a blackirti-grey
colour, with two notches in its left edge, occupies about
two-thirds of the length of the animal. A large gall

their furface.

It is a very rare animal, having been hitherto found, and
that in very (mall numbers, only in thofe lakes of Carniola,
which are celebrated on account of their fubterranean com-
munications and the (ingular phenomena which refult from
them. That of Cirknit?, is the mod famous, and is regarded
as the fource of all the others. According to Laurcnti,

bladder, attached to the internal furface of the liver, pours the firfl prottu, was found in this : but Schreibers adure
.!,„ u:i- :...,- .,., :_..n._. t,.. _ n.^.. „.„„i n-u ^^ ^,^3^ j^ ^^^j^. i^jj^bits the lake caiicd Sitticher See, com-
municating with the Cirknitz ; and that it is thrown out
in the overrtowings, which occur once or twice a-year.

Cuvier thinks it probable that its natural abode is in the
fubterranean communications extending from one lake to
the other. It has, in faft, all the charaftcrr. of a fubter-
raneous, as well as of an aquatic, animal. Its fmall eyes,
concealed and rendered ufclefs by an opaque fkin, recall to
us the blind rat (zemni, mus, or fpalax typhlus) v.hicKhvei
under ground, and has exaftly the fam- organization.

In a letter to Cuvier, Schreibers informed him that, fince
the publication of his paper in 1 80 1, he hai met with feve-

the bile into the intcfline by a fliort canal. The pancrea:
is fmall and narrow, and attached to the intefline oppofite
to the gall-bladdQr. An oblong narrow fplcen is attached
to the mcfentery, and is about one-fourth of the length of
the liver. The mefentery is fimple, and has the ufual vcflbls.
There is no omentum.

7'Xt' Organs of Circulation are the fame as in the firen, ex-
cept that the branchial veins unite together, to form the
defcending artery, rather lower down.

Organs of Refplratlon. — The branchise are moved, as in
the axolotl, tlie firen, &c. : but no reptile has fo fmall a
proportion of lung as the proteus. There is no larynx.

vain fought for one without the branchi*. That he himfc;f
has fome, which have been two years in his poiTeffion, alive
and well, although they have taken no food the whole
time.

For the external figure and anatomy of this animal, fee
the plates fubjoined to Dr. Schreibers' paper in the Pljil.
Tranf. and pi. 13 of the Recueil d'Obf. de Zool. et
d'Anat. Comparee de H'lmboldt, v. i.

Another of thefe doubtful animals has been fio-ured in
the Annales du Mufenm, v. 10. p. 230. pi. ly. under the

properly fo called, only a fmall opening at the bottom of "! '"^ividuals, all perfectly aliKc, among which he had in

the pharynx, wnicn is the entrance or a common crelcent-

fliaped cavity, the angles of which are prolonged to form

the lungs. The latter are merely two very thin membranous

canals, terminated by a flight dilatation, prefenting in their

interior no divifion into cells, and exhibiting very few blood-

vclfcls on their parietes. When we confider how little

difference there is between fuch lungs and the forked air-
bladders of fome cartilaginous fiflies, we can hardly help

concluding that there is fome analogy between the two

organs. , . - . , —

Organs of Generatlon.-ln the female dilleded by Cuvier, "T' °^ ^T"'' ?\ ^^}^^^^f^ tetradaftyle, by Lacepede,
long lobed ovaries, full of very diftinft fmall ova, were "J? ^^^^ there d'^f^-nbed its external conformatK^n. It
& ' ' polleties branchial appendages, eyes covered by the epi-

dermis, and two rows of fine teeth. As only the fpecimen
defcribed in the above quoted work is known (without any
information about the quarter whence it came), its anato-
mical ftrufture has not been examined. All the appearances
lead us to expeft an internal organization like thofe of the
proteus and firen.

The following are the principal fources of information on
the fubjedls of the preceding article. Cuvier, Lemons d'Ana-
tomie Comparee. Blumenbach's Manual of Comparative
Anatomy ; alfo his Specimen Phyfiologice comparatas inter
Animalia calidi et frigidi fanguinis, 410. Goett. 1787 ; or

oblong lobeQ ovaries, lull 01 very

fituated towards the lower part of the abdomen, at the fides
of the reftum. Very long ovidufts, making feveral turns,
like thofe of the falamander, afcend to the anterior third
part of the cavity.

Organs of Secretion. — There are kidnies and a bladder, as
in the falamanders : the former are very long, and pafs high
up in the abdomen.

All thefe obfervations, and particularly thofe concerning
the ofteology, make it clear that the proteus is a particular
animal, different from all hitherto known : they alfo make
it very probable that it is an adult animal, not deftined to
undergo any further change of Itate.

A proteus taken alive threw up from its ftomach many
fhells of the genus helix, but it would not take thefe (hells
or any other food, and became dady more languid and weak.
It feemed, when alive, very torpid, and moved but feldom ;
it fwam, however, fometimes, with the help of its broad
tail, very fwiftly, in every direftion. The firil days it crept

in Commentation. Soc. Reg. Scient. Goettingenf. v. 8.
Daudin, Hiltoire Naturelle des Reptiles, in the 8yo. edition
of Buffon by Sonnini, 8 tomes. Bsengniart, Memoire fur
une nouvelle Clafiification des Reptiles. Lacepede, Hiftoire
Naturelle des Quadrupedes ovipares et des Serpens. La-
treille, Hift. Nat. dvs Salamandres de France, avec figures.
Schneider, Hilloria Amphibiorum. Schocpff, Hiftoria Tef-

flowly on the bottom, and feemed to look for food ; it often tudinum, 4to.^ Schneider, Naturgefchichte der Schild-kroten

took a fhell into its mouth, but gave it out again, fwallow- Roefel, Hilloria Ranarum. Memoires pour fervir a I'Hif-

ing none. Several times it rofe to the furface, ftretched toire des Animaux. Tyfon's Anatomy of a Rattlefnake,

its head out of the water, and took in air, but returned Phil. Tranf. v. 13. Swammerdam Biblia Naturae. Cliaras,

direftly to the bottom. It ufes its feet in creeping on the Nouvelles Experiences fur la Vipere. Caldefi, OlTervazioni

bottom, and in afcendiiig along the fides of the veifel, if of Anatomiche intorno alle Tartarughe, 4to. Hermann,

wood. It creeps very flowly or deliberately, infomuch that Tabulx affinitatum Animalium. Spallanzawi's Diliertations.

this motion feemed quite charafteriftic of the animal. Cuvier, Recherches fur les Reptiles douteux, in Humboldt,

It often produces a hiffing kind of noife, pretty loud, Recueils d'Obferv. de Zool. et d'Anat. Comp. v. i. Vari-

more fo than one fhould expeft from the fize of the animal, ous papers by Cuvier and Geoffrey St. Hilaire, in the

and refembling that produced by drawing the pilfon of a Annales du Mufeum.
fyringe. Reptiles are likewife ufed, abufivcly, for plants which

All the habits of the proteus defignatc a flowiiefs and creep on the earth, or on other plants, as wanting flrength

weaknefs agreeing very well with the cxccffivc i'mallncfs of of ftalk to fuftain thcrafelves.

Such

444070

RE P

R E P

Such are cucumbers, melons, &c. ; fucli alfo are ivy, the
vine, and bryony.

REPTON, 111 G'-ography, a confiderabk- town in the hun-
dred of Repton-an'l-Grellfy, and county of Derby, Eigland,
is fituated near th ■ bwks of the river Trent, at the Jiflance
of eight miles S.W. from the town of D^rby* and four N.E.
from Burton-upon-Trent in SLaftorddiire. Among anti-
quaries it 13 celebrated as the fcite of the capital of the
Mercian monarchy, and the burial-place of feveral of its
fovereigns. At that period it was called Hreopandune ;
and is conjeftured by'fome to iiave rifen upon the ruins
of the Roman ftatinn Repandunum ; and the town is
called Reppendune in ancient deeds. In the Saxon an-
nals Repton is faid to have been noted for a noble nio-
naftery of rien and women, eilablifhed, under the go-
vernment of an abbefs, previous to the year 660. This
abbey wis deftroyed by the Danes in the reign of Buthred,
the laft ^i'lg of Mcrcia, and remained in a defecratcd Hate
till the year 1172, when it was refounded as a priory by
Matilda, widow of Ranulph, fecond earl of Cheftcr, who
bellowed upon the monks the tithes of Repton, and con-
fiderable ellates in the neighbourhood, befides Bartlow in
Effex, and lands at Granfden, in Huntingdonihire. At the
diflblutioH its revenues were eftimated at 167/. iSs. 2d. In
the original ftrutlnre were depolited the remains of feveral
of the Mercian kings ; as were hkewife thofe of Ryne-
chardus, brother to Sigeberl, king of the Weft Saxons.
Some portions of the later buildings are yet in exiftence,
being converted into a fchool houfe and apartments for the
mafter and ufher. The fchool-room, as appears from the win-
dows and other traces, was either the refeftory, or the hall, of
the priory. It is fupported by a row of ftrong round columns,
with pointed arches. At the northern extremity of this
room v/as the dormitory ; and on the eaft fide were fituated
the cloilfers, the area of which is now a garden. Adjoin-
ing the cloilters itood the church which Fuller, in his
" Church Hillory," defcribes as an elegant and fpacious
ftrudlure, fupported in the interior by pillars of alabafter,
fragments of which have been occafionally laid open.
Foundations of other buildings, befides thofe mentioned,
may ftill be plainly traced in various directions ; and on
the fcite of the prior's lodging is a manfion called Old
Trent, built about a century ago, which difplays, towards
the water, a curious brick tower with an ornamental cor-
nice, part of a former building, erefted by Prior Overton
in the reign of Henry VI.

Repton confiils chiefly of one ftreet of fcattered houfes,
extending about a mile in length, and watered by a fine
Itream, which difcharges itfelf into the Trent. At the

lower end of the town (lands the parifli church, a largr,
handfome edifice, ornamented with a fine fpire two hundred
feet high. Tradition affirms that the prefent 13 the third
churcii which has occupied the fame fcite ; and there can be
no doubt that parts of it are of difterent and dillant dates.
The nave and fide aides fecm to be of the reign of Ed-
ward III. ; but the chancel is probably more ancient, as its
columns are maflive, and its arches femicircular. Beneath
this part of the church is a crypt, bearing a Itrong relcm-
blance, in form and ornaments, to the crypt under Canter-
bury cathedral, and alfo to that under St. Peter's in the Eaft,
at Oxford. In the interior of this building are feveral
handfome monuments to tile memory of the Thacker family.
Within a clofe behind the church, a labourer fome years
ago dilcovercd a cemetery, which contained among many
other human flceletons. one of an extraordinary fize, mea-
fiiring nine feet in length. This difcovery is noticed by
Dr. Pegge in the Philofophical Tranfadlions for the year
1734. An old Hone crofs, confifting of a fingle (haft,
placed upon eight odtagonal Heps, (lands in the area front-
ing the church. The parilh of Repton, according to the
parliamentary returns of 18 ii, contains 326 houfes, and
1648 inhabitants, who are cliiefly engaged in purfuits con-
nedted with agriculture.

At a fhort dillance from" Repton is Sudbury, the feat
and property of tlie family of Vernon, which is of great
antiquity, deriving its defcent from Richard de Vernon, a
Norman lord, who accompanied the Conqueror to England ;
and was one of the (even barons created by Hugh Lupus,
tlic great earl of Cheftcr. Sir Ralph de Vernon, who
was alive in the reign of Edward II., is faid to have
reached the extraordinary age of 150 years. Sudbury
church, an ancient fabric, (landing in the garden near the
houfe, is decorated with many fepulchral tombs to members
of this family. One, in commemoration of Catharine,
daughter to the late lord Vernon, is remarkable for the
beauty of the epitaph, which was written by William
Whitehead, poet-laureat.

At Egginton, on the banks of the river Dove, weft of
Repton, is a feat of fir Henry Every, whofe family was ori-
ginally feated in Somerfetflilre. Part of the old manfion
here was deftroyed by fire in the year 1736, and the
pre!ei,t houfe then erefted on its fete.

Bretly park, the feat of the earl of Chefterfield, is about
three miles S.W. of Repton. About three miles E. of
Bretly is Calke hall, the feat of Jir Henry Harpur, bart
The houfe is a fpacious quadrangular edifice, feated in a
park furrounded by eminences. Beauties of England and
Wales, vol. iii. by John Britten and E. W. Bray ley, 1802.

END OF VOL. XXIX.

Strahan and Prefton,
Ncw-Sirret S([imre, London. '

university o.Ca'fom^a
SOUTHERN REGION ALUBRARV^ ^^^^^ ^333
405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Ang ^^^

At

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